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MENELAUS'S THEOREM

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Conversely, if X, Y, Z occur on the three sides in such a way that

let the lines AB and XY meet a t 2'. Then B X CY AZ' --CX AY BZ' Hence AZ' = BZ' AZ BZ '

1.

Z' coincides with Z, and we have proved that X, Y, Z are collinear. We observe that Menelaus's theorem provides a criterion for collinearity, just as Ceva's theorem (our 1.21 and 1.22) provides a criterion for concurrence. To emphasize the contrast, we may express Menelaus's equation in the alternative form

EXERCISES

1. The external bisectors of the three angles of a scalene triangle meet their

respective opposite sides at three collinear points.


2. The internal bisectors of two angles of a scalene triangle, and the external bisector of the third angle, meet their respective opposite sides a t three collinear points.

3.5 Pappus's theorem

We come now to one of the most important theorems of plane geometry. It was first proved by Pappus of Alexandria about 300 A.D., but its role in the foundations of projective geometry was not recognized until nearly sixteen centuries later. Pappus has appropriately been called the last of the great geometers of antiquity. The particular theorem that bears his name may be stated in various ways, one of which is as follows:

TEEOREM 3.51. Ij A, C, E are ihree points on one line, B, D, F on

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COLLINEARITY AND CONCURRENCE

another, and if ihe three lines AB, CD, E F meet DE, FA, BC, respeciively, ihen ihe ihree points o f intersection L, M, N are collinear.

Figure 3.5A

The "projective" nature of this theorem is seen in the fact that it is a theorem of pure incidence, with no measurement of lengths or angles, and not even any reference to order: in each set of three collinear points it is immaterial which one lies between the other two. Figure 3.5A is one way of drawing the diagram, but Figure 3.5B is another, just as relevant. We can cyclically permute the letters A, B, C, D, E , F, provided we suitably re-name L, M, N. To avoid considering points at infinity, which would take us too far in the direction of projective geometry, let us assume that the three lines AB, CD, EF form a triangle UVW, as in Figure 3.5C. Applying Menelaus's theorem to the five triads of points LDE, AMF, BCN, ACE, BDF on the sides of this triangle UVW, we obtain VL WD UE --LW DU EV -1, VA WM U F --A W M U FV
-1,

VB WC UN --BW CU NV

-1,

Dividing the product of the first three expressions by the product of the last two, and indulging in a veritable orgy of cancellation, we obtain

whence L, M, N are collinear, as desired. [17, p. 237.1

PAPPUS'S THEOREM

Figure 3.5B

Figure 3.5C
EXERCISES

1. If A, C, E are three points on one line, B, D, F on another, and if the two lines AB and CD are parallel to D E and FA, respectively, then E F is parallel to BC.

2. If A, B, D, E, N, M are six points such that the lines AE, DM, NB are concurrent and AM, DB, N E are concurrent, what can be said about the lines AB, DE, NM?

3. Let C and F be any points on the respective sides A E and BD of a parallelogram AEBD. Let M and N denote the points of intersection

COLLINEARITY AND CONCURRENCE

of CD and F A and of EF and BC. Let the line MN meet DA at P and EB a t Q. Then A P = QB.
4. How many points and lines are named in Figure 3.5A (or Figure 3.5B)? How many of the lines pass through each point? How many of the points lie on each line?

3.6 Perspective triangles ;Desargues's theorem

The geometrical theory of perspective was inaugurated by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), who designed the octagonal dome of the cathedral in Florence, and also the Pitti Palace. A deeper study of the same theory was undertaken by another architect, Girard Desargues (1591-1661), whose "two-triangle" theorem was later found to be just as important as Pappus's. I t can actually be deduced from Pappus's; but the details are complicated, and we can far more easily deduce it from Menelaus's. I f two specimens of a figure, composed of points and lines, can be put into correspondence in such a way that pairs of corresponding points are joined by concurrent lines, we say that the two specimens are perspective from a point. I f the correspondence is such that pairs of corresponding lines meet at collinear points, we say that the two specimens are perspective from a line. In the spirit of projective geometry, Desargues's two-triangle theorem states that if two triangles are perspective from a point, they are perspective from a line. To avoid complications arising from the possible occurrence of parallel lines, let us be content to rephrase it as follows:

THEOREM 3.61. If two triangles are perspectiw from a point, and if their pairs of corresponding sides meet, then the three points of infersection are collinear.
E

Figure 3.6A

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