Intermediate Algebra

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INTERMEDIATE
ALGEBRA
FOR COLLEGES
BY WILLIAM
L.
HART
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
D. G.
HEATH AND COMPANY
Copyright 1948, by D. C.
HEATH AND COMPANY
No
part of the material covered by this copyright may be reproduced in any form
without written permission of the publisher.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (408)
PREFA Cf
HIS
BOOK
offers
school algebra. The study it either (1) as a preliminary to taking college algebra, or (2) as terminal work hi algebra which is intended as a prerequisite for ele-
collegiate substitute for third semester high text was designed for a college student who will
in various fields of natural or social science, or in suitable selection of content from the business administration.
mentary courses
book would provide a
satisfactory algebraic foundation for a first In course in trigonometry or in the mathematics of investment.
the case of a student of the assumed preparation, the text provides sufficient material for a substantial course utilizing from 40 to 60
class hours.
was based on the assumption that the typical student involved is of a mature age but studied his elementary algebra so long ago that practically all fundamentals must be taught
of the text
The plan
they were relatively new material for him. Hence, the early chapters of the book present a mature but frankly elementary treatment of the foundations of algebraic technique with a generous amount
as
if
of discussion
and problem material.
Also, appropriate refresher
work on arithmetic is provided incidentally hi the algebraic problems and explicitly in an early optional chapter devoted to computation.
The tempo
of the discussion in the text is gradually increased until,
in the later chapters, distinctly collegiate speed is attained so that the student will find it easy to make the transition into a substantial
second course devoted to college algebra.
The text makes no attempt
to present material which custom dictates as primarily within the sphere of college algebra, although such material frequently may
enter the most substantial courses in third semester algebra at the secondary level. However, in the interest of efficiency and math-
ematical simplicity, the terminology and general viewpoint of the text is distinctly collegiate. Emphasis is laid on the logical sequence
of topics, accuracy of definitions,
and the completeness
of proofs.
vi
PREFACE
SPECIAL FEATURES
Adult nature of the presentation. The discussion in the text is couched at a level suitable to the maturity of college students. Hence, the available space and assumed class time are utilized mainly to explain and illustrate the mathematical principles involved and only the necessary minimum attention is devoted to artificial motivation of the type which might properly be expanded for younger
students.
given to the language concerning variables, functions, equations, and the most elementary aspects of analytic geometry because of the importance of this vocabulary in fields of application which the students will enter in
Terminology.
Particular emphasis
is
college.
by
technical vocabulary of the algebraic content excluding terms which are of small or doubtful utility.
The
is
limited
Illustrative material.
Extensive use
is
made
of illustrative ex-
amples to introduce new theory, to recall previous knowledge, and to furnish models for the student's solutions of problems.
Emphasis on development of
is
skill in
computation.
The viewpoint
adopted that the student needs refresher training in the operations

as*
appreciation of various features of computation. Hence, work with fractions and decimals is introduced quickly, and substantial early sections are devoted to a disof arithmetic, as well
new mature
cussion of approximate computation. Also, the exercises and applications continue to demand computing skill throughout the text, and
the chapter on logarithmic computation
is
made very
complete.
Supplementary content.
A small
amount
of material not essential
in the typical course is segregated into obviously independent sections labeled with a black star, *. Also, the teacher will understand
that several of the later chapters are optional and that their omission in whole or in part will not interfere with the continuity of other
The book was planned quent omissions by the teacher.

chapters.
to eliminate the necessity for fre-
The
is
extent and grading of the exercises.
The problem
material
so abundant that, in
many
exercises, either the
odd-numbered or
the even-numbered examples alone will be found sufficient for the student's outside assignments, and the balance may be reserved for
work
in the classroom.
In each exercise, the problems are arranged
PREFACE
vii
approximately in order of increasing difficulty. Examples stated in words are emphasized at the appropriate places to avoid the develop-
ment
of
an inarticulate form
skills
does not spend
of algebraic skill. However, the text valuable time in specialized training to develop
problem solving
problems.
devoted to
artificial
or unimportant types of
Answers.
The answers
in the text, and free in a separate

Flexibility.
to odd-numbered problems are provided answers for even-numbered problems are furnished
pamphlet at the instructor's request.
arrangement
of the exercises, various features in the of theoretical discussions, and the location of certain
The grading
chapters are designed to aid the teacher in adapting the text to the specific needs of his class.
Composition and appearance. The absence of excessively small type, the generous spacing on the pages, and the special care taken in the arrangement of the content into pages create a favorable setting for the use of the book by both the teacher and the student.
University of Minnesota
WILLIAM
L.
HART
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1. 2.
THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS INTRODUCTION TO FRACTIONS AND EXPONENTS

Review of Chapters 1 and 2
22
46 48 58
3. 4. 5.
6.
'
7.
8. 9.
10.
DECIMALS AND ELEMENTS OF COMPUTATION LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE UNKNOWN SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORING ADVANCED TOPICS IN FRACTIONS Review of Chapters 4, 5> and 6 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND GRAPHS SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS EXPONENTS AND RADICALS ELEMENTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
82
104 118
119
131
142 170
186
ADVANCED TOPICS IN QUADRATIC EQUATIONS I2. THE BINOMIAL THEOREM ^. RATIO, PROPORTION, AND VARIATION
11.
14.
15.
1 6.
204 210
221
PROGRESSIONS*
~~"
"~~~
LOGARITHMS ._. SYSTEMS INVOLVING QUADRATICS
240
262
277
APPENDIX TABLES
I
POWERS AND ROOTS

FOUR-PLACE LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS
283
II
284
287
in COMPOUND AMOUNT: (1-K*)*

IV
PRESENT VALUE OF $1 DUE AFTER

k PERIODS:
(1
-M)
~*
88
289
ANSWERS TO
INDEX
EXERCISES
315
CHAPTER
THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
Explicit
and
literal
numbers
In algebra, not only do we employ explicit numbers like 2, 5, 0, etc., but, as a characteristic feature of the subject, we also use letters or other symbols to represent numbers with variable or undesignated values. For contrast with explicit numbers, we agree that number symbols such as a, b, x, and y will be called literal numbers. In this book, as a rule, any single letter introduced without a qualifying description will represent a number.
2.
Signed Numbers
The numbers used in the elementary stages of algebra are called real numbers. They are classed as positive, negative, or zero, 0, which The word real is used is considered neither positive nor negative.
with reference to these numbers in order to permit contrast with a type of number called imaginary, which will be introduced at a later
stage.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
17,
f and
,
are real numbers.
In arithmetic, the numbers employed consist of zero, the integers and other unsigned numbers which we or whole numbers 1, 2, 3, express by means of fractions or the decimal notation. These numbers, except for zero, will hereafter be called positive numbers. When we choose, we shall think of each positive number as having a plus sign, +-, attached at the left.
,
ILLUSTRATION
*
2.
The positive number
may be written
-f 7 for emphasis.
For a logical foundation for algebra, see pages 1-78 H. B. FINE; GINN AND COMPANY, publishers.
in College Algebra,
by
In a later section, we shall formally define the negative numbers, which will be described as the "negatives" of the positive numbers.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
Corresponding to
+ 6 we shall introduce
the negative
number
6.
Positive
and negative numbers may be contrasted concretely
hi
known to be of one or other of two opposite types. In such a case, we conveniently think of any P as positive number P and the corresponding negative number being opposiies. With this hi mind, we frequently refer to the signs "+" and " "as being opposite signs.
assigning values to quantities which are
ILLUSTRATION 4. In bookkeeping, if a gain of $5000 is assigned the value - $3000. $6000, a loss of $3000 could be given the value
We
shall desire the results of operations
which we
shall define for
signed numbers to correspond with our intuitions are interpreted concretely.
when the numbers
ILLUSTRATION 5. Let t indicate an increase of temperature when t is Let time be considered positive positive and a decrease when t is negative.
in the future
and
negative in the past.
Then, the following concrete statea decrease of 12;
ments should correspond to the indicated addition or multiplication.
decrease of 20
and then a
rise of
creates
or,
(- 20)
+8 = -
12.
decrease of 10 per hour in temperature for the next 3 hours decrease of 30 ; or,
mil
create
(+
3)
(- 10) =
30.
// the temperature has decreased 10 per hour for the preceding 4 hours, the temperature 4 hours ago was 40 higher than now; or,
(-
4)
(- 10) =
+ 40.
EXERCISE
Under
the specified condition,
what meaning would be appropriate for
the
indicated quantity with opposite signf

1.
For
5 miles,
if
if
+ 5 miles means 5 miles north.

$15 means $15
lost.
2. 3.
For
+ $10, For + 8,
if
3 means a fall of 3 in temperature.

4.
5.
3
latitude.
For For
14 latitude,
if
+7
-
latitude
means 7 north means
170' altitude,
if
if
-f 20' altitude
20' above sea level.
6.
7.
For -f 30 longitude, For
20 longitude means 20 west of Greenwich.
5', if
+ 5' means 5' to the right.

signed values and express each of the
Introduce your
own agreements about
following facts by adding or multiplying signed numbers.

8.
9.
A gain of $3000 followed by a loss of $9000 creates a loss of $6000. A fall of 40 in temperature followed by a rise of 23 creates a fall of 17.
backward and then 15 steps forward bring a person
10. Thirty-five steps
to a point 20 steps backward.
you have been walking forward at a rate of 25 steps per minute, then 6 minutes ago you were 150 steps back from your present position.
11. If
water level of a river is rising 4 inches per hour, then (a) the level will be 24 inches higher at the end of 6 hours; (6) the level was 36 niches lower 9 hours ago.
12. If the
3. Extension of the
number system
this point, let us start with the understanding that we have at our disposal only the positive numbers and zero. Then, we shall
At
extend this number system to include negative numbers, properly defined, and shall introduce the operations of algebra for the whole
new number system.

use a
is
Hereafter,
when we
refer to
any number, or
it
number without limiting its value, we shall mean that any number of the final number system we plan to develop.
literal
4. Algebraic operations
operations of algebra are addition, subtraction, Whenever these operations are intromultiplication, and division. duced, the results in applying them will be the same as in arithmetic
The fundamental
when only
positive
numbers and zero are involved.
5. Multiplication
two or more numbers is called their product and each of the given numbers is called a factor of their product. To indicate multiplication, we use a cross X or a high dot between the numbers, or, in the case of literal numbers, merely write them side by side without any algebraic sign between them.
The
result of multiplying
We
separate the factors by parentheses if the dot or cross is omitted between factors which are explicit numbers, or when a factor not at the left end of a product has a plus or a minus sign attached.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
6-3
6X3
6(3)
18.
We
is
read
6X3,
a,
6-3,
or 6(3) as "six times three."
ILLUSTRATION 2. 4ab means 4 X a a = 2 and b = 5, then 4ab = 4(2) (5) =

If
and
read "four
b"
If
40.
is
any number, we agree that

(+
1)
# = N;
NX
0.
(1)
6.
Negative numbers
be a new number symbol, called "minus immediately assign the following property:
Let
1
1," to
which we
(-Ijx (-1) = +1.

By
our standard agreement about multiplication by
(1)
1,
(4-1) x
If
(-1) = -1.
we introduce
(
(2)
is
any
positive number,
P
X
P.
as a
new number
is,
symbol, called "minus P," to represent
1)
That
- P = (-
1)
P.
(3)
We
call
Pa negative number.
1.
(
Our number system now
consists of
the positive numbers, zero, and the negative numbers.

ILLUSTRATION
6,
6, we have the negative number Corresponding to In concrete applications, corresponding to 1) X 6.
defined as
each positive number, we
may
think of multiplication by
as having
the property of producing a

7.
number
of opposite type, called negative.
Absolute value
The absolute value of a positive number or zero is defined as the number itself. The absolute value of a negative number is the given number with its sign changed from minus to plus. The absolute value of a number N is frequently represented by the symbol N
|
|.
ILLUSTRATION 1. The absolute value of + 5 is 5. The absolute value of 5 is also 5. We read - 3 as "the absolute value of - 3." We = 0. have - 3 = 3 and

8. Inserting signs before
If
numbers
we
insert a plus or a
minus sign before
(to the left of)

it
a number,
1
this is understood to
be equivalent to multiplying
by
+
1)
or
1,
respectively.
ILLUSTEATION
1.
-f 5
= (+
1)
+
Hereafter,
= (+
1)
a
if
a.
= 5. - a = (-
16
1)
= (-
16.
a.
we
shall act as
each explicit number or
literal
number
expression has a sign attached, at the left. If no sign is visible, it can be assumed to be a plus sign because, for every number N, we
have
N = H- N.
9. Properties of multiplication
We
I.
* are satisfied. agree that the following postulates
Multiplication is commutative, or the product of two numbers is the same in whatever order they are multiplied.
1.
ILLUSTRATION ILLUSTRATION
II.
3
1)
21.
1)
ab
=
1)
ba.
2.
(-
1)
X (+
= (+
X (-
= -
1.
Multiplication is associative, or the product of three or more numbers is the same in whatever order they are grouped in multiplying.
3.
ILLUSTRATION
5X7X6
abc
= 5X(7X6) = 7X(5X6)= = a(bc) = b(ac) = (a6)c.

a times
b, c,
210.
We
read this
"
o, b, c, equals
equals b times
a, c, etc."
is
ILLUSTRATION 4. The .product of three or more numbers in whatever order they are multiplied:
abc
--=
the
same
a(bc)
(bc)a
bca
(ac)b
acb, etc.
10. Computation of products
a product of two numbers, find the product of their absolute values, and then
I.
To compute
give the result
a plus sign
if the
numbers have
like signs;
signs.
defi-
II. give the result

*
a minus sign
if the
numbers have unlike
postulate is a property which nition of the process.
is
specified to
be true as a part of the
The preceding facts about a product are arrived at naturally in any 1. Stateexample by recalling the multiplication properties of
ments
I
and
II are called the laws of signs for multiplication.

1.
(
ILLUSTRATION
5)(
7)
4-
35
because
1)(36).
(-
1)
X (- 1) X 7 - (- 1)(- 1)(5)(7) = (+ (- 4) X (+ 7) - (- 1) X 4 X 7 - - 28.

5
is positive if
In a product, the result

of factors are negative,
(1, 3, 5,
)
an even number (2, 4, 6, ) and the product is negative if an odd number
of factors are negative.

2.
ILLUSTRATION
- 3(1)
2)(-
5)
(4-
6)(-
5)
* -
30.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
(- 1)(- 1)(- 1)(11. Division
- [(-
1)(- !)][(- 1)(- 1)]
- (+
!)(+
1)
1.
To
divide a
by
bx.
6,
where
call
b is not zero,
means to
find the
such that a
quotient.
We
a the dividend, b the divisor,

-5-
number x and x the
We denote the quotient by a

"a
6,
or r> or a/6.
The fraction
a/6
is
read
numerator and the terms of the
divided by 6," or "a over 6." In a/6, we call a the 6 the denominator; also, a and 6 are sometimes called
fraction.
The
6.
fraction a/6, or a
-s-
6, is
frequently
referred to as the ratio of a to
ILLUSTRATION
1.
36
because
36.
absolute value and sign of any quotient are a consequence of the absolute value and sign of a corresponding product.
quotient of two numbers, first find the quotient of their absolute values, and then apply the laws of signs as stated for products.
The
To compute a
ILLUSTRATION
2.
40 = ~ XTo *"
i"
because
9
10
4)
40.
__
40 o
=4-5
because
X (-
8)
40.
Note 1. Division is referred to as the inverse of multiplication. Thus, if 7 is first multiplied by 5 and if the result, 35, is then divided by 5, we obtain 7 unchanged. Or, division by 5 undoes the effect of multiplication by 5.
Equally
well, multiplication is the inverse of division.

EXERCISE 2
Read each product or

1.
quotient
2.
and
3) 9)
give its value.
8.
((-
4.
7.
8 4
X (X 0.
3).
5.
X (X (-
5).
3,
6.
9.
(((-
2)
3)
X
X
(6).
5.
4).
3).
8.
6).
5).
(+
5)
(8).
2)
X (+ 4)
3).
10. 13.
(+ 4)(+
(- 1)(-
11.
(- 7)(-
12. 15.
18.
X (- (+ - (+
14. 17.
- (-
4).
4).
1).
8).
1).
16.
19.
(-
7). 3).
(+
- (-
20.
4)(6).
4).
- (-
21.
(-
9).
22.
(- 7)(-
23. 26. 27. 29.
(- 2)(- 7)(-
3)(4).
2).
24.
26.
5(- 2)(7)(- 3)(-
(- 5)(- 3)(- 4)(-
28.
- 6(- 4)(- 3). - (- 7)(- 4).
3(5) (2) (- 4).
- 4(-
5)(6)(-
3).
16
.
~
31
*
16
-+8
39 -11. 3
-3
12
+39
5).
-42
38.
-36
^-i8'
1).
36
39.
-28
'T7'
(- 1)(- 1)(- 1)(- 1)(-
(- 1)(- 1)(- 1)(-
State the absolute value of each number.

40. 16. 41.
52.
3,
42.
5,
33.
4.
43.
}.
44. -f 14.2.
45.
46. 47.
Find the product of Find the product of
and
5.3,
4,
and and
+ 2.
4.
Find the product of
1.8, 2,
Read each symbol and

48.
53.
54.
specify its value.

50.
|
7
|
|.
49.
+4
if
|.
|.
61.
31
2.
52.
1.7
Compute 4o6c ifa=

Compute 3xyz
x
3,
2, 3,
6=
y
4 and, c
10,
4,
=
5.
=
a
h
and
x
65. 56.
Compute 2abxy
Compute 5hkwz
if
b
3,
3,
5,
and y
=* 5.
if
2,
w =
and
2.
8
12. Addition
adding two or more numbers is called their sum. Usually, to indicate the sum, we take each of the numbers with its attached sign, supplying a plus sign where none is written, and then write these signed numbers in a line. Each number, with its sign, is called a term of the sum. We usually omit any plus sign at the left
The
result of
end
of
a sum.
1.
ILLUSTRATION
is
The sum
of 15
and 17
is
written 15
17;
the
sum
32, as in arithmetic.
We can state that a plies sign between two

However,
this
numbers
indicates that
they are to be added, because we could write a sum by inserting a plus sign before each term and then writing the numbers in a line.
might introduce unnecessary plus

is
signs.
The most
line,
useful statement
that,
when numbers
are written in a
con-
nected by their signs, plus or minus, this indicates that the numbers
are to be added.
12. represented by 17 Later, we will justify saying that this equals 5, the value of the expression in arithmetic. By using a needless plus sign we could have written 17 (- 12) for the sum.
2.
is
ILLUSTRATION
The sum
of 17
and
12
We
sum
specify that the number 1 is zero. 1 and That of
1
is,
has the new property that the
-1 +
Also, for
0.
(1)
any number N, we agree that
N+
= N.
The operation
I.
of addition satisfies the following postulates.
commutative, or the in whatever order they are added.

is
Addition
sum
of two numbers is the same
ILLUSTRATION
3.
+3
=
1
+5=
8.
a
1.
+ 6 = 6 + o.
ILLUSTRATION
II.
4.
0=
+1=+1
sum
of three or more numbers is the same in whatever order they are grouped in adding.
Addition
is associative, or the
ILLUSTRATION
5.
+5+7=3+
(5
+ 7) - 5 +
(3
+ 7) =
15.

ILLUSTRATION
6.
c -+ (a
+ &)
+a
-{-
b, etc.
Thus, the sum of three or more numbers they are added.
is
the same in whatever order
Addition and multiplication satisfy the following postulate.

* III. Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, or
a(6
+ c) =
(8
ab
+ ac.
5)
ILLUSTRATION
%
7.
(5
+ 7) =
(8
7)
40 -f 56
96.
1 3.
Introduction of the negative of a
number
The N by
of
is defined as the result of multiplying negative of a number is N. The negative of a 1, so that the negative of
positive
number is the corresponding negative number. The negative a negative number is the corresponding positive number.
1.
ILLUSTRATION 5 because
The
negative of
5)
+ 5 is
X
(5)
5.
The negative
of
is
(-
= (-
1)
+ 5.
Thus, we notice that, if~one number is the negative of another, then the second number is the negative of the first.
We
observe that
2. 1) 1)
the
sum
of
any number and
its
negative is 0.
ILLUSTRATION
By
Postulate III of Section 12,

1) 1)
-5+5= -a+a=
[(-
[(-
X 5] + [(+ X o] + [(+
X 5] = X a] =
X (- 1 + a X (- 1 +
5
1) 1)
= =
X X
= =
0. 0.
14. Subtraction
To
subtract b
from a
a.
will
added to 6 will yield

tion in arithmetic.
mean" to find the number x which when This also is the definition used for subtrac-
Hence, the result of subtracting a positive number from one which is no larger f will be the same in algebra as in
arithmetic.
c." read a(b c) as "a times the quantity b of subtraction which occurs in arithmetic because is the case only t This 25) has no meaning negative numbers are not used in that field. Thus, (15
-
We
until negative
numbers are introduced.
?0
%

1.
ILLUSTRATION 12 + 5 - 17.
If
The
result of subtracting 5
from 17
is
12 because
is
the result of subtracting b from
a,
then by definition
(1)
+ x.
On recalling arithmetic, we would immediately like to write x = a b, b. To prove that x = a b, we add which means the sum of a and
b to a, as given in equation 1
T,
_&=-6 + a = -&+(& + z)
In
(2),
= (-6 +
6)
+ z = z.
is
(2)
we proved
b to
a.
that the result of subtracting b from a
obtained
by adding
Thus,
to subtract
a number, add
its
negative.
(3)
two numbers a and b as the result of subtracting the second number from the first. If x is this difference,
define the difference of
We
we proved
in (2) that
b.
(4)
Thus, we can say that the minus sign in (4) indicates subtraction, However, it is equally important to realize just as in arithmetic. b. that (a b) means the sum of its two terms a and
ILLUSTRATION
(17
5)
2.
The
difference of 17
and 5
5.
is 12.
is
(17
5).
The
5)
difference
represents the sum of 17 and the result of subtracting 5 from 17, which
Also, (17
represents
Note
1.
In a difference a
6,
the
number
b which
is
subtracted
is
is
called
called
the subtrahend, and the number a, from which b is subtracted, the minuend. These names will not be mentioned very often.
1 5.
Computation of a sum
of
a sum of two signed numbers or, as a special case, the subtraction of one number from another, always will lead to the use of one of the following rules.
The computation
I.
To add two numbers with
like signs,
add
their absolute values
and
attach their
II.
common
sign.
To add two numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller absolute value from the larger and prefix the sign of the number having
the larger absolute value.

ILLUSTRATION
1.
11
15
22,
17.
just as in arithmetic.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Add
5 and
To
verify this,
The sum is - 5 - 17 = - (5 + we use Postulate III of Section 12:

1)
17)
= -
22 by Rule
I.
17
= [(2.
5]
+ [(of 6
is
1)
17]
= (is
1)
(54-17)
- -
22.
ILLUSTRATION
The sum
from 6
and
zero or, as in arithmetic, the
result of subtracting 6
zero:
6
8,
0.
ILLUSTRATION 3. The sum of 20 and of subtracting 8 from 20, is 20 - 8 = 12. ILLUSTRATION

4.
which
is
the same as the result
The sum
of
20 and 8
(20
is,
by Rule
12.
II,
To
verify this,
20
+8= 20
12
8)
- 8.
we
recall that
Hence,
-20 + 8= -12-8 + 8= -12 + 0= -12.

Essentially,
+ 8 cancels
2.
8 of
20 and leaves
6.
12.
EXAMPLE
Subtract
15 from
of
FIRST SOLUTION.
Change the sign

result'^
15 and add:
15
9.
SECOND SOLUTION. Write the

result
difference of
6 and
15:
9.
= -
CHECK. Add
15 and 9:
- (- 15) = - 6 + 15 = - 15 + 9 = - 6.
16. Algebraic sums
An
is
expression like
c
5a
+ 76
an
algebraic
(1)
referred to as a sum, or sometimes as
that minus signs appear. Expression 1 is 5a and 76. In connection with any term whose sign is c, 3, minus, we could describe the effect of the term in the language of
subtraction instead of addition, but frequently this is not desirable. To compute a sum of explicit numbers, first eliminate parentheses
sum the sum
to emphasize of the terms
by performing any
time^,
it is
operations indicated by the signs. Then, somedesirable to add all positive and all negative numbers
separately before combining them.
12

ILLUSTKATION
1.
Since
12)
12)
12 and
16
- (-
7)
+ (-
+ 14 = -
16
+7-
12
+ 14
14
+ 7, = - 28 + 21 = 7)
is
7.
Or,
we could compute mentally from
left
to right:
-16 + 7w-9; -12 is -21; +

Note
of
1.
7.
It is undesirable to use unnecessary plus signs.
Thus, in place
(-
3)
+
1.
(+
8)
we
write
(5z
-3 + 8.
3o6)
if
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
Compute
5x
3,
= = -
4,
and 6
7.
3ab
= [5(-
3)]
[3(-
4) (7)]
15
+ 84 =
69.
Comment. Notice the convenience of brackets to show that the multiplications above should be done before computing the sum.
1 7.
Summary concerning
the
number zero
have mentioned that the operation a -*- 6 is not defined when That is, division by zero is not allowed. However, no exb = 0. ception has arisen in multiplying by zero, adding or subtracting 0, is any number, or in dividing zero by some other number. Thus, if
We
AT
+ = AT;
=
N-Q = N;
because
#X
X
N.
r
0.
If
is
not zero, then TT

1.
ILLUSTRATION
Note
1.
+ = 0.
3X0
=
is
0.
0.
Contradictions arise
when an attempt
by
zero.
Thus,
if
we were
to define 5/0 to be the
made to define division number x which, when
multiplied
by
zero, will yield 5,
then we would obtain 5
Q-x, or
5=
0,
which
is
contradictory.
EXERCISE 3
Compute each sum mentally.

1.
20
7.
2. 6.
28
6
28
15.
9.
3.
6.
12
13
17.
5.
4.
7.
36-4.
13
16.
8.
25. 42.
9.
19.
10. 13.
-35 + 6. - 6 + 6.
11. 7 14. 17.
12.
15.
25.
16. 16.8
15.2.
-18 + 3. - 13.7 - 4.5.
18.
-13 + 0. - 5 + 3.4.

What
19. 7.
is the negative of the
13
number?
4.
20.
21.
(a)
13.
22. 0.
(b) sub-
Without writing the numbers in a line, tract the lower one from the upper one.
23.
add
the
two numbers;
45
16
24.
36
26.
19
13
26.
12 18
27.
53
17
4- 17
Find
33.
the value of the expression in simple

5).
form.
(-
34.
- (-
8).
35.
- (+
8).
7).
36.
(-
6).
Compute each sum.

37.
40.
- (- (-
3)
+ 7.
(9).
3.
38. 4- (4- 4)
- (6).
39. 42.
4) 4-
41. 16
- (44.
+
6.
(-
4).
15
(4- 12).
43. 12
46. 47.
5 4-
16
25
+58
7 4-
10 4- 17
8 4-
14.
8.
46. 43
48. 3
6 4- 8 4- 12.
16 4- 14 4- 36 449.
16 4- 17
9.
3 4-
(-
60. 5
7 4-
- (- 16) - (- 4). (- 3) - (4- 16) - 3.7.

5)
Find
51. 16 64.
(a) the
sum and
(b) the difference
of the two numbers.
and
12.
62. 15
and
3.
63.
33 arid
7.
14 and
5.
66. 6
and
38.
66. 15
and
67.
Compute
the expression
when
the literal
numbers have
7. 5.
the given values.
67. 16 4- Bab]
68.
when a = when a =
4 and b
2, c
5,
2a
3cd;
=
b
4,
3,
and d
7,
69. 26
60.
7 4- 4oc;
2yz
3;
when a =
when x =
=
y
and
2,
=
z
6.
3.
7.
and
61.
2a 4- 56
16.3;
when a = 5 and
= -
of the numbers; (b) their difference; (d) the quotient of the first divided by the second.
62.
Find
(a) the
sum
(c)
their product;
60 and
15.
63.
and
14.
64.
13.
12 and 4.
23.
66. 6
and
3.
66.
52 and
67.
and
14
1 8.

Real number scale
the horizontal line in Figure 1, we select a point 0, called the origin, and we decide to let this point represent the number 0. We select a unit of length for measuring distances on the line. Then,
if
On
is
a positive number, we
let it
be represented by the point on
ixj -543-2-1
i
56
i
ix
Fig. 1
the line which
is
at
points at whole units of distance The other from represent the positive and negative integers. points on the line represent the numbers which are not integers. Thus, all real numbers are identified with points on the real number
to the
left.
negative number of distance from
P units of distance from to the right. The P is represented by the point which is at P units
The
M when the direction from OM considered to M right and negative when the direction from
is
is any real number, it can be thought of as Figure 1. If to on the scale, where a measure of the directed distance from
scale hi
positive
to
is
is
to the
to the
left.
19. The less than and greater than relationships

All real
numbers can be represented in

1.
order from
left to
scale in Figure
We
then say that one number
right
is less
is greater than M, in case second number N, or that is to the on the number scale. We use the inequality signs < and > left of to represent less than and greater than, respectively. This definition includes as a special case the similar notion used in arithmetic for
on the than a
positive numbers.
The
present definition applies to

If
all real
positive, negative, or zero.
7* 6,f
then either a
<
numbers, b or a > b.
In each of the following inequalities, we verify the result by placing the numbers on the scale in Figure 1. Thus, 7 < 3 3 in Figure 1. We read this inequality 7 is situated to the left of because " 3." as 7 is less than
ILLUSTRATION
1.
4<6;
To
0<8;
<
0;
<
5.
is equivalent to saying that P is positive, besay that P > in Figure 1 are positive. To say cause the numbers to the right of is a negative number. that < is equivalent to saying that * Until otherwise indicated, the word number will refer to any real number.
We read
7* as
"not equal."

