HELPING THEM SUCCEED

A Handbook for Teachers Who Work with ELLs

Elena Chiaburu Godwin Heights Public Schools MITESOL 2009

It takes a whole village to raise a child. African proverb

All educational personnel assume responsibility for the education of ESOL students.
(TESOLs Vision of Effective Education for All Students)

If, () we are to truly make education for minority children not just equal, but possessing quality, we allfirst language, mainstream, as well as secondlanguage teachers must know what the other communities are doing and what kinds of questions they are asking. Carole Urzua

TESOLS (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) VISION OF EFFECTIVE EDUCATION FOR ALL STUDENTS

Effective education for LEP students includes native like levels of proficiency in English. Effective education for LEP students includes the maintenance and promotion of LEP students native languages in school and community contexts. All educational personnel assume responsibility for the education of LEP students. Effective education also calls for comprehensive provision of first-rate services and full access to those services by all students. Knowledge of more than one language and culture is advantageous for all students.

Myths about Second Language Acquisition

Myth 1: ELL students learn English easily and quickly simply by being exposed to and surrounded by native English speakers. FACT: Learning a second language takes time and significant intellectual effort on the part of the learner. Learning a second language is hard work; even the youngest learners do not simply pick up the language. Myth 2: When ELLs are able to converse comfortably in English, they have developed proficiency in the language. FACT: It can take 6-9 years for LEP students to achieve the same levels of proficiency in academic English as native speakers. Moreover, LEP students participating in thoughtfully designed programs of bilingual or sheltered content instruction remain in school longer and attain significantly higher rates of academic achievement in comparison to students without such advantages. Myth 3: In earlier times, immigrant children learned English rapidly and assimilated easily into American life. FACT: Many immigrant students during the early part of the last century did not learn English quickly or well. Many dropped out of school to work in jobs that did not require the kinds of academic achievement and communication skills that substantive employment opportunities require today.

SOURCE: TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages)

A COMPARISON BETWEEN FIRST- AND SECOND-LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Similarities: Both L1 (first language) and L2 (second language) learners construct language from prior conceptual knowledge. Both L1 and L2 learners are active learners who test and revise hypotheses. Both L1 and L2 learners require an interactional process. Both L1 and L2 learners use cognitive strategies. Both L1 and L2 are aided by modified input. Both L1 and L2 learners develop language in predictable stages. Both L1 and L2 learners make developmental errors. Both L1 and L2 learners require a silent period. (Similarities appear in the process of language acquisition) Differences: L2 learner is usually cognitively more highly developed. L2 learner generally has a greater knowledge of the world. L2 learner can learn and apply rules more easily. L2 learner usually has more control over the input. L2 learner has an L1 as a resource. L2 learner may have other second languages from which to draw. L2 learner is familiar with one or more other cultures. L2 learner may have a problem with attitude and/or motivation. L2 learner is more likely to be inhibited, anxious, and/or afraid of making errors.

Source: Richard-Amato, P. A. (1996). Making It Happen; Interaction in the Second Language Classroom. Longman.

Implications for mainstream teachers: o The interplay of first and second language acquisition: students should be able to use their first language in class to help aid comprehension (peer tutoring). o Interlanguage: It has some traits of the students native language, some traits of English, and some general errors common to ELLs.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

Age upon entry to the United States (for foreign born ELLs) Consistent language usage at home (preferably the dominant language of the parents) Differences between L1 and L2 (English, in ELLs case) Family background Discontinued schooling Literacy level in L1 (Literacy in L1 eases literacy development in English) Socio-economic background Motivation Personality Willingness to make mistakes

AN OVERVIEW OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES All teachers are language teachers. (Author unknown) A Continuum of Learning: Predictable and sequential stages of language development in which the learner progresses from no knowledge of the new language to a level of competency closely resembling that of a native speaker. Implications for mainstream teachers: Your ESL specialist can provide the stage of ELL students. Understanding that students go through a predictable and sequential series of developmental stages helps educators predict and accept a student current stage while modifying their instruction to encourage progress. ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION CHART

STAGE

DURATION

NUMBER OF WORDS
0 to 500 receptive words

STUDENT OUTPUT

SUGGESTIONS FOR MAINSTREAM TEACHERS

Do not force students to speak until they are ready to do so. Use of visuals aids and gestures Adjust rate of speech Use bilingual students as peer tutors Display print to support oral language Ask yes/no questions Choral reading TPR (Total Physical Response)

STAGE I Silent/Recep tive or Preproduction Stage

10 hours to 6 months

Non-verbal identification Word level usage Can respond by pointing or performing an act Answer yes/no questions

