Experimental and theoretical investigation of effects of wall's

thermophysical properties on time lag and decrement factor

Koray Ulgen
Solar Energy Institute, Ege University, 35100 Bornova Izmir, Turkey
Received 22 May 2001; accepted 2 June 2001
Abstract
Energy saving policies are necessary to control energy consumption, use energy efciently and effectively, and reassess available
production and consumption systems. In this context, the objectives of this study are to investigate the thermal behaviours of opaque wall
materials under solar energy change, and the interaction between thermophysical characteristics of opaque wall materials and solar energy
falling onto exterior surface of the wall affects interior environment. Parameters of characteristics used in wall formation, their positions,
wall thermal behaviours, and ``time lag'' and ``decrement factor'' having effect on the changes of conditions of interior space were
investigated experimentally for different wall formations. The experimental ndings were compared with the results of equations derived by
using an analytic methodology. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Thermophysical properties; Time lag; Decrement factor; Solair temperature
1. Introduction
Fossil fuel consumption in buildings to provide comfort
conditions destroy ecological balance and environmental
pollution endangers life. In order to minimise this negative
impact, it is inevitable to higher the level of renewable
energy sources usage. It is also very essential to take new
measures to use more renewable energy sources in order to
minimise this negative impact. Solar energy is a clean and
renewable energy source, creating no waste.
Climatisation of buildings could be managed by passive
and active solar systems. Active systems need heat transfer
and store uids, control and transfer elements in order to
collect and store solar energy. Building components in
passive systems collect and transfer heat. Massive building
elements such as walls and oors work as thermal masses.
Solar energy storage in sunny periods is used to heat building
spaces when needed [13].
Daily temperature prole changes inside opaque wall
elements can be observed depending on the temperature
difference internal space and the environment. The absorption
of solar radiation from the external opaque wall causes a
gradual rise in the temperature distribution through the wall
until an equilibrium state is being reached. This process is
called the thermal inertia of the internal space and wall
system [4,5].
On this transient period, temperature prole on the wall
cross-section has been assumed to be sinusoidal wave. This
observed change depending on thermophysical properties,
and on the inner side of wall, it reaches the lowest level
sinusoidal change in reaching from outside to inner face
dened as time lag or phase lag (f). Lowering entity of
amplitude is dened as decrement factor and attenuation
factor (f) [6]. A schematic of time lag and decrement factor
are shown in Fig. 1.
Depending on the thermophysical properties and thick-
ness of opaque wall elements, approximately 12 h time lag
values can be observed. So, passive energy storage applica-
tions during the day can be also used at night. Further, the
decrease in the indoor temperatures can be prevented when
the heating system was switched off. In hot and arid climate
zones using specially designed walls, the variation of the
outdoor temperatures has a very little effect on the indoor
temperature [7].
The heat ux within the envelope of the building occurs in
the transient regime under the effect of solar radiation.
Various analytical and numerical methods have been devel-
oped for the solution of the differential equation, which
represents this form of the heat transfer [814].
Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 273278
Abbreviations: VCbrick, vertical cavernous brick; HCbrick, horizontal
cavernous brick; Cbrick, coat brick; TCbrick, thin coat brick; EPfoam,
extrude polystren foam; Ppanel, prefabricated panel; Styrofoam, expanded
polystren foam; Kapipane, permeable insulation material
E-mail address: ulgen@bornova.ege.edu.tr (K. Ulgen).
0378-7788/02/$ see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 8 7 - 1
In this study, the behaviour of opaque wall materials
constituting building surfaces under solar energy is inves-
tigated both experimentally and theoretically in order to nd
time lag and decrement factor for different wall composi-
tions. The main aim in doing this study is to determine
proper wall compositions used in passive solar buildings.
2. Analysis
In this study, in order to obtain the theoretical results of
opaque wall systems studied, it is assumed that wall ele-
ments have a nite length, and one-dimensional transient
heat conduction through the wall. One-dimensional transient
heat conduction equation is as follows:
rc
@T
@t
= k
@
2
T
@x
2
: (1)
The Fourier equation describes the temperature at a point in
the wall and at some instant. To solve Eq. (1), it is necessary
to specify an initial condition and two boundary conditions.
The boundary condition at the exterior surface is
k
@T
@x

x=0
= h
out
(T
sa
T
out
): (2)
Eq. (2) includes the gain due to the absorbed incident solar
radiation for the exterior surface of the opaque wall and the
heat loss by convection to the ambient air from the exterior
surface. Similarly, the boundary condition at the interior
surface can be written as
k
@T
@x