20. Numerical inequality
15
We say that one number 6 is numerically less than a second number

c in case the absolute value of
bis
less
than the absolute value of
c.
To
distinguish this relation from ordinary inequality, we sometimes place the word algebraically before greater than or less than when they are
used in the ordinary sense.

,
ILLUSTRATION
is
1.
also true that 5
is
numerically less than 9 because 5 algebraically less than 9, because 5 < 9.

is
|
<
1.
It
ILLUSTRATION 2. We see that 3 - 3 = 3 and - 7 = 7, and 3 < 3 is algebraically greater than Thus,
|
| |
|
is
7.
numerically less than On the other hand,
7 because 7 < - 3.
7.
7 but numerically
less
than
if
In Illustration
2,
we observe a
special case of the fact that,
one
negative number b is algebraically less than a second negative ber c, then b is numerically greater than c.
num-
EXERCISE 4
Construct a real number scale 10 inches long, and mark the locations of the 10 to 10, inclusive. Then, read each positive and negative integers from
inequality
1.
and
verify it by
marking
2.
the two
numbers on your
scale.
<
3
9. 8.
9.
<
7.
3.
2.
<0.
4.
7.
< > the

,
5.
8.
< > 5
6.
3.
9.
< > -
4.
10.
Mark
numbers in each probkm on your

11. 14.
scale
and
decide which sign,
<
13.
or
>
should be placed between the numbers.

9.
10. 7
and
2 and
5.
12. 15.
18.
and
8.
6 and 0.
3 and
5.
3.
2 and
3.
7.
16.
19.
9 and 6 and
10.
17. 7
3.
and
8 and
8 and
20.
7 and
9.
21.
10.
Read
22. 24.
the inequalities
and
7
verify that they are correct.
|-7| <|8|and |
<
8.
23.
26.
4|
<
|
9| and 4
-3 >
1
but
- 3 < 0.
|
-8 >
3 but
< 9. - 8 < 3.
26. 27.
-5| <|"-7|but
-5>
6
-7.
< ]
but
> - 9.
76
Stale which

number
(o) is algebraically greater
than the other;
(6) is
nu-
merically greater than the other.

28.
8; 6.
29.
5;
3.
30. 7; 4. 33.
31. 0; 34.
3;
3.
32. 5; 0.
7.
36. 2;
6.
36.
2; 7. 8;
3.
21 . Signs of grouping
Parentheses, ( ), brackets, [ ], braces, { }, and the vinculum, are symbols of grouping used to indicate terms whose sum is to be treated as a single number expression. Any general remark about
,
parentheses which follows will be understood to apply as well to other symbol of grouping.
any
Parentheses are useful for enclosing and separating algebraic expressions written side by side as an indication that they are to be
multiplied.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
3(
5)
means
3 times
5,
or -f 15.
In reading algebraic expressions, the student may use the words as he comes to the left marker for any symbol of "the quantity grouping enclosing more than one term.
1'
ILLUSTRATION 2. 6a." the quantity 2
(3
If
5o)(2
+ 6a)
20) (2
is
read "the quantity 3
5a times
=
(3
4,
(3
5o)(2 -f 60)
24)
= (-
17) (26)
= -
442.
Parentheses can be employed to avoid ambiguity hi regard to the order of application of the fundamental operations.
ILLUSTRATION
it
is
3.
-s-
Doubt
3,
arises as to the
meaning
of (9
-f-
3).
Does
mean
(9
(9
2)
which equals 1, or does it mean 9 (6 -5- 3), which or 7? The two possible meanings were written without ambiguity.
6)
4.
ILLUSTRATION
If
2,
3,
and
5,
then
5-3o& +
2oc
= 5- [3(2)(- 3)] + [2(2) (5)] = 5 - (- 18) + 20 = 5 + 18 +
20
43.
factor multiplying a sum within parentheses should be used to multiply each term of the sum.
ILLUSTRATION
5.
3(2a)
= (-
3) (2) (a)
= -
6a.

ILLUSTRATION
6.
17
2fe)
4(a
26
+ 7) - - 4a - 4(- - 4a + 86 = =
4(7)
(1) (2)
28.
The student should

ILLUSTRATION
7.
write (2) without writing the right-hand side of (1).
+ 3z
y)
('
1)(- 5
+ 3x
any
1
y)
Zx
+ y.
algebraic
1,
of a plus sign or a minus sign before expression indicates that it is to be multiplied by

spectively.
The presence
or
re-
Multiplication
multiplication
by
would leave a sum unchanged, and would change the signs of all its terms. These
by
remarks justify the following

I.
rules.
To remove
or to insert parentheses preceded by a plus sign, rewrite
the included terms

II.
unchanged.
To remove
or to insert parentheses preceded by a
minus
sign, re-
write the included terms with their signs changed.
ILLUSTRATION
8.
+
7y)
(3r
7 -f
%) =
&c
7 -f
(- 2
5x
9.
= (-
1)(- 2
+ 5x -
7y)
5x
+ 7y.
enclose
all
ILLUSTRATION
terms after the
In the
sum on
8
the left-hand side below,
we
first in
parentheses preceded by a minus sign.

2c
5a
+ 3d -
5o
(2c
M+
8).
if
The
signs of the terms enclosed were changed in order that,
the parentheses
were removed, the original terms would be obtained.
In performing an operation which removes parentheses, if only explicit numbers are involved, it is best to compute each sum within
parentheses before they are removed.
ILLUSTRATION
10.
3(2
+ 7)
= -
3(4)
= -
12.
EXERCISE 5
f
Compute
1.
the expression.
5).
(- 2)((0)(3).
2.
5.
7(-
3).
3.
6.
(-
6)(4).
4. 7.
2(-
10.
(-
+ 9). 8 + 6)(5
8.
- (- 5). - 3(5 - 14).

11. (7
+
2).
(-
4).
9.
- 4(-
6).
5 -f 12).
3) (16
J8
12.
13. 14.
Compute
(36
4oc
7) if 6
if
2,
3,
and
5.
+ 3oc - 6c) a - 3, b - 4, and c = - 2. - 5a)(- 2 + 60) when a = 4. Compute (3

Compute (- 6
(c
Compute
16. c
2d)(4d
3c) 16. c
w#A
<Ae pfoen vaJwes for c
and
d.
4;
3.
= -
2;
5.
17. c
= -
2;
= -
3.
Rewrite, by performing
theses.
any indicated multiplication and removing parenare present.

19.
Evaluate, if no
letters
18.
(17
3).
21. 24.
+ c). - (- 3 - 5z + 4y).
(2a
56
22.
+ 16). + (- 3 + 7a - b).
(2
20. 23. 26.
+ (3 - 6 + 15). + (31 - 5a + y).

(2x
26.
2(4c).
(80
36
c).
5y
9).
27. 3(5a). 31. 4(2o

34.
28.
3).
29.
3(-
5o).
30.
5(a
3x).
6c).
32.
2(x
2(- 5
+ 7a - 46c).
36. 3(6
+ 8). - 4a + 56).
y
33. 36.
5(3
- 4(-
+ 66).
a
Rewrite, enclosing the three terms at the right in parentheses preceded by
minus
37. 40. 42.
sign.
+ 7a _ 46. 2a - 3 + 56 - 13 + 5 - c -f 06.
_
5
c.
38.
60 -f 46
41. 16
43. 2ac
c.
39.
3x
4y.
4a
3
6 -f 3c.
-f-
5a
-4-
+ 4c.
3).
44.
Compute
(5
17)
-5-
3;
(17
22. Similar terms
terms such as 5a6c-and 7o6c, where the literal parts are the same, are called similar terms or like terms. In a term such as 5a6c, the explicit number which is a factor is called the numerical coefficient
of the term, or, for short, the coefficient.
Two
ILLUSTRATION
7;
1.
The numerical
coefficient of 5o6c is 5;
of
7o6c
is
of abc is
1.
We
never write the coefficient

for abc.
when
it is 1.
Thus, we
would never write Io6c
A sum of similar terms can be collected

by use
(added) into a single term,
of the distributive property of multiplication.

coefficients
To collect a sum of similar terms, add their numerical and multiply the result by the common literal part.

ILLUSTRATION
If
2.
19
12o6.
is
5ab
+ lab
ab(5
-f-
7)
as a concrete object, the result here the objects plus 7 of them equals 12 of them.
of
we think
"06"
obvious: 5 of
ILLUSTRATION
3.
9o6
+ 4o6 =
ab(
+ 4) =
o6(
5)
606.
In finding a
of algebraic expressions, we collect similar terms. direction to collect terms means to collect similar terms.
1.
sum
EXAMPLE
Find the sum and the difference of

3a
5y
8
is
and
3y
2a
5y
6.
FIRST SOLUTION.
1.
The sum
(3a
8)
+
2y
(3y
2o
6)
=
The
(3a
3a
2a
5y
+ 3y -
14.
The student should

2.
learn to omit the intermediate details hi such a solution.

is
difference
5y
8)
(3y
2a
5y
6)
=
8
3a
-f-
=
like
3a
+ 2a To
3y
5y 6 = 60
Sy
3y -f 2o -f 6
2.
SECOND SOLUTION.
find the
sum, arrange the given expressions with
terms in separate columns, and add. To find the difference, change 2a the signs in (3y 6), or take its negative, and add similarly.
A
1 1
^Lrta:
3a wv < - 2a \ =a
i
_
.
5y
vi/
..
+ 3y2y
8 6
<-*
ôa: AflW<
Difference
r *Ô jiii <
"""
*^2/
*""
i
14.
\ ^<z
ot/
o + o
2.
5a
Sy
2o In finding the difference, we could have changed the signs of ( 6) 3y mentally without rewriting at the right. Thus, from the columns for the 2a from 3a gives 5a; etc. sum: subtracting
EXAMPLE
2.
Perform indicated multiplications, remove parentheses, and
collect terms:
3(4a
3xy
56
2)
- 2(6
+ 3o
60
-f-
56
fay).
(1)
SOLUTION.
The sum
12o
equals 156
9xy
10
256
4.
106
6a -f 3xy
12*y
(2)
can obtain a relatively certain check on the work by substituting values for the letters in (1) and (2). The results should be equal. In checking by this method, avoid substituting 1 for any letter.
Comment.
We
CHECK. Substitute a
In In
(1):
(2):
2,
4,
3,
and y
4:
3(8
36
12 -f 36
- 20 - 2) - 2(- 5 + 6 + 20 - 100 + 4 = 52 - 100 - - 48,
72)
= -
48.
This checks.
20
23. Nests of grouping signs
a symbol of grouping encloses one or more other symbols of grouping, remove them by removing the innermost symbol first, and so on until the last one is removed. Usually, we enclose parentheses within brackets, and brackets within braces.
If
.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
[3t/
(2x
5 4- 2)]
z]
= ILLUSTRATION
2.
[3^
2x -f 5
[16
5)
(2
= 7)
3y
+ 2x - 5 +
z.
= -
[16
- (-
(2)]
- (- 3 + 5)] = - [16 + 5 - 2] = -
19.
EXERCISE 6
Collect similar terms.
1.
3o
+ 80.
19o6 -f 5o6.
2. 6.
4.
7.
+ 76. - 2cd + 8cd.

56
8.
3.
6.
13z
5x.
5xy
5xy.
3x
9.
11.
+ 2z - 5a. - 2o - 3c + 5a - 8c. lie - 5cd + 8c - 13crf.

a
6z
3a
10.
12.
Qh
+ 46 -f 7a - 96. - 4y + 12z + 3y. - 5kw - llh + 7kw.
lower one from the upper one. After each operation, check by substituting convenient values for the letters in
(a)
Add
the two expressions;
(6) subtract the
the given expressions
and
the final result.
13.
4a 2a
+
-
76
14.
96
+7
c
16.
3a 9a
56
+5
7
46
46c
16.
3x
5a6
6a6
17.
3c
2a 5a
2d 66c -f d
3m - 6m +
J/ie
5k
4fc
h 5h
18.
7r -f 3*
8r
5s -f 9
First arrange
Find
19.
sum
of the three expressions separated by semicolons.
the expressions with like terms in separate columns.
3x
2y
5;
6c;
fix
20. 21.
+o56
26c
+ 7y - 8; - 12z - 8y -h - 3a + 5; 4a - 56c - 9.
3ac -h 56; 76
13.
2oc
5xz/
86; 4cy
6xy
4ac.
22.
7ad
4a; 6a
3ad
56;
3o -h
5arf
96.

Remove parentheses and
23. 2(a
collect
21
similar terms.
36)
5(6
24. 5(x
3y
+ 5)
k)
26. 6(2a
+ 3(- a - 36). - 2(* + 2? - 4) - 3(- 4z - y + 6). - 3 (a - 4A + + 2(4A - 3a - &).

2a)
5Jfc)
By
w$e of parentheses, write an expression for the quantity described;

collect terms.
then
remove parentheses and

26. Subtract
3a
26 and 2a
+ 56 from 56)
a
(3a
56.
HINT.
The
result equals
(- a
26)
(2a
+ 56).
27. Subtract
2a
3y
5 from 5a
+ 7y - 8.
sum
of 2o
28. Subtract 29. Multiply
3a 3o
7h and 5A
5y
6a from the
2,
3h and 5a -f
3 by
and
5o -f 7y
5 by
3,
and then
add the
results.
all signs
Remove
30.
32.
34.
of grouping
and
collect terms.
[4o
(a
(2a
+ 3) J
[2o
31.
(a
2)
3)].
33. 36. 37.
(6
2)].
36.
38. 40. 42.
- [> - (y + 3)]. 3o - [3a - 4(5 - a)].

{a
+ (3 - 40 J a + [6 + (a - 6)]. 2r + [> + 4r)J - 5 + [3 - 2(y - 2) J

[2*
(
2i/
39. 3
41.
[2x
2[>
(36
(2x
5)]).
[a
3y)
(2a
7)]}.
{26
[6
8).
4)]}.
3(2z
A;
+ 2[2 3[A
(5x
y)] 3)]
(*
+ 7y -
43. 2(3/i
5)
2(*
4(A
2k -h
2).
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO FRACTIONS AND EXPONENTS
24. Fractions
in
lowest terms
basic properties of fractions as met in arithmetic are primarily consequences of the definition of division. These properties extend
The
immediately to fractions as met in algebra, where the only essential
new
We
the introdmction of negative numbers hi the fractions. shall recall and use the properties of fractions without rehearsing
feature
is
the sequence of definitions and proofs which, logically, would be necessary hi building a foundation for the use of fractions hi algebra.
FUNDAMENTAL
both numerator
PRINCIPLE.
zero.
The value of a fraction
is not altered if
and denominator are
multiplied, or divided, by the
same number, not

ILLUSTRATION
1.
ILLUSTRATION
below,
2.
On
multiplying numerator and denominator by
we obtain
-4
We
To
tor
(- 1)((- 1)(-
3)
4)
say that a fraction is in lowest terms if its numerator and denominator have no common factor except + 1 and 1.
reduce a fraction to lowest terms, divide numerator and denomina-
by
all their
common factors.
=
7acy
ILLUSTRATION
3.
=7y
(Divide out ac)

ILLUSTRATION
4.
23
210 135
0X3X7X2 7X2 3X3X3X3 3X3
14
In the preceding line we divided out the factor 5 and one 3 from numerator and denominator. 25. Change
If the
in sign for a fraction
numerator or denominator of a fraction is multiplied by 1, the sign before the fraction must be changed. These actions are 1, whose equivalent to multiplying the fraction by two factors
product
is H- 1.
This keeps the value of the fraction unaltered.
T ILLUSTRATION 1.
0-3 =
(-
l)(o
3)
3-Q =
26. Multiplication and division of fractions
To multiply one fraction by another, multiply the numerators for a new numerator and multiply the denominators for a new denominator.
3
ILLUSTRATION
1.
^ X
6 =
7
18
oo
^=-
c ac ** i* j cr
o a
oa
divide one fraction by another, invert the divisor dividend by this inverted divisor.
2. ILLUSTRATION o
To
and multiply
the
4 7 F^JT^K'Q O o i 4
.)
28
7c' ID
a
b
c
_._
'
_b
c
a d
ad
be
be
d
It is frequently useful to recall that
any number can be expressed
as a fraction whose denominator
is 1.
By
use of this fact
we
verify
the following results.
To multiply a
number.
fraction by a number, multiply the numerator by the
To
divide
a fraction by a number, multiply
the
denominator by
7
the
number.
ILLUSTRATION^
_/5\ 7(g )
75 rg
=*
35
7.4 = 571 = "

""
7
20*
4
1
5*4
24
T

ILLUSTRATION
4.
A
=
7
= 5 T
1
6 ^
/
7 o
7 1
35 -o
ILLUSTRATION
5.
c (r)
/a\
\o/
a T I
c
16
b
'
= ac T" o
'
f? _i.
~ ?^_
I
? I
6
c
be
EXERCISE 7
Express the result as a fraction in lowest terms without a minus sign in numerator or denominator.
32
33. 21
34.
36.
.5(|).
37.
(?).
g).
eg).
36. 5(4).
(6).
38.
1+
-*-
2.
39.
6.
40.
y+
15.
41.
y-
6.
42.
2a.
43.
|| 3o 56
2c
...
y * d.
x 2c 3d
'
.,325
l_
..
8
-
12a
60.
-
48.
49.
5c
15
25
-Ml
We
-H)H)H)H)and a8
for
a.
-(-SX-SX-8a -a' a.
27. Positive integral exponents
write a2 to abbreviate a -a,
We
=
call
a2 the
3 square of a and a the cube of
ILLUSTRATION
If
1.
52
5-5
25.
53
5* 5' 5
125.
m is any positive integer,* we define am by the equation

9
a m = a-a-a-
-a.
(m
factors a)
(1)
am the mth power of the base a and call m the exponent of this power. The exponent tells how many times the base is used as a factor.
We
call
ILLUSTRATION
2.
34
3-3-3-3
4)
81.
(-
4)
= (- 4)(-
4)'=
16.
(_
4)3
= (-
4)(- 4)(-
= -
64. (?)'
f.f
|.
by the laws of signs, an even power number is positive and an odd power is negative. By definition, b 1 = b. Hence, when the exponent is omit it. Thus, 5 means 5 and y means y l
notice that,
1
.
We
of a negative
1
we
usually
28. Index lows
The following laws for the use of exponents are called index laws. At present we will illustrate them, and verify their truth in special cases. The proofs of the laws will be given later.
Until otherwise specified, any represent a positive integer.
*
literal
number used
in
an exponent
will
26
I.

In multiplying two powers of the same am <in = c m+n
.
base,
add
the exponents
ILLUSTRATION
1.
a3o2
a3+2
a6
because
a3o2
= (aa-o)(a-o) = o0'O-a-a = szV = x^x4 = z 1+2+4 = 7

a:
.
a5
II.
7n obtaining a power of a power, multiply m n = fl "

17
the exponents:
(<z
ILLUSTBATION
2
2.
(a
3 2
)
a (3X2)
a6
because
(a*)
a3 -a3
(a-a-a)(a-a-a)
a-a-a-a-a-a
a6
III.
To
obtain a power of a product, raise each factor of the produc
to the specified
power and multiply:

(abc)
n
an 6 n c n
ILLUSTRATION
3.
3
(o6)
o3^3
because
(a-0'o)(6-6-6)
(oft)
ab'ab'ab
IV. To obtain a power of a fraction, raise the numerator and denom

inator to the specified power
and
n
divide:
W
fa\
T
_ "
a? &"'
/^\ (-1 \yi
4
ILLUSTRATION
4.
fa\*
(-) \yl
=-7
y*
X4
u because
X X X X = -------
X4
~i* 4
y y y y
ILLUSTRATION
5.
/2\
(^)
= 24 ^=
16
o7*
/T
(Law IV
(-!)'-[<-(!)]'= -"(1)'If
-I=
-fiwe ma;
that an odd power of a negative number is negative, abbreviate the preceding line by omitting the first two steps.
we
recall
ILLUSTRATION
6.
(2o 6)
2 3 (a2) 3 63
8a663
ILLUSTRATION
7.
(A')
A"
A 12
<IAWS
,,

EXERCISE 8
27
Compute by
1.
the definition of
2.
an exponent.
3.
24
53
102
4.
3
10s
5.
4
104
6.
10 5
7.
3
.
(-
I)
8.
((()
4
I)
3
9.
(62
.
I)
10. 15.
((-
5)*.
11.
(-
3)
12. 17.
((-
2)
6
.
13.
3
.
5)
.
14.
3)*.
16. 10*.
10)
4
.
18.
19. (f) 3 .
.
20. ($).
.
21.
(-
|)
22.
27.
to)
23.
24
24.
33
25. 30.
(
6s
26. 2(3 4 ).
2 3(- 5 ).
28. 6(10*).
29. 5(43 ).
will
- 2(-
5).
31.
For what values of the positive integer n

will it
l)
be positive
and when
32. 33. 34.
be negative?
if
2 Compute 3a 6
= -
2 and b
4. 2.
Compute
Compute
If
5xy*
if
=
if
3 and y
4W
= is
3 and k
2.
35. If
tive?
x x
is
is
positive or negative,
what
is
the nature of x2 positive or nega,
negative,
what
the nature of x and of x ?
Perform
the indicated operation by use of the laws of exponents.
68. 72.
(xV)
4
-
69. (3C2) 3
.
70. (2o264 ) 4 .
.
71. (3xu;) 4 .
(- 2A2) 3
(O/7\4
73.
(- 3x2 ) 4
/^2rr\'
74.
(/
5xt/
2 3 ) .
75.
(/
\*
S)-
80.
Find the value
-(^)of x3 - 3x
77
78
-h 4x
-(-^)=
3;
ro
7 when (a) x
(6)
-(x * -
2.
28
29. Integral rational terms
At present, in any sum, the typical term will be either an explicit number or the product of an explicit number and powers of literal numbers, where the exponents are positive integers. The explicit number is called the numerical coefficient, or for short the coefficient
term of this variety, or a sum of such terms, is said * in the literal numbers. to* be integral and rational An algebraic sum is called a monomial f if there is just one term, a binomial if there are just two terms, and a trinomial if there are just three terms. Any sum with more than one term also is called a
of the term.
polynomial.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
3z
7ab
is
a binomial.
x,
ILLUSTRATION 2. In the trinomial 8 x and 3a& 2 whose numerical coefficients are

,
3a62 the terms are

,
8,
8, 1,
and
3, respectively.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
5z 2
is
an integral rational polynomial
in x.
To multiply two integral rational terms, multiply their numerical coefficients and simplify the product of the literal parts by use of the
law of exponents for multiplication.
ILLUSTRATION
4.
6a62 (3a2 64 )
2 2 4 (6)(3)(aa 6 6 )
18a366
To multiply a polynomial by a single term, multiply each term polynomial by the single term and form the sum of the results.
ILLUSTRATION
5.
of the
5(3z
2x
5)
15z2
lOz
25.
EXERCISE 9
Perform the indicated multiplications and simplify the law of exponents for multiplication.
2. 32/(22/ 5.
6
results
by use of the
).
3. ab(3a).
7.
4. 8.
5(32
).
6.
2a2 (3a9 ).
cd^cP).
x(-integers.
integral refers to the fact that the force of the word rational will be pointed out later.
t
The word
exponents are
The
is
This name need not be used very often because the simple word term
just as desirable.

9.
29
2 **(- 2z ).
4fl(4).
10.
3c(-
c3).
11.
2z(+
xy*).
12.
15. 18.
13.
2 ax*(- 2o x).
14. 17.
5oy(- 2xy
).
2a6(- 4a 862 ).
16. 19.
- 8m (- 2m). - y). 3(4z

3
4r z h(- 6rA4 ).
Gc2
^-
3cd).
20.
S(5x
2z2 ).
4y).
21.
5(3
4a).
22. 4(2a
56).
23.
25.
28. 31.
2x(- 3z
5z3 ).
26.
29.
- 3(- 5x - a ). o(a
2
24. x(2x 2 27. 2*2 (3
3x).
z4 ).
4a(l
2a6).
3u> 4- 4i^).
3fc(fc
M).
30.
ah\a
5w(2
32.
34.
2 2 4 33. 3a6 (2a 63 )(a6 ).
35.
- 4m n(3
3m)(2mn
).
36. 4?/02 (
37.
2aj3a3x 2
38.
2a^-
3a2 63
is
39.
Multiply the polynomial by the term which

40. 5z3
beneath
it.
2x
41. 6
5a2 62
3x
42.
a2
2a6
-6 - 2ab
2
43. 3
Gab
a363
Sab
44. 15(2z 46. 12(f
48.
(12
+ f). - f* + 2 - 6a + 24o
2
46. 8(|
iy
+ Jif).
fa
)2
47. 16(Ja2
).
J).
49.
J(-
16 -f 8x
60.
30. Multiplication of polynomials
the product of two polynomials, multiply one of each term of the other and collect similar terms. ILLUSTRATION
1.
To form
them by
(2x
3y)(x
3
xy)
2x(x
xy)
3y(x
xy)
=
ILLUSTRATION
2.
2s
(x
x(x
5)
5(*
+ 5) =
+ 5) = (x -f 5) + 5) + 5x -f 5x + 25 = a? -f 10x + 25.
2
(a:
Before multiplying, if many terms are involved, arrange the polynomials in ascending (or descending) powers of one letter.
30

3.
ILLUSTRATION
(Multiply)
_
To
3x
multiply (x
x2
+ 3x* - x - 2) (2s + 3) - x-2 2x + 3

2
6s4
2x
2x2
Ox
(Add)
6x*
llx
+ +
3x
a*
4x 3x
7x
(Multiplying by 2x)
6
6
(Multiplying by 3)
product.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Multiply
x*
+ 2xy
CHECK.
by
+
=
Place x
2 and y
3.
x2
+
2x*y
= =
4 4
12
12
+9
= - 17. = 25.
Hence, the product should equal

-f -f
= -425 when x = 2 and y = 3. = 16 - 144 - 216 - 81 = 25-
(-
17)
425.
Comment. The preceding numerical check does not absolutely verify the In checking, if result, but almost any error would cause the check to fail. 1 were substituted for a letter, we could not detect an error in any of its
exponents because every power of avoid substituting 1 for any letter.
1
is
1.
Hence, in numerical checks,
EXERCISE 10
Multiply and
letters,
collect
similar terms.
Check by substituting values for
the
when
directed by the instructor.

2.
1.
(x
3.
5.
(x
+ 4). - 5)(2x + 7).

3)(x
(x
+ 9)(x +
3) (7
10).
x).
4.
6.
(x
(5a (2h
(a
7)(4a
3).
(3y
2) (2
By).
7. 9.
ZK)(2h
+ 3k).
8.
(3w
4r)(2w
+ 3r).
5).
2
11.
+ 36)(2a - 56). - 5s) (3r + 5). (3r

3)(2a6
-I-
10. (x 12. (a2

14. (3 16.
+ y)(x 2)(2a
5x')(2
2
y).
13. (06
5).
15. (cd
x)(cd +'x).
18. (2x
2
.
(ay
+ 3x - 2z)(2ay + 3).
).
17. (a -f 3)*.
2
t/)
.
19. (h
2
.
4fc)
2
20. (4 -f
24. (5
2
).
21. (3a 26. (y
26)
22. (2x
-f-
+ 4/0
23. (ax
6)
x2y) 2
2)(y
5).
26. (c2
2a2)(c2
+ 3a

27. (as 29. (y 31. (x 33. (2
3?
6 2 )(3a3
2
2)(i/
3)(x
+ 46 + 2y + 4). + 2x - 5).
2
).
28. (x 2
2a
30. (4a2 32. (a 34. (c 36.
+
2
4)(3a
+ 1). - 2a + 1).
l)(2a
2
35. (1
+ x)(3 - 4x - x - 2x)(2x - x + 5).

2
).
37. (5
6) (4
26
62 ).
38.
+ 2)(2c - 5 - 3c - 4)(2A - 1 + A). (h - y)(y + 5 (2

2
).
39. 40. 41.