Cognitive functions: identifying, describing, comparing, sequencing, observing, matching

STAGE II The Early Production Stage Beginner Basic

6 months in addition to the first 6 months

Up to 1,000 receptive, active words

Phrase/sentence level usage Speaks in one or twoword phrases Very limited comprehension vocabulary Demonstrates comprehension of new material by answering short answers to simple yes/no, either/or, or who/what/when questions Cognitive functions: identifying, describing, comparing, sequencing

Continue Stage I strategies Engage students in charades and guessing games Role-playing activities Open-ended sentences Use conceptual visualscharts, tables, graphs Partner reading

STAGE III The Speech Emergence Stage Developing Intermediate

It takes up to another year (One to three years in U.S. schools)

Up to 3,000 words

Sentence/emerging continuous text level usage Begins to use dialogue Can ask simple questions and answer simple questions Longer sentences with many grammatical errors Greater fluency with present, past, future tenses, plurals and pronouns Begins to understand metaphorical and idiomatic expressions Functions on a social level Cognitive functions: classifying, analyzing, inferring, justifying, and persuading (age appropriated)

Continue with strategies from Levels I and II Group discussions Build on students prior knowledge Write descriptions of visuals and props Incorporate more reading and writing

STAGE IV: The High Intermediate Language Proficiency Stage

It takes up another year (3-5 years in the U.S. school)

Up to 6,000 words

Practicing continuous text level usage Begins to make complex statements, state opinions, and ask questions Shares thoughts Cognitive functions: solving problems, synthesizing, evaluating, explaining, contrasting

Continue strategies from Stages IIII Have students brainstorm lists, webs Use graphic organizers Ask more why and how questions Develop more academic language Continue with strategies from Stages IIV Incorporate notetaking Teach study skills

STAGE V: The Advanced Language Proficiency Stage

Gaining it in 57 years in U.S. school

Specialized content-area vocabulary Beyond 12.000 receptive and/or active words

Participates fully in grade-level classroom activities with occasional support Practicing continuous text level usage Cognitive functions: solving problems, synthesizing, evaluating.

Expand figurative language

Comprehensible Input Hypothesis (Stephen Krashen): Learners acquire language by intaking and understanding language that is a little beyond their current level of competence. Implications for Mainstream Teachers: Teachers strive to make the content comprehensible. (See the Comprehensible Input section) Comprehensible Output (Merrill Swain): Learners have to be given opportunities to use the language and skills they acquired, at a level in which they are competent. The comprehensible output hypothesis states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we arrive at the correct form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced. Implications for Mainstream Teachers: Students need to be able to use the language they acquired. Use of cooperative learning strategies ensures the practice of oral and written language.

Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen and Terrell): This theory suggests that an individuals emotions can directly interfere or assist in the learning of a new language. Implications for Mainstream Teachers: Classrooms that are fully engaging, nonthreatening, and affirming of a childs native language and cultural heritage can have a direct effect on the students ability to learn.

CUMMINSS CONTRIBUTION: DIMENSIONS OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION J. Cummins, one of the worlds leading authorities on bilingual education and second language acquisition, distinguishes two different kinds of language proficiencies: BICS: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills: This is the social language which students might acquire while on the playground or in asking and answering simple questions. According to Cummins, children might develop native-like speaker fluency (BICS) within two years. CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: This is the academic or school language necessary for students to fully participate in mainstream classes. Cummins suggests that it takes between 5-7 years for a child to be working on a level with native speakers.

Please note: The length of time depends on many variables such as Language proficiency level when entering U.S. school Age and time of arrival at school Level of academic proficiency in the native language The degree of support for achieving academic proficiency

Implications for Mainstream Teachers: Dont assume that students who have native like fluency in everyday spoken English attained the same proficiency in academic language.

Academic Language Proficiency (Stephen Krashen): Krashen suggests that Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency or Academic Proficiency consists of two different proficiencies: Knowledge of language and subject matter knowledge, and corresponding to each is a set of strategies that facilitate their development. Academic language is characterized by complex syntax, academic vocabulary, and a complex discourse style. Academic content is the content of subjects such as algebra, literature, chemistry, or history. These are only hypotheses, but the author believes that testing them will advance our knowledge in this area. Task Difficulty Jim Cummins identifies two factors that affect language comprehension: Cognitive complexity Context embeddedness A context-embedded task is one in which the student has access to additional visual and both verbal and nonverbal cues and opportunities to interact with people and things. Examples: one-to-one social conversation, story-telling activities that include visual props. A context-reduced task is one such as listening to a lecture or reading a difficult text without any other sources of help than the language itself. The language of the classrooms is de-contextualized, complex, requiring manipulation of difficult concepts. A cognitively undemanding task requires a minimum amount of abstract or critical thinking. Examples: a conversation on the play ground, or simple yes/no questions in the classroom. A cognitively demanding task requires a learner to analyze and synthesize information quickly. Examples: academic content lessons, tests. Cummins came up with the following model:

Context A Cognitively

embedded C Cognitively

undemanding B Context

demanding D reduced

The most difficult for the ELL students will be an activity from the quadrant D, which is cognitively demanding and context reduced. Implications for mainstream teachers: Judge the tasks appropriateness for ELL students and avoid, this way, much frustration. Use cognitively undemanding tasks in the beginning stage, in order to build confidence and lead to more challenging activities. Switch then to tasks that engage the students thinking, but make the tasks accessible by providing visual or other support (make the content comprehensible).

Additive/subtractive Bilingualism (Jim Cummins): Additive bilingualism: the first language continues to be developed and the first culture to be valued while the second language is added. Subtractive bilingualism: the second language is added at the expense of the first language and culture.

Implications for mainstream teachers: Teachers and departments should incorporate the different cultural backgrounds of their students into daily teaching. They should strive to show their ELL students that their languages and cultures are equally valued as the Anglo/American culture.

Common Underlying Language Proficiency (Jim Cummins): In the course of learning one language, a child acquires a set of skills and implicit metalinguistic knowledge that can be drawn upon when working in another language. Cummins calls it Common Underlying Language Proficiency (CULP). CULP provides the base for the development of both L1 and L2. Implications for mainstream teachers: Any expansion of CULP that takes place in one language will help acquire the second language. It is very important, therefore, that students be encouraged to continue their native language development. Conceptual knowledge developed in one language helps to make input in the other language comprehensible. Parents who dont speak English can help their children by giving them opportunities to expand their native language.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING ELL STUDENTS The following principles are important for all students, but are of particular importance to English language learners: Increase comprehensibility: This principle is drawing from Krashens comprehensible input and Cummins task difficulty theories. This principle involves use of approaches to make the content more understandable to students. Increase interaction: This principle draws from Swains emphasis on comprehensible output. Students need opportunities to use their language skills in direct communication and to negotiate meaning in real-life situations. Increase thinking/study skills: This principle draws from Cummins theories of academic language and task difficulty. Use a students native language to increase comprehensibility: This principle draws from several theories, such as Krashen and Cummins, as well as current research.

Three content-based instructional models have been found to be very beneficial to ELL students: the Sheltered Instruction Method, the CALLA approach and the SIOP. We will present briefly each of these models.

SHERLTERED INSTRUCTION

The Sheltered Approach draws from and complements methods and strategies advocated for both second language and mainstream classroom. (Echevaria) In a sheltered content class, the teacher takes into consideration students language proficiency levels and modifies the delivery of instruction while maintaining high expectations and grade-level standards. This method requires clearly defined language and content objectives, modified curriculum, supplementary materials, and alternative assessment. The term sheltered instruction was first introduced by Stephen Krashen in the 1980s. This approach was designed to be used in ESL classes, but the model can be easily adapted for mainstream classes. Adapting instruction will benefit equally the LEP students and the low achievers in the content area classes. In real sheltered instruction classes, students are sheltered in that they do not compete academically with native English speakers, since the class includes only English language learners. Teachers use visual aids, physical activities and the environment to teach important concepts and new words in mathematics, science, history, and other subjects. Sheltered English program have been successful in the development of academic competence of ELLs because they concentrate simultaneously on content-area and English proficiency.

CALLA is an instructional model that was

COGNITIVE ACADEMIC

developed by Chamot and OMalley to meet the academic needs of students learning English as a second language. This model is largely based on studies on cognitive learning

LANGUAGE
theory. The model integrates:

LEARNING

APPROACH
1.

Academic language development Content area instruction Explicit instruction in learning strategies for content and language acquisition

Each CALLA lesson consists of three parts: Content: The content of a lesson is determined by the grade-level curriculum in the content areas (math, science, social studies, language arts, etc.). Language: The students must learn the language functions used in content classes, such as describing, classifying, explaining, comparing and/or contrasting, applying, etc. At this point, the student must also learn grammatical structures and the specialized vocabulary of each content area. Strategy: Different types of learning strategies are taught, modeled, practiced, applied, and assessed in a CALLA lesson. The model distinguishes three types of learning strategies:

2.

3.