x=L
= h
in
(T
s;i
T
in
): (3)
The first term of Eq. (3) represents the conduction heat
transfer through the wall, while the second term represents
the convective heat transfer between the interior surface
of the opaque wall and the indoor air. The temperature values
at the time t = 0 can be taken as initial condition. For the
Nomenclature
a thermal diffusivity (m
2
s
1
)
A amplitude
c specific heat (kJ kg
1
K
1
)
f decrement factor
f
experiment
experimental decrement factor
f
theoric
theoretical decrement factor
h convective heat transfer coefficient
(W m
2
K
1
)
I total solar radition for vertical surface
(W m
2
)
k thermal conductivity (W m
1
K
1
)
P period (24 h)
R thermal resistance (W
1
m
2
K)
S heat storage capacity (W s
1/2
m
2
K
1
)
t time (h)
T temperature (8C)
w angular speed (rad s
1
)
x thickness (m)
Greek letters
a absorptivity
b surface tilt angles (8)
f time lag (h)
f
experiment
experimental time lag
f
theoric
theoretical time lag
r mass density (kg m
3
)
Subscripts
a,in indoor amplitude
a,out outdoor amplitude
in indoor
out outdoor
sa solair
s,i indoor surface
s,o outdoor surface
Fig. 1. The schematic representation of the time lag, f, and decrement factor, f = A
in
=A
out
.
274 K. Ulgen / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 273278
temperature affecting the exterior surface of the opaque
wall, a theoretical temperature referring to the joint effect
of the outdoor air temperature and the absorbed solar
energy and indicating periodical change by time has been
used. In the literature, this temperature is called solair
temperature [9].
T
sa
= T
out

a
h
out
I
t

e DR
h
out
: (4)
ASHRAE recommends that the correction factor, e DR=h
out
,
be given a value 48C for horizontal surfaces facing up. Thus,
the solair temperature is 48C cooler due to reduced infrared
radiation coming from the sky. The correction factor is
specified to be 0 for vertical surfaces, as the warmer sunlit
surfaces compensate for the cooler sky temperature. An
estimate of the correction factor for other tilt angles based
upon radiation shape-factor geometry is
e DR
h
out
= 4 cos b; (5)
where b is the surface tilt angles measured between the
surfaces normal and vertical [9].
Under the initial and boundary conditions given above,
the following Eq. (6) can be obtained fromthe solution of the
equation of heat conduction, which is one-dimensional and
dependent on time:
T(x; t) =

X
2
1
X
2
2
q
[sin(wt f)[: (6)
Eq. (6) is the analytical solution to the problem. X
1
and X
2
are function of x and can be calculated from the following
equations:
S =

rck
p
: (9)
At the same time, the ratio of X
1
to X
2
gives the time lag
between interior and exterior surfaces of the opaque element.
f = arctan
X
2
X
1

: (10)
In addition, the square-rooted term of Eq. (6) refers to the
reduction in the amplitude of the surface temperatures,
which is decrement factor.
f =

X
2
1
X
2
2
q
: (11)
The results of the analytical solution are given in Table 1. For
the convective heat transfer coefficient values considered in
analytical solutions are measured experimentally.
3. Experimental studies
Based on the earlier studies given in the literature, the
experimental set-up whose subsections are given below has
been developed in this study [15]. It is aimed at determining
the behaviour of the envelope of the building under the effect
of solar radiation [16]:
v simulation unit;
v datalogger (for storing data and controlling the system);
v computer (for organising the data stored);
v temperature sensors (used for measuring wall surface and
environment temperatures);
v test samples (wall structures to be tested and having
1 m 1 m surface area on each side).
The simulation unit shown schematically in Fig. 2 con-
sists of three parts. The space A represents the environment,
and the temperature change in the space A is assumed to be
sinusoidal. A heating unit, a cooling unit and fan are placed
inside the space A. The goal is to create a sinusoidal
temperature change by changing the energy level at certain
time intervals, keeping the energy level by which is given
heater and cooler into the volume xed (Fig. 3a). In order for
periodical change to have some time intervals, simulation
time is taken as 32 h. First 2 h are the time elapsed for the
system to reach equilibrium; the last 30 h are a change
process having ve periods to reach the steady state regime.
Each period represents a day. Measurements are made to
determine how periodical temperature change, simulated in
the space A, is reected into the space B (Fig. 3b). In the wall
part, there are 10 wall samples, which form the context of
the study and are designed for different climate conditions.
These samples have 1 m 1 m surface area and are insu-
lated from the side surfaces to realise one-dimensional heat
conduction only.
Datalogger unit consisted of an electronic card for gen-
erating periodical temperature changes and a storage card
for receiving the signals coming from sensors during mea-
surements. Sensors were used to measure the temperatures
of the environment and wall surfaces. The sensors were
produced specically concerted datalogger through electro-
nic chips. The calibration of the sensors, before each experi-
ment, was made on the calibration card placed in datalogger
unit. There were 12 sensors: two for measuring environment
temperature and the rest for measuring surface temperature.
Also there was transfer unit in the system to convey data
collected by the datalogger to the computer. Data transfer
X
1
= T
a;out
(h
in
=S

