HBET1103 CHRISTINA TEH 880326015084001

QUESTION 1 1.0 SIX PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE 1.1 DISPLACEMENT The definition for the word displacement in the context of language is the ability of the users of the language to refer to things and happening in the past, present and the future. For example, we are able to talk or reminiscent about things that is already past. We are also able to think about our future. For instance, we can set our futuristic goals. 1.2 ARBITRARINESS Arbitrariness means that there are no connection between the thing and the word it symbolizes. We can also say that arbitrariness means neutral symbols of a language. There are varieties of language in the world. Therefore, there are different languages that represent the same things. For instance, in English, the word chair is referred as the four legged furniture and in Bahasa Malaysia, it is represent by the word kerusi. In Chinese, it is called yi zi. 1.3 CREATIVITY Creativity refers to the ability to produce an infinite numbers of words. Creativity is another important characteristic of a language because new words are formed through creative thoughts, experiences, situations and etc. For example, in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) era words like keyboard, speakers are made out of creativity. These words surfaced because of situational factors. 1.4 DUALITY Duality or double articulation means that language has 2 layers. First layer is the sounds level and the second layer is the level of meaning. For example, the basic phonemes like [ d ], [o], [ g ] have no meaning by themselves. But if we combined the basic phonemes from [ d ], [ o ], [ g ] into a word dog, it becomes meaningful.

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1.5 CULTURAL TRANSMISSION Language can be transfer through cultural transmission. Cultural transmission is an act of passing down a language from one generation to another. For instance, an Indian girl who is adopted by a Chinese family will never learn how to speak Tamil. She would only speak of a language she is exposed to. Through culture an individual may learn another language. For example, through media Japan culture is spread across South East Asia. Some people who are fascinated to the culture are eager to learn the Japanese language in order to know more about their culture. 1.6 DISCRETENESS Discreteness means constituting a separate entity. The sound used in a language is different. We may take examples like the word affect and effect in English Language. The change of vowels will get 2 distinct sound and meaning. According to Wikipedia, discreteness means that phonemes can be place in distinct categories which differentiate them from one another.

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2.0 INTRODUCTION This case study is conducted to investigate the usage of English language in the Malaysian context. This case study involves 6 individuals who are from different ethnics. The subject used in this study is Malays, Chinese and Indians. Their age range about 30 until 45 years old. All qualifications of the subjects are above SPM level. 2.1 Malay. The first subject for this case study is a female. Her race is Malay. Her age is 41 years old. Her qualifications are SPM and she is currently taking diploma. Her preferred language at home is her mother tongue which is Bahasa Malaysia. Her second choice of preferred language at home is English. This shows that she had spoken in Bahasa Malaysia more than in English Language. The second subject for this case study is a female. She is Malay. She is 38 years old. She is currently taking up a course which is Diploma in Early Childhood. Her first choice of preferred language at home is English. Her second choice of language preference is Bahasa Malaysia. When Malay people speak in English it seems that they could not get away from their accent. They had this accent because they let the Bahasa Malaysia influence the way they speak. For instance, they could not pronounce the letter h properly. Due to the fact that the Malays wish to maintain their own mother tongue, some of them refuse to expose to English Language. They are afraid that by learning English Language, their culture will be assimilated by it. And they will lose their culture gradually. Most of the Malay people learn English Language in school when they were children. They use English Language as a tool of communication in school and working place only. They use back their mother tongue when they are in home. Minority of them speaks English at home and teaches their children English Language since small.

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2.2 CHINESE The third participant for this case study is a Chinese. This participant is a female. She is 30 years old. Her preferred language at home is Chinese Language. Her highest qualification is Master. She did not specify which field she gained her Master. The next participant for this case study is a Chinese. This participant is a male. He is 32 years old. His preferred language at home is English. He chooses Mandarin, his mother tongue, as his second choice of preferred language at home. His highest qualification is Master in Environmental. He also gained a Degree in Civil Engineering. Chinese people have one language that united them, which is Mandarin. In Chinese there are many dialects. These dialects influence the way Chinese people speak in English. For instance, Hokkien Chinese people pronounce the word coke as cock. Majority of Chinese people know a little about English Language. Their mindset is that, if you know how to earn money, you need not learn too much. But there are also some Chinese people that learn English Language to bring forward and expand their business to the international stage. Most of the Chinese families speak dialects at home. There are also some Chinese families that realized the importance of English Language. Hence, they start to teach and nurture their children to speak in English Language since young. To encourage their children, they start to speak English at home. This move can also enhance their English Language.