Metacognitive strategies are used in the process of purposefully monitoring our thinking. Metacognitive strategies are used in planning for learning, selfmonitoring, and evaluating achievement. Cognitive strategies are directly related to individual learning tasks while manipulating the materials to be learned through rehearsal, organization, or elaboration. Social/Affective strategies refer to the social and affective influences on learning. Learning can be enhanced when people interact with each other, participate in group discussion or cooperative learning groups.

Learning strategies essential to mainstream success: Advance organization: previewing the main ideas of the material to be learned Organizational planning: planning the parts, sequences, and main ideas to be expressed Selective attention: attending to key words, phrases, or types of information. Self-monitoring: checking ones comprehension or production while it is taking place Self-evaluation: judging how well one has accomplished a learning activity after it has been completed Grouping: classifying words or concepts according to their attributes Note-taking: writing down key words and concepts in verbal, graphic, or numerical form Imagery: using mental or actual images to understand and remember new information Transfer: using what is already known about languages to assist comprehension or production Elaboration: Relating new information to prior knowledge; making personal associations Inferring: using information in a text to guess meanings of new items or complete missing parts Resourcing: using information in a text to guess meanings of new items or complete missing parts Cooperation: working together with peers to solve a problem SOURCE: Anna Uhl Chamot and J. Michael OMalley (1994). CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

On line resource: http://calla.ws/

SHELTERED INSTRUCTION OBSERVATION PROTOCOL

Developed by Jana Echevaria, MaryEllen Vogt, and Deborah J. Short Grounded in the professional literature and in the experiences and best practices of the researchers and participating teachers Based on the theory that language acquisition is enhanced through meaningful use and interaction Distinguished by use of supplementary materials that support the academic task Designed for flexibility Tested in a wide range of classroom situations Confirmed to be a valid and reliable measure by a sub-study conducted in 1997 Used both as an observation instrument for researchers and teachers or as a tool for planning and delivering lessons The SIOP model offers a framework for selecting and organizing techniques and strategies and facilitates the integration of district- or state-level standards for ESL and for specific content areas. (Echevaria)

SIOP is composed of 30 items grouped into three major sections: Preparation Instruction Review/Assessment I. PREPARATION Lesson Planning 1. Content objectives 2. Language objectives

3. Content concepts age appropriate 4. Supplementary materials 5. Adaptation of content 6. Meaningful activities II. INSTRUCTION Building background 7. Concepts explicitly linked to students background 8. Links explicitly made between past learning and new concepts 9. Key vocabulary emphasized Comprehensible input 10. Speech appropriate for students proficiency levels 11. Explanation of academic tasks clear 12. Uses a variety of techniques to make concepts clear 13. Opportunities for students to use strategies 14. Scaffolding techniques 15. Variety of question types Interaction 16. Opportunities for interaction 17. Grouping configurations 18. Wait time provided 19. L1 used for clarification Practice/Application 20. Hands-on materials 21. Activities to apply content and language knowledge 22. Activities integrate all language skillsreading, writing, listening, speaking Lesson Delivery 23. Content objective clearly supported 24. Language objectives clearly supported 25. Students engaged approx. 90% to 100% of the period 26. Pacing of the lesson appropriate III. REVIEW ASSESSMENT 27. Review of key vocabulary 28. Review of key content concepts 29. Feedback provided 30. Assessment of student comprehension and learning is conducted throughout the lesson On-line resources: http://www.misd.net/bilingual/ELL.pdf

A SAMPLING OF STRATEGIES THAT ARE RARELY USED IN ISOLATION SOME ARE MORE APPROPRIATE FOR CERTAIN AGE LEVELS OR LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY STAGES. THIS IS NOT A COMPREHENSIVE LIST, BUT RATHER A STARTING POINT.

THE STRATEGIES ARE GROUPED ACCORDING TO THE FOUR KEY PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING ELLs:

Strategies that help increase comprehensibility Strategies that favor increased interaction Strategies that increase thinking/study skills Strategies that make use of students native language

PLEASE NOTE: While recommended by research and practitioners as being helpful to teach ELLs, most of these strategies are beneficial to ALL students.