42.
2x2
+ 5x -
7)(2x
1).
3).
3).
43. (5 -h 3x2 44. (x2 -+ 45. (5z 47. (a
3
a:
+ x).
3x
2y
+ 3)
2
2
.
+346. (x +
2
49.
61.
+ 6)(a - db -f + 3)(* - l)(2a? - 5). - 3)(3a + 5)(a - 2). (2a

fe
).
48. (x
(a;
50. (3x 62. (x
+ 2xy + - y)(2x + y)(2x 2y)(x*

a*)(x
2
y).
+ a*x + a
*).
63. (xn 64. (x 4
4
T/
x?y
+ X y )(x - 2xi/ 2
2
31
Exponents
in division
By
the definition of a power,
a6 a3 a
a'CL'd'd'
a-a
a-a-a
a-a-a a-a-a-a-a
T"
1
= a2 =
-=
(Divide out a-a-a)

(Divide out a a a)
a-a
The preceding
results illustrate the following index law.

specified base by another
In dividing one power of a

subtract the exponents:
power of the
6oae,
(ifm>n);
(ifm<n).
(1)
32

In addition to formulas
1,
we note
an
that
=
=
1-
(2)
ILLUSTRATION
a5
1.
x*
1.
-^ 10 x
~ -^-^ x ia 4
1 -: 6
h? 77 h*
In dividing one integral rational term by another, and 2 to reduce the fraction to lowest terms.
we
use formulas
ILLUSTRATION 2. In the following simplification, we can think of dividing numerator and denominator by 5ox B Or, we can think of dividing numerator and denominator by 5 and, also, of applying formulas 1 to the powers of a and of x, separately: " - 15ax 6 Sa3 1 3 a3 x 6 3a2 ~ 2x 4 2 a x9 2x9 5 lOax 9
.
16a3x2
16
a3 x 2
8a2
ILLUSTRATIONS.
a w6 -= ^) -r 4 2 w> 2/ a
1\
ILLUSTRATION
4.
/
{
=
2a3
where the intermediate details should be performed mentally.
ILLUSTRATION
5.
- 6ay = f
6 ^= 15
a3
-
y*
~ d
32. Division
by
a single term
divide a polynomial by a single term, divide each term of the polynomial by the single term and combine the results.
To
ILLUSTRATION
6x2
1.
9x
3x4
6x2
9x
=
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
x8
2x -f
3.
Perform the division:
2 4 (4o 6
8a26
262 )
(- 2O68).
Write the quotient as a fraction:
4a2 64
8a2 6
2a63
206s

EXERCISE 11
Perform
the division, expressing the result as
33
in lowest terms by use of the fraction without a minus sign in numerator or denominator.
a fraction or sum of fractions law of exponents for division. Express each final
"a2
x8
h9
x2
3x
5a7
^21.5 ^^
26.
/
*'*'
on
To
36m 18mn
~
32.
35. (8x3?/)
-*
9A3t
*
Trs4).
(- 24X3?/).
(24a6
2
36.
(- 49rV)
-s-
(-
37. 39.
.
(-
80)
+
^-
).
2
38. (4ac)
40.
3 2 (72a c ).
(48xV)
(-
8x2/ ).
5/i
(- 36a62 )
-i-
(.
4a6).
41.
6a H- 206
- -7x 2
25A;
4a
42.
166
-5x
._ 45.
3a3
4
2a4
a2
- 15o _ 3a2
60. (8a3 62. (x4
54.
6a2
4a)
+ (~
H2
2).
61. (6x
63. (y*
3x 2
5y
9) 43 )
-5-
((-
3).
y).
3x 3
5x2 )
x2
)
(_ 36
66. (32a2 64
+ 126 - 96 ^ 3. + 48aV) ^- (16a

2
66. (x 4
).
3x2
+ 5x)
67. (21a262
34
_ DO.
02?
Sax 4- 5o ox
7a62c3
RA 7x*
4x*
2x
3x
+2
+ 6c*
276"
M 62
'
c. * 61
a&d3 co 63 '
--
a2 6d
a3
33. Fundamental equation of division
In the following long division, we use the customary terminology

of arithmetic:
15 (Quotient)
(Divisor) 17
259 (Dividend)
89
85 4 (Remainder)
259
In Section
(17
15)
+ 4;
-5-
= 15^.
(2)
when we met the notation a 6, we called its complete value the quotient of a divided by 6. In (1), the complete value of
11,
the quotient
in (2)
15^. Hence, if there were danger of lack of clearness, we would call 15 the partial quotient. Frequently, the word
is
quotient refers to a partial quotient. When appropriate, the qualifying word partial to prevent ambiguity.
we
shall use
After any step in a division process similar to that remainder and partial quotient satisfy the equation
met
in (1), the
dividend
.
-7T-7
divisor
,.
remainder
divisor
37-7
H quotient H
/ON
(3) v '
Or,
dividend
is
(quotient) (divisor)
+ remainder.
(4)
Equation 4
frequently called the fundamental equation of division.

is
The
first
equation in (2)
an
illustration of (4).
34. Division
by
a polynomial
The long division

in arithmetic.
is zero.
We
process for polynomials is similar to long division say that the division is exact if the final remainder

EXAMPLE
1.
35
Divide:
(x
2
-f-
(x
+ 3x is
40)
-5-
(x
5).
SOLUTION, = x2 x(x 5)
2. (8x
-T-
x)
x; this
the
5x;
we subtract
this
is
this
term of the quotient. Then, from the dividend, obtaining 8x 40.

first
x)
8; 40.
the second
term of the quotient.
S(x
5)
Then,
8x
We
subtract this, obtaining zero.
(Divisor) x
x 5 a2
|
+ 8 (Quotient) + 3x - 40 (Dividend)
5x
(Subtract)
x*
(Subtract)
8x Sx
-40 - 40
(Remainder)
verifying that
CHECK.
Since the division
is
exact,
we obtain a check by
(quotient) (divisor)
dividend.
We find
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
obtaining
.
(x -f 8)(x
2.
5)
x*
3
+ 3x 9x
40,
which checks.
Divide:
1.
(4x
8x 2
+ 7)
-r (2x
3).
We
first
arrange the dividend in descending powers of
a?,
4x 3
2.
&c 2
is
9z
+ 7.
term of the quotient;
Since (4x 8
-s-
2x)
2z 2 , this
the
first
as follows.
2x 2
2x*(2x
(Divisor) 2x
3)
4r*
2x2 )
x(2x
+ - 3) 3)
-> (Subtract) - x. 2x] =

(Subtract)
4s3
x
Sx 2
6 (Quotient) 9x -f 7 (Dividend)
etc.,
6x 2 2x2 2x2
9x
[(-
12x) -r 2x]
= -
+
-
3x
12x
6.
6(2x
(Subtract)
+ 12x +
18
11 (Remainder)
Conclusion.
From equation
4x*
3,
Section 33.
8x 2
9x
+7
2x-3
CHECK.
dividend
_ "^ _
11
2x-3
remainder
Substitute x
3 in the dividend, divisor, and quotient:
16;
divisor
3;
quotient
9;
11.
Refer to equation
4, Section 33:
does
11
16
3(9)
27
11
16?
solution
is
Since this equality
is satisfied,
we conclude .that the
correct.
36

SUMMABT.
1.
To
divide one polynomial by another:

either ascending or descending
Arrange each of them in of some common letter.

2.
powers
term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor and write the result as the first term of the quotient.
Divide the
first
3.
Multiply the whole divisor by
the first term of the quotient
and
subtract the product

4.
from
the dividend.
Consider the remainder obtained in Step 3 as a new dividend and repeat Steps 2 and 3; etc.
Note
1.
The numerical check
in
solute verification of the solution.
Example 2 does not constitute an abTo verify the result, we should (without
substituting a special value for x) multiply the divisor by the quotient, add the remainder, and notice if we thus obtain the dividend.
EXERCISE 12
Divide and summarize as in the solution of Example 2, Section 34. // the division is exact, check by multiplying the divisor by the quotient. If the division
is
not exact, check by substituting convenient values for the literal numbers.
(x* 42
1.
7z 4- 12)
(x
(c
+ 3).
7).
2.
3. 6. 7.
(c
2
lOc 4- 21) -h
4. 6.
(s
2
4- 6s 4-
(y
- 27) ^ (s 4- 9). - 40) 4- (y + 10). Qy

15) -h (2c
2
8.
9. (4c2
+ 3).
2
10.
1).
11. (x4
13.
+ 3x - 4) ^ (2z -f 7z + 8)
2
(x
12.
+ 36) + (y + 12). - 12d + 35) (d - 5). (d - 13x + 15) + (x - 5). (2z -x (6 + x). (54 + 3z - ab - 6 ^ (3a + 6). (6a - 10) -h -f 5). (h* + 3h*
2
(</
4- 15y
-J-
-f-
2 (ft
-i-
(z -f 2).
-*-
14. (3a2 16.

2
15. (2a2 17. (4z 6
ab
3
662 )
(2o (4z
3
+ 6).
3).
2).
19.
+ Sz - 6) - 3) (5x + 3x
2
-i-
18. 20.
-f-
(x
+ (a - 5). - 2t/ ^ (3z + 2y (6z + zy - a - 15) (2a + 5). (2a - 1). (2a (a + 6a + 3)
7)
2 )
-!-
-f-
21. (x 3 22. (60
+ 3x 9*
2x
6)
-*
(x 4- 3).
-*
2a2 4- 3a 3
26)
(a
2). 3).
2
23. (4x3
8x2 4- 7)
19y
2
(2x
-5-
24. (36y
15^)
(3y 4- 5y
4).

26. (Sy* 26.
37
(2^
- 1% - 6 + - 5y - 12 +
2 2
lly) *
llr/)
(W (2y
-J-
3y
3).
+ 2).
(z
27. (x4
4z3 3
+ 3z - 4x +
2
15)
3).
28. (&c2
5z3 )
-^ (7*
2
2
+
)
5z2 ).
*
29. (2z3 30. (a3 31.

3
(a:
+ Wy +
3a2 6
12^
+
2
17zt/
)
+ 27)
3
2/ )
+ Soft (* + 3).
63
y).
4- (a2
+ - 2a6 + 6
(2x
32. (a3
3t/).
2
).
ft
3 )
-s-
(o
*
+ 6).
(2x
33. (x 3
--(-
34. (IGx4
y).
8^-27
43x2
- 9x -7
5
>
3*'
40. (6a3A
ISo2*
4aA
15)
-5-
+ 22 (2a* + 3).
35. Fractions with a
common denominator
In a fraction, the bar should be thought of as a vinculum, a symbol We use this fact in of grouping, which encloses the numerator.
adding fractions.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
In the fraction
(3
2 _ a -5
=
>
the bar encloses 3
a and
the fraction equals
a) * 5.
SUMMARY.
To express a sum
of fractions with a
common denominator
as a single fraction:
1.
Form
the
sum
of the numerators, where each is enclosed in paren-
theses
2.
and
is given the sign of its fraction.
Divide by the
2.
common denominator.
8
=
-=
ILLUSTRATION
5 5
3,9 = +5 o
,
-o
8-3 +9 =
2x
14
-=-
ILLUSTRATION
6
3.
o^--- -x
7=
r=
=q
lla
(3
lla
lla
(5
x)
2x)
6-5 + s + 3-2s
lla
x
'
lla
lla
38
INTRODUCTION JO FRACTIONS AND EXPONENTS
36. Alteration of a denominator
an equal one having an added factor in the denominator, we must multiply both numerator and denominator by this factor, in order to leave the value of the fraction unaltered.
fraction to
To change a
ILLUSTRATION 1. To change $ to 14ths, we multiply numerator and de= 2: nominator by 2 because
3
7
X2 7X2
3
6
14'
ILLUSTRATION 2. To change the following fraction to one where the denominator is 6o36, we multiply numerator and denominator by 2a26, because -i- 3a =
5
3a
2a?b(5
2
x)
10a26
2a?bx
2a 6(3o)
6a 6
37. Prime integers

said to be prime if it has no factors except itself, and Two -f- 1 and 1, which are factors of any algebraic expression. factors are considered essentially the same if they differ only in sign,
An
integer
is
and then
of them.
their product can be expressed as
To factor an integer
will
a power of either one mean to express it as a product of
powers of distinct prime

1.
factors.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, etc., are
prime numbers.
2.
When
factored,
200
= 2-2-2-5-5 = 252
38. Lowest
common
multiple
At present, when we refer to a monomial, or single term, we shall mean an integral rational term whose numerical coefficient is an
integer.
multiple, LCM, of two or more monomials is defined as the 'term with smallest positive coefficient, and smallest
lowest
The
common
exponents for the literal numbers, which has the given term as a factor. As a special case, the LCM of two or more integers is the smallest positive integer having each given integer as a factor.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
The
LCM of 3,
5,
8
and 10
is
30.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
The
LCM of 30&
and 5a26
is

SUMMARY.
1.
39
To find
the
LCM of two or more terms:

its coefficient factored.
Express each term with
2.
Form
the product of all letters in the terms
and
all the different
prime factors of
the highest
the coefficients, giving to each letter or integral factor

it
exponent
possesses in the given terms.

2
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
2.
1.
Find the
LCM of 20a 6
=
and 70o46.
1.
In factored form,
22 -5-7a463
20a2 68
22 -5a263
70a46
2-5-7a4 6.
Hence,
1.
LCM brief,
Note
In
the
LCM of two or more terms equals the product of the
LCM of their coefficients and the highest powers of the Utters seen in the terms.
EXERCISE 13
Express the
sum
of fractions as a single fraction in lowest terms.
,3,79 L i+i-r
2,6 __a *3+3 3* .3 5,7-6 5. ---3
2
ft
,6 + -5-y 5*
18
888'
5 ---z
,
_d _ 7
z
-a
56
7
11 A o.
_ 3 7
--'7
2a
3a
'3~~T~*
^ n
_---_ .
*
3 -a;
_.
40 12.
5 -
2y
5
.
14
2063
Write the missing numerator or denominator
<i
to create equality.
17.
1ft
18.
_ -
10 19.
40
A. ~
__
24
-^- =
__
;
26
36x 7
Express the fraction as an equal one having the specified denominator. 2 5 27. 5 denom., 32. 26. denom., 21. ; o 7
28.
5
30.
denom., 40.
29. |; denom., 35.
*j\
denom.,
be.
31. =-; denom., Qy.
32.
-=
5x?/
-', 2
denom., lOxy
3
.
33. ,5-5,; denom., 2 4
3x
Q
18xV-
?/
34. STTL;
denom.,
20ft
fc
4
.
35.
5 3 denom., 20a 6
is
Find the LCM o/ /ie given a factor of the LCM.

10.
terms.
As a
partial check, verify that each term
36. 5; 4; 39. 15; 42.
37. 16; 24; 48. 40. 200; 36; 28. 15xy*. 43.
38. 12; 54; 30. 41. 300; 27; 21.

;
12; 75.
e^;
9x 2t/2
8a2 6 6
4a3 64
6a6.
.
44. 2o6; 46. 48.
14a2 63
12xi/
664
;
45. 6a2x; 4a'x 2 ; 9ax 4
3zV;
20x.
47.
5W; 10^;
16^.
fractions.
Change
^,
and
^ to the denominator 42, and then add the

*
39. Addition of fractions
a single fraction, the given fractions must be changed to new forms having a common denominaWe define the lowest common denominator! LCD, of a set of tor.
a
of fractions into
To combine
sum
fractions as the
LCM
of their denominators.
is the LCM of 6, 5, and 8 or ILLUSTRATION 1. The LCD of J, f and 3-5'8 or 120. Hence, to add the fractions, we. change them to new fractions whose denominator is 120:
,
1
*
1 4+8 +? 6 5
4_
+ 5-24" "8.15 = 6-20

.
2Q
3-24
7-15
20
+ 72 +
120
105
197
120*
simplify the present chapter, we will deal only with the case where each denominator is an integral rational term.
To

SUMMARY.
1.
41
To express a sum of fractions as a
single fraction:
Find
the
LCD
of the given fractions.
For each fraction, divide the LCD by the denominator and then multiply numerator and denominator by the resulting quotient, to change to an equal fraction having the LCD.
2.
3.
Form
the
sum
of the
new numerators, where each one

its fraction.
is enclosed
in
parentheses and is given the sign of

4.
Place the result of Step 3 over the LCD, remove parentheses in the numerator, and reduce the fraction to lowest terms.
ILLUSTRATION
2/1.
We
In the following = 5 and f observe that

2.
sum
the
LCD
is
20;
we think
of 2 as
2.
Hence,
2(7
_
4
15x
_
10
2-20 20
2x)
5(3s)
20
2x)
20
40
20
2(7
40
15s
14
+ 4x
7
26
20
llx
20 3w
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Express as a single fraction:

1.
Sax*
The
LCD
5a x
,
3
.
is
15a3z 2
We
have
2
15a3z 2
3z;
Ida's* -r
= 3ax r
5a2
2.
2 Hence, we multiply by 3x and 5o in the given fractions to change to
the
LCD:
7(5a
2 )
9xy
35a2
3aa: 2 (5a2)
EXERCISE 14
Combine
into
single fraction in lowest terms.
14. i
83
-1
15.
?
7
+ ^ 21
42
12 1A 16.
y-5 + 3.
,
17 17 '
To-30
74 +
7
lg 18
'
"
5'
0,1,4 2 + +
6
15
3o-6
a-3
3a
64-2
2a;
~ ~
+7
25
v\ ^ S
OB
b ""
c
2x
10
18
<u
.
Ta
6^'
25*
S
Gx
~ w
33k
4
36'
A- 1.
12y
34
-I'
A.
Sxy
2y
-
36 36>
JL
3a
2
37
1
39
^"
5a6
40
_
4
10
62^
9
54
2X
JIt 47 a:
2o~3
5o
+3
y-2
Ki 51.
-g
4*
52.
4a
-2J
3a
+2
2-x
4 +.
/NTRODUCT/ON TO FRACT/ONS AND EXPONENTS

40.
43
Mixed
of
expressions
an integral rational part and of one or more fractions is referred to as a mixed expression. If a mixed expression occurs as a factor in a product or as the numerator or denominator of a fraction, it is usually desirable to combine the mixed expression into a single
fraction before performing other operations.
A sum
ILLUSTRATION
T
1.
We
refer to
a number such as 5| as a mixed number. 23

17
23(17)
2. ILLUSTRATION o
391
ILLUSTRATION
3.
3z2 -h -
is
a mixed expression.
15
ILLUSTRATION
4.
(2
+ |j(3
15
a
a2
|
a)
=
*
(6
+ a) (15 ~
90
9a
15
'41
Complex
fractions
simple fraction is one without any fraction in its numerator or denominator. A complex fraction is one having one or more fractions in the numerator and denominator.
SUMMARY.
1.
To reduce a complex fraction

the
to
a simpty fraction:
Express
numerator and denominator as simple fractions.
2.
Form
the quotient of the simple fractions
and reduce
the result to
lowest terms.
I A
, _X^ __ -t-
5+3
5
T ILLUSTRATION
1.
5 = -
333
g
8 5 g
8 3 -
12
be convenient to reduce a complex fraction to a simple fraction by the single operation of multiplying both numerator and denominator of the complex fraction by the LCD of all simple
it
Sometimes
may
fractions involved. In this chapter, the problems be met in Chapter 5.

*
will
avoid questions of factoring which
will
44

ILLUSTRATION
2.
a simple
fraction,
To reduce the given complex fraction of Illustration 1 to we observe that the LCD of 3/5 and 4/3 is 15. Hence,
15,
we multiply both numerator and denominator by

15$)
observing that
9 and 15(j)
=
1
20:
+5
4
15
+9
24
10
12
30-20
2
15o6
56
=
, 3a
Q ILLUSTRATION 3.
T
+ yr 56
,
6o6-7
36
36
15o6
+2
56
606
45a6 30a6 - 35
where we divided out 6 from numerator and denominator.
26-5
ILLUSTRATION
36
4.
26-5
36
26
36
4-6
4-6
1
4-6
26-5 126 - 36*
DEFINITION
I.
The reciprocal of a number
H is =
5.
r
The The
reciprocal of 3 is
J.
6.
reciprocal
ofvis? = Y'o
=::
o'
The
reciprocal of
is
Thus, the reciprocal of a fraction
is
the fraction inverted.
EXERCISE 15
Express the fraction or product as a simple fraction in lowest terms.
1.
(4
+ f)(5).
4. (6 -f |) (6
2.
(3
f)(4f).
6.
3.
(2f)(3f).
f).
(f
36) (f
46).

A 6-
45
T+T
+ i + 5
f-r-^-
7- 15
T+T
1
~*
10. -IS "* -
"'5
14.
12.
13.
g^-4-
5c~f
J-2c'
2_ 3
16.
4_ 3
16.
5_ 3
17.
.
2
5 X*
\Jb
6
e
,
r-
+4
. ,
+:
\J
Fj
+^
,
To
tif^ l/Vx
1ft
J. 2x
_
2
y ^
19
TIT'
a:
01
_
7
2a 26
27. 2
28.
29.
+?
3
31.
'
^
56
2a
30.
!i.
- 12
and express
36.
41.
32. .
a:
-f
3y
Find
the reciprocal of the expression,
the result as
a simple
37.
fraction in lowest terms.
33. 75.
38.
34. 17.
39. 12?
.
36.
f
5J.
a.
10.
40. 2J.
42.
44.
45.
46.
By
means
writing a fraction, show that to divide a number the same as to multiply by the reciprocal of H.
N by a number H
46

EXERCISE 16
Review of Chapters
1
and 2
lowest terms.
3.
Compute each
1.
expression, leaving
5). 2.
any fraction in
(- 3)(- 4)(-
- (-
2)(-
5).
- ((
3)(-
4)(0).
(-7X-3) . * -14 7. - 7 + 19 Find

10.
"
16.
8.
(3
2) (5)
(-3X-6) - {- 4) - 7.
12.
~
9.
(-2X-4)
2 -f
(-
3)
+ 6.
|
the absolute value of the expression.
8.
11.
the two
(- 3)(-
2).
14
|.
13.
17
|.
(a)
Add
17
numbers;
16.
(6) subtract the
lower one from the upper number.

16.
14.
18.
23 9
_
>
15
17. 17
29
0,
25
Read the
expressions
<
,
2 and 17
scale.
and
verify their truth
by marking the numbers on a

Insert the proper sign,
19. 11
real
number
<
and
19.
> between the numbers. 20. - 15 and - 27.

or
21.
and
6.
22.
Which one
of the
less
numbers
15 and 7
is less
than the other?
Which
one
is
numerically
than the other?
Perform any indicated operation, removing any parentheses, reducing any final fraction to lowest terms, and employing the laws of exponents to simplify
expressions.
23.
(3a
26
c).
24. 2(3
27.
5a
c).
26.
28.
3k).
a2 (3a8 6
aft*).
26.
5(-
3*).
3*y(2*
29. 3(2a 30. 31.
+ A)
-
- Wy). - 2(3a + 4h -
- 2*y(-
3*
5j/).
x*(3xy*
2xy
+ 3) + 4i/(2xV 32.
3x*
+ 5).
2[3
3o
[2a
3(5
a)].
(6a
14
6)
(2o
46)].
15
37.
17.
- 2AW(3iUPX-
38.
-4-
6.
39. 7
|2
40.
~
5A).
41.
4A2fc).
42.
4/*V(2%
3/fy

43. (Si8!/) 4 46.
.
47
44.
(- 2oV).
.(-?)'.
46.
(-
(-2)'.
'
47.
(I)''
.(*)'
-(I)66. (2*
+ 3) (2s 2/)(3z
7).
66. (3x*
68. (2a
7x)(2x
36)
2
.
57. (2z
%).
69. (3x*
5x
2r>
+ 3)(4z + 5).
64. (6o3
66. (18
19o2
3
+ 21a 26a;
9) ^- (2o
^- (2x
3).
5).
+ 4x -
2x2 )
4y A7 67 '
+8
2h-3
'
4x
7s*
Express as a single fraction in lowest terms.
33^3
-4-
10
-ft
/ II.
4A-7
ti
.
i
5
-_2.
10
_ 4.
3 2
iO
'
"
5
12
72 " j! 2xy
-. I4
A.
4x2
3y
3
*
^
*
3x
rfc
By
2a
Q
3a
^
AV
5
76. 76.
.!__:>.
35
77.
-J.
|
a
|56
-J
5
78.
^-~9 J_
79.
-L^.
_
_.
_
3
1
a
81.
Find the reciprocal of -=; of (a o 6
5).
CHAPTER
DECIMALS
AND ELEMENTS OF
COMPUTATION
42. Decimal notation
notation * for writing numbers is called a place sysIn this notation, each number is an tem, for which the base is 10. abbreviation for a sum involving units and powers of ten, written by
The decimal
use of the Hindu-Arabic digits or figures

ILLUSTRATION
1.
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
3456
= =
3(1000)
3(10
3
)
+ 4(100) + 5(10) + 6 + 4(10 + 5(10) + 6.

2 )
We have 3456 as the sum of 6 units, or ones, 5 tens, 4 hundreds, and 3 thousands.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
23.572-
2(10)
+3+~ + 10
'
'
^+
'
100
2 1000
103
10
10 2
'
the decimal point in a number, the places are named the units' place or ones' place; tens' place; hundreds' place; thousands' place; ten thousands' place; etc. Counting to the right -of
Counting to the
left of
the decimal point,

thousandths' place; unit located there.
we have the tenths' place; hundredths' place; etc. The name of any place is the value of a
These values should be remembered in terms
of
powers of
ten.
3.
ILLUSTRATION
1000
103 ;
.001
tc
rrr
= -;
.01
T-
ILLUSTRATION
ten-thousandths"
*
4.
We
read .5073 as
point, 5, oh, 7, 3," or as
"5073
In this chapter, unless otherwise specified, any number referred to
will
be positive.
DECIMALS
AND ELEMENTS OF COMPUTATION
49
In this chapter we will think of each number in its decimal form. The part to the right of the decimal point is called the decimal part
of the
number.
We consider each
even when the decimal part is zero The decimal places of a number are those places to the right of the decimal point in which digits are actually written in the number.
ILLUSTRATION
is
number as having a decimal part and the number is then an integer.
5.
23.507 has three decimal places and
its
decimal part
.507.
In any number, observing

visualize
its digits
from
left
to right,
we may
an endless sequence
of zeros at the right of the last digit

digit.
not zero, if there is such a last called a terminating decimal.
number
of this character is
is
An
endless decimal
however far we proceed to the right, which all digits are zeros. Hereafter, unless otherwise number mentioned will be a terminating decimal.
ILLUSTRATION
6.
,
one in which, we never reach a digit beyond

stated,
any
is a terminating decimal. The 35.675, or 35.67500 is an endless but not a repeating decimal. familiar number TT = 3.14159 The fraction J is equal to the endless repeating decimal .333
a unit in any place in the decimal notation is multiplied by 10, we obtain a unit in the next place to the left. If we divide a unit in any place by 10, we obtain a unit in the next place to the right. The preceding remarks justify the following convenient rules.
If
I.
To multiply a number by
number.
10,
move
the
decimal point one place
to
the right in the

II.
left
To
divide
in the
a number by number.
7.
10,
move
the
decimal point one place
to the
ILLUSTRATION
10(315.67)
is
3156.7.
~~ =
31.567.
To
divide
by
1000, which
places to the left:
21.327
10(10) (10), we move the decimal point three 1000 = .021327.
43. Addition of decimals
In finding a sum of decimals, after they have been arranged with the decimal points in a column, it is desirable to add once going upward and then downward to check in each column.
50
DECIMALS
ILLUSTRATION
1.

find the
To
sum
of 31.457,
2.6, 3.15,
and
101.41,
we annex
zeros to extend each
31.457
number
to the 3d decimal place,

1.
and then add.

3.150
101.410
EXAMPLE
1.573
Add:
3.671
1.157
4.321
Sum
10.319.
is
138 617
'
SOLUTION.
is
The sum
of the positive terms
15.563; of the negative terms
5.478.
(15
563 5 478
sum -
10.085.
EXERCISE 17
Write the number in decimal form.
1.
3 and 25 hundredths.
4.
10'.
2. Point, oh, 1, 5, 3, 9, oh, 4.
3. 10*.
6.
~
to the
6.
i-
7.
i-
Write each number as a sum involving powers of 10, with one term corresponding to each digit (not zero) of the number.
8. 567.
9.
3149.
10. 16,342.
11. .319.
12. 27.0457.
Write the number in decimal notation equal

13. 5(100)
sum.
+ 3(10) +6 + A +
14. 2(1000) -f 4(10)
+ 3 + 1 + JL + -J+
.459.
-f-
15. 5(10*)
+ 7(10') + 3(10) + 5 +
the indicated
Compute
16. 2.057
17.
sum.
+ 3.11 + 4.985 + 3.05 + 1.5 + 2.177 + 3.193 + .098 -f 1.567 -f 2.457 + 3.167 + 2.13
the
1.5072.
20. 1.721
18. 21.675
(a)
14.521.
'
19. .0938
.0257.
2.468.
Add
numbers.
(6)
Subtract the lower number from the upper one.

23.
21. 5.26
22. .357
1.38
25.
.2983
43.8468
59.923
24.
.02438
.5729
Compute
2.156
3.149
+ 4.183 + 2.147 - 4.159.
DECIMALS
26.

2.453
51
Compute
13.083
+ 2.148 - 41.397 -
12.938.
Perform
the multiplication or division mentally.
27. 10(.532).
28.1000(1.0219).
13.257
'
29. 10*(32.653).
30. 100(.00415).
.0317
57.38
.0498
oo
wo
IS"
ISSo*
44. Multiplication of decimals
not zero can be written as a fraction whose numerator is an integer and denominator is a power of 10. The exponent of 10 hi the denominator can be taken equal to the number of decimal places in the given number.
decimal part
is
Any number whose
ILLUSTRATION
1.
1.21(.205)
=
24,805 10 6
121
'
205
10
s
(121) (205)
10
102+*
We
decimal places in the result are a consequence of the law of exponents for multiplication, because the factors had two and three decimal places. This result is a special case of the following rule.
conclude that the
five
SUMMARY.
1.
To multiply two decimals:
Find
the digits of the product by multiplying the factors with their
decimal points disregarded (or even removed).