i
_
)sinh[(S

i
_
=k)(L x)[ cosh[(S

i
_
=k)(L x)[
((S

i
_
=h
out
) (h
in
=S

i
_
))sinh((S

i
_
=k)L) (1 (h
in
=h
out
))cosh((S

i
_
=k)L)
" #
; (7)
X
2
= T
a;in
(h
in
=S

i
_
)sinh((S

i
_
=k)x) (h
in
=h
out
)cosh((S

i
_
=k)x)
((S

i
_
=h
out
) (h
in
=S

i
_
))sinh((S

i
_
=k)L) (1 (h
in
=h
out
))cosh((S

i
_
=k)L)
" #
; (8)
K. Ulgen / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 273278 275
Table 1
Theoretical and experimental results
Wall
no.
Sheet type
(out towards in)
Thickness
(cm)
a = k/rc
(m
2
s
1
10
7
)
S = (krc)
1/2
(W s
1/2
m
2
K
1
)
R
(W
1
m
2
K)
Theoretical Experimental
Decrement
factor, f
Time lag,
f (h)
f
theoric
f
theoric
(h)
f
experiment
f
experiment
(h)
1 Outer plaster 3.00 3.63 481.66 0.863 2.974
VCbrick 19.00 5.95 453.65 0.855 4.001
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 0.7713 0.913 2.411 0.676 9.39 0.392 10.50
2 Outer plaster 3.00 3.63 481.66 0.860 2.432
Gas concrete 20.00 3.35 242.02 0.875 3.716
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.6570 0.917 3.275 0.690 9.42 0.375 10.27
3 Outer plaster 3.00 3.63 481.66 0.835 2.861
EPfoam 3.00 8.25 32.70 0.935 2.099
VCbrick 19.00 5.95 453.65 0.744 4.125
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.7814 0.912 2.392 0.529 11.48 0.357 10.10
4 Outer plaster 3.00 3.63 481.66 0.861 3.008
VCbrick 19.00 5.95 453.65 0.519 5.703
EPfoam 3.00 8.25 32.70 0.980 2.816
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.7814 0.903 2.988 0.395 14.52 0.281 11.28
5 Cbrick 9.00 4.93 825.88 0.347 5.804
Air space 3.00 0.02 5.61 0.954 2.469
HCbrick 13.50 4.10 476.24 0.820 4.137
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.7340 0.922 1.915 0.250 14.33 0.332 11.44
6 Cbrick 9.00 4.93 825.88 0.407 5.676
Ppanel 3.00 18.20 29.66 0.944 2.307
HCbrick 13.50 4.10 476.24 0.839 4.038
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.3302 0.923 2.073 0.299 14.09 0.351 11.56
7 Cbrick 9.00 4.93 825.88 0.351 5.782
Air space 3.00 0.02 5.61 0.925 1.702
EPfoam 3.00 8.25 32.70 0.970 2.718
HCbrick 13.50 4.10 476.24 0.826 4.110
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 2.7441 0.923 2.056 0.240 16.37 0.243 11.58
8 TCbrick 1.50 6.75 1380.26 0.821 3.168
Styrofoam 2.00 8.27 34.09 0.935 2.109
HCbrick 13.50 4.10 476.24 0.847 3.996
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.0834 0.922 1.809 0.599 11.08 0.362 10.34
9 Outer plaster 3.00 3.63 481.66 0.779 2.908
Styrophore 15.00 28.13 26.83 0.992 2.942
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 3.5618 0.922 3.780 0.714 9.63 0.365 10.30
10 Cam 0.40 5.90 1151.24 0.973 2.793
Kapipane 3.00 0.981 0.186
VCbrick 19.00 5.95 453.65 0.880 3.898
Inner plaster 2.00 3.20 282.84 1.0637 0.919 2.493 0.775 9.37 0.415 9.52
Fig. 2. The schematic representation of the simulation unit.
unit was connected to the serial port of the datalogger. A
connection cable was used between the computer and the
transfer unit to transfer data from the serial port. Moreover, a
specically produced keypad was used to enter the com-
mand. In order to determine thermophysical behaviours
of opaque wall elements forming building shell under the
effect of solar energy showing periodical change, thermal
tests of 10 different types of walls were conducted in the
experimental simulation unit developed. Building materials
forming wall types and their positions are given in Table 1
[16].
4. Results and discussion
In the effective use of energy, the environmental tem-
perature, solar radiation intensity purpose of use of spaces
and characteristics, dimensions and formations of structure
elements forming building shell are important parameters.
The walls, which are in interaction continuously with chan-
ging environmental temperature and solar radiation, can be
organised as single-layered or multi-layered in terms of their
formation.
As known, heat-spreading and storage features of the