STRATEGIES THAT INCREASE COMPREHENSION

LINGUISTIC MODIFICATIONS

Rate of Enunciation (How the teacher speaks)

Complexity of Speech (What the teacher says)

Slow rate of speech Clear enunciation More repetition

Level of vocabulary used: avoid jargon and idioms Complexity of sentence structure: use simple sentence structure like subject-verbobject; reduce or eliminate embedded clauses; use active voice versus passive voice; use language that is straightforward and clear

Techniques to make the message clear

Use gestures and body language Use paraphrasing and repetition Use cognates (words that are similar in form and meaning in L1 and L2) Use pictures and realia (real objects) Provide a model of a process of what is expected of students Use hands-on activities Explanation of academic tasks Give clear instructions for assignments and activities: Present instructions in a step-by-step manner Accompany instructions by a visual representation or demonstration of what is expected Write directions or key words on the board Techniques to make content comprehensible

Adapting the content

Highlighting key vocabulary

Using scaffolding techniques

Opportunities for students to use strategies

VERBAL SCAFFOLDING

PROCEDURAL SCAFFOLDINGP

PARAPHRASING: restating

a students response, in order to model correct English

USING THINK-ALOUDS:

One-on-one teaching,

carefully structured models of how effective strategy users think and monitor their understanding
REINFORCING CONTEXTUAL DEFINITIONS: Ex.: ESL,

coaching, and modeling Small group instruction Partnering students for reading activities

English as a Second Language,

SCAFFOLDING is associated with Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

What a child can do with support today, she or he can do alone tomorrow.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

A variety of supplementary materials help to increase comprehension (make the content comprehensible) and also support different learning styles and multiple intelligences.

EXAMPLES OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Hands-on manipulatives Realia (real-life objects) Pictures Visuals (overhead transparencies, models, graphs, charts, timelines, maps, props, bulletin board displays) Multimedia (computer programs, film, videos, songs) Games Demonstrations that model how to follow steps or directions needed to complete tasks Related literature (a wide variety of fiction and nonfiction can be included to support content teaching) Adapted text Graphic organizers

Teachers must find ways to make the text and other resource materials accessible for all students.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS Identify key concepts Provide students with visual clues Can be used prior to reading as a guide Can be used for taking notes Can be used for review Examples Text structure charts Venn diagrams Story or text maps Timelines Discussion webs Word webs Clusters Thinking maps

LEVELED STUDY GUIDES

Designed specifically for diverse student needs Written differently, depending on students language and literacy development They can extend and enrich the material, or Lead the students through the material with definitions and hints Questions, tasks, and statements may be marked with asterisks, from most manageable to most challenging

OUTLINES
Teacher-prepared outlines can be used for note taking while reading dense portions of text. They are especially helpful if major concepts are already filled in. An entirely completed outline can be used as a guide to reading and understanding the text.

Highlighted Text
Reserve a few textbooks for students acquiring English and/or for those with delayed literacy development. Highlight key ideas and concepts, important vocabulary, summary statements. Students are encouraged to first read only the highlighted text. Purpose: to reduce the reading demands of the text, while maintaining key concepts and information.

Adapted Text
Text adaptation involves rewriting selected sections of the text. It is time consuming, but an important modification of curricular materials. A well-rewritten text Written in short, simple sentences. Paragraphs include a topic sentence with supporting details. A consistent format is maintained. All sentences are direct and relevant to the subject.

Highlighted text and marginal notes are time consuming

Yes, but once you completed a textbook, teaching assistants, parents, or capable students can do it

JIGSAW TEXT READING

Marginal Notes
Reserve a few textbooks and print marginal notes directly in the margin of the textbook or duplicate notes on a handout. The marginal notes should include: Hints for understanding the content Key concepts and/or key vocabulary and definitions Marginal notes reduce ambiguity and the reading difficulty of the text.

JIGSAW text reading was originally designed as a cooperative learning activity. Jigsaw works well with English language learners when there is a difficult-to-read text. Divide the students into cooperative groups. One member of each group comes together to form a new group of experts. Assign each new expert group one section of the text to be read. Following the reading, each expert group reviews and discusses what was read, and determines the essential information and key vocabulary. Experts return to their original groups and teach them what they learned. Depending on English proficiency, the ELL students may join an expert group individually or with a partner. HINT! IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU SELECT THE EXPERT GROUPS!

TAPED TEXT
Key portions or the entire text can be recorded. Students are encouraged to listen while they follow along in the book.

Key Vocabulary Emphasized

Without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, NOTHING can be conveyed.
Author Unknown

The English language learners are faced with a double burden in American schools: developing language skills while mastering the academic content. The latter requires extensive reading in L2 (second language). Vocabulary was found to be the best predictor of success in reading comprehension. (Laufer) It improves achievement in the academic areas of school curriculum, as well as in formal and informal speaking and writing. Although recent L2 vocabulary instruction research is unanimous in considering lexicon a priority in second language acquisition, in practice, vocabulary instruction often fails. Nagy considers that there are two main reasons for this failure. First, often vocabulary instruction fails to produce in-depth word knowledge, which is a must for reading comprehension. Second, vocabulary instruction fails to improve reading comprehension because of the text redundancy: sometimes, the vocabulary taught does not hinder comprehension. Research shows that the definitional approach and the contextual approach are not effective if used as the only means of vocabulary teaching.