2.
numbers of decimal places in the factors to find the number of decimal places in the product, and insert the decimal point.
the
2.
Add
multiply .0238 X 112.75, we find the digits of the product, at the right, and then point off Notice (2 -f 4) or 6 decimal places to obtain 2.683450.
ILLUSTRATION
To
11275
(X)238
90200 33825 22550 2683450
that the final zero had to be written and counted in fixing the decimal point. In stating the final result, we could then
omit the zero.
product of two decimals depend only on the digits of the factors. If the decimal points are moved hi the factors, this only alters the position of the decimal point in the result.
digits in the
The
ILLUSTRATION
Hence,
3.
In Illustration
2,
.0238(112.75)
2.683450.
2.38(1127.5)
2683.450.
52
DECIMALS

EXERCISE 18
Perform
1.
the following multiplications.

2.
5. 8.
3.51(1.4).
.46(.107).
3. 6. 9.
13(.461).
4.
.0142(3.6).
21.38(.024).
156.1(1.38).
7. 398.4(.0342).
.00175(.2147).
.0346(.00157).
10. 85.2(1.356).
11. 9.137(.2346).
12. 74.308(.00259).
45. Significant digits
In any number N,
let
us read
its digits
from
left
by definition,
the significant digits or figures of sequence, starting with the first one not zero and ending with the Notice that this definition does not last one definitely specified.
involve any reference to the position of the decimal point in N. Usually we do not mention final zeros at the right in referring to the
to right. Then, are its digits, in
significant digits of
N, except when
The
it is
an approximate value.
ILLUSTRATION
(4, 1, 0, 5, 8).
1.
significant digits of 410.58 or of .0041058 are
46. Approximate values

If
T is
the true value and
is
we
agree to call
A
If
T the
T=
is
error
an approximate value of A.
if
of
a quantity,
ILLUSTRATION 1. T, then the error of
35.62,
and
35.60
35.62,
A = 35.60 is an approximation to or - .02.
should indicate significant digits in an approximate value the maximum possible error of A. This error is understood to be
The
most one half of a unit in the last significant place in A, or, which the same, not more than 5 units in the next place to the right.
at
is
ILLUSTRATION
should
mean
a surveyor measures a distance as 256.8 yards, he that the error is at most .05 yard and that the true result lies
2.
If
between 256.75 and 256.85, since the error (plus or minus) might be
=fc
.05.
it
In referring to the significant digits of an approximate value A, is essential to mention all final zeros designated in A.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
To
state that a
mean that the true weight differs To state that the weight is 35.6 pounds should mean
measured weight is 35.60 pounds should from 35.60 pounds by at most .005 pound.
that the true weight
DECIMALS
differs
53
from this by at most .05 pound. Thus, there is a great distinction between 35.6 and 35.60 as approximate values although there is no difference between 35.6 and 35.60 as abstract numbers.
47. Rounding off a number
In referring to a place in a number, we shall mean any place where a significant digit stands. In referring to a decimal place, the word
decimal will be explicitly used.
To round
for
off
N, means
to k figures, or to write a fc-place approximation to write an approximate value with k significant digits
is
so that the error of this value
not more than one half of a unit
in the kth place, or 5 units in the first neglected place.
This condition
on the approximate value of
SUMMARY.
1.
N leads us to the following method. To round off a number N to k places, drop off the part of
-f-
N beyond the kth place and then proceed as follows: // the omitted part of N is less than 5 units in the (k
leave the digit in the kth place unchanged.
2.
l)th place,
is more than 5 units in the (k -f l)th place, // the omitted part of increase the digit in the kth place by 1.
is exactly equal to 5 units in the (k 3.* // the omitted part of l)th place, increase the digit in the kth place or leave it unchanged, with the object of making the final choice an even digit.
ILLUSTRATION
rounding
places
1.
off to five
seven-place approximation to TT is 3.141593. places (or four decimal pldles) we obtain 3.1416.
The
On
We
three
changed 5 to 6 because .000093
>
.00005.
On
rounding
off TT to
we obtain
3.14.
2.
315.475 to five figures, with equal In justification we could specify either 315.47 or 315.48 as the result. accordance with Item 3 of the Summary, we choose 315.48.
off
ILLUSTRATION
In rounding
48.
A notation for large numbers
For abbreviation, or to indicate how many digits in a large number are significant, it is sometimes convenient to write a number AT as the product of an integral power of 10 and a number equal to or greater
than
by
*
but less than 10, with as the data.

1
many
significant digits as are justified
Item 3 could be replaced by various similar and equally
justified agreements.
54
DECIMALS
ILLUSTRATION
1.

an approximate value,
its
If 5,630,000 is
appearance
fails to show how many zeros are significant. If just five digits are significant we write 5.6300C106), and, if just three are significant, 5.63C106).
49. Accuracy of computation
By
illustrations,
we can
verify that the following rules
do not
underestimate the accuracy of computation with approximate values. On the other hand, we must admit that the rules sometimes overestimate the accuracy. However, we shall assume that a result obtained by these rules will have a negligible error in the last significant
place which
I.
is specified.
In adding approximate In multiplying
values,
round
off the result in the first

is
place where the last significant digit of

II.
any given value
found.
off the
or dividing approximate values,
round
result to the smallest
number of
significant figures
found in any given
value.
Let a = 35.64, 6 = 342.72, and c = .03147 be approximate values. Then, a + b -\- c is not reliable beyond the second decimal place because both a and b are subject to an unknown error which may be as large as 5 units in the third decimal place. Hence, we write
ILLUSTRATION
1.
+b+c=
378.39147
378.39, approximately.
ILLUSTRATION 2. If x = 31.27 and y = .021 are approximate values, = .66, because y has only two significant digits: then,*by Rule II, we take xy
xy
31.27(.0ll)
.65667
.66,
approximately.
ILLUSTRATION 3. If a surveyor measures a rectangular field as 385.6' by 432.4', it would give an unjustified appearance of accuracy to write that
166,733.44 square feet. For, an error of .05 foot in either dimension would cause an error of about 20 square feet in the area. By Rule II, a reasonably justified result would be that the area is 166,700
the area
is
(385.6) (432.4)
square
feet,
to the nearest 100 square feet, or 1.667(10*) square feet.
In problems where approximate values enter, or where approximate results are obtained from exact data, the results should be rounded off so as to avoid giving a false appearance of accuracy. No hard and fast rules for such rounding off should be adopted, and the final decision as to the accuracy of a result should be made only after a careful examination of the details of the solution.
DECIMALS
AND ELEMENTS OF COMPUTAT/ON

EXERCISE 19
55
Round
1.
off, first to five
and then
to three significant digits.
15.32573.
195.635.
2.
.00132146.
'
3.
.3148638. .0345645.
4. 5.62653. 8.
6.
6.
.00128558.
7.
392.462.
Tell between
what two values
the exact length of
line lies if its
measured
length in feet is as follows.

9. 567.
10. 567.0.
11. 567.4.
12. 35.18.
Assuming that the numbers represent approximate and product and state the results without false accuracy.
13. 31.52
data,* find their
sum
and
.0186.
14.
.023424 and 1.14.
15. .0047(11.3987126).
Problem 15. In proceeding to multiply or divide approximate values, there is no advantage in keeping many significant digits in one value when other values have relatively few significant digits. A conservative
for
HINT
rule
is
that, before multiplying or dividing,
we may round
off
any given
value to two more significant digits than appear in the least accurate of the given values.^
Write the number in ordinary decimal form.

16. 100(3.856). 17. 27.38(102 ).
18. 1.935(10<).
19. 2.056(10).
1
Write as the product of a power of 10 and a number between

20. 38.075. 21. 675.38.
is
and
10.
22. 153,720,000.
23. 45,726.
Given that the number

integral
an approximate value, write it as the product of an power of 10 and a number between 1 and 10, assuming, first, that there
25. 453,120. 26. 23,523,416.
are five significant digits and, second, that there are three significant digits.
24. 9,330,000.
27. 72,200,000.
In
28.
the following problems, state each result without false accuracy.
The measured dimensions

Find
57.3 feet.
29.
of a rectangular field are 469.2 feet and the perimeter (sum of lengths of sides) and area of the field. of a rectangular box are 20.4 feet, 16.5 feet, of the box in cubic feet.
gallons,
The measured dimensions

feet.
and 7.8
30.
Find the volume
Given that one cubic foot contains approximately 7.5

gallons are contained
how
many
*
by 2.576 cubic
feet?
In this book, unless otherwise stated, the numerical data in any problem should be assumed to be exact. Results obtained from exact data may sometimes be rounded off. t See Note 3 in the Appendix for a convenient abridged method for multiplyic two numbers with many significant digits.
56
DECIMALS
50. Division of decimals
When one decimal is divided by another,
times gives a zero remainder if number of decimal places. Usually, however, we may expect a remainder not zero however far we continue the division. We can always arrange the details so that the actual work amounts to division by an integer. This arrangement is useful in locating the decimal point in the result.
ILLUSTRATION
its
1.
the division process somethe work is carried to a sufficient
To compute
372.173
-5-
1.25 with accuracy to
two
decimal places, we
numerator and
indicate the division as a fraction, and then multiply denominator by 100, to obtain an integer as the divisor:
first
372.173
1.25
372.173(100)
1.25(100)
37,217.3
125
(1)
At the
right,
we
insert the original

1.25,
decimal points in dividend and divisor and mark with "A" the new locations of the decimal points observed
in the final fraction in (1).
297.738
(Quotient}
The mul-
372.17*300 (Dividend) 250 122

112
tiplication
to
by 100 in (1) is equivalent the action of moving the decimal
67 75 92 3 87 5 4 80
3 75
1
point two places to the right in both dividend and divisor. In the process
the integral part of the quotient ends when we begin using digits of the dividend at the right of " the new decimal point A ." If we place each digit of the quotient directly
of division,
,
050
above the last digit being used at that stage from the dividend, the decimal point in the quotient occurs exactly above the altered decimal point, A in the dividend. We find the quotient to three decimal places, 297.738, and
,
1J300 50
then round
it off
to 297.74, which
we say
is
correct to
two decimal
places.
To
check,
we compute
1.25(297.74)
372.175.
We
do not obtain
1.
exactly 372.173 because 297.74 is not the exact quotient.
In any division, estimate the result before dividing, to check the location of the decimal point in the quotient. Thus, in Illustration 1, a convenient estimate would be 375 -5- 1.25, or 300. Then we are sure that the actual answer should have three places to the left of the decimal point.
Note
DECIMALS
Note
2.
57
In dividing approximate values, obtain the quotient to one more figure than is specified as reliable by Rule II, Section 49. Then, round off
the quotient in the preceding place.
Any terminating decimal can be expressed as a fraction, which then may be reduced to lowest terms. Conversely, we can express any common fraction as a decimal by carrying out the division indicated
by the
exactly.
fraction, to obtain either

2.
a terminating or an endless decimal.
ILLUSTRATION
On
carrying out the division,
we obtain J =
.875,
ILLUSTRATION
3.
3.125
3125 1000
25 8
.45833
24
11.00000
96
ILLUSTRATION
4.
To
we
divide, at the right.
express ii as a decimal After reaching .458 in the
140 120
200
192
quotient, we meet 8 each time as the only digit in the remainder. Hence, 3 will be obtained endlessly
in the quotient.
The
result is the endless repeating
decimal .4583, where the dot above 3 means that the digit repeats endlessly.
80 72 80
etc.
EXERCISE 20
Write each expression as a fraction, and then an integer. (6) Divide until the remainder is zero.
(a)
1.
alter it to
make
the divisor
3.562
-T-
2.6.
2.
2.849
-f-
.74.
to three
-5-
3.
140.14
-^ 2.45.
Obtain the result of the division correct

4.
decimal places.
6.
381.32
-5-
58.
5.
.083172
.316.
.5734
*-
12.8.
Assume
that the
Carry out the to Rule II, Section 49.

7.
numbers in the following problems are approximate values. division and state the result without false accuracy, according
8.
573.2 * 3.83.
-s-
19.438
-s-
2.21.
9.
.09734
-f-
3.265.
.5634.
10. 98.3
21.473.
11. .003972 4- .0139.
12. .01793
Change
13. 2.75.
the decimal to
a fraction in
lowest terms.
16. .0175.
14. .0125.
to the
16. 2.375.
17. .0325.
Obtain the decimal equal
given fraction.
If the decimal repeats endlessly,
carry the division far enough to justify this conclusion.

18.
19.
20.
A.
21.
A-
22. ft.
23.
CHAPTER
4
ONE UNKNOWN
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
51
Terminology about equations

equation
is
a statement that two number expressions are equal. The two expressions are called the sides or members of the equation. An equation in which the members are equal for all permissible values of the letters involved is called an identical equation, or, for short, an identity. An equation whose members are not equal for all permissible values oi the letters is called a conditional equation.
ILLUSTRATION 1. In the following equation, by carrying out the multiplication on the left-hand side, we verify that the product is the same as the right-hand side. This is true regardless of the values of a and b. Hence the equation is an identity.
(a
An
+ 26) (a +
36)
a2
5a6
662
2 = is a conditional equation beILLUSTRATION 2. The equation x cause the two members are equal only when x =-2.
be used in referring to both identities and conditional equations, except where such usage would cause confusion. Usually, however, the word "equation" refers to a conditional equation. At times, to emphasize that some equation "s" " " instead of = between the members. is an identity, we shall use A. conditional equation may be thought of as presenting a question: the equation asks for the values which certain letters should
itself will
. ,
The word "equation" by
values are requested, are called unknowns. an equation may represent known numbers.
Some
of the letters in
ILLUSTRATION
3.
x*
+ 3x -
is
an equation
in the
unknown
x.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
52. Solution of an equation
ONE UNKNOWN
59
An equation is said to be satisfied by a set of values of the unknowns

the equation becomes an identity when these values are substituted for the unknowns. A solution of an equation is a set of values of the
if
unknowns which satisfies the equation. A solution of an equation in a single unknown is also called a root of the equation. To solve an equation in a single unknown means to find all the solutions of the
equation.
ILLUSTRATION 1. 4 is a root of the equation 2x x = 4 the equation becomes [2(4) 3] = 5, which

53. Equivalent equations
3
is
5,
because when
true.
Two
equations are said to be equivalent
if
they have the same
solutions.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve:
1.
3x
= -
5x.
(1)
Add
5x to both members:
1
2.
3x -V 5x
= -
5x -V 5x,
or,
or
3
is
+ 2x = = -
7.
(2)
Subtract 3 from both members,
which
or
the same, add

10.
3 to
both sides:
3.
-f-
2x
= -
3,
2x
(3)
On
dividing both sides of (3)
by 2 we obtain
= -
5,
(4)
and conclude that

CHECK.
this is the only solution- of (1).
Substitute x
=
3
5 in
(1).
Left-hand side:
Right-hand side:
- 3(- 5(-
5) 5)
+
7
15
18.
18,
= -
+ 25 =
which checks.
Comment. Each equation obtained from (1) was equivalent to it and this would justify us in saying that (1) has just one root, x = 5, without any
necessity for the check.
and (4) is a consequence of the following familiar facts: if equal numbers are added to or subtracted from equal numbers the results are equal; if equal numbers are multiplied or divided by equal numbers the results are equal.
of (1), (2), (3),
The equivalence
60
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
(1) will also satisfy (2), be-
ILLUSTRATION 1. cause we pass from

of (1).
Any
value of x satisfying
(1) to (2)
by adding
equals,
And, any value of x satisfying (2) pass from (2) back to (1) by the inverse operation of subtracting 5x from both sides of (2). Hence, (1) and (2) are satisfied by the same values of x, and
thus are equivalent.
5x and 5x, to the equal sides will satisfy (1) because we can
In solving an equation in a single unknown, by use of the following operations we pass from the original equation to progressively simpler equivalent equations, which finally yield the desired roots.
SUMMARY.
1.
Operations on an equation yielding equivalent equations.

the
Addition of
same number
to both
members.
2. 3.
Subtraction of the same number from both members.
Multiplication (or division) of both members by the same number, provided that it is not zero and does not involve the unknowns.
1.
observe that Operation 2 is a special case of Operation 1 is equivalent to addition of N. The because subtraction of a number
Note
We
division part of Operation 3 because division by a number
is
a special case of the multiplication part, is equivalent to multiplication by 1/N.
Convenient mechanical processes, and corresponding terminology, grow out of Operations 1, 2, and 3.
term appearing on both sides of an equation can be canceled, by subtracting the term from both sides.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
Given:
-j-
Subtract 3 from both sides:
= =
f
f.
-f 3.
term can be transposed from one member to the other, with the sign of the term changed, by subtracting it from both members.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
Given:
+5=
2.
7.
Subtract 5 from both sides, or transpose 5:
5,
or
=
x
ILLUSTRATION
Transpose
4:
4.
Given:
4 x
x
all
+ 4,
may
or
= 9. = 13.
The signs of
both sides by
terms on both sides

1.
be changed, by multiplying
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ILLUSTRATION
5.
ONE UNKNOWN
3x
6 = 5
:
61
Given:
ox.
Change
all
signs (multiply both sides
by
1)
5 H- ax.
54. Degree of a term
The
is
degree of
an
integral rational
term
in a certain literal
number
the exponent of the power of that number which is a factor of the term. If the term does not involve the number, the degree of the term is said to be zero. The degree of a term in two or more letters
together is the
polynomial
is
The degree of a of their degrees in the term. defined as the degree of its term of highest degree.
1.
sum
ILLUSTRATION
3.
is
With x as the
is 1
literal
The degree
3
of 2x
because x
xl
number involved, the degree of Sx3 is The degree of (5x3 3z2 -f 2x 7)
ILLUSTRATION
together is (3
-f-
2.
The degree
of
3#V
in x is 2, in y
is 3,
and
in
x and y
2) or 5.
ILLUSTRATION 3. polynomial in x and
A
is
polynomial of the first degree in x is called a linear of the form ax b, where a and b do not involve x.
55. Linear equations

integral rational equation is one in which each member is an linear equation, or integral rational polynomial in the unknowns.
An
an equation of the first degree, is an integral rational equation the terms involving the unknowns are of the first degree.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
in
which
The equation 3x
solve
is
a linear equation in
x.
a linear equation in one unknown: 1. If fractions appear, place parentheses around each numerator and clear of fractions by multiplying both members by the LCD of the fractions; then, remove parentheses and combine terms.
2.
SUMMARY.
To
Transpose
to-
all
terms involving the
unknown
to
one member and

the
all
other terms
the other
member.
Combine terms in
unknown,
exhibiting
3.
it
as a factor.
coefficient of the
Divide both sides by the
unknown.
4.
To
check the solution, substitute the result in the original equation.
62
r. EXAMPLE
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
3
~
*oi Solve:
1.
x ---
x + -r
2.
SOLUTION.
serving that
1.
The
LCD
is
30.
Hence, multiply Ijoth sides by 30, ob-
30
-p =
2.
10(z-4);
10(x
30--
15(s
3);
30
-_ =
60;
3(3
- 4) - 15(x - 3) = 10* - 40 - 15* + 45 = - 5x + 5 =

5x
3(3
+ x) 51.
+ 3x -
60;
3x
Subtract 3z and 5 from both sides:
3.
3x
= 8:
51
5;
8x
x
= -
56.
Divide both sides by
7.
CHECK. Substitute x
j ; Left-hand side:
r
1
7 in the original equation.
~
^ o
---4
7
j;
3 4 ___
o
==
A 2
o 1_2=
1
1.
Right-hand side:
34-7 -^.
-r
10
2=1
2=
1.
This checks.
In the case of a linear equation in a. single unknown x, if the unknown remains in the equation after Step 2 of the standard method of solution is applied, the equation is then of the form ex = 6, where b c j* 0, and b and c do not involve x. On dividing both sides of ex
by c we obtain x = b/c. known has just one root.

Note
1.
That
is,
a linear equation
in
single un-
In directions for solving an equation, in this book, a specification to add, subtract, multiply, or divide will mean to perform the operation on both sides of the preceding equation.
EXERCISE 21
Solve the equation for the literal
1.
number in
2.
it.
5x
x 2
+
-
7.
3z
3
18
x.
3.
5.
7. 9.
5 2
5
2y
3y.
4.
6.
3x
= -
4y.
5x.
+55y
4(2
5
).
2y
2(4
=
-
4y.
4.
B.
x}
3x.
Sy
+3
5y
10. 7
2(1
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
11. 2(7 13.
ONE UNKNOWN
llh
63
+ a) - 1 -
7x.
12. 14.
3.
8fc
4.
7.
16.
- 7h = 14A - 12. 52 - 11 + 32 = 2 4* -f 3* 3s
2.
7k
+ 12 =
6w>
2k
16. 11
- 34w 32
9.
17.
19.
5x -- 1
18. 42
+f
4*
+*-f,
}.
21. to
+ ft.
h
22. 5*
+Y=
17*
3*
5*
3*
25 .
--44 _
10
_
3
-------. ~
15
27.
_
2
6
__ ""
_
2
28.
10
=
3
12 13
" 31.
3
5*
T
7
3 5
32.
TO
+y
_ ~
5 6
25
5x
2x
35.
3 -a:
~6~
6
"
a;
~2~
37 TO
+7 ^ + 2a; ~~5~~
3x
13
a;
43. .26
=
.2
.98
T.38.
16
3
44.
2s
3x
3.
.55
.33
1.7*. .96*.
.07.
46. .26a:
47. 2.5*
49.
.53*
46. 2.3z
48. .21*
2.4
.46
1.6
3.7
13.5
1.8x. .07*.
.79
.19*
.358
.032
60. 4.088
.03*
3*
64
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
61. 2.035
62. 3(5z
ONE UNKNOWN
.215.
1)
- Mix = - .212* + 2) - 12 = 25(2z +

10(y
3.
63.
2y
-I -
+
= =
1)
2(2
3(z
3t/)
1.
64. 82 66. 66.
2(32
6(z
1) 1)
7z
1
1).
1).
2x
1)
3(3*
S(w
+ 2) -
5(2w
6(w
2)
+ 3.
68. 4r
7(2
r)
60.
62.
6(r
1).
Solve for P, or
69.
61.
A,
correct to
two decimal places, by
first clearing
of fractions.
300
500
= P[l + f (.07)]. = A[l - A(.06) J
250
750
= A[l = P[l +
J(.05)].
tt(.07) J
56. Simple Factoring of polynomials
terms of a polynomial contain a common factor, we may express the polynomial as a product of this factor and a second factor. The second factor is the sum obtained by dividing each term of the
If all
polynomial by the common factor of the terms.

ILLUSTRATION
1.
+ ax -f bx = z(3 + a + + 2xy + 4zy = xy(3y + 2

3x
3
6).
present, in solving equations in an unknown x, we will be interested in factoring polynomials only where a: is a common factor
At
we express such a polynomial as the product and another factor, we then refer to this factor as the coefficient
of the terms.
If
of
of x.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
On
2x
factoring,
we obtain
+ 4ox + %cx
=
a:
2x(l -f 2a
is
+ c).
c).
(1)
In
(1),
we say
that the coefficient of
2(1
-f-
2a -f
57. Constants and variables
In a given problem, a constant is a number symbol whose value does not change during the discussion involved. A variable is a number symbol which may take on different values. Any explicit number,
such as
7,
automatically
is
a constant wherever
it
appears.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
65
ILLUSTRATION 1. The volume V of a sphere is given by the formula V = Jur3 where r is the radius. In considering all possible spheres, r and V are variables but TT is a constant, approximately 3.1416.
58. Literal equations
Sometimes an equation in an unknown x may involve other literal numbers besides x. In such a case, during the process of solution for x, we assume that the other literal numbers are constants. The summary of Section 55 still specifies our method of solution.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve for x:
1.
3bx
2 and 2cx:
36z
2cx
+
(1)
Transpose
_ ~
2cx
= =
+ a.
+
a.
2.
Factor on the
left in (1)
x(3b
3.
2c)
(2)
Divide both sides of
(2)
by
X
(36
2c),
the coefficient of x:
W^2c'
2x
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
Solve for x:
^r
ao
is
3 --
2a
1.
The
LCD
4*;
2ab.
Hence, multiply both sides by 2ab,
noticing that
=
2a6(|)
2o6(|)
66;
bx.
2^) x
te.
We
obtain
4z
66
:
2.
Transpose terms, and solve for x

4x
bx
66;
x(4
6)
66;
^y
5
7-
fiA
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
3.
Solve for x:
37 -- =
=-
(4)
The
18
LCD
28
is
12z.
= -
15*;
Multiply both sides by 12x: - 10 = - ISz; x =

:
(5)
CHECK. Substitute x =
in (4)
797 ____
3
5
,
5
Right-hand
side:
T-
This checks.
66
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
Comment. In this chapter, the unknown will occur in a denominator only under the most simple conditions. In solving (4), an incorrect choice of the LCD, containing an unnecessary factor, might have prevented the equations in (5) from being linear in x.
59. Formulas
Frequently, the data in a problem

set of variables,
come to us
as the values of a
which we represent as literal numbers. Sometimes we are able to write a mathematical expression for one of the variables in terms of the others. The resulting equation is referred to then as a formula for the first variable. An algebraic formula is one involving only the operations of algebra.
ILLUSTRATION 1. The Fahrenheit reading, F, and centigrade reading, (7, in degrees for a given temperature are related by the equation 5F = 9(7 -f 160. On solving for F, we obtain a formula for F in terms of C:
F = fC
To
find
+ 32.
C =
36 in
(1)
:
(1)
corresponding to 36 centigrade, substitute
F=
f (36)
+ 32 =
64.8
+ 32
96.8.
EXERCISE 22
Solve for x, or y, or lowest terms.
1.
z,
whichever appears.
Reduce any final fraction

3. 6.
to
bx
3 Hby
5c
c.
2. 6.
16z
h.
ex 2z
5a
3h.
a.
4. 7. 9.
ay
2ay
ax
5.
3x
ax 48.
26.
bz
= =
3by -f 4a.
5c
Sax
a.
bx.
10.
11.
12.
3x
26
c
= ~
b
-
ax
b
14. -T
c j
A 0.
...
15.
3x = n --a
be
7x
2dx
+ 8. = d?x + b.
Sax
13.
= =
d.
0.
16. -r-
.,_
a?x
3
-
, 2a3
17 JL f
3T7"
_ _ _ mo
U.
18 AO
2c
rt
o \J "'
19 AU *"
-~
4
BC
a
a
2 o
= 24.--3 2c
c2
-1 1%
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
26. 3a(2x
ONE UNKNOWN
67
3z
36)
5(cz
3)
26.
26. 4c(ax
6c)
2a(bx
*
+a
0.
V/ 97
4 2 =15
Ho*
'
5 -
==
3 29 -
3z
.
24
4x
29
10*
31.
=
12
+ ^
15z
662
15az
In the Fahrenheit-centigrade equation, 5F = 9C 160, solve for C in terms of F. Then, use the resulting formula to find the centigrade tem-
perature correct to tenths of a degree corresponding to the following Fahrenheit temperatures:

32.
(a)
32;
(6)
212;
(c)
80;
(d)
50.
Let an object be shot vertically upward from the surface of the earth
initial velocity of v feet
us neglect air resistance and other disturbing features. Then, it is proved in physics that s = vt %gP, where s feet is the height of the object above the surface at the end of t 100 and t = 6. seconds and g = 32, approximately, (a) Find s if v
let
(6)
with an
per second, and
Solve for v to obtain a formula for v in terms of s and
t.
(c)
From
(6),
compute the velocity with which the object must be shot to attain a height
of 1000 feet in 5 seconds.
33. Solve 36. Solve
/
I
= ma for a. = a + (n
=
I
34. Solve 8
-{-
vt
for
v.
l)d for a; for
for d.
36. Solve
37. Solve
S -
r r
M for
1
M;
for
t\
for
J.
r- for a.
38. Solve
S =
for
I:
for a.
of the following problems states a rule for computing values of a certain variable in terms of others. State the rule by means of a formula.
Each
39.
The
The
average, A, of three numbers
M, N, and P
is
one third of their
sum.
per kilowatthour for the first 10 kilowatt-hours, 5^ per kilowatt-hour for the next 20 kilowatt-hours, and 2%i per kilowatt-hour for all over 30 kilowatt-hours. Write an expression for the total cost, C, of (a) 60 kilowatt-hours; (6) n kilowatt40.
is 7jf
cost of electricity for a house in a certain city
hours where n
41.
>
30.
On any
order for more than 200 units of a certain manufactured
product, the cost is 15^ per unit for 200 units and 12^f per unit for the remain(}er of the order. Write a formula for the cost, C, in dollars, of n units if n > 200.
63
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
60. Algebraic translation
In applying equations in the solution of problems stated in words,
we
translate
word descriptions into algebraic
expressions.
ILLUSTRATION 1. If x is the length of one side of a rectangle and if the other dimension is 3 units less than twice as long, then the other dimension
is
(2x
3)
the perimeter (sum of lengths of sides)
is
2z
2(2z
3),
or
6z
6,
and the area
is
x(2x
2.
3).
ILLUSTRATION
integer
is
If x, y,
and
z are, respectively, the units', tens',
and
hundreds' digits of a positive integer with three digits, the value of the
+ Wy +
To
lOOz.
SUMMARY.
1.
solve
Introduce one or
an applied problem by use of equations: more letters to represent the unknowns and
give
a description of each one in words.