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2.3 INDIAN The fifth sample for this case study is a female. She is an Indian. She is 40 years old. She is currently taking Diploma in Early Childhood. Her first choice of preferred language at home is English. She chooses her mother tongue which is Tamil as her second choice of preferred language at home. The last sample for this case study is a male. He is an Indian. He is 32 years old. His highest qualification is Master in English. He also gained Diploma in Teaching English as a Second Language ( TESL ) and Bachelor of Education in Teaching English as a Second Language ( TESL ). His first choice of preferred language at home is Tamil. English is his second choice of preferred language at home. Indians are the ethnic that can converse in English Language very well compare to the other 2 ethnics. In most Indian families, an individual is able to converse in 2 languages namely Tamil and English. When they speak in English, they can speak coherently and fluently. This is because they are able to roll their tongue. Indians tend to roll their tongue when they converse in Tamil. So, this is an advantage for them when they speak in English. Although they will have the Indian accent when they speak in English, but this will not have much influence on their intonation in speaking. Based on my observation, most of the Indian families teach their children English Language since young. This is one of the reasons why Indians are able to converse in English proficiently. 2.4 CONCLUSION The explanation above is based on my observation on the families of 3 dominant ethnics in Malaysia. To learn English in this era is not difficult. English Language has now made a subject in every school. Every child who had received education would certainly learn English Language. They will learn how to use correct English. Through English Language, the younger generation of Malaysians will be able to upgrade their country. This can be done by sending them overseas to receive higher technology education. In this way, they are able to return to their motherland and serve the country in order to improve the country.

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QUESTION 2 3.0 INTRODUCTION According to the website, UNIXL, language is considered to be a system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in expressing a meaning, idea or thought. There are different kinds of language in this world. These language emerge when one language begin to change and develop to suits human culture and needs. The languages which change and evolve are known as modern language. According to the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, a modern language or the living language is any human language that is currently in use. There are also languages that died away in this changing world. They are identified as dead language. Based on Wikipedia, dead language is a language which is no longer has any speakers. Dead languages are studied for their cultural value. 3.1 MODERN LANGUAGES 3.1.1 ENGLISH One of the modern languages used is English. English language is known as lingua franca as it is used worldwide. The history of English language dated back to Proto-Indo European family of language. English language belongs to the West Germanic dialect. West Germanic dialect is one of the 3 distinct dialects of Germanic language in Proto-Indo European family tree chart. English language was spread across the global when the British merchants made their way around the world to trade. English language is always ready to change and develop to adapt to the new era. Words taken or borrowed from another language shows that English language is ready to accept changes.

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3.1.2 ITALIAN Another modern language is Italian Language. According to Wikipedia, Italian language is spoken by about 60 million of people in Italy and about 70 million of people around the world. The Italian language originated from Latin group in Proto-Indo European family of languages. Italian language emerges when the Romans back then started to spoke and imposed the language under them. Italian language had multiplied into many dialects. This language was once struggling between dead language and spoken and written form. The earliest document which is in Italian language is dated back to the 10th century. Even so, it is dialectal in language. There were 3 Italian writers who wrote and produced a number of literature works in their native dialects. They are Dante, Petrarca and Boccaccio. It was about the 19th century, the people called Tuscan who are more educated began to spread the language. The language they spread becomes the language of a new nation. This unification of language had some impact on political, social, economical and cultural aspect of the country. 3.1.3 HINDI The next modern language is Hindi language. This language comes from the Indic branch in Proto-Indo European family of language. Hindi is a modern North Indian language. Hindi and a language called Urdu are almost the same. They only differ in script. The speakers of Hindi language are called Hindu and they use Sanskrit writing systems named Devanagari. Devanagari means writing of the Gods. Hindi language has been influenced by Persian, Farsi, English, Turkish, Arabic and Portuguese. From the 18th century, Hindi language has been emerged as a literacy language. During the colonial period, British started to cultivate and develop it into a national language. Now Hindi language is an official language of India.

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3.1.4 PORTUGUESE The fourth modern language is Portuguese language. The history of Portuguese language can be traced back to the Proto-Indo European family of language. There are about 210 millions of Portuguese people in the world. Portuguese language was brought by Roman soldiers and colonists to the Western Iranian Penisula. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions, Portuguese language start to diverge itself from other Latin language. The period of Modern Portuguese start from the 16th century. It started when there was an increase in the number of vocabulary. The words mostly were borrowed from Classical Latin and Greek. 3.1.5 SPANISH The Spanish language can be traced back to the Latin branch in the Proto-Indo European family of language. This language ha been influenced by Arabic and Basque language. Originate in the Iranian Penisula, this language had been expanded over the past 1000 years. This language is spoken by 322 299 000 people around the world. In 15th century, this language is usually called Old Spanish. From the 16th century, it is called Modern Spanish. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, it is sometimes referred to as Classical Spanish. Spanish language emerge when the immigrant migrate to the other countries such as Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Columbia and more. As such, the Spanish language has been assimilated with the other culture so that the speakers are able to communicate with the people in the community. 3.1.6 FRENCH French is also a language starting from the Latin Branch in the Proto-Indo European family of language. French has been moved farthest away from its mother language. This language has about 98 millions speakers living in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Canada and parts of Africa. French language has undergone phonological and grammatical changes. in the 13th and 14th centuries, French began to emerge as a language of its own. This language has been used for official purpose. Starting from 1539, French was decreed as a national language to create a sense of nationalism in the country. This decree became a crucial turning path for French language. Because of political factors, French language began to flourish and is spoken across the global.