KEY VOCABULARY EMPHASIZED Principles of effective vocabulary instruction: 1. 2. 3. Integration: new concepts and their labels should be integrated with students prior knowledge. Meaningful use of vocabularies: real communication situations. Repetition: it assures the practice students need in order to make the meaning quickly accessible while reading. (Nagy)

What words to select when teaching vocabulary: 1. 2. 3. Consider the needs and tasks (needs analysis) Decide on what words students need to recognize to make sense of the text What vocabulary they will need to know to function in English in the future (enduring understandingUnderstanding by Design Model) 4. Consider the types of vocabulary: High frequency words, about 2,00085% text coverage Academic vocabulary, about 800 words Low frequency words, about 123,0002% text coverage HINT: The academic vocabulary is taught in all content areas! The meaning can be the same or slightly different. Example: classify, determine, describe, etc.

Vocabulary strategies to be modeled and practiced: Inferring meaning from the context Using dictionaries Using the structural analysis (suffixes, prefixes, roots, word endings, compound words) to guess the meaning of an unknown word

classification declassify class classify reclassify

Approaches to Vocabulary Development

WORD WALLS

Word walls are content vocabulary words listed alphabetically on a poster, sheet of butcher paper, or pocket chart. The words are revisited frequently throughout the lesson or unit. The number of words should be limited to those of greatest importance. Teachers should avoid having multiple word walls.

CLOZE SENTENCES Cloze sentences can be used to teach and review content vocabulary. A content vocabulary word is omitted from a sentence that has strong contextual support for that word. Possible replacements are brainstormed, and then a student or the teacher provides the correct word.

This is just an ___________ of how cloze ____________ technique can be used in _____________ teaching.

CONCEPT DEFINITION MAP Concept definition map is a simple graphic that can be used to discuss complex concepts. Conceptual information can be organized in terms of four types of relationships: 1. The general class or category in which the concept belongs 2. The properties of the concept and those that distinguish it from other members of the category 3. The examples or illustrations of the concept 4. Non-examples of the concept Concept definition instruction supports vocabulary and concept learning. The goal of this strategy is to have students own the strategy of defining unknown words in terms of category, property, and example relationships. (Vacca)

On-line resource: http://www.readingquest.org/strat/cdmap.html

PERSONAL DICTIONARIES Personal dictionaries are created as an individual vocabulary and spelling resource. They are generally used with students who have more advanced language skills. ELLs read together with partners and write unknown words in their dictionaries. The teacher discusses with each group, providing correction and/or clarity.

WORD GENERATION

This vocabulary activity can be used to learn and/or review new content words through analogy. Teacher writes a word on the board and invites students to brainstorm all the words they can think of that contain part of that word. (For example port, report, transport, support, airport, porter, portable). The students are asked to figure out what port might mean. Students and teacher then go back and revisit each word to see if they have something to do with portto carry.

CONTEXTUALIZING KEY VOCABULARY Teachers select several key words that are critical to understanding the lessons most important concepts. The words are introduced at the beginning of the lesson, defined or demonstrated using realia, pictures, word maps, etc. Teacher then shows how the words are used within the context of the lesson.

VOCABULARY SELF SELECTION (Ruddell, 1997) After reading a content text, students self-select key vocabulary that is essential to understanding content concepts. Words are eventually shared and discussed by the whole class. A class list is mutually agreed on by the teacher and students. This list is studied and reviewed often.

This approach is most appropriate for students who are high-intermediate and advanced English language learners.

WORD SORTS Word sorts is a categorizing activity. Students categorize words previously introduced into groups predetermined by the teacher. Words can be typed on a sheet of paper and students cut and sort the words according to meaning, similarities in structure, sounds, or derivations. A variant of this activity is List-Group-Label (Vacca). Students brainstorm words related to a specific topic and then determine possible categories or labels for the words.

STRATEGIES THAT INCREASE INTERACTION

Cooperative learning Provides comfortable environment in which ELLs can practice giving output and negotiating meaning. Very effective in mainstream classes where ELLs can be grouped with more competent speakers who model the language.