2.
Translate the given facts into one or more equations involving the
solve for their values.
unknowns, and
3.
Check
the solution by substituting the results in the written state-
ment of
the problem.
1.
EXAMPLE
Jones
will
$350 is to be divided between Jones and Smith so that receive $25 more than Smith. How much does each receive?
1.
SOLUTION.
Let x be the number of dollars which Smith receives.

(x
Then, Jones receives

2.
+ 25)
x
dollars.
is
The sum
of the
amounts received
$350, or
350.
..
(x
+ 25) =
(1)
On
solving (1), we obtain x = 162.50. Hence, Smith receives $162.50 and Jones receives $162.50 $25 or $187.50. These results check.
EXAMPLE
2.
of the larger is
Find two consecutive even integers such that the square 44 greater than the square of the smaller integer.
1.
SOLUTION. integer is x
2.
2.
Let x represent the smaller integer. Their squares are x* and (x -f 2) 2

.
Then, the larger
From
the data,
Expanding:
+ 2) - x = 44. x* = 44; x* + 4z + 4
(x
2
2
(2)
4z
3.
40;
10.
The
integers are 10
and
12.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
CHECK.
10 2
3.
ONE UNKNOWN
144
69
100;
12 2
it
144;
100
44.
EXAMPLE
How
to plow a field in 8 days?
take Jones and Smith, working together, which Jones can plow alone in 5 days and Smith, alone,
long will
SOLUTION.
1.
Let x days be the time required by Jones and Smith,

field.
working together.
2.
In
day, Jones can plow J and Smith J of the
Hence, in x
X 3/ days Jones can plow ^ and Smith can plow ^ of the 5 o

3.
field.
Since the whole field
is
parts plowed
by the men
in
plowed in x days, the sum of the fractional x days is 1

:
= 3^
days.
EXERCISE 23
an equation in just one unknown. 1. A line 68 inches long is divided into two parts where one longer than the other. Find their lengths.
Solve by use of
2.
is
3 inches
cut into two pieces such that one part is 4 inches less than twj 'as long as the other part. Find the lengths of the parts. ;he
rope 36 inches
Sng
is
3.
Find the dinu J P| (jns of a rectangle whose perimeter

is
is
55
feet,
if
the altitude
4.
f of the base.
of a rectangle
is
One dimension
if
the other.
of the rectangle
is
its
perimeter becomes 130 feet
Find the dimensions when each dimension
increased
5.
by 5
feet.
What number
should be subtracted from the numerator of fj to
cause the fraction to equal f ?

6. 7.
Find two consecutive positive integers whose squares Find three consecutive integers whose sum
is
differ
by
27.
48.
is
Find the angles of a triangle where one angle angle and six times the third angle.
8.
9.
three times a second
and a triangle have equal bases. The altitude of the rectangle is 25 feet and of the triangle is 20 feet. The combined area of the triangle and the rectangle is 280 square feet. Find the length of the base.
rectangle
10. J?ind
two consecutive
positive
odd integers whose squares
differ
by
32,*
70
11.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
is
length of a rectangular lot is three times its width. If the length decreased by 20 feet and the width is increased by 10 feet, the area is
The
increased
12.
by 200 square
triangle
feet.
Find the original dimensions.

base.
triangle
the rectangle is than the base.
and a rectangle have the same 4 feet longer, and the altitude of the
The
is
altitude of
5 feet shorter
The area
of the rectangle
is
90 square feet greater than
twice the area of the triangle.

13.
Find the length of the base.
A sum
quarters.
to $13.55 consists of nickels, dimes, and There are three times as many dimes as nickels and three less
of
money amounting
quarters than dimes.

14. If (59
How many
divided
of each coin are there?
3z)
is
by the
x.
integer x, the quotient
is
5 and the
remainder
is 3.
Find the value of

dividend
HINT.
16.
Recall:
(quotient)
(divisor)
+ remainder.
peddler sold 7 bushels more than f of his load of apples and then had 9 bushels less than f of the load remaining. Find his original load.
hour, Jones can plow J of a field and Roberts -fa of work together, how long will it take them to plow the field?
16.
In
it.
If
they
17.
room can be painted
in 21 hours
Johnson.
18.
How
long will
it
take them to
by Smith and in 14 hours by paint the room working together?
f long will it take two mechanical d .chdiggers to excavate a ditch which the first machine, alone, could con lete in 8 days and the
How
second, alone, in 11 days?

19.
Jo*
*
long will it take workers A and B, together, to complete a job which could be done by A alone in 7 days, and by B alone in 9 days?
How How
long will it take to fill a reservoir with intake pipes A, B, and C open, if the reservoir could be filled through A alone in 6 days, B alone in 8 days, and C alone in 5 days?
20.
1000 articles of a given type can be turned out by a first machine in 9 hours, by a second in 6 hours, and by a third in 12 hours, how long will it take to turn out the articles if all machines work together?
2JL.
If
22.
An
integer between 10
if it is
and 100 ends
in 5.
By
writing an equation,
find the integer
5 times the
sum
of its digits.
61. Percentage
The words
hundredths.
per cent are abbreviated by the symbol That is, if r is the value of h%, then
and mean
=
156
'
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ILLUSTRATION
ONE UNKNOWN
4J% =
4
7*i
7?
1.
6% =
1,
fi
.06.
.0475.
From equation
to per cent form,
we obtain h = lOOr; hence, to change a number we multiply r by 100 and add the symbol.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
If r
.0175, then lOOr
=
-
1.75
and .0175
1.75%.
ILLUSTRATION
18
3.
cnn oLMJ
of a ratio
9
xrv\
0225
2 25 %-
The description
If
M/N in per cent form is the background

relation
r is
is
for the following terminology.

of
is
described
r as
to
N,
M = Nr, where the ratio we sometimes say that M expressed as a percentage

by the
the rate and AT as the base for the percentage:
or
or
of
N, with
M = Nr, = M
r
-TT*
percentage
.
=
=
(base)
rate
percentage * r base
(rate)
(2)
/0
,
' (3) v
ILLUSTRATION
rate r
4.
To
fj$
=
1.
.75.
express 375 as a percentage of 500, we compute the Hence, 375 = .75(500), or 375 is 75% of 500.
Find the number of residents of a city where population, or 962 people, had influenza.
SOLUTION.
Let
EXAMPLE
13%
of the
P be
the
number
of residents:
.UP Note
1.
962;
P .lo
,
lo
7400.
In the formation of a mixture of different ingredients, we shall assume that there is no change in volume. Actually, a slight gain or loss of
volume might occur,
for instance, as
a result of chemical action.
In the typical mixture problem, where one special ingredient is involved, the equation for solving the problem frequently can be obtained by writing, in algebraic form, the statement that
(
the
sum of the amounts of the] _

/
amount
of the ingredient
ingredient in the parts
in the final mixture,
the price of a mixture is the fundamental feature, the equation may be obtainable by using equation 4 with the costs of tHe parts thought of in place of the ingredients.
If
72
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
In 5
2.
should be added
1.
gallons of a mixture containing 80% alcohol to 5 gallons of a 20% solution to give a 30% solution?
How many
Let x be the number of
gal.
added.
In x
gal.,
80%
pure
alcohol, there are .80x gal. of alcohol.

2. 3. 4.
gal.,
20%
pure, there are .20(5) gal. of alcohol.
In (5 4- x)
gal.,
30%
pure, there are .30(z

-f-
5) gal. of alcohol.
is
alcohol in the final mixture of (5 in the x gal. and in the 5 gal. Or,
.30(z
The
x) gal.
the
sum
of the alcohol
5)
.80*
.20(5);
1.
EXAMPLE
3.
What
off
should be drawn
percentage of a 20% solution of hydrochloric acid and replaced by water to give a 15% solution?
SOLUTION. 1. Think of the solution as consisting of 100 units of volume; then the solution contains 20 units of acid.
Let x% be the rate for the percentage which should be drawn Then, from the 100 units we should draw off x% of 100, or x units.
2. 3.
off.
In x units there are .20# units of acid.
units in the final solution of 100 units,

.15
There remain (20 .20z) after water is added. Therefore,
2
;
15
20
.20z;
25.
Or,
we should draw
off
25%
of the original solution.
EXERCISE 24
Change
1. to
decimal form.
2.
5%.
to
4J%.
3.
3|%.
4.
45%.
5.
126.3%.
6.
Change
7.
per cent form.

8.
.07.
.0925.
9.
.025.
10. .0575.
11. 1.35.
Compute each
12.
quantity.
13.
6%
of $300.
3^%
of 256.
14.
110%
of 1250.
Express the first number as a percentage of the second.

15. 75, of 200. 18. 16. 400, of 640.
17. 350, of 200.
price of copper per pound in the United States was approximately $.138 in 1926, $.081 in 1931, and $.215 in late 1947. Find the per cent of change in the price from 1926 to 1931; from 1931 to 1947. Solve each problem by using
19. If
The average
385
is
85%
of x,
an equation in just one unknown. find x. 20. If 268 is 24% less than
y,
find y.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
21. After selling
ONE UNKNOWN
73
85%
has 84 dresses
22.
left.
of a stock of dresses, a What was his original stock?
merchant finds that he
merchant buys 100 dozen
shirts at $13.20 per dozen.
He
sells
90 dozen at a markup of 30% over the purchase price. At what price per shirt could he afford to sell the remaining 10 dozen to clear his stock if he desires his total receipts from the shirts to be 25% greater than the cost?
$3000 of Smith's income is not taxed by the state where he lives. All of his income over $3000 is taxed 2% and all over $8000 is taxed 3% in addition. If he pays a total tax of $800, what is his income?
23. 24.
Under the taxes
of
Problem
23, with
is
on
all
income over $20,000, Johnson's tax
an additional surtax of $1400. Find his income.
5%
25.
50^.
A merchant has some coffee How many pounds of each

How many
worth 70^f per pound and some worth are used in forming 100 pounds of a
mixture worth 65^ per pound?

gallons of a mixture of water and alcohol containing 60% alcohol should be added to 9 gallons of a 20% solution to give a 30% solution?
26. 27.
55% 40%
gallons of a solution of glycerine and water containing glycerine should be added to 15 gallons of a 20% solution to give a solution?
How many
ounces of pure silver must be added to 150 ounces, pure, to give a mixture containing 60% silver?
28. 29.
How many
45%
feed merchant wishes to form 200 bushels of a mixture of wheat
at $1.25 per bushel and wheat at $.80 per bushel, so that the mixture will be worth $1.00 per bushel. How much of each kind should he use?
pounds of cream containing 35% butterfat should be added to 800 pounds of milk containing 3% butterfat to give milk con30.
How many
3.5%
taining
31.
butterfat?
40%
automobile radiator holds 8 gallons of a solution containing glycerine. How much of the solution should be drawn off and replaced
to give a solution with
An
by water
32.
25%
glycerine?
percentage of a 30% solution of sulphuric acid should be drawn off and replaced by water to give a 20% solution?
33.
What
What What
percentage of a
40%
solution of alcohol
and water should
be replaced by pure alcohol, to give a

34.
75%
solution?
taining
30%
percentage of a mixture of sand, gravel, and cement, concement, should be replaced by pure cement in order to give
a mixture containing
40%
cement?
74
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
62. Lever problems
A lever consists of a rigid rod with one point of support called the fulcrum. A familiar instance of a lever is a teeterboard. If a weight
w
attached to a lever at a certain point, the distance h of w from the fulcrum is called the lever arm of w, and the product hw is called
is
the moment of
about the fulcrum.
The
following statement
is
demonstrated in physics.
LEVER PRINCIPLE. // two or more weights are placed along a lever in such a way that the lever is in a position of equilibrium, then, if each weight is multiplied by its lever arm, the sum of these products for all weights on one side of the fulcrum equals the sum of the products for all weights on the other side. In other words, the sum of the moments of
the weights about the
fulcrum
is the
same on both
it will
sides.
Note
1.
In
all lever
is
problems in this book,
be assumed that the
weight of the lever
negligible for the purpose in view.
ILLUSTRATION
of the
is
1.
In Figure
2,
the
sum
moments
MIAMI
for the weights at the left
(5-80 -h 4-250) or 1400, and for those at the right is

(4-
100
+ 5-200), or
girls,
1400.
Fig.
Hence,
this lever is balanced.

1.
EXAMPLE
sit
weighing 75 pounds and 90 pounds, respectively, at the ends of a teeterboard 15 feet long. Where should the fulcrum be
Two
placed to balance the board?
SOLUTION.
girl.
1.
Let x
feet
be the distance from the fulcrum to the lighter

for
Then, the lever arm

x) feet.
3,
the other
>
girl is (15
x-
2.
Hence, from Figure

75* x
= =
(15
z)90;
83^
feet.
EXERCISE 25
weight of 300 pounds is placed on a lever 20 feet from the fulcrum. Where should a weight of 275 pounds be placed to balance the lever?
1.
2.
How
weight of 60 pounds is placed on a lever 8 feet from the fulcrum, heavy a weight should be placed 12 feet from the fulcrum on the
other side to give equilibrium?
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
3.
ONE UNKNOWN
girl
75
weighing 80 pounds sits 4 feet from the fulcrum, another girl weighing 100 pounds sits 7 feet from the fulcrum on the other side, and a third girl sits 6 feet from the fulcrum. How much does the third girl weigh?
teeterboard
is
balanced when one
Jones and Smith together weigh 340 pounds. Find their weights if they balance a lever when Jones sits 5 feet from its fulcrum on one side and Smith sits 6 feet from the fulcrum on the other side.
4.
40-pound weight is placed 6 feet from the fulcrum on a lever, and a 60-pound weight 8 feet from the fulcrum on the other side. Where should a 30-pound weight be placed to give equilibrium?
5.
heavy a weight can a man lift with a lever 9 feet long if the fulcrum is 2 feet from the end under the weight and if the man exerts a force of 140 pounds on the other end?
6.
How
7.
How many
lift
lever to
pounds of force must a man exert on one end of an 8-foot a 300-pound rock on the other end if the fulcrum is 1J feet
from the rock?
63. Uniform motion
When we
we mean
say that a body is moving in a path at constant speed, that the body passes over equal distances in any two equal
referred to as uniform motion in or speed or rate of the body in its path is the path. The velocity defined as the distance traveled in one unit of time. If v is the velocintervals of time.
is
Such motion
*
ity,
and d
is
the distance traveled in
units of time,
(1)
d =
j
vt.
Since v
=,
the velocity
is
referred to as the rate of change of the
distance with respect to the time. In stating a velocity, the units for the measurement of time and of distance must always be mentioned.
ILLUSTRATION
speed, the speed
1.
If
an airplane
1250
>
flies
1250 miles in 5 hours at uniform
is
d t
or
_n ., 250 miles per hour.

,
The speed
*
of the airplane per
minute
is
or 4J miles.
In physics, velocity is denned as a vector quantity, possessing both magnitude and direction. In this text, wherever the word velocity is used, it will refer to the
magnitude (positive) of the velocity vector.
76
Note
bring in
1.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
All motion considered in this
ONE UNKNOWN
book
will
be uniform motion.
If
the velocity of a
moving body is variable, a discussion of the motion must more advanced notions met in physics and calculus.
1.
messenger, traveling at a speed of 65 miles per hour, pursues a truck which has a start of 2 hours and overtakes the truck in 3 hours.
EXAMPLE
Find the speed of the truck.

SOLUTION.
3. (65)
Let x miles per hour be the truck's speed.
Then,
(3
+ 2)z;
rt
195
5z;
39 miles per hour.
applies in the discussion of any variable quantity d which changes uniformly at a specified rate r with respect to change in the time t. Thus, we may refer to a rate of increase
The equation d =
or a rate of decrease under various conditions.
EXAMPLE
full
motorboat went 70 miles in 4 hours when traveling at speed upstream on a river whose current flows at the rate of 6 miles
2.
per hour.
How
1.
fast can the
boat travel in
still
water?
still
SOLUTION.
(x
2.
Let x miles per hour be the speed of the boat in
water.
In travel upstream, the rate of the current reduces the speed of the boat to
6) miles per hour.
From d =
vt,
with
4, v
= x 6, 70 = 4(s 4x
and d
6).
70,
(2)
On
solving (2)
we obtain
94;
x
still
23.5.
Hence, the boat can travel 23.5 miles per hour in
water.
64. Radius of action of an airplane

* Suppose that an airplane flies with a groundspeed of Gi miles f per hour in a particular direction from a base B and then back along
path at a groundspeed of (?2 miles per hour, when the engines are working at full power, and while the wind maintains a constant direction and speed. G\ and <? 2 in general would be different because of the effects of the wind. Suppose that the gasoline tanks of the airplane permit it to operate at full power for only T hours after
this
refer to leaving B. interest to consider the
We
as the available fuel hours.
Then,
it is
of
maximum
fly
which the airplane

*
may
out
if
length of time, h hours, during it is to return to B by the end of
Speed with respect to the ground as contrasted to the airspeed, or speed with respect to the air, which itself may be in motion because of a wind. We read "Gi" as "G sub 1 " or "G, 1," t The subscript 1 on GI is just a tag.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
flies
77
hours.
is
The
distance
which the airplane
out from
in
h hours
called the radius of action of the airplane in the specified * that direction, with the given wind. It can be proved
EXAMPLE
1.
How many
fuel
hours must be available in order to have
900 miles as the radius of action in a direction where the groundspeeds out and back are, respectively, 300 and 200 miles per hour?
SOLUTION.
equation in
(1)
Substitute
:
R =
900, Gi
300,
and
G =
z
200 in the second
900
_ "
7X300X200) 100 + 200
'
Hence,
T =
7J hr.
EXERCISE 26
1.
At what
rate does
an automobile
travel
if it
goes 450 miles in 9 hours?
Jones and Smith travel toward each other from points 500 miles apart, Jones at the rate of 60 miles per hour and Smith at 50 miles per hour. When will they meet if they start at the same instant?
2.
from the same place, in opposite directions, at speeds of 36 miles and 48 miles per hour, respectively. When will they be 600 miles apart?
3.
Two men
start at 7 A.M.
a motorcycle messenger starts from a city at a speed of 45 miles per hour to meet a regiment which is 120 miles away and is approaching at a speed of 5 miles per hour. When will the messenger meet the regiment?
4.
At 6
A.M.,
6.
One man can run 400 meters
in
54 seconds and a second

it
the distance in 60 seconds.

race?
How
long will
take the faster
man man
can run
to gain
a lead of 12 meters on the slower
man
if
they start together in a 400-meter
airplane leaves the deck of a battleship and travels south at the rate of 230 miles per hour. The battleship travels south at the rate of 20
6.
An
miles per hour. If the wireless set on the airplane has a range of 800 miles, when will the airplane pass out of wireless communication with the ship?
*
See page 51, in WILLIAM L. HART'S College Algebra, 3d Edition, D. C.
HEATH
AND COMPANY.
78
7.
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
ONE UNKNOWN
travels
How many seconds will it take for a man to travel y miles if he

in
t
x miles
8.
seconds?
In an 800-meter race between two men, the winner's time is 2 minutes, and his lead is 40 meters. How many seconds would it take the loser to run 800 meters?
airplane flew 850 miles in 2J hours against a head wind blowing 30 miles per hour. How fast could the plane fly in still air?
9.
An
start together in a race around a 300-yard oval track, one man at a speed of 9 yards per second and the other man at 7J yards per second. When will the faster man be exactly one lap ahead?
10.
Two men
Johnson be twice as wealthy as Smith if each has $4000 now and if their estates are increasing at the annual rates of $400 for Smith and $1200 for Johnson?
11.
will
When
can run around a 400-meter track in 65 seconds. How long does Smith take to run the 400 meters if he meets Jones in 35 seconds after they start together in a race around the track in opposite directions?
12. Jones
In each problem,
(a) find the radius of action for
flight by
an airplane
(b)
in a direction where the groundspeeds have the indicated values; number of hours flown on the maximum outward trip.
13. Sixteen fuel
find the
hours available; groundspeed out
is
240 miles and back
is
210 miles per hour.

14.
Twelve
fuel
hours available; groundspeed out
is
190 miles and back
is
225 miles per hour.

16.
is
Fourteen fuel hours available; groundspeed out
is
175 miles and back
200 miles per hour.

// an airplane is
to
have the specified radius of action in a direction corresponding to the given groundspeeds, find the number of fuel hours which must
be available.
16.
is
Radius of action
is
1350 miles; groundspeed out
is
200 miles and back
225 miles per hour.

17.
Radius of action
is
750 miles; groundspeed out
is
195 miles and back
is
175 miles per hour.

18.
hours must be available to permit an airplane flight out from a field for 5J hours in a direction such that the groundspeed out is 200 miles and back is 185 miles per hour?
fuel
19.
How many
At how many minutes
after 2 P.M. will the
minute hand of a clock
overtake the hour hand?

20. After 10 P.M.,
when
will
the hands of a clock
first
form a straight
line?
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
65. Interest
Interest is
ONE UNKNOWN
79
income received from invested
capital.
The
capital
At any time a'fter the originally invested is called the principal. investment of the principal, the sum of the principal and the interest
due
is called
the amount.
is
The
rate of interest
to the principal.
If r is
the ratio of the interest earned in one year the rate and P is the principal, then
interest per year _ J
interest for
one year
Pr.
(2)
Thus, the interest

ILLUSTRATION
equation
1,
is
a percentage of the principal, with r as the rate.

$1000 earns $36.60 interest in one year, then, from
r
1.
If
=^^ =
.0366,
or
3.66%.
66. Simple interest

original investment during the whole life of a transaction, the interest earned is called simple interest. is invested at simple interest for t years at the Suppose that
If interest is
computed on the
rate
r.
t
Let / be the interest and

years.
t
of the
be the final amount at the end Then, the interest for one year is Pr and, by definiyears
/
is
tion, the simple interest for
t(Pr) or Prt',
that
is,
Prt.
interest,
(1)
Since amount equals principal plus
F = P
From
(1),
/.
(2)
P+
Hence, from
(2),
/-
P + Prt =
P(l
+ rt).
(3)
F = P(l
4- rt).
In equations 1 and 3, t represents the time expressed in years. If the time is described in months, we express it in years assuming a year to contain 12 equal months. If the time is given in days, there
are
two
varieties of interest used, ordinary
and exact simple interest
In computing ordinary interest we assume a year to contain 360 days, and, for exact interest, we assume a year to contain 365 days.
80
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
find the
ONE UNKNOWN
find the
To
interest
amount F when P, r, and t are given, first from 7 = Prt and then compute P + / to find F.
Note
l'.
Unless otherwise specified, the word "interest" in this book will
refer to simple interest.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
If
$5000
is
is
invested for 59 days at
5%,
$40.97;
the ordinary interest due
the final
amount due
1.
is
5000(.05)^y 5000 + 40.97
= =
$5040.97.
EXAMPLE
If
$1000 accumulates to $1250 when invested at simple
interest for 3 years, find the interest rate.
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
We have P =
Prt with
t
$1000;
F=
$1250; I
1250
1000
$250.
From
250
3,
1000(r)(3);
250
3000r;
OKA
.08J
In
F=
P(l
+ rt),
the principal
value of the
amount F because, if the accumulated amount at the end
P P
is is
frequently called the present invested today at the rate r,

t
of
years will be F.
is
EXAMPLE 2. Find the present value of $1100 which 21 years, if money can be invested at 4%.
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
due at the end of
We
have
F=
$1100, r
.04,
and
Hence, from
(3),
1100
= P[l
1.1P
+ f(.04)];
1100;
1100
= =
P(l
.10);
P=
$100;
~
JL
.L
$1000.
CHECK.
1000(.04)(f)
F =
1000
100
$1100.
EXERCISE 27
Find
1.
the ordinary interest
and
the final
amount.
2.
On $5000
at
6%
for
216 days.
the final
On
$8000 at
4J%
for
93 days.
Find
3. 6.
the exact interest
and
amount.
4.
On
$3000 at
4%
for 146 days.
On
$2500 at
if
51%
$150
for
is
27 days.
invested
Find the amount due at the end of 8 months
at
9%.
With
6.
the given data, solve
F=
$1000; r
F = P(l = .03; - f
t
+ rt) for P,
7.
to the
nearest cent.
F=
$3000; r
.05;
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
8.
9.
ONE UNKNOWN
on $6000?
B1
At what
rate will $750 be the interest for 5 years

if it
Find the invested principal

is
if it
earns $375 interest in 3 months when
the interest rate

10.
Find the principal

(a)
earns $150 interest in J year at

will
8%.
by the end
of
11.
Find the principal which
amount
to $1300
6 years when invested at on it for 6 years.

12.
if
5%.
(6)
Verify the result
by computing
interest
Find the present value of $1888 which

is
is
due at the end of 4 years,
the interest rate

13.
4%.
Jones agreed to pay Smith $6000 at the end of 5 years. What should Jones pay immediately to cancel his debt if Smith agrees that he can invest
money
14.
at
4%?
y
Roberts buys a bill of goods from a merchant who asks $2000 at the end of 2 months. If Roberts wishes to pay immediately, what should the seller be willing to accept if he is able to invest his money at 8%?
15.
debtor owes $1100 due at the end of 2 years and he requests the
privilege of paying simple interest rate
ment, at
16.
5% How long
A man
an equivalent smaller sum immediately. At what would the creditor prefer to compute the present payor at 6%, and how much would he gain by the best choice?
will it
take a given principal to double
itself if
invested
at
5%
17.
simple interest?
invests $7000, one part of it at If the total annual interest is $320, how much
5%
is
and the balance at 4%.
invested at each rate?
CHAPTER
5
AND FACTORING
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
67. Square root

If
R2
A, we
call
R
is
a square root of A.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
a square root of 16 because 42
16.
Every positive number
has two square roots, one positive and
one negative, with equal absolute values. The positive square root is denoted by H- VZ, or simple VA, and the negative square root b VZ. We call a radical and A its radicand. Unless other-
VZ
wise stated, the square root of A will By the definition of a square root,
mean
its positive
square root.
If
is
positive or zero,
~3 because 32
or
3.
x.
(2)
9.
ILLUSTRATION
are
2.
V9 =
or
The two square

"
rfc"
roots of 9
V9
and
V,
3.
V9,
We
J
read
as "plus or minus."
2
ILLUSTRATION
VJ
because
(|)
4-
68. Perfect squares
In the square of an integral rational term, each exponent will be an even integer because, in squaring, each original exponent is multiplied
by
2.
1.
ILLUSTRATION
(3xV)
32 (x2) 2 (i/s ) 2
be a perfect square if it is the square of an The student should learn the most common perfect square integer. integers, with the aid of Table I, page 283.
integer is said to
An
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
ILLUSTRATION
2.
AND FACTORING
1, 4, 9, 16,
S3
25, 36, etc.
The
perfect square integers are
Their square roots are, respectively, because 52 = 25.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.
Thus, \/25
integral rational term is said to be a perfect square if it is the square of some other term of the same variety. Hence, in a perfect
An
square, each exponent
is
an even
is
integer.
ILLUSTRATION
I.
3.
25a264
a perfect square because 25a2 64
2 2
(Safe
To find
the square root of

literal
a perfect square monomial:
1.
Rewrite the
part with each exponent divided by 2.

coefficient of the
2.
Multiply by the square root of the numerical
given term.
ILLUSTRATION
4.
Vl6x*y*
= VT6Vx*y* = 4#y,
because
To find the square root of a fraction, find numerator and of the denominator and divide:
II.
the square root of the
ILLUSTRATION
5.
\/T^
= v^4 7= =
V25
IWQa6
2
^*
ILLUSTRATION
\/100a6
10o3
6.
For the present, we shall consider \/A only where A is a perfect square monomial, or where A is a fraction whose numerator and denominator All literal numbers in A will be supposed are perfect square monomials.
Note
1
.
positive or zero.
EXERCISE 28
Find
1.
the two square roots of the

2. 49.
number and check by squaring

4. 64.
6.
fc.
the results.
6.
25.
3. 121.
Find each square

necessary.
7.
root
and check by squaring
the result.
Inspect Table I if
V9.
8.
VIOO.
9. \/81.
10. \/l44.
84
11.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
13. \/if. 17. 14.
Vl96.
tf. 16.
Vf.
15.
19.
V.
Vz
4
.
Vg.
20. 24.
V.
V^
5
.
21.
VSVo
2
".
18.
22.
23. Vtf*.
27. \/4^.
25.
Viol
26.
28. \/16^. 32.
29. \/49?.
.
30.
.
31.
\64a.
fo2
33.
\49w*c4
34.
39.
tv
40.
t/=?.
41.
\(1-
each quantity.
51. (\/37)
55.
'root.
2
.
52.
(\/142^)
2
.
63.
(V^) 2
64. (>/659)2.
A negative number can have neither a Why is this true?
positive nor a negative square
69. Products of binomials
When
desired, the product of
two binomials may be found by
longhand methods.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
2
(3s
5y)(2x
6x
21xy
- Wxy +
y)
= 3x(2x - ly) - 5y(2x 2 = 6x - Zlxy + 35y2 35t/

7y)
2
.
7y)
ILLUSTRATION
2.
(x -f y)(x
x(x
y)
+ y(x
y
2
.
y)
xz
xy
2
+ xy
x2
ILLUSTRATION
3.
+ 6) = (a -f fe)(a + 6) a(o + 6) + 6(a + 6) = a + 2ab +

(a
2
ft
2
.
70. Special products
able to dispense with the longhand methods of the preceding section and should form the product of two binomials mentally. Products of the following types occur frequently.
The student should be
The student should
verify each right-hand
member.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
I.
AND FACTORING
85
a(x
+ y)
2
ax
-f
II.
III.
2 (*4-y)(*-if) = x 2 (a + b)* = a + 2a& +
IV.
V.
VI.
- 2ab + = x2 + (ax -f 6x) -f ab. (x + a)(x + 6) 2 (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx -f (aa*x + bcx)
(a
&)
a2
6<f.
It proves convenient to
memorize Types
II, III,
and IV as formulas
and
also in words.
the
ILLUSTRATION 1. Type II states that the product of ence of two numbers is the difference of their squares. ILLUSTRATION
2.
sum and
the differ-
III states that the square of the sum of two numbers equals the square of the first, plus twice the product of the numbers, plus the
Type
square of the second number.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
(c
2d)(c
+ 2d) =
c2
(2d)
c2
4#.
(Type
II)
ILLUSTRATION
4.
From Type
III with a
3x and 6
=*
2y,
=
The
right
9x 2
Types V and VI should not be committed to memory. However, the nature of the right members should be memorized, with (ax 4- bx) in Type V and (adx + bcx) in Type VI remembered as the sum of the cross products.
members
of
ILLUSTRATION
5.
To
f
obtain (2#
5) (3x
7)
2* 3z
-5
I
'
j^XT
Sum
The diagram and
lustration.
Product
6z2
35.
-F7
I4x
15x
of the cross products:
x.
auxiliary computation of the
should be omitted and replaced by
of the cross products mental computation as in the next il-
sum
ILLUSTRATION
because the
6.
(2x
7fc)(3z -f 2h)
6x2
I7hx
sum
of cross products is
7.
2lhx
(z
2 2
ILLUSTRATION
(x
3y*)
+ 4hx, or I7hx. - 2(a; )(3^) + W)

2
(Type IV)
86
ILLUSTRATION
SPECIAL
8.
PRODUCTS AND FACTORING

2
(x
2y)(x*
+
2
2y)(x*
+
-
4t/ )
2
(Type
-f 4s/
2
II)
/)](z<
+
2 2
4s/ )
=
8
(x*
4i/ )(z<
(4i/ )
(4
ILLUSTRATION
9.
(- 3x
- 4)(- 3s + 4) = = EXERCISE 29
+ 3z)(4 - 3x)
- 9z ) = 2
(16
16
+ 9z
2
.
Expand and collect terms, performing as miich of the work as possible mentally.
1.
5(3a
4t>).
2. 6.
3c(2
(c
6c).
.
3.
ab(4x
ax).
4.
5x(2y
3z).
7. (a
+ y)\
2y)(5
8. (c
10. (5
12.
14. 16.
+ 2y). - 4) (3 + 42). (3x - 2) (06 + 2). (a6 (c + 3).