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3.1.7 GERMAN German language was originated from the Germanic Branch in Proto-Indo European family of language. German language is spoken by about 105 millions native speakers and about 80 millions non-native speakers. Historically, German language falls into 3 main periods. They are Old German, Middle German and Modern German. In old days, a language is divided into several dialects. In olden days, the language was used as a local dialect in writing. There was no standardizing language. During the Holy Roman Empire, which is when the Middle German starts, there were a combination of certain dialects with the Latin language. This is also when the dialects become dominant in official writing. The 18th century, there were a number of writers that start to standardize the German Language into Modern German which is what we have today. 3.2 DEAD LANGUAGES 3.2.1 GOTHIC Gothic is an extinct Germanic language. Gothic is a part of the Proto-Indo European language family. This language is classified as extinct language because it has no speakers. The oldest document in Gothic can be traced back to the 4th century. The reason why Gothic is extinct is because of the military defeat of the Goths to the Franks, the elimination of the Goths an Italy and geographic isolation. 3.2.2 FRANKISH This already extinct language originates from the Proto-Indo European family of language. This language was categorized as a West Germanic language. According to the source, Wikipedia, Frankish language introduced the modern French word for the nation, France, meaning land of the Franks. By the year 800, this language had evolved into Old Low Franconian. Even though Frankish language managed to survive as Old Low Franconian but Old Low Franconian language was reconstructed and borrowed the words from Old French and from Old Dutch.

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3.2.3 LATIN The next extinct language is Latin language. Latin is the language that was originated from a place called Latium. This language gained importance as a formal language of the Roman Empire. During Renaissance era, people started to read Latin classical authors and bring Latin into their languages. Starting from mid 1960s, Latin is no longer the obligatory language for churches. As a result, no one is willing to learn Latin language because they thought there is no importance in learning this language. 3.2.4 DALMATION The next dead language is Dalmation language. Dalmation language is an extinct Latin language. This language was used in the region of Croatia called Dalmatia and in Montenegro. This language also has its own dialect as the Dalmation speakers live separately. Dalmation language was influenced by Venetian and Croatian language. A 14th century letter from Zadar proves this. Overall, dialects of Dalmation starts to extinguished as the Slavic speakers began to settle and take over their place. Tuone Udaina was the last speaker of the Dalmation Language. He died on 10 June 1898 causes the language to extinct. 3.2.5 PRUSSIAN Prussian language is an extinct language from the Baltic Branch in Proto-Indo European family of language. Prussian language was once spoken by the people of Prussia. This language began to be written down in the Latin alphabet in about the 13th century. Prussian language started to become extinct when the Germans began to flee away and the remaining of them was assimilated. By the end of the 17th century, the Prussian language had extinct. 3.2.6 HITTITE Hittite language is the extinct language which originated from the Anatolian Branch in Proto-Indo European family of language. This language started to show since 1600 BC. Hittite language was spoken by the Hittites, people who lived in north-central Anatolia. The sources to the Hittite language are found at Hattusha. The texts found are in cuneiform and hieroglyphic. This language was used in ancient times. It was abandoned around 1100 BC.

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3.2.7 SCYTHIAN Scythian language descended from the Iranian Branch in Proto-Indo European language family. Scythian language was spoken by the Scythians tribes of the nomadic cattlebreeders in Southern Russia. The people of Scythia migrated from Central Asia toward Eastern Europe. They started to disappear from history when the Hunnish invaded Europe in 5th century AD. Scythians or people speaking in Scythian language were probably assimilated by the Turkish and Slavic people. There is a language called Ossetic. This language is a dialect from Scythian language. And this language survived till now. 3.3 CONCLUSION All languages in this planet live and die. To stop a language from dying is nearly impossible. However, a language begins to transform to another language and the old language is left behind. Even though some language had died but still the language is studied for its cultural and linguistics value. Some words even derived from the old language to create new words in that particular language. The modern language is monitored by an association called Modern Language Association.

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4.0 REFERNCES Ayto, J. (2006). The Hidden Histories of English Words from A to Z. Words Origins 2nd Edition. England: A & C Black. Filippo, M. S. (n.d). From a Local Tuscan Dialect to the Language of a New Nation. [Online]. Available : http://Italian.about.com/library/weekly/aa060699a.html. [ 2009, November 2]. Filippo, M. S. (n.d). From a Local Tuscan Dialect to the Language of a New Nation. [Online]. Available : http://Italian.about.com/library/weekly/aa060699c.html. [ 2009, November 2]. Kjeilen, T. (2009). Hittite. [Online]. Available : http://i-cias.com/e.o/Hittite_l.htm. [ 2009, November 2]. Samad, A. A. (2009). Introduction to General Linguistics. Selangor Darul Ehsan : Meteor Doc Sdn. Bhd. Sartor, A. (n.d). Linguistics and Semantics. [Online]. Available :

http://www.suite101.com/lesson.cfm/18612/1942/2. [2009, October 28]. Timothy, J. P. (n.d.) History of Latin. [Online]. Available :

http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04.structure/latin.html [2009, November 2]. Valdman, A. (1996). History of French Language. [Online]. Available :

http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Language/DF-languages.html. [2009, November 2]. Zainab, S. (2005). Psycholinguistics in Language Teaching. Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia.

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