There are three distinct types of cooperative learning: 1. Peer tutoring 2. Jigsaw 3. Cooperative project (a presentations, a composition, or an art project) Applications of cooperative learning in short term activities: Numbered heads together, Think/Pair/Share

Study buddies or peer teachers and lay assistants Facilitate communication through negotiating for meaning Offer comprehensible input Give encouragement and feedback Provide a social link to the rest of the students in the classroom Serve as linguistic models

Both the ELL students and their peer teachers benefit. (Source: Patricia A. Richard AmatoMaking It Happen; From Interactive to Participatory Language TeachingLongman, 2003)

Project-based learning and one-to-one teacher/student interaction will also increase student interaction.

STRATEGIES THAT DEVELOP THINKING/STUDY SKILLS

LEARNING STRATEGIES Learning strategies are mental processes that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information. (OMalley & Chamot) The curriculum determines the strategy. Teachers begin with language and content goals, objectives, and tasks and then decide on the types of strategies that are appropriate.

Learners need a comprehensive knowledge of the strategy

Declarative knowledge: What is the strategy?

Procedural knowledge: How do I use it?

Conditional knowledge: When and why do I use this

strategy?

Learning strategies: Metacognitive strategies Cognitive strategies Social/Affective strategies (OMalley & Chamot, see CALLA) Muth and Alvermann suggest a continuum of strategies that occur during the teaching-learning process:

Teacher-Centered Strategies: Lecture Direct instruction Demonstrations Recitation

Teacher-Assisted Strategies: Drill and practice Discovery learning Brainstorming Discussion

Peer-Assisted Strategies: Role playing Peer tutoring Reciprocal teaching Cooperative learning

Student-Centered Strategies: Rehearsal strategies Repetitive readings Selective underlining Two-column notes Organizational Strategies: Clustering Graphic organizers Outlining

Elaboration strategies Mental imagery Guided imagery Creating analogies

4 4
A memory system often involving visualization and/or acronyms.

Surveying: scan the text for 1-2 minutes Questioning: students generate questions likely to be answered by reading the text, with teachers guidance Predicting: students state 1-3 things they think they will learn based on the questions they generated Reading: read and search for answers, confirm or disconfirm predictions Responding: answer questions and formulate new ones for the next section of the text On-line resources: http://www.siopinstitute.net/media/squeepers.pdf

PREVIEW IDEAS

EXPLORE WORDS

NOTE WORDS IN A COMPLETE SENTENCE

SEE IF THE SENTENCE IS OK

Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz

GIST is a summarization procedure that assists students in getting the

gist from extended text. It includes the following steps:

Students and teacher read together a section of text printed on a transparency and underline 10 or more words or concepts that are considered most important for the understanding of the text. Together write a summary statement or two using as many of the listed words as possible. Repeat the process through subsequent sections of the text. When finished, write an overall summary sentence for the entire text.

Muth and Alvermann

Rehearsal is used when verbatim recall of information is needed.

Visual aids: flashcards, note-taking

Strategies that help students memorize information: underlining and note-taking.

GO are graphic representations of key concepts and vocabulary

Teachers present them as schematic diagrams of information

Students use them to organize the information they are learning

Examples: Venn diagrams, maps, flow charts, semantic maps, story and text maps, etc.

The primary purpose of standards-based classroom assessment is to inform teaching and improve learning. In addition, assessment: Guides the process of changing and improving education. Determines the success of individual students, specific curricula, and institutional practice. Determines if students have integrated knowledge and skills across the curricula. Provides methods and data to effectively communicate results. (J.F.Carr and D.E. Harris) Tests should enable rather than impede a students ability to show how much he or she has learned. Some students might need accommodations.

When the goal is to see what a student has learned, those adaptations are fair for students with learning difficulties just as using Braille is fair for students who cannot see. C.A. Tomlinson

ASSESSMENT A good assessment plan for ELL students has all or most of the following attributes: Tests for both content knowledge and language proficiency. Assesses students content knowledge and abilities in the native language as well as in English. Uses a diversity of measures, such as portfolios, observations, anecdotal records, interviews, checklists, and criterion referenced tests, to measure content and skills. Takes into account students backgrounds including their educational experiences and parents literacy. Adds context to assessment tasks with familiar visual prompts, questions for small group discussion, and individual writing. Includes administration procedures to match classroom instructional practices, e.g. cooperative small groups, individual conferences. Makes accommodations, such as permitting students to use dictionaries or word lists. Source: Preparing Secondary Education Teachers to Work with English Language Learners: Social Studies, NCBE Resource Collection Series, No. 13, June 1999

Alternative assessment is used to find out: How much a student learned How the student learns The strategies he uses How much progress he has made over time Growth