2
6. (h + d). - 3x)(c + 3x). 9. (4 11. (3 + 2r)(3 - 2r).
d)(c
+ 2k}. y)(4 + y).

2k)(h
13. (a2 16. (a

17. (x
36) (a -f 36).
2) (a
4).
+ 5)
-
2
.
18. (y
2
.
4)
2
.
19. (2a
5)
20. (3x
.
2)
21. (2z
22. (3x
4y)
23. (2a
+ 6)
2
.
24. (x
26. (3 -h *)(2 4- x). 27. (x
26. (2x
5)(* -f 9).
28.
+ 5y)(- 2x - 4). (x + 13)(*

2z}(w -f &).
5)(2x
5y).
29. (a 31.
+ 26) (a + 36). (2x + 3)(3x + 4).

3x)(2y
30. (w
32. (3x 34. 36. 38.

(2^/
3).
33. (4y 36. (2y
x).
3)(3y -h 5).
37. (3u> -f 5)(7w
2).
39. (4x
41. (6
3y)(2x
+ 3y).
-h x).
40. 42.
44.
46. (4
+ w)(y + 5w). - 3)(2y + 7). (y - 4z)(2 + 5x). (3 - 5w)(2w + 3io). (3u

(- 3
5x)(~ 2
2x)(2
3)(fy
x).
43. (3*
4)(- x
+ 5).
+ 36
49. (3
(- y
+ 4).
2wxr2 ) 2
.
45. (x2 -h 2) 2 . 48.
2 2
47. (2xy
.
(4a^
2
2/)
.
+ 46x)
60. (x
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
61. (x 64.
AND FACTORING
63. (J
87
J)
2
.
62. O/
+ i)
2
.
2*)'.
(we
2a)(wx* 4- 2o).
66.
67.
(cd
(a;
3^)(cd
+ 3x).
66. (x
68.
60. 62.
+ .l)(z + .5). - *). (.3 + z)(.2 (a - 6)(o + b). (& + fe)(fz y)(x 4- 2/X*
2
.2)(x -f .5).
69. (3
.2z)(2 -f .5x).
61. (Jo
/).
2
a;
#>)(Ja
+ J6).
.5).
63. (.4*
).
.3)(.2x
2
64. (x
66.
68.
70.
+^ - 3)(w 4- 3)(w> + 9). (w - 3yz(2y* - 3yz + 2

2
2
66. (2
67.
69.
)(2
+ z')(4
3x2
7x(2ax
).
(- 3
2
.
- 4)(72.
2 -f fa).
(- x
2
t/)
.
71.
(- 2s -
3y)
2
.
(- 3
73. [2(*
76. (3o:2
?/)]
74. [3(o
+ 6)]
76. [5(2c
8)(x*
2
+ 2).
2
2
77. (4z2
3)(3x
2
+ 2).
s
78. (2x 2
3i/
)(x -f
3
4?/ ).
79. (2a2
80. (z 3
+ 3)(3x 3v2 )(3w4

2
2
4).
81. (3a
2
82. (2u4
84. (2x2
+ 2v
).
2
83. (4x 86. (3w2
+ 56 )(a - 36 - 26 (7a + 66 - 3^)(3x + 2y*).

2
).
s
).
5i/
)(2z -f 5y
).
7v2)(3w2 -f 2V2 ).
86. (2a6c 2
71. Grouping
in multiplication
of the following illustrations is particularly useful in applications of Types II, III, and IV of Section 70.
The method
ILLUSTRATION
1.
(c
-f
2d
lla)(c -f 2d -f
-f-
Ho)
(Type
.
= [(c + 2d) - llo][(c + 2d) llo] = (c + 2d) - (Ho) = c + 4cd + 4cP - 121o - 3z) = [(2x + y) - 3] ILLUSTRATION 2. (2x + y = (2x + 2 - 2(32) (2* -f y) + (3s) 2 = 4s + 4x + - 12x2 - 6z + 9s
2 2 2
2
t/)
II)
(Type IV)
2 .
t/
ILLUSTRATION
3.
2
(a
+ &)
+ 6 + c + 2) = [(a + 6) + + 2(o + 6)(c 4- 2) + (c + 2)

(a
2
(c
+ 2)?
(Type
III)
a2 4- 2o6 4- 12 4- 2oc 4- 4o 4- 26c 4- 46 4-
c2 4- 4c 4- 4.
88
ILLUSTRATION
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
4.
AND FACTORING
[2*
- 3 + 2y)(2x + 3 - 2y) - (3 - 23,)] + (3 - 2y)] - (3 - 2y) = 4x* - 9 4- I2y (2x
O
2
EXERCISE 30
Expand and
1.
collect
2
.
terms by use of preliminary grouping.

2. 6.
[(* 4- y) 4- 2]
(2
[(o
4.
7.
+ a 4- w)\
b
(4a
c)
8.
2
.
+ 5J. (3s + y + 5) (- 2 + a + 6)
6)
2
.
3.
[3
(2x
y)J.
2
.
6. (*
.
2y
3)
9.
[2x
3 (a
fc
)]
2
.
10. (2x
12. [(c
3*2
3?/)
11. [(ar 13.
14.
16. 18.
20.
+ 2x) - 2][(c + 2x) + 2], - 4). (a + w -f 4) (a + w - 2) (3* + y + 2). (3* + y - + )(a -f t 4(a - 3)] [(a 4. 6) + (c
fc
15. 17.
2).
19.
'
21.
22. (a 4- c 4- 6
5)
2
.
23.
+ y) - 3][> + y) + 3J - (2o + 6)] [4 + (2o + 6)1 [4 - x)(a + b + x). (a + 6 - y + 4)(3o - y - 4). (3a - y + 2)(a; + y (z - 3] [2s + y + o - z + y - 2) (2x
2 2
).
24. (o 4- b 4- c 4- d)(a 26. 26. 27.
+ 6 - c - d). (2x + y-z + 3)(2x + (a + 3y 5)(a 4- 3y - 2d - a - x)(c 2d + a + x). (c

2
28.
Expand
Use
the
(x
-\-
y +
z)
and
state the result in words.

to
formula of Problem 28
.
expand each square.

30. (3a 32. (42s
29. (2a 4- 36 H- 4c) 2 31. (w
26 4- 3c) 2
3*i/
2
to 4- 3a) 2
5X8 ) 2
72. Terminology about factoring
In our discussion of factoring, unless otherwise stated, the coefficients will be integers in any polynomial referred to. Such an expression will be called prime if it has no integral rational factors except No simple rule can be stated for determinitself, or its negative, or 1. ing whether or not an expression is prime.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
ILLUSTRATION (.
AND FACTORING
89
We shall say that (x y) is prime although x - y = (Vx -f Vy)(Vx - Vy),
because these facltors are not integral and rational. Other prime expressions 2 2 2 are (x ?/ ), and (x* y), (x* --f- y ), (z xy xy
factor a polynomial will mean to express positive integral powers of distinct prime factors.
To
it
as a product of
ILLUSTRATION
2.
To
factor 4c4
462z2 we write
,
After an expression has been factored, the factors should always be verified toy multiplying them to obtain the given expression.
73. Factoring
by
inspection
Each ty/pe formula of Section 70 becomes a formula when read! from right to left.
I.
for factoring
ax
1.
+ ay +
by
2
az
a(x -f y -f
2
z).
iLLUS-niiATiON
+ 3y + % =
z
t/(6?/
+ 3 + Sy).
ILLUSTRATION 2. If a factor 2x y the remaining factor can be verified by

Hence,
is
removed from the term
division:
14xV =
2xV(7x?/
).
ILLUSTRATION 3. In the following factor hxy 2 from each term

:
factoring,
we remove the common

3
sum and
II.
T/ie difference of two squares equals the product of the
the difference of their square roots:
ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
4.
#2
=
4
,
(x
3)(z -f 3).
5.
.
To
factor 25s2
Oy
we observe that
H-
25a?
(6x)
and Oy4
2 2
(32/ )
Hence,
ILLUSTRATION
6.
a4
IGt/
(a
2 2 4y )(a 4-
(a
90
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
j
* 74. Perfect square trinomials
integral rational polynomial with three tei;ms is called a trinomial. The square of any binomial is a perfect s}quare trinomial.
An
trinomial of this type can be recognized formulas of Types III and IV of Section 70.
Perfect square trinomials:
III.
and factored by the
a1
a1
IV.
+ 2ab + = - 2a& + b* =
fc*
(a
+
-
&);
&).
(a
In a perfect square trinomial,

1.
we
notice that
two terms are perfect squares, and

the third term is plus (or
2.
minus) twice
the product
of
the square
roots of the other terms.
take the square roots of the terms which are perfect squares, compute the third tlerm which should be present, and check by inspection.
\
To verify that a trinomial is a perfect square,
2 ILLUSTRATION 1. To factor 4z2 2Qxy -f 25y we observe perfect squares 4z 2 and 25y 2 whose square roots are 2x and 5y. Hence the third term should = be 2(2x)(5y) 2Qxy, which checks, and gives
, ,
ILLUSTRATION
2.
2Qxy
+ 25y*
(2x
1624
+ 242^ + 9w
31
(4Z -f 3w)*.
'
EXERCISE
Factor by use of Types I and II.
// fractions occur, leave the factors in the form which arises most naturally by standard methods. Check by multiplying
the factors.
\
bx.
4.
2.
2cx
+ 4<fc.
5.
3.
2 6zy -f 2ax.
bx
-4-
-f-
c2^.
2cy
6.
3o&
+ 2a 6te2
5a2
7.
ac
+ 3bx + ex
2 <
8.
5y*
2 3y -f ay
9.
2
.
4o< -f
cf
3
.
10.
*
46V -f
+ 86cx
11.
3aV -
2o?/
+ ay
See Note 5 in the Appendix for an explanation of the process for finding the square root of a number expressed in decimal notation, by means of pure arithmetic. This process is intimately related to the formula of Type III.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
12. 14. 17.
AND FACTORING
91
6aV x2 - a2
64
3<w2
+ 40^.
15. w>2 18.
13. 2t04z
6w*c2
+ 5w*r*.
16. y*
s2 .
2s .
25.
x*y\
25s2 .
9ft
2
.
36
19. 4x*
y\
1.
20. 9x2 23.
21.
36# -
121.
.
22. 9s*
4a2
24. 1
27.
25x2
w*.
25. 256a* 28. 31.
1.
26. 9s2
J.
9a26*u>
16s*u>.
29. 25W?2
c2^.
.
30.
49u 2
32. 9
144a262
33. ax*
- 16v^. - ay*.
36.
36a26s
64x 8
34.
Which trinomials
36. x2 37. 39.
are not perfect squares?
+ 3x + 4. 4z + 6z + 9. 3z + fay + 4y*.
2
a2
+a+
6x2
1.
38. 9x 4
40. 4z2
to
any missing term of Types III and IV. 41. x 2 -f 2bx + b*.
Insert
43.
complete a perfect square.

2
Then
2
factor by use
42. 44.
a2
2a
(
+
-
1.
46. u?
47.
-h 36.
46.
48.
x2 -h 81
l&c.
49. 49x 2
51. 64
+
(
14ox
+a
2
.
60. 62. 64.

2
.
53. 66.
67. 69. 61.
+a6 4x + +9 4c (P + 25a - 30xy + 9x + 25y 4x - 28x + 49. 4a - 12a*b* + 96

16a6
2 2
.
56.
2
.
68.
60.
+ 2<fy + y x -f + 16. 4z - 20xz + 25 x + x + J. 1 + z z - 2x2. 9a + + 256. 166 + 49x 9x + hW. 24ax + 9x + 16a 25 - 30x + 9x
rf
.
2 2
2
.
62.
Factor.
63.
.
49
4ft
2
.
64. 75o2
3a262
65.
25s2
30^2
4
+ 9u
2
.
67.
x2 -f 25^
x.
68. 9X4
+ 49s/ -
42xV-
60.
4a2x
4ax -f
92
70. x*
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
50. Y2.
9y*>
71.
.
98u4
3a2x2
9oz2
lay*.
73. 25x2 76.

78.
10064
74.
5ay.
18u2
76. 16x 4
25wV - TOu2
2w6
^+
2
49t^.
77.
60wt>
12t*V
18y8
79. 147x2
First factor
and then compute.

.
80. 23 2
17 2
Check by expanding the original expression. 81. 522 - 482 82. 27 2 - 232 .
.
83. 1042
962
84.
452
trial
552
85. 37 2
33 2
75. Factoring trinomials
by
and
error
method
We recall the formulas of Types V and

V.
VI.
x*
VI
of Section 70.
(a
flex* -f
+ ab = (x + a)(x + b). (ad + bc)x + bd = (ax + b)(cx + d). +

b)x
* k can be factored by a Certain trinomials of the form gx* -f hx trial and error method suggested by the preceding formulas.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
(x
2.
1.
Factor:
1.
2x
8.
We
=
sum
is
wish to find a and 6 so that

x*
+ a)(x + 6) =
8;
(a
+ 6)a? + ab =
x2
2x
8.
Hence, ab
Since the
of 8.
thus a and 6 have opposite signs and are factors of the cross products is 4 2x, we guess that a =
and 6
2.
This
correct because
(x
4)(*
+ 2) =
a, 6, c,
x*
2x
8. 8.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
(ax
2.
1.
Factor:
15x2
+ 2z
=
We
6d
wish to find
oca;
2
and d so that
15z2
+ 6) (ex -f d) =
=
15,
(ad
+ bc)x + bd
=
+ 2z is
8.
Hence, oc
choose 6
=
=
(15z
8,
and the sum

15,
of the cross products
2x.
2. First trial.
Since oc
=
4.
choose a
15 and c
is
=
8.
since bd
8,
2 and d
This selection
wrong because
+ 2)(z - 4) =
3, c
5,
15s 2
6
5&c
2,
is
Second trial. Choose a correct because

3.
=
-f-
and d
4.
This selection
(3x
* If g, h,
2) (fir
+ 4) =
15x2
2z
8.
and k were chosen at random, without a common
factor, the trinomial

g, h,
would probably be prime. Later, we shall discuss a condition which satisfy when and only when the trinomial is not prime.
and
A;
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
If
AND FACTORING
93
merely the negative of another, we do not consider them as distinct prime factors; we combine their powers into a single power of one of them.
one prime factor
is
ILLUSTRATION = x 2)
1.
In 4x
x
4
2}(x
-f-
2)
x*
4x
4,
we
2
.
notice that
(x
+ 2).
-
Hence, we write
Note
1.
xz
= -
(x
+ 2)(z + 2) = -
(x
+ 2)
The preceding
factoring
methods apply to polynomials
in
which
the coefficients are any real numbers, not merely integers as in the illustrations. The nature of the coefficients which we agree to allow in a polynomial and its factors affects our definition of a prime expression but not our
general factoring procedure.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
3.
Factor:
6z 4
error,
x*
15.
By
trial
and
6s4
z2
15
(3z
5)(2z
+ 3).
EXERCISE 32
Factor by
1. x*
trial
and
error methods.
2.
3.
a2
x2
< 2
6.
7. 9.
+ Sx + 15. - 8a + 12. - Sx + 15. + 4* - 21.

3x
z 2 -f lOz
4. y*
6. 2
2
+ 21. - 1y + 12.
52
6.
8.
w*
5w
24.
16.
z2
18.
10.
a2
+ 6a 3y
7a
11. w*
+ 2w - 48.
2w
12.
14.
4
8
2
.
13. 15 16. 17.

19.
w>
2
.
a2
24
32 54
+ 2w - w
4y
2
.
16. 62 18.
y\
fc
3&
6z
2
.
20. 22.
24.
21. x 2 23. 25.

27.
72.
'2o:
29.
+ 7. 10z - llz + 3. 8x - 10z + 3z 3 + 2 - 5.

5a2
12a
2
26.
.
+ 36 - 28. 27 + Qw 36 + 5h - K. + 7z + 3. 3o + 8a 4- 5. 3a - lOa + 7.
w?
2
.
28. 2x*
x*
30.
94
31. 3x*
33. 8u*
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
4y
+x 9
10.
9.
32. 15j/2 434.

36.
4.
6I08
5 4- 3x 4- 2z2 8
4- 2y
2
35. 1504
37. 7
a2
28.
.
15^.
8fc
19z
6z2
38.
40.
12fc2
4- 15.
7b*.
39.
27z2 4- 3x
+ 2.
15z2
.
5a2 4- J2a& 4-
41. 3s2 4- 5xy 4- 2y2 .

43.
42.
3x2 4- 7ax
6a2
Sw2
4- 14u
44. ISwr4 4- 9t^
20.
2
45.
5w2
28wu> 4- 12^.
46. 45fc2
Sxy
4t/
Factor by the appropriate method.

47.
6a2
13o6 4- S62
48. 60. 49
2
4a;
7xy
3t/
49. lOOa2
52. Tc2
- x*.
19cd
462
61.
+
2z2
6tf.
63. 65.
64a2
48ac
+ 9c
2
.
64.
+ 15 4- x.
30tw.
6z 2
+ 20 -
7*.
66. 9 4- 2502io2
58.
57. 2x?
59.
8a2c
18c.
.
W+
10064 .
60.
3a 4- 13a6 4- 10a62
2
rf
61. 25x2
63. 2r 65.
62. 75ccP 64. .Sic4 66. Sx4 68.

70.
+ 30c + 3cX
.16d4 .
3.
llhr 4- ISAV.
16y*.
^31x 3s4
16x2 H-
67. 69.
5x2
7z2
3.
xV 4- 9xy
6s
1
4.
52.
9s*.
20.
71. 73.
72. 9s2* 74.
4x2 4- 12s
9.
76.
9a2 4- 30a6
2S62
76. 3s4
17x2 -f 10.
2y*.
77. 2X4
79.
+x 2
15.
78. 3s4
- 5xV by
3O4
76. Factoring
use of grouping
following methods make frequent use of the fact that an expression enclosed within parentheses should be treated as a single
The
number
expression.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
1.
AND FACTORING
3(x
a)
*=
95
ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
5(x
a)
2(x
a).
2.
To
6),
factor the following expression,

it
we observe
the
common
factor (a
and remove
b) 4-
from each term:
2c(o
d(a
b)
(a
6)(2c
+ d).
factor,
After grouping, and then complete the factoring:

3.
ILLUSTRATION
bx
we observe a common binomial

(bx
+ by 4- 2&c 4- 2hy =
4.
(* 4- y)
+ by) + (2kc + 2%) = (6 + 2A)(* + y).

altered
ILLUSTRATION
(or,
The second term below was
by changing
signs
1) both within and without the parentheses in order multiplying by to exhibit the same binomial factor as the first term:
6)
+ 40(6 - 2a) -
3x(2a
b)
4y(2a
b)
4t/)(2a
6).
In order to factor below, we group two terms within parentheses preceded by a minus sign, and hence change the signs of the terms, in order to exhibit the same factor as observed in the other terms:
ILLUSTRATION
5.
xz
kx 4- kw
z(x
wz
k(x
(xz
wz)
(kx
kw)
w).
w) 6
w)
=
3
(z
k)(x
(6
ILLUSTRATION
6.
3s2
8x
+ 4z =
4c)
Sx)
=
ILLUSTRATION
(c
2(3
7.
40)
x*(3
(3
40) (2
- (3z - &)
2
2z)
(6
We factor below as the difference of two squares: - a) 2 = [(c - 2x) - (b - a)][(c - 2) + (6 - a)] = (c - 2x - 6 + a)(c - 2x + 6 - a).
a2
s
ILLUSTRATION
2
- c + 62 d - 2db - 2cd = (a - 2a6 6 - (c + 2cd + <P) = (a - 6) = [(a - 6) - (c + d)][(a - 6) + (c +

8.
2 2 2 2
-|-
(c -f d)
(a
d)(o
+cH
EXERCISE 33
Factor.
5(* 4-
2|/).
2.
4(3A
+ *) 3d)
9(3A 426(c
3. c(x 4- y) 4- <*(* 46.
J/).
4- 5a(c
2).
6.
3d).
2A(m
2)
3fc(m
2c(x 4- 40)
96
7. 9.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
5c(r
+
)
+ 2d(r + s).
(>
*)
3A(w
3a(w
AND FACTORING 8. - 2x(a + h) - 3y(a + h), 10. 2x(h - 2fc) + 3% - 6ky.

12.
11. 13.
15.
17. 19.
+ 26u> - 46fc. 3ac + 3bc + ad + bd. cs + 3dr cr 3ds. 2cx + cy 2dx %. 4Ax 4bh 8cx + 8bc.
2k)
14.
16. 18.
+ -h 2hx + 2%. 2a + 2ay + bx + by. 4&c 46A + bcx 56c. lOod 4bd. box + 26z
fee fa/
20.
36tt>
360
4aw
-f 4az.
21. (x 3
2a; )
(x
2).
22. (ax 3
24. ax2 26.
23. x*
26. x8 27.
+ 2x* + x + 2. - 3x + x - 3.
2
+ + 6z
-
fee )
2
4(ax
+ b).
.
2 -h ad
+ b&.
8z3
2x2
4x
+1lOx4
29.
- 3a - 3 H- a. 3X - 2x2 + 6x - 4.
a3
2 3
28. 2 30.
+ 4x &c2
y)
2
5x
+
2
.
31. 2(r
33.
s)
x(s
2
.
r).
32. a(x
+ 6(?/
2
?/)
.
x2
(s H- 3)
34. (w 36.
35. (2z
+ wY 3d)
2
y*.
37. (c
39. z2
(2x
+ y)
2
.
2
.
38.
41.
43.
2
2/
+ 20 H- 1 - 9* + 2y + 2 - 4x
2
40.
2
.
42.
44.
4a2
922
2
2/
62
1.
- I) - 16& 2 (4a (2x (4x - 3y) - 25. 4i^ + 20w + 25 9w> - 4a - 4ab - a -f 2ab 16i/
fe)
81
62 .
fe
2
.
46. 9x2
+ 2y
z2 .
46. t^2
4x2
y*
4xy.
47. 16a2
49. bx 4 61. 2*
9x2 H- 6x.
cy
4
.
48. a2c
60. a2
ft
a2d
2
-by4 + ex* - w2 + - 22
t*>
.
62. ch -f 6dfc
2
- 53.
64. 66.
+ 6r< + 9/ - a - 2a6 - 9a - I2at 4z + 4x^ -f c + 4c 4- 4 - 9eP - 6dh r2

2
fe
2/
4<2 .
ft
66. 16x2 67. 9x2
24xj/ H- 9j/
9a2
12a
Qxy
2
2/
25a2
10a6
- 4. - 6.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
68. 4z2 59. 62
AND FACTORING
9s2
97
4xy -f
y*
+
2
.
6w?
- w2
9z 2
+
2
2ab
+ a*. +c
y
2
60.
61. 62.
4# 4o2
a2
16102
4cd
+ 96 96s
4z 2
2o
2
4zy
12o6.
d2
66d
63. 16s4
Sly
81c2
+ 4z -
9y\
4s4
.
'64
cV -
+ 324 -
77.
Cube
of a binomial
We verify that (x + y)* =(x + y)

=
x3
-t-
(x
2x2!/
+ y) - (z + 2^ 4- )(z 4- y) + xt/ + x?y + 2^!/ + y

2 2
2/
On collecting terms we obtain (1) and, similarly, we could verify (2) 8 = y* + 3x*y + 3xy* + y8 (x + y) (1) - y) 8 = x8 - 3xa# + 3xya - y8 (x (2)
;
.
The student should memorize

ILLUSTRATION
1.
these formulas.
1,
From formula
3
with x
2
2a and y
2
6,
s
(2a
+ 6) =
(2a)
+ 3(2a)
12a2 6
2,
(6)
+ 3(2a)(6 + 6
)
ILLUSTRATION
2.
From formula
(4
- xY =
64
78.
Sum and
difference of
two cubes
By
long division
we
could verify that
- a2
Hence, we have the following formulas, useful for factoring when read from left to right, and useful in multiplication when read from
right to
left.
98
ILLUSTRATION
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
1.
AND FACTORING
left,
By
use of
(1),
read from right to
with 6
3,
(a
2 3)(a 4- 3a
+ 9) -
a3
3*
a8
27.
ILLUSTRATION
27s8
2.
From formula 2 with a = 3s and

3
8s/
= =
(3*)'
(3* 44-
ILLUSTRATION
3.
64s8
I8
(4z)
6
j/
(1
19?/
3
4z)(l
216.
+ 4z 4-
16z2 ).
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Factor:
tf
lty
216
(y
27) (^
+ 8)
4).
EXERCISE 34
Divide by long division and check by use of Section 78.
*'
+y
2
~
-
a3
-A a-h
O. ~
o 2763 a 4- 36
8s3 2x
3y
Multiply by inspection.
5. (c 4- w?)(c
cw
4- w*).
6.
(u
2 v)(w 4- uv 4-
2
t>
).
7.
(3a
(1
2 2 c)(9o 4- 3ac 4- c ).
8. (1
w)(l 4-
9.
2 3x)(l 4- 3x 4- 9x ).
10. (2
3u)(4 4-
11. (6
2 2 2x)(6 4- 2bx 4- 4x ).
12. (4# 4- l)(16y2
4y 4-
1).
Factor.
13.
d3
^.
v9 .
14. 18.
A3 48
2*.
15.
27.
16.
u3
64 8
4- 1.
17. 1
x8
19. s3 4- 1000.
20.
24. 27.
t^.
21. 1
27s3
22. 125 4-
8^.
26. x8
23. s3
SwA
27x3
25. 216s3
yV.
64^.
343a3
Sz3*3
Expand each
28. (c 4- d)*.
32. (5
cube by use of the formulas of Section 77.