material gain importance in time lag, decrement factor,
and magnitude of heat loss. Those features mentioned are
the functions of thermal diffusivity (a), mass density (r) and
specic heat (c) of the material. Atmospheric conditions and
purpose of use of spaces have some effects on passing of the
heat through the wall and on storage of the heat.
The walls in the study have different formations. Time lag
and decrement factor values of opaque wall elements form-
ing building shell under the periodic change conditions are
illustrated in Table 1. Based on the experimental results and
theoretical calculations, as seen in Table 2, the best results
are obtained by using multi-layered insulated and air-caver-
nous wall formations (wall no.: 7), followed by insulated
(interior and exterior) formations (wall nos.: 4, 5, 6, 3, 8),
and single-layered formations (wall nos.: 1, 2, 9, 10).
Characteristic magnitude of time lag and decrement factor
that will inform the designers concerning material charac-
teristics and their positions forming wall formations are
affected by heat storage (S) and thermal diffusivity (a) of
the material. The increase in both mass density and specic
heat values has a positive effect on the results. On the
contrary, increase of the thermal conductivity causes heat
storage coefcient to change positively (increase in value),
but causes heat-spreading coefcient to change negatively
(increase in value). It means that it is impossible to obtain
positive results for both characteristics. Thus, it is inevitable
to consider composite types of walls formed by layers
having different features in design for the best results. A
Fig. 3. Internal view of (a) space A and (b) space B.
Table 2
The order of evaluation of wall formation tested by their theoretical experimental examinations (by wall numbers)
Evaluation rank Theoretical Experimental Results Evaluation rank
Decrement factor Time lag Decrement factor Time lag
1 7 7 7 7 7 1
2 5 4 4 6 5 2
3 6 5 5 5 4 3
4 4 6 6 4 6 4
5 3 3 3 1 3, 8 5
6 8 8 8 8 3, 8 5
7 1 9 9 9 1, 9 7
8 2 2 2 2 1, 9 7
9 9 1 1 3 2 9
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
K. Ulgen / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 273278 277
small thermal diffusivity having effects on decrement factor
and increases in time lag that is a large mass density (r) and
specic heat (c) have a positive impact on the interior
environmental conditions.
5. Conclusions
Appropriate building shell can be obtained with massive
block having heat storage feature and composite types of
walls formed by light and non-heat conducting materials, by
giving attention to the function of interior space, and to the
position of the material in wall formations. Utilisation
period is also effective in terms of selection of opaque wall
materials forming building shell.
In the spaces used for short time and limited time inter-
vals, a lower level of heat storage capacity of the building
shell is preferred, while a higher level is preferred in
buildings used for long periods of time. This is very essential
for keeping the temperature changes of interior space at
minimum level.
In conclusion, many parameters should be taken into
consideration for providing comfort in spaces. In the build-
ings used for all day long (houses, ofces, etc.), multi-
layered and insulated wall formations are suggested, while
single-layered formations are suggested for the buildings
used for specic time intervals.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Research Fund of Ege
University for substantial support in realising this study,
and to the Association of Turgutlu Brick and Tile Producers
for contributions in providing the experiment mechanisms to
the Ege University Solar Energy Institute.
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