Cultural variables in ELL assessment: Wait timeELL students require more time Individual or group response: Some cultural groups prefer to respond as part of an entire group, while others prefer to give an individual response. Eye contact: ELLs from many cultures consider eye contact with adults inappropriate and a sign of impertinence. Feedback: Some cultural groups feel embarrassed when praised publicly. Guessing: Some ELLs will not give the answer unless they are sure it is accurate. Volunteering: ELLs from certain groups may be uncomfortable showing what they know by volunteering a response. Source: TESOL

Modifying tests: Adjust the time for completion of tests and assignments Administer the test orally, rather than in written form Use an interpreter during the test Modify the format of the test from narrative to short answers or allow students to label terms, diagrams, and pictures Accept short, one word answers Reduce the number of multiple choice answers Give vocabulary tests on the course in place of textbook generated tests Read the directions and/or the test aloud Highlight important key words and phrases Grade only half the number of items that have to be completed by the mainstream students Count and grade the process, rather than the result Supply word banks for tests Provide a version of the test with simplified language

Nonverbal Assessment Strategies

Physical demonstrations:

Pictorial products: Students produce and manipulate drawings, dioramas, models, graphs, and charts.

Pointing or using gestures, handson tasks, acting out vocabulary, concepts, or events, responding with thumbs up, thumbs down.

The teacher can use a checklist to record student responses over time.

K-W-L CHARTS
Can be developed as a class activity or on an individual basis Can be completed in the first language or with illustrations

Teachers gain awareness of students background knowledge and interests.

ASSESSMENT Oral Performances or Presentations

Interviews Oral reports Role plays Describing Explaining Summarizing Retelling Paraphrasing Use visual cues as much as possible. Allow for a minimal amount of English in the responses. Lead the students by asking questions, especially ones that elicit the use of academic language and vocabulary pertinent to the topic.

Interviews

Role Play
Can be used across the curriculum Can be used with any number of people. Can serve as an alternative to traditional book reports.

ASSESSMENT
Written Products

Content area logs

Designed to encourage the use of metacognitive strategies Entries can be made on a form with two headings: What I understood What I didnt understand (Ideas or vocabulary)

Reading response logs

Used for students written reaction to a piece of literature Students may respond to questions some generic, some specific. Students may copy a brief selection on one side and write their reflection on the other side of the page.

Expository writing assignments

The writing assignment has to be controlled or structured. Use templates or frames. Guide students through a prewriting stage, which includes discussion, brainstorming, webbing, outlining, etc.

Dialog journals
Provide a means of interactive, ongoing correspondence between student and teachers. Students determine the choice of topics. Beginners can draw pictures that can be labeled by the teacher.

Portfolios are used to collect samples of student work over time to track student progress.

Teachers do the following: Maintain anecdotal records from their reviews of portfolios Maintain anecdotal records from regularly scheduled conferences with students Devise continua of descriptors to plot student achievement

Materials to be included in the portfolio: Audio- and videotaped recordings of readings and oral presentations Writing samples Art work Conference or interview notes Anecdotal records Checklists (by teacher, peer, or student) Tests and quizzes

SOURCE: Jo-Ellen Tannenbaum, Practical Ideas on Alternative Assessment for ESL Students

GRADE FOR GROWTH

A portion of the teachers grading may, of necessity, reflect a students standing related to grade-level benchmarks. A portion of grades, however, should reflect a students growth. A very bright learner who gets consistent As and never has to stretch or strive will become a damaged learner. A struggling student who persists and progresses will likely give up the fight if grade-level benchmarks remain out of reach and growth in that direction doesnt seem to count. The most we can ask of any personand the least we ought to askis that they be accountable for being and becoming their best. It is the job of the teacher to guide and support the learner in this endeavor.

Carol Ann Tomlinson

CONCLUSION

Ultimately, I hope we can all look at our children, and know that by broadening our knowledge as their teachers, se can see them as what they arechildren. Not disadvantaged children. Not LEP children. Not even brown or black or yellow children. But as children. They deserve our best efforts to ask all the possible questions regarding their education so that, as their advocates, we can formulate a shared set of beliefs.

Carole UrzuaI Grow for a Living

Handbook Outline

Introduction: TESOLs vision of effective education for all students, myths about second language acquisition, a comparison between first- and second-language acquisition, factors affecting the academic success of ELLs An overview of second language acquisition theories General principles for teaching ELLs Presentation of the three approaches that are found to be successful with ELLs: Sheltered Instruction, CALLA, SIOP A sampling of strategies, grouped according to the four key principles for teaching ELLs Alternative assessment for ELLs