29. (h
.
3
A;)
.
30. (2 4- y) 3 .
31. (u 4- 3) 3
8
.
y)
ft
8
.
33. (2x 4- w) 8 .
34. (y
38. (x2
3x)
i/
35. (4x 4- y) s . 39. (c

42. (.1
36. (a
2 8
37. (a
,
2x)
2 8 ) .
2ft )
2 8
.
40. (o
2s8) 8
41. (2c*
3s)
8
.
2x)
8
.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
Factor.
AND FACTORING
99
43. y*
46. 8z 47. 49.
+ 7z* 2
8.
44. 276
+ 26fc 16a*6
1.
6
- 19xV - 27y. - 3o + 3a - 1.
9w*x
d)
3
46. 64a
48. s3
8
.
+6 + 62? + 12s + 8.
.
w -
+ 27w*c - 27s
2
60.
125us
x)*
75u2
-f
51. (c
as
- 62. (h
(y
*79. Trinomials equal to differences of squares
can be written as the difference of two squares if the expression becomes a perfect square 2 after the addition of a perfect square multiple of x2y
of the
-f
.
An expression
form z4
kx 2y2
+y
2
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Factor:
1.
64o*
64a2 62 44
256*.
4
A perfect square involving 640

2 2 2 (8a -f 56 )
aqd
25ft
is
640*
+ 80a 6
4 -f 256 .
64a262 + 2564 becomes a perfect square if we add 144a262 2 2 2 2 Therefore, we add 144o 6 and, to compensate for this, also subtract 144a 6
2.
4 Hence, 64a
64a*
64o2fe2
4
+ 256
5ft
2
(640
4 )
= =
(64a
(8a
2
+ 80a 6 + 2S6 + - 12a6)(8a

2 2
- 64O2 2 256 -h 144a 6 - 144a 62 - 144a 62 = (8a + S62 2 - 144a 6

?)
-f-
2 H- S6
12a&).
EXAMPLE
2.
Factor:
1.
Qx4
I6x*y*
+ 4y*.
and 4y* are
(1)
SOLUTION.
The
4 perfect squares involving 9s
9s4
db
In order to obtain 12a:V from (1), we would have to add 2&rV> but this is not a perfect square. To obtain 12#V we must add 4afy2 which is a perfect square.
,
2.
Add, and also subtract, 4zy in (1) Ox4 - 16zy + 4^ = (9s4 - 16*y
:
+ 40*
2xy).
*EXERCISE 35
Factor by reducing to a difference of two squares.
1. a*
4.
+ +L ftc + lla; + 4.
2
2.
^-
4 5. s
+ 1. + A ^ + h*.
3
2
2
3.
6.
Qo4
9s4
+ 2o
-
-f 1.
1.
10*' -h
700
7. 4t0*
2
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
4
10.
+ Sa ^ -h 9a 4# + 4d?h* + 25A
64A4
.
4
.
8. a<
- 9oV +
4
Ify/
9.
25a4
- 5aW -f
4
.
46*.
4
.
11. s* 14.
13. s4 -h 16. x*
+ 4. 625Z + 4w*.
17.
12. w^ 16.
+ 4s 81* + 64s
4
4
.
- 12aW +
1604
Oa4
16a2c2
+ 4e*.
18.
20.
+ 4x* -h 490 4a^ - 24 + 25.

19aV
4
19.
25O4
+ 9^ - 34ay.
21.
*80. Perfect powers

integral rational term is said to be a perfect nth power the nth power of an integral rational term.
An
if it is
ILLUSTRATION
1.
IGa4 ^8
is
a perfect 4th power because 16o4 68
(2O6
.
2 4 ) .
8o666 is a perfect cube because 8o666 original exponents have 3 as a factor.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
2 2 3 (2a 6 )
The
In a perfect nth power, each exponent has n as a factor because in raising a term to the nth power we multiply each of the original exponents by n.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
(2
a2 64 ) n
2 3n a2n 64n
*81
I.
Special cases of
sum
or difference of perfect powers

(a
n
//
is even,
commence factoring
b n ) by recognizing
it
as the
difference of two squares.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
x6
6
t/
(x
3 2 )
(y
=
6
t/ )
3
(a:
^)(x
+ y*)
(x
t/)(x
+ xy + y*)(x + y)(x* factoring (x

8
xy
+ y*).
We
could have
commenced by
as the difference of two
cubes,
but
this
would have been an

2.
inefficient
method.
that each term
is
ILLUSTRATION
perfect square.
To
factor 16o4 64
81,
we observe
2 2 9)(4a 6 2 2
Hence,
16a4 &4
81
=
where the
II. n
final factor is
(2afe
2 2 (4a 6
+ 9)
9),'
3)(2afe
+ 3)(4a 6 +
a prime
sum
of perfect squares.
//
is
odd and has 3 as a

it
factor,
we can commence factoring
(a
6 n ) by recognizing
as the
sum
or difference of two cubes.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
ILLUSTRATION
3.
AND FACTORING
707
x9
(x
3
+y =
9 6
(z
3 3
)
+ 2/*)(z
3 3
!/
+ (y +
3 3
)
|/*)
(Using Section 78)
*EXERCISE 36
Express the perfect power as the 3d or 4th power of some other term, whichever is the case.
1.
8a363
2. 6.
27ay. 64xy.
is
3.
7.
16a4 64
4.
12
.
81xy.
625ay.
5.
125xy.
256W8
!;
8.
Factor each expression which

9.
not prime.
11. 16 15. 81 19.
a4 x8
x4
y
8
10. y4
14.
81.
.
13.
x4 -f y4 a6
- w4 - 16x
.
12.
4
.
Six4
y a6
4
.
16.
x*.
17. 21.
w
x6
1.
18.
64.
64/.
6
.
20.
+ 64.
fl
1.
22. 729
a6
23. 27.
729
25.
256
a8
y
26.
.
h9
k*.
a9
+x +6
9
.
24. 125
<z
28. a8
.
+6
s
.
29. Six8
33. a6
30. 16x 4 34.
Sly
.
8
.
31. 35.
625
16X8
32. x8 36.
646.
64
+ xy
8a3
27x6
- w* xu - yu
8 8
.
*82. Properties of
factors of a" db
bn
verified special cases of the following results, where n represents a positive integer. Any special case of the results can be
We
have
*
checked
I.
by long
n
division.
n
For every value of
n, (a
b n ) has (a
b)
b).
as a factor; in other
words, (a
b n ) is exactly divisible by (a
1.
ILLUSTRATION
a3
a*
a4
II.
16
+ ah -f - b = (a - 6)(a + o 6 + a - 2 = (a - 2)(a + 2a + 4a + 8).

b3
4
(a
6) (a
//
is even, (a
2.
b n ) has (a -{-b) as a factor.

62
ILLUSTRATION
a2
4
54
= =
(o
(
6) (a
s
+ b).
2& 4.
+ 5)( _
a&2
_
is
convenient method for giving a general proof of the results

section of algebra.
met
in
more advanced
J02
III.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
6)
2
Ifnis
odd, (a
3.
+ bn
has (a -f
(a
6
as a factor.
ILLUSTRATION a7
a8
s -f 6
+& 7
(a
+ 6)(a
+ 6) (a ab -f - a 6 + o ^ - a 6 + a'6 4
IV. If n is even, (an 4- 6n ) does not have either (0 as a factor.

2 fe ILLUSTRATION 4. (a2 ) and prime but it does not have either (o 6
6) or (a
+ 6)
not
(a*
6 are prime, (a H6) or (a 6) as a factor: )
+o
6*)
is
+6
a2
+ &)(a4 _
2&2 _|_ J|) f
where each factor
is
prime.
Special cases of the following general properties were exhibited by the second factors in Illustrations 1, 2, and 3.
A.
When
(a*
b n ) is divided by (a
6), all coefficients
in the quo-
tient are -f 1.
B.
When
(a
+ bn
or (an
bn ) is divided by (a
1
+ 6),
the coefficients
in the quotient are alternately -f
and
1.
Factors obtained
by
,
reference to
(I), (II),
and
(III) are
not always
prime. Also, as seen in Illustration 4 and Section 81, an expression n n with n even, may be factorable although (IV) of the type a 4- & In finding the prime factors of an is true. b n first use the methods
,
of Section 81
if
possible, before
5.
employing
(I), (II),
2
and
2
(III).
16).
z6
+ 64 =
y
9
(x
2 8 )
+4 =
3
(z
+ 4)(x* - 4s +
8 6
6.
x9
= =
(z
8 8 )
(y
8 8 )
= =
(z
- ^(x + xV -f
# )(x
2
2/
(x
(x (*
ILLUSTRATION
use of
7.
x4
= (x
2 2
(y
2 2 )
(x
+y
y)(*
8
+ y)(* +
2
).
(1)
By
(I),
x4
-^-
2/)(x
+ x*y + xy + y
2
).
(2)
Equation 1 shows that the second factor in could be factoredJ>y grouping:
(2) is
not prime; this factor

2
= &(x
Thus, we
finally arrive at the factors
-f y)
j/
(x
+ y)
by a much
less
obtained in (1) but
desirable process.
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
AND FACTORING
f03
*EXERCISE 37
Find the quotient by long division, and the remainder if the division
s
eocft reswft
+y
+ 2y
x4 z
is inexact.
+ 16 +2
and
without using long division t by use of properties
o/ Section 82, and cAeefc 6y multiplication.
~
13.
(
u*
16
y>)
8)
(a
+y
2).
).
14. (i6x*
a4)
1)
-*-
(2a?
+ a).
1).
15. (a8
8
(a
16. (243* 6
(3x
J?.
"
-
19 19.
sr
^
26 '
oo s"
"
a;*
2a
166*
Factor eacA expression which is not prime.

28.
a5
32
t>
c6 .
6
.
29.
a4
32.
+x
33. 1
.
- w4 - ^. 41.
30.
u7
v7.
8
.
31. u* 35.
+ t^
-
34. a*
1.
256s/
l
36. 40.
32u8
37. 32a6
38. xn
+ y\
39. 128
x6
243j/*.
a8
27z.
42.
4
.
43. 4x*
46.
49.
+ 1. 32xw + y*.
x9
.
44. lutx4 47.

50.
+ 810
45.
+ 16x + w + y
4 3*
ffi
x16 z
512
+ y". + 512a'.
48.
51.
CHAPTER
6
IN FRACTIONS
ADVANCED TOPICS
83. Reduction of fractions to lowest terms
Whenever we make a
assumed
reference to factoring in a fraction, it will be that the numerator and denominator are integral rational
coefficients.
polynomials with integral

operation on fractions,
In the
final result of
any
we
agree to leave any expression in a factored
form
if it
arises naturally.
SUMMARY.
1.
To reduce a fraction
to lowest
terms:
Factor the numerator and denominator.
2.
Divide both numerator and denominator by
all
their
common
factors.
ILLUSTRATION 1. In the following fraction, we divide both numerator and denominator by 3z 4y and indicate this by cancellation.
3x2
+ 2xy 2.
Sy
&xr=^Sy)(x
+ 2y)
+ 2y
In reducing the following fraction to lowest terms, we first notice that one factor in the numerator is merely the negative of a factor of the denominator.
ILLUSTRATION
x2 12 2x
-9
2x
2
(x-3)(x
2(3
z)(2
+ x)
x
_.
3)
In the preceding
(3
line,
we obtained
it
x)
by
1,
and hence
denominator by multiplying was necessary to change the sign before the

(x 3) in the
fraction to keep its value unaltered.
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN FRACTIONS
105
EXERCISE 38
Reduce
1
,
to lowest terms.
irv
wy
n
a*b(x
ni A/
2y)
r\
3
c*
6c -f 6d
3c
c2d(o 4- 36)
+ 3d
26y 6s
4at/
cz(z
+
y
2
y)
cd*(a
+ 36)
ex
2
2ac
z2
~
t1 ' 11.
ax a2
A
2
1ft 10.
^
cx
2 2
+ cy
:
^.
-c 4o - 96
14-A
^ 2ax
36x
^*
a2
12. *
4ax
15
26x
13 '
_
m -m-42 m - 3m - 28
+ 2a a + a 2
lo.
13a;
10
3x2
3a:
2
7ax 4- 4a2 8a2 4" 2ac
17.
12a2
-A
'
a2 - 4aa; 2a2 - 9ax

;
IW
4#2/ 4"
ty ax
22.
x* 4"
bxy
-\-
+ ay
2a
26
rt ,
Reduce to lowest terms with as few minus signs as possible remaining in the numerator and denominator.
-3
a
27.
y)
2
OK
-2z-2y
o 4- 6
ax 5
a;
Ofl
2a
+ 2d
5a
3v
3w
3x
-z 2 Ox 418 - 2z
.
9
(y
2z)
9
*
94*
2
15z 4-
4a;
- 15
2a:
15ca;
27
+ 20dx 9c 10x + 29x - 21 8a + 276

2
39.
26x 2
263
x3 4-
6^
x*
?0<$
ADVANCED TOPICS
common
of
IN
WACT/ONS
84. Lowest
multiple of polynomials
integral rational polynomials is defined
all
The
LCM
two or more
as the polynomial of lowest degree in
numbers, with smallest integral coefficients, which has each given polynomial as a Two results for a LCM which differ only in sign will be factor. considered essentially identical because usually the sign of a LCM is
the
literal
of
no importance.
\
To
The
find
LCM,
first
factor the polynomials.
ILLUSTRATION
2(3
is
1.
LCM of
4(z
1).
z)(3
+ a),
3)(s
1),
and
3(z
x)
3)'
4-3(x
3) (z
+ 3)(z -
We
x
did not consider (3

(x
3).
and
(x
3)
as distinct factors because 3
The
tors.
LCD of two or more fractions is the LCM of their denominaWe shall deal with the notion of a LCM only where it is a LCD.
1.
Note
The highest common

is
factor
(HCF)
of
two or more
integral
rational expressions
coefficients,
which
is
the expression of highest degree, with largest integral a factor of each of the given expressions. Thus, the
is
HCF of 6sV and HCF terminology.
4xy*
2xy
8
.
We
shall
not find
it
essential to use the
85. Addition of fractions with polynomial denominators
SUMMARY.
1.
To
express a
that
sum
is,
of fractions as
single fraction:
Find
the
LCD;
factor each denominator
and form
the
product of all different prime factors, giving to each factor the highest exponent with which it appears in any denominator.
by the denominator and then multiply both numerator and denominator by the resulting quotient, to express the fraction as an equal one having the LCD.
2.
For each
fraction, divide the
LCD
3.
Combine
the
new numerators
just obtained, with each numerator

its fraction,
placed in parentheses preceded by the sign of
and
divide
by the
Note
LCD.
To check
the addition of fractions, substitute explicit values numbers in the given sum and the final result.
1.
for the literal
EXAMPLE
1.
Express as a single fraction:
4x
-9
x*
+ x-6
ADVANCED TOP/CS
SOLUTION.
1.
IN FRACT/ONS
107
Factor the denominators:

(*
*2
Hence,
2.
3.
3)(x
+ 3);
z2
+x 9) 6)
(x
+ 3)(* - 2).
2. 3.
LCD
(a
3) (a; -f 3) (a?
In the 1st fraction, In the 2d fraction,
- 2). LCD * (x2 LCD (x2 + x -*-
= =
x *
4.
We multiply numerator and denominator by x

3 in the 2d fraction:
2 in the 1st fraction,
and by x
x*
z2
+x (as
6
3z(a;
- 2) (* 3)(* + 3)(x - 2) - 3a(:c - 3) 4sQc - 3)(* -f 3) - 2) = (* (a?
2)
(a;
+ 3)(* - 2) x* + x - 3)(x + 3)(a; - 2)

3)(x
3)
(2)
(3)
CHECK.
In
(1)
:
When x -
4,
we
obtain:
16
-12
16
16
7
6
7
10
16-9
:
+ 4-6
, ,
,
For
the result in (3)
j-.
(4
ow ow - 3)(4 + 3)(4
^r
2)
-TT
which checks.
Comment.
such as
With practice, the student should be those on the right in (2).
able to omit details
ILLUSTRATION 1. In the following addition of fractions, we change signs in the second denominator in order to exhibit the identical nature of two
factors in the denominators:
5
X
g\
1
I
7
A
f*
..
3(3c-2d)
(5-2)
5757
6c
4d
3(3c
2d)
2(3c
(7-3)
11
3-2(3c-2c*)
6(3c-2d)'
EXERCISE 39
Change
the fraction
1.
to
an equal one with
the
specified denominator.
2).
3x/(x
2); 4);
3)
new denominator,
(x (y
+ $)(x
4)(3y
2.
3.
2y/(y
new denominator,
;
1).
3z/(2z
2/(a -f 2)
new denominator, 4x2

-f
9.
f
6.
4.
new denominator, 2o2

a);
5. (3
a)/(2
new denominator, 2a
4.
708
ADVANCED TOPICS
into
IN FRACTIONS
Combine
single fraction in lowest terms.
Where
letters
are involved,
check by substitution
when
directed by the instructor.
_Z.
10
"
nf
12
30
5*
4-+
7 5?
v
_
46*
2a
3(a
11.
-i\
^p
6)
5(a
iv
XU. _
6)
7x
32
.
8 ?
3
3a 4- 2 x - 5
'
4-
- v--s-3x 5x 3y 5y
12.
4- 6
3
15.
3s
2c
FJ 6d
+ 3d ^j c
'
16.
2a
46
66
3a
- 1 ^ 6x - 3
6x 4- 6
s
*
2 2
3x
20.
2x
9a2
a
d2
6a
K
21.
2x
23.
3a-+l. 3
a:
24.
!5
10
OK 26.
-f
2fl
2y
+
' i
-; 2
26.
4c
'
3a;
48
'
07
2a 00 29.
~n - 2n
"*"
3a 6n
- 4n - 6a* 1
a - 4 2a - 4
2
"*"
- llo 2 - a
x
4- 2x
x 4- 4
x 4- x
~~
2x4-1
x 4- 4x
32>
2
12
60
"
3n
2c
n2
I
4-
3n
4*
o2
16
a2 4- 8a 4- 16
3
I
'
33 ***** no
~ -
3
10 18
I '
3C
> 2
i 1 ^
lie 4- 6
34 *"
+ 5x2 &-^
^
^ .2
i^
2x
2y
27
"
4x
12x 4- 9
x*
+8
2s*
x2
2* 4- 4
s 4- 3
37
:c
3s*
4
-4""2x
"
5s2
4
4-x
-6
2^4-3^-2
x6
ADVANCED TOPICS
39
2z
IN FRACTIONS
J09
3x-2
2
x 2
+x
< **
+ 5 ~r 3s + 6* + 3 3s + 5 2a; 2s
2
2z
3
4*2
8s2
'
18
2x*
- toe +
a 3o2
2z2
3z
9 a
49 ** & _o 6a2
06
_r
fe
ro 2
' i
+ 36 + 7a6 + 26
-a - 9a
q
2
26
2a2
r2
6ar
___ +
9a2
2r
r2
86. Factoring
in multiplication or division of fractions
multiply or divide fractions involving polynomials, factor the numerators and denominators and divide out all common factors
To
from the numerator and denominator

ILLUSTRATION
(2x
(2x
of the final result.

2
1.
2x - 19z + 42 -^ _ ^ u ^ _ 12
7x
15
+ 5) 7)(x + 2)
3) (a;
'
(2s -'7) (a
3)
4(2z
6)
(x
+ 6)(s 4(x + 2)
6)
'
where we divided both numerator and denominator by (2x

xy*
T
3)(2z
2 2t/ **
7).
y
z
ILLUSTRATION
x*
2.
-5 x*
+xy = ^ 75 2xy + y
z
xy*
-f-j x*
^ + x*y
w3 x*
-5 2 x
xy
xy
2
(a?
y)
(a;
'
(x
(^
+ y)
2(g
a;
y)
a:
(x
(x
where we divided both numerator and denominator by

T
y)(x
ILLUSTRATION
4
=-
3.
-T 2
(x v
1
ON 2)
2a;
-^ 2
a;
4
=
-.
x -2 -:
=
where we divided out
(re
- 2) -5
'x
x2
5*
2).
expression is involved in the numerator or denominator of a fraction, or as a factor in a product, it is advisable
Whenever a mixed
to change the
mixed expression to a
single fraction as the first step
hi simplification.
710
ADVANCED 7OP/CS
1.
IN FRACTIONS
At
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
Reduce to a simple
fraction:
Express the numerator and denominator of the complex fraction as simple fractions and divide:
u2
25
9
9u-25
5
3u
3u
5)
(3t<
5)
somewhat shorter solution is obtained if, as the first step, we multiply both numerator and denominator by the LCD, 9, of the fractions
Comment.
involved in them.
ILLUSTRATION
4.
~ -f (1
Zx 2
(2
2
*
J
(2
+ 3s
2
1
4 *"^
*""'
9s*
=-)
2
-f-
3z)(2
3z)
3s
EXERCISE 40
Perform the indicated operation and reduce to a simple fraction in lowest terms. Check by substituting values for the letters, where directed by the instructor.
3a
36 a
+ 26
4
a-&'
hx-hy cw-bw, ab-ac 3x-Zy
K -= 5. 2
a;
2c-4da6-3a 6-3 *6c-26c

tfch
=
""
r-
2 ^2 (a;
IA\ . lo).
A o. .
4a;
5w
2s
aw
^ 5k
.
ex
ok
-1 - 16
A 9.
/K
.
'
6y
2
/
2
*
2y
(a?
(5x v
o *N 2 3x ) '
4-
-+
x
r-=-
IA = 10.
62
3s
=3y
--
4a*
a*
+ 06
96
ADVANCED TOPICS
14.
IN FRACTIONS
IU
a
3x-l
ox-f 6x
17.
20.
23.
26.
29 .
-I-
32.
(l \
o2
133.
2s*
+ 5z -
34.
12
nx
35.
on
at;
ex
ac). y
36.
*~
2?
37.
on-
_i-1
112
41
/
2
ADVANCED TOPICS
a4
IN FRACTIONS
_._
*
8164
U c - 3o6c + 96^
c4
2
__
'
+ 36 \ - 6a6 + 96 /
a
2
.
a2
+ 606 + a + 276
3
42
~ 2c3d + 4c <P T ac + 6W - 2ad - 36c
(c*d 2 \c
- c* - 4cP
'
c*'+ 8d \ a8 - 2763 /
44
3o H- 46
5oc H-
a
16o
z
2
t~
"""
~~~*
5o
__
o2
47.
4- 7^2
Find
<Ae reciprocal of the expression
and reduce
the result to
a simple fraction
in lowest terms.
/3a:+l
l2^^2
Reduce
a*
6*
to
g 5
\ + JTT/'
.
a simple fraction in
lowest terms.
x4
-..
+ 4x + 8
2
51.
_L_
x* *
62.
a4
..
+2
3
A-2
V
2_V_? + 3/U + 2
66.
L_\ -a/
64.
r-7
A 4o
2a
1
+ 2a
66.
4o
_ - _.
T
1
67.
4o
a-
ADVANCED TOPICS
87. Equations involving fractions
IN FRACTIONS
773
To
1.
an equation involving fractions, we proceed as follows. Factor all denominators and form the LCD in factored form.
solve
2.
Enclose each numerator in parentheses and multiply both sides of
the equation by the

3.
LCD to clear the equation

solve.
of fractions.
Remove parentheses and

i
G, EXAMPLE
1.
Solve:
~
3
2x
2^3
2x
+ 28
9),
(1)
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
The
LCD
-
is
(2z
+ 3)(2z - 3), or
+ 3) =
Or
3)
(4z
Multiply both sides by the

2x(2x
3)
LCD:
2x(2x
2x
+ 28,
(2)
etc.
because
3.
(2x
in (2)
+ 3)(2z Gx
2x(2x
+ 3);
Expand
4x*
and
collect terms:
Qx
4x2
2x
+ 28;
- 28 =
14x;
(1).
= -
2.
The student should check by
substituting x
2 in
88. Operations leading to extraneous roots
A. // both members of an equation are divided by an expression

involving the unknowns, the
the original equation.
new equation may have fewer
roots than
ILLUSTRATION 1. By substitution, we verify that x 3x H- 2 = 0. On dividing both sides by roots of xz

x*
x
3x
.
and x
2)
-
=
A 0.
2 are
^ 2
+2=
A 0.
or
(x -
^^ 2
1.
(x
we obtain
A
0,
or
The
final
equation has just one root, x
The
root x
2 was
lost
by
the division.
In solving algebraic equations, we usually avoid operations of Type A in order that roots may not be lost.*
B. // both members of an equation are multiplied by an expression involving the unknowns, the new equation thus obtained may have more solutions than the original equation.
See Note 4 in the Appendix for a "proof" that 2 = 1, in which the fallacy involves an operation of Type A which conceals a division by zero.
*
114
ADVANCED TOPICS
The equation x
IN FRACTIONS 3
ILLUSTRATION 2. 3 both sides of x

(x
has just one root, x are multiplied by (x -f 2) we obtain
3.
If
+ 2)(x - 3)
0,
or
x*
0.
By
x
substitution,
2.
we
verify that this equation has two roots,
3 and
The
root
2 was introduced by the multiplication.

*
A value
satisfies
is
of the
unknown, such as x
2 in
Illustratioij 2,
which
a derived equation but does not satisfy the original equation, called an extraneous root. Whenever an operation of Type B is employed, test att values
obtained to reject extraneous roots, if any.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve:
S)*Z
-5
v
=
MMB
I A
1l**
*C/
=
^"
I X
O*
C/
^M
|^
17 =
I
0.
JL
The
s
LCD is x - 1 + 2(x 2
1;
1)
2 multiply both sides by x
1:
0;
1
3z
3;
qr
a:
1.
in the denominators of the given equation, 1 cannot be accepted as a root because division by zero is not admissible. Hence, 1 is an extraneous root and therefore the given equation
TEST.
Since x
makes z2
has no
root.
EXAMPLE
2.
On
a river whose current flows at the rate of 3 miles per
hour, a motorboat takes as long to travel 12 miles downstream as to travel 8 miles upstream. At what rate could the boat travel hi still water?
Let x miles per hour be the rate of the boat in still water. Then the rate of the boat in miles per hour going upstream is (x 3) and
SOLUTION.
1.
downstream
2.
t
is (x
+ 3).
we
obtain
From
d/v.
the standard equation d = vt of uniform motion, Hence, the time in hours for traveling
8 miles upstream
g
is
X
12
is
u
r-x
=;
12 miles downstream
3.
Hence,
Multiply both, sides of
S(x
j- = --.
(1)
(1)
4.
by
(x
3)(s
+ 3):
=
I2x
+ 3) =
12(x
-3);
8x
+ 24
15.
still
36;
(2)
4x
60;
Thus, the boat travels 15 miles per hour in
water.
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN FRACTIONS
115
EXERCISE 41
Each equation
This reduction
will reduce to
may
linear equation if cleared of fractions properly. be prevented and extraneous roots may be introduced i]
unnecessary factors are employed in the

*
*"
61 ~
2
LCD.
Solve each equation
^
'*
x~=3
I7
7: J9 mm&
"
1
4mr
3 2
.75
and
check.
7 A 4.
If*
3
!SS
<7*
A 4.
K 6.
mLf
ml/
2*
+
2 *
3<
+4
5
.a
14
10.
+2
a;
2x
+2
2h
1
+1
1
12.
3x
14<
3
**
-3 3* - 6
x
t*
-*
_
x
2
*-3 m "I - 1
+ 20+ t-2 -* +
14
17.
j^j
g^'
2
W.
. 2^"
O j
-
^
""
6*2 -h6
.. ^^ A^r2 \JJb
/r
J(/
^^
mi
3 ~ 3:C 4.2. IT ^^ 9 mm IJvU

1
\ }
.3
+
*
x *
'
02
4x2 8x
3
+ +
3*
3
1
=
2x
ft
2* 3 * 5
3
*2
*2
6*
5*
2
4* 2*
+ 3*
9* 2
'
*
26.
+3
3 2x 2
- 2*2 - 7x +
-7
ii
14
w 27
6
:
5 ^
TT
5-4to _ T"3 ?r^*
^
*
_3 ^
2
yi
2s-l
c
**"
+4
i_
^. JC
176
29. In
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN FRACTIONS
a certain fraction, the denominator exceeds the numerator by 5. If the numerator and denominator are both increased by 3, the fraction Find the original fraction. equals f
.
30.
On
six quizzes in
average score.
How
up
mathematics, a student has obtained 70% as his many scores of 86% each must be obtained to bring
his average score
to
80%?
and Smith both
31. In one hour, Jones can plow J of a field. If Jones work, they can plow the field in 2 hours and 24 minutes.
How many hours
would
32.
it
take Smith alone to plow the field?

it
takes a certain airplane as long to travel 320 miles against the wind as 480 miles with it. How fast can the airplane travel in still air?
33.
When the wind velocity is 40 miles per hour,
plane to return to the starting place against the wind.

travel in
34.
still
When the wind velocity is 20 miles per hour, it takes a certain air90% as long to travel with the wind to any destination as it would
How
fast
can the airplane
air?
tank has one intake pipe which fills it hi 8 hours. A second intake pipe is installed and it is found that, when both are in use, they hours. How long would it take the second pipe alone to fill the tank hi 2 fill the tank?
fuel
a river whose current flows at the rate of 3 miles per hour, a motorboat takes as long to travel 12 miles downstream as to travel 8 miles upstream. At what rate could the boat travel in still water?
35.
On
and 4 miles per hour, reIt takes a man as long to row 13 miles downstream on the spectively. slower river as to row 15 miles downstream on the faster river. At what rate can he row in still water?
36.
rivers flow at the rates of 3 miles
Two
89. Solution of
literal
equations involving factoring
In solving a linear equation in a single unknown x, when other literal numbers occur in the equation, it may be necessary to factor
either in clearing of fractions or in simplifying the final result.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. 3.
1.
Solve for x:
1.
b(b
fc
Expand:
+ x) = + bx =
o2
ax. ox.
o2
o2
(o
Add
2 ox; subtract 6 :
o& -f 6x
x(o
Factor:
+ 6)
x
4.
Divide by (a
+ 6)
= = =
62 .
6) (a
b.
+ 6).
Comment.
To
check, substitute x
6 in the original equation.
ADVANCED TOPICS
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
IN FRACTIONS
117
Solve for *:
62
a) (6
a2
= + aL+* 6
first
!L. a 6
+
The
LCD
is (6
+ a). We
6)
to change the sign in the
denominator (a
:
and
a
rewrite the equation then clear of fractions
by multiplying by the
LCD
aw
6
2
+ 6* w
a
2
-\-
w+
a
+6
Multiply by
(6
a2 )
010
+6 2
(w
+ 6) (6 + a) and
(w
+ a)(6 - a).
w=
o.
(1)
The student should expand
in (1)
solve, to obtain
EXERCISE 42
otoe for
1.
x or # or
is,
whichever appears.
2.
ex
3o
= =
2/i.
7x
36x
3ox
5.
3.
3o*
4a3
bz
9a2
4z
62 .
1.
4.
6.
962
2ax
4o2
6.
a2
=
= =
mnx
a
x)
anx
m.
ax. ax.
7.
x2
3n2
a2
(3n
62 a*x
z)
2
.
8. 6(6
a2
+
=
9.
a6x
o6x.
2
10. bx
12. hz 14.
2
bd
ad
11. 6(6*
13.
+6 2bx + 6a = 3ac + 4a6. 15. acx + adz + d

a)
.
A2
ab
kz
k*.
ax
6cx
a2
b(x
26).
c2
6ax.
b'
x(a
a2
46)
62
+6
18
-6
~â-
x b*~*a
+a +b
x
17 '*
2x
=
d
2x
26
2a
26
4A
19.
+h
4x2
21.
-W
x
262
2x
a2
h
2
6
2oc
x x
x
+ 06 for 6.
26s
+ 2a + 4a6 + 2a
S - r
22. Solve
C=
r6
23. Solve
^ 1
for
r.
24. Solve s
=
c
r for 6. b
118
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN FRACTIONS
EXERCISE 43
Review of Chapters
4, 5,
and 6
Perform
1.
the indicated operation 5j/)(3x

2
.
and
collect terms.
(3x
+ 5y).
4. (x
2.
(4x
5.
3yz)(4x*
2
+ 82/2).
6.
3. (2*
7. (a
+ 3)
2*)*.
V-
3w>)
(2a
+ 56)
2
.
4)(a
+ 4a 4-
16).
8. (2x
3s)(4x
+ 6x
11.
14.
s -f 92 ).
Factor.
9.
2
j/
25s*.
4 4 Slj/ *
2
.
10. 4z* 13. o*
12. 15. 17.
M % +
2
8
- 9W. - 276.
16.
18.
2
2/
*
8w
122/2
+ 4z*.
19. 2
+ 42 - 21. - 12x + 5x.

2
20. 22. 24.

.
21. S*2
23.
30;
-h 45u>*.
2a8 -h 4a2
a2
to
2o
25. x*
6a6
- 4. - 96
2
26.
+ y - 12. 6x + x - 15. 4A - 28/wo + 49t^. 06 + 26c + 3ad H- 6cd. -f 4m + 4w; (m + x + 4x -h 4 - 9a

2 2 2
w?)
-f-
4.
Reduce
3 -.
a simple fraction in
lowest terms.
4j-
5 .
Q O _
2 l-~
1 j^
5 _ x
3x
*
(j
T
* -~
9
29 -
ox
.
-f-
2x
+3
2a
56
3y-2
or x
2y-5
and
2
3c
36
3x
+x
3
2
2
.
'
12
H-
2x
3+lx
1
+ 4x
"
7
2x
4x2
~+
16x
.
2 A 3X
2x -h 9
+ 2x
CHAPTER
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND GRAPHS
90. Rectangular coordinates
On
off
each of the perpendicular axes OX and OF in Figure 4, we lay a scale with as the zero point on both scales. In the plane of
OX and Y we shall measure vertical distances in terms of the unit on OF

and horizontal distances in terms of We agree that the unit on OX. horizontal distances will be considered positive if measured to the right and negative if to the left; vertical distances will be considered positive
if
Y
4
--3
II
- -
2
1
~
I
123456
I
I I
I.
-6-5-4-3-2-1
1
+
IV
measured upward and negative if downward. Let P be any point in the

plane.
horizontal coordinate, or the abscissa of P, is the perpendicular
to P; distance, x, from rected distance is positive if is to the left of OF.
III
3
The
-4..
OY
this di-
Fig.
P is to the right of OF and negative if P
The
vertical coordinate, or
to distance, y, from and negative if above
OX
OX
the ordinate of P, is the perpendicular P; this directed distance is positive if P is P is below OX.
Each
abscissa
of the lines
OX
and
OF
is
called
a coordinate
axis,
and the
and ordinate
of
The point ordinates of P. the origin of the coordinate system. When the axes are labeled as in Figure 4, we sometimes refer to the abscissa as the and
together are called the rectangular coat which the axes intersect is called
OX
OF
z-coordinate and to the ordinate as the y-coordinate.
720

is
Notice that there

for the scales
on
OX
no necessity and OF.
for using the
same unit
of length
In Figure 4, the coordinates of P are x == 5J and = 2. The coordinates of a point are usually written together within pay rentheses with the abscissa first. Thus, we say that P is the point (5J, 2). In Figure 4, R is the point ( 3, 4).
ILLUSTRATION
1.
Note
1.
The
coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called

I, II, III,
quadrants, which we number
and IV,
counterclockwise.
a point, whose coordinates are given, means to locate the point and to mark it with a dot or a cross.
plot
To
EXAMPLE
1.
Plot the point
3, 4).
3 on OX, erect a perpendicular to OX. Go up FIRST SOLUTION. At 4 vertical units on this perpendicular to reach the point R in quadrant II which is ( 3, 4).
SECOND SOLUTION. At + 4 on OF, erect a perpendicular the left 3 units on this perpendicular to reach ( 3, 4).
Note
2.
to
OF.
Go
to
The word
line in this
book
will refer to
straight line unless
otherwise specified.
EXERCISE 44
Plot the following points on a coordinate system on cross-section paper.
1.
(3, 4).
2.
(3, 0).
3.
(1,
2).
4.
(-
3,
5).
6.
(0,
2,
2).
6.
((-
5, 0).
7.
(0, 7).
8.
((-
3, 4).
9.
(-
3).
10.
3, 5).
11. (4,
4).
12.
2, 1).
Three corners of a rectangle are (3, 4), ( 5, 4), and (3, the coordinates of the 4th corner and the area of the rectangle.
13.
1).
Find
Find
the area of
(4, 7);
a triangk with
the given vertices.
14. (4, 3); 16.
(-
2, 3).
(5, 5).
15. (0,
4);
(3,
4);
(3, 2).
(-
2, 1);
(3, 1);
17. (0, 0);
(5, 3);
(5, 7).
square, with its sides parallel to the coordinate axes, has one If the units corner at ( 3, 2). 3, 2) and lies above and to the left of (
18.
of length on the axes are the same and if each side of the square long, find the coordinates of the other corners.
is
4 units

In which quadrant does a point lie under 19. Both coordinates are negative.
20.
21. 22.
the specified condition?
The
The
abscissa
abscissa
is
negative and the ordinate

positive
is positive.
is
is
and the ordinate
negative.
A A
line is parallel to
OX and passes through the point where y =

on the given
line?
2.
on OF.
23.
What
is
true about the ordinates of points
at the point where x perpendicular to can be stated about the abscissas of points on the given line?
line is
OX
What
24.
How
far apart are the lines
on which the abscissas of
all
points are
3 and
25.
4, respectively?
How
far apart are the lines

3,
on which the ordinates of
all
points are
7 and
respectively?
91
The function concept

that, in a given problem,
We recall
a constant
is
a number symbol
whose value is not subject to change during the course of the discussion, and a variable is a number symbol which may take on
different values.
When
desirable,
we may think
of a constant as a
variable which can assume only one value.
a first variable, x, and a second variable, y, are so related that, whenever a value is assigned to x, a corresponding value (or corresponding values) of y can be determined, we say that y is a function of x. Then x is called the independent variable and the second variable, To say y, which is a function of x, is called the dependent variable. that y is a function of x means that the value of y depends on the
If
value of
x.
is
ILLUSTRATION 1. a variable then A
In the formula
is
A = Trr2 for the area variable and A is a function of r.
of a circle,
if
formula in a variable x represents a function of x; the values of the function can be computed from its formula.
Any
ILLUSTRATION
of the function
is
2.
2 (3z H- 7x
-f-
5) is
a function of
x.
If
2,
the value
(12
+14 +
5) or 31.
Note
1.
If just one value of
y corresponds to each value of
x,
we say that
y is a single-valued function of a;; if just two values of y correspond to each value of x, then y is a two-valued function of x; etc.
722
92. Graph of a (unction
Let y represent any function of x. Then, each pair of corresponding values of x and y can be taken as the coordinates of a point in an This leads us to adopt the following (x, y) coordinate system.
terminology.
DEFINITION
values of x
I.
The graph of a function,

y.
y, of
is the set of all points
(or the locus of points)
whose coordinates form pairs of corresponding
and
In graphing a function, we usually plot the values of the independent variable on the horizontal axis of the coordinate system. A linear function of x is a polynomial of the first degree in x and hence has the form ax 4- 6, where a and 6 are constants. In Illustra-
To graph a function
will
mean
to
draw
its
graph.
tion 1 below
we meet a
x
is
special case of the fact that the graph of
linear function of
a straight 'line.
This
fact,
whose proof we
shall omit, is the basis for the
name
linear function of x.
ILLUSTRATION
function
If
is (J:c
5,
the independent variable, in order to graph the 3. \x 3), we introduce y to represent it. That is, we let y 6. 3 = then y = f( 5) Hence,, one point on the graph
1.
If
is
(5,
2,
6).
corresponding
following
(
Similarly, values of y
we
let
x
in
0,
2,
etc.,
and compute the
given
the
6),
table.
We
plot
is
(-
5,
4J), etc., in Figure
by a
straight line, which
5 and join them the graph of the
the graph, we read that the value of the function is zero (the graph The funccrosses the z-axis) when x = 5.
function.
From
tion equals
2 when x
= 1, approximately.
Fig.
y is a linear function of x, we need only two pairs of values of x and y to obtain the graph, because a straight line is definitely located if we know two points on it. However, in graphing any linear funcIf
tion,
we
shall
compute
is
three values of the function hi order to

If
check
lie
the arithmetic involved.
the corresponding three points do not
on a
line,
an error
indicated.

Note
1.
123
In graphing, do not choose the position of the origin or the scales on the coordinate axes until after a reasonably complete table of values has been prepared. Then, make the appropriate selections of origin and scales
so that as large a graph as possible
If
may
be placed on the available paper.
a function of x is defined by a formula, in general its graph is a smooth curve* To graph such a function, we introduce some letter, such as y, to represent the function, compute a table of corresponding values of x and y, and draw a smooth curve through the corresponding points on a coordinate system.
ILLUSTRATION
let
2.
To graph x2
x*
4x -f
6,
we
y represent the function,

y
4x
+ 6,
values,
6,
compute the following table of
the points. The graph, in Figure called a parabola.
and plot is a curve
Fig.
93. Functions not defined by formulas
Functions not defined by formulas arise frequently. Sometimes the only information concerning a function consists of a table of corresponding values of the function and the independent variable, where the table may be obtainable by experimental means or obser-
In drawing the graph of such a function, sketch a smooth curve through the points obtained from the given values, unless otherwise directed. Instead of drawing a smooth curve through the
vation.
sometimes desirable to connect them by segments of straight lines and thus to obtain a broken-line graph.
points,
it is
Note
The intersection of
the'coordinate axes
may be
selected to repre-
sent any convenient value, not necessarily zero, on either scale.
ILLUSTRATION
wholesale price for the critical depression months from June, 1930, to June, 1931. value To graph the index like 86.8 means 86.8% of the average level in 1926.
The second row of the following table gives the general index number of the United States Department of Labor
1.
Or,
m some cases,
two or more
disconnected
smooth curves.
124

the time, in
number as a function of
Figure 7, we choose coordinate axes, with time plotted horizontally and index number vertically. We take 1 month to be the unit of tune. We let the intersection (origin) of the axes represent
June, 1930, on the axis of abscissas and 60 on the vertical axis, and assign units on the axes to suit the size of the figure. Then, for December, 1930, we plot the point (6, 78.4), etc. We join the plotted points by a reasonably
the graph of the function. From the graph, extended as a guess to July, 1930, we estimate that the index number then was 68.6.
smooth curve, which
is
f=0is
1 is
June, 1930
July, 1930
10 11
12
13
EXERCISE 45
The
1.
letter
x represents
the independent variable in all problems
where
it
appears.
Clearly indicate the scale on each coordinate axis employed.
Graph the function (2x -\- 3). From the graph, (a) read the values of the function when x = 2J and x = 3J; (6) read the values of x corresponding to which the values of the function are 2, 0, and 3.
Graph
2.
6.
the function of
x and, from
the graph, read the value of
x for which
the function equals zero.
3x
+ 5.
2x.
3.
7.
4z.
3*.
4.
8.
2x.
5x.
5.
9.
-2
-4.
10.
2x.
10. 7.
11.
12. 0.
13. x.
HINT
for
Problem
x,
Any
constant can be considered as a function of

is
any variable
with just one value for the function. The graph
horizontal.
RECTANGULAR COORD/NATES AND GRAPHS

14.
125
and
(3y with z used as a label for the function.
Graph the function of y defined by

6z
4),
with the y-axis horizontal
15.
Graph
(x*
+ 7) by computing its values for the following values

7.
of x:
1, 0, 2, 3, 4, 6,
function
when x =
or 10.
(
and 5 and x
From
(6)
1;
the graph, (a) read the values of the read the values of x for which the func-
tion equals
16.
Graph
x2
6,
5,
4x
+ 6)
4,
by computing
3, 2,
its
values of x:
1, 0, 1,
values for the following and 2. From the graph,

(6)
read the values of x for which the function (a) equals 0;

17.
equals
3.
table gives the total mileage of hard-surfaced roads forming parts of state highway systems in the United States at the ends of various years. Graph the mileage as a function of the time.
The
table gives the time it takes money to double itself if invested at certain rates of interest, compounded semiannually. Graph the time
18.
The
as a function of the rate.
From
the graph, find the time for
money
to
double at 3i%.
TIME, YEARS
46J
34f
28
23J
14
ill
RATE
19.
1%
4%
By
velocity of sound in air depends on the temperature of the air. use of the following data, graph the velocity as a function of the
The
temperature.
From
the graph, read the velocity
if
the temperature
is
35; 8.5; 120.
HINT.
20.
Let the origin represent 1000
feet
on the
vertical axis.
table gives the number of divorces per 1000 marriages in various years in continental United States. Graph the number of divorces as a function of the time.
The
726
21.

The weight
of a cubic foot of dry air at
an atmospheric pressure
is
of
29.92 inches of mercury, under various temperatures,
given in the follow-
ing table, where weight is in pounds, and temperature is hi degrees Fahrenheit. Graph the weight of air as a function of the temperature.
following table gives the "thinking distance" t, and the "braking distance" b involved when a motorist, traveling at s miles per hour, decides to stop his car. The value of t is the distance traveled by the car in } second,
22.
The
the interval which elapses between the instant an average driver sees danger t b is the total and the instant he applies his brakes. The sum d
distance the car will travel before stopping after danger is seen. On one coordinate system, draw graphs of t as a function of s and d! as a function of 8.
94. Functional notation
Sometimes we represent functions by symbols like /(#), H(x), K(s), etc. The letter in parentheses tells what the independent variable is.
The
letter to the left is

1.
merely a convenient name for the function.

"
read "f(x)" as the /-function of x," or for short 2 5 by f(x) and write f(x) = Zx2 5; we "/ of x." We may represent 3s 5." H(y) would represent a function of y. For read this "/ of x is 3x2
instance,
ILLUSTRATION
We
we may
let
H(y)
7y*
+ 6.
is
If F(x) is
any function
of
x and a
any value
of x, then
a.
F(d) represents the value of F(x)

ILLTTSTRATION
2.
when x =
"F(a)
F(3)
-
3)
s ;- 6 )
[F(~
2)]
5F(2)
= -
F of a." If F(x) - 3s2 - 5 3-32 - 5 - 3 - 19; 3(- 3) 2 - 5 + 3 = 25; 3(- 2) 2 - 5 - (- 62) - 364 - 5 -f 6*; - 5 + 2) = 81; (12 - 5 - 2) - 25. 5(12
"
is
read
x,
fc
127
in
of
variable z
is
case a value of z
be a function of two variables x and y can be determined corresponding to each pair

said to
values of x and
variables, or of
y.
any
Similarly, we may speak of a function of three number of variables. The functional notation
just introduced for functions of
single variable is extended to func-
tions of
more than one
variable.
ILLUSTRATION 3. F(x, y) would be read "F of x and y" and would represent a function of the independent variables x and y. Thus, we may let
2.
Then, F(2,
1)
+3+2-
7.
EXERCISE 46
Vf(x) = 2z
+ 3, find the value of each symbol.

6.
/(it.
f).
// G(z)
1.
2z
2
,
find the valve of the symbol or an expression for

9. 0(J).
0(-
3).
8. 0(6).
10. 0(o).
11. 0(2c).
2
12. 0(3z).
2).
13. If F(x)
= = -
*'
+ 3, find F(- 2);

,
F(6); F(c
);
F(*
14. If 0(ii
find 0(2); 30(1); [0(3)?;
15. If
KM
F(x
find K(2); 2K(4); [JC(3)? ;
16. If F(x, y)
x*
ac
x2
17. If
y)
+ 2y, find F(2, - 3); F(- 4); F(o, 6). + 3xt/, find F(- 2); F(- 3, - 2); F(c, 26).
1, 1,
18. If F(x)
ar, find
F:
graph
/(a?)
19. If /(x)
=x*-4x +
=^12x
5,
by use
of
/(-
1), /(O), /(I), /(2),
20. If /(x)
+ 3,
graph /(x) by use of /(-
4),
/(-
3),
/(-
2),
/(-
1), /(O), /(I), /(2), /(3),

t
and /(4).
95. Functions defined by equations
solution of an equation in
two
variables x
and y
is
& pair of corUsually,
responding values of x and y which satisfy the equation. an equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.
728

1.
ILLUSTRATION
or y
If
Consider 3z
5y
15.
If
3,
then 9
5y
=
0,
Hence, (x 3, y = 15 or x then 3x 5;
.
15,
a solution of the given equation. hence (x = 5, y, = 0) is another solution.
f) is
Thus, by substituting values for either variable and computing values of the
other variable,
we
could find as
many
solutions as
we might
desire.
In case x and y are related by an equation, then usually we may as a function of y. think of y as a function of x and, likewise, of
true because, in general, for each value of either variable we can find corresponding values of the other variable by use of the
This
is
equation. In particular, a linear equation in x and y defines either variable as a linear function of the other variable.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
From 3z
x
5y
=
5
15,
on solving
for
x we obtain
+ fe/;
3.
on solving
for
y we obtain
y
&-
Hence
a;
is
a linear function of y and, equally
well,
is
a linear function of x.
96. Graphical representation of an equation
graph, or the locus, of an equation in two variables x and y is the locus of all points whose coordinates (x, y) form solutions of the equation. If we think of a: as an independent variable, the graph of the equation is identical with the graph of the function, y, of x, defined
The
by the equation. In particular, if a, 6, and c are constants, the graph of the linear equation ax by = c ISQ. straight line. For, the graph of this equation is the graph of the linear function of x, or of the
linear function of y, defined
by the
equation.
ILLUSTRATION 1. From Zx 5y = of the is the 15 of 3x graph 5y found in Figure 5, page 122.
15,
we obtain y =
fx
far
3.
The graph
graph
is
linear function
3;
this
any point where a graph on an (#, y) coordinate system meets the a>axis is called an x-intercept of the graph. The ordinate of any. point where the graph meets the 2/-axis is called a
abscissa of
The
y-intercept of the graph.
To
the graph of an equation hi x solve for x; to find the yintercept (or intercepts), place x
solve for y.
find the x-intercept (or intercepts) of and y, place y - in the equation and
=
and

SUMMARY.
1.
129
Place x
To graph a linear equation in x and y: and compute y, to find the y-intercept.
2. 3.
Place y
and compute
x, to
find the x-intercept.
Find any
other solution of the equation
and draw
the line through
the points determined
on plotting
the solutions obtained.
ILLUSTRATION
5y
2.
To graph 3x
3;
%=
(0,
15, first let
and obtain
15, or
hence,
or
3) is
= point on the graph. If y or x 5; the x-intercept is

on the graph. page 122.
then 3x
5,
(5, 0) is
15,
The graph
is
a point shown in Figure 5,
ILLUSTRATION
x
5
3.
The graph
consists of all
coordinate plane for which x = 5, and the value of y is of no importance because it does not
of the equation points (x, y) in the
-Ho
44
44
occur hi the equation. Hence, the graph of is the line perpendicular to the x-axis x 5 = at the point where x = 5, as shown in Figure 8.
Fig.
97. Equation of a line

equation of a curve on an (x, y) coordinate plane is an equation in the variables x and y whose graph is the given curve. ILtwo equations have the same graph, in general the equations differ only in
An
nonessential features.
infinitely
many
Hence, although a given curve may have different equations, we shall refer to any one of these
as the equation of the curve.
ILLUSTRATION
This
1.
3x
+ 2y =
is
line also is the
graph of 6x
the equation of a certain straight line. 4y = 14 because these two equations
have the same
solutions.
Frequently we refer to a function of a variable x, or to an equation in x and y, by giving the function or equation the name of its graph.
ILLUSTRATION = x2 parabola y
2.
Thus, we may refer to the line 3x 6 (see Figure 6, page 123). 4x
+ 2y =
7,
or to the
assume without proof the fact that the equation of any =c straight line on an (x, y) coordinate plane is of the form ax 4 by where a, 6, and c are constants. The equation of a line is a linear
shall
We
130
relation
(x,

is
between x and y which y) is on the line.
true
when and only when the point F

3.
ILLUSTRATION 3. The equation of the line 3 units to the left of the y-axis is x
vertical
Let P, with coordinates ILLUSTRATION 4. line through (0, 0) (x, y), be any point on the and (1, 2). Then, from similar right triangles
hi Figure 9,
V x
%
I
or
this is the equation of the line.
EXERCISE 47
Graph each equation. 1. 3x + 2y - 6.

4.
2.
6.
3y 3x
4s
y
12
0.
3.
6.
&c
3x
5y
15
0.
2x
4x
+ 7y 5w
0.
9.
+6
10.
4.
7.
20.
11. 15.
Q O* <6C
O/M __
9. 5j/ 4-
10.
14.
s-7. y - 0.
The The The
5.
12.
a;
= -
3.
13.
0.
- -
16.
&c -f 9
17.
3y
+ 4 - 0.
OX.
left
Give fte equation of the line satisfying the given condition.

18. 19.
horizontal line (a) 6 units above OX"; (6) 4 units below

vertical line (a) 5 units to the right of
OF;
(6)
4 units to the
of
OF.
20.
line
on which the ordinate of each point

its abscissa.
is (a)
the same as
its
abscissa;
(6)
the negative of
Without graphing, find the coordinates of the points where

equation cuts the axes.
21.
the
graph of
the
Zx
+ 5y =
15.
22.
2x
5y
10.
23.
3x
+ 2y - 5 =
0.
24.
2x
+
25.
Find an expression 7y = 9.
Find an expression 5w - 11.
for the linear function of
y defined by the equation x defined by the equation
for the linear function of
3a?
CHAPTER
SYSTEMS OF UNEAR EQUATIONS
98. Graphical solution of a system of two equations
A
2/,
solution of a system of two equations in two unknowns, x and is a pair of corresponding values of x and y which satisfy both
If
equations.
a system has a solution, the equations are called

x 1 x
/
simultaneous.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve graphically:
1.
-y=
5,
(1)
+ 2y
2.
(2)
In Figure
10,
AB
all
is
the
graph of
(1)
and
CD
AB
consists of all
(1)
the graph of (2). points whose coordinates

is
satisfy
and
CD
consists
(2).
of
whose coordinates
satisfy
points Hence, the
B
O
and CD is the point of intersection, E, of only point whose coordinates satisfy both
equations.
2.
(4,
AB
We
1).
observe that
E
4,
has the coordinates

1) is the only y = These values check
Hence, (x
solution of the system. when substituted in (1)
and
Fi 9 .
10
(2).
SUMMARY.
graphically:
1.
To
solve
a system of two equations in two unknowns
Draw
the
graphs of the equations on one coordinate system.

the coordinates of
2.
Measure
any point of intersection of
the graphs;
these coordinates
form a
solution of the system.
Usually a system of two linear equations in two unknowns has just one solution, as was the case in Example 1, but the following
special cases
may
occur.
132
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

lines, the
A. // the graphs of the equations are parallel
system has
no solution and
the equations are called inconsistent equations.
B. // the graphs of the equations are the same line, each solution of either equation is also a solution of the other and hence the system has
infinitely
many
solutions.
In
this case the equations are said to be
dependent equations.
Usually a graphical solution gives only approximate results, because in obtaining them we estimate certain coordinates visually.
1.
Note
EXERCISE 48
Solve graphically.
state this fact
If there
is
no
solution, or if there are infinitely
many,
with the appropriate reason.
\ y
f
+ 2x
-
= -
2
3.
\ 2y
f
x
8
= -
5.
\3y
f
+ 4z
23.
2y \ 4y
/ 2y
\
+
-
Zx 3z 5x
2a;
= 0, = = =
10,
3.
18.
+ \ 6x +
3x
= 0, 7y = 5.
3y
5y
\
f
- 3 = 0, Wy + 3z = 4.
2z
2y
\ to
+ 7y
4x
= =
=
0,
0.
3z 2x
+ 5y =
3y
2,
5.
'
2a;
n
\ 2y
\
6.
5.
\ 4x
+ 2y =
7.
6*
%=
3.
10y
2a;
+4 =
0.
Graph x + 3y = 5. (6) Multiply both sides of the equation by 2 and graph the new equation, (c) By inference, state how two linear equations are related if they have the same graph.
16. (a)
99. Elimination by addition or subtraction

T,
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
3.
1.
a i r Solve for
a;
j and
4*
+ 5y =
,
y:
<
/ 4.
18.
6,
(1)
1.
Multiply
(1)
by
3:
12x
Multiply
(2)
by
5:
(4):
5,
+ 10z +
2;
15^
I5y
= =
(3) (4)
(5)
20.
1.
Subtract, (3)
2x
= -
= =
In obtaining equation
4. 5.
we have
eliminated y
by
y
subtraction.
On
The
substituting x
1 in (2)
we obtain
1,
3y
4 -f 2
or
2.
solution of the system is (x = check this solution by substitution in (1)
2).
The student should
and
(2).
133
SUMMABY.
To
solve
a system of two
linear equations by elimination
by addition or subtraction:
In each equation, multiply both members, if necessary, by a properly chosen number to obtain two equations in which the coefficients of one unknown have the same absolute value.
1.
2.
Add, or
I
subtract, corresponding sides of the two equations obtained
in Step
3.
so as to eliminate one
unknown.
the
Solve the equation
found in Step 2 for
unknown in
to
it,
and sub-
stitute the result
in one of the given equations
find the other un-
known.
x and y are inconsistent or dependent, then, in eliminating one unknown, the other will also be eliminated. = results from this If the equations are dependent, an identity
If
two
linear equations in
elimination.
the equations are inconsistent, a contradictory = 36 is obtained. We shall omit proving these equation such as
If
facts
but
1.
shall exhibit special cases of
them.
Hereafter, to solve a system of equations will algebraically, unless otherwise stated.

If
Note
mean
to solve
the given equations involve fractions, clear of fractions before applying the preceding method.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
Solve for x and y:

\.
3x
+ 2y =
+
4y
6,
(6)
24.
(7)
1.
Multiply 6z
(6)
by
2:
(8)
D Y
+ 4t/ =
(8)
:
12.
2.
Subtract, (7)
12.
(9)
Hence, the given equations are inconsistent because a contradictory statement, 12 = 0, results from the assumption that a pair of
values of x and y exists which satisfies
(6)
and
(7).
COMMENT. In Figure 11, AB is the graph of (6) and CD is the graph of (7). It is observed that these lines are parallel and hence do not
intersect,
Fig.
11
(6)
which agrees with the preceding algebraic proof that
and
(7)
have no
solution.
134

EXERCISE 49
Solve by elimination by addition or subtraction

1.
and
check.
Zx 2x
-y=
7,
+ 3w
-f
= =
2.
12.
-3 =
2x
7:
- 2* =
4.
0,
5.
3y
+ 12,
8
2y
0.
6.
10,
0.
=
-I-
6z 4-
14.
3s
- 2y = - 3z =
_
2, 2.
8.
9,
H-
Jy
9.
2x -f 2s
2z
- - 3, - -f
10.
322'
/3z
x
11.
12.
7 3
2"
10 ' 13
+ 5y = 9,
14.
\102,-7*=-8.
11*
= - 3, - 15. 5y =
15.
-y=
7x
8,
+ 4y
43.
Proceed with the solution until you recognize that the equations are inconsistent or dependent.
Then check by graphing

2*
the equations.
*
10.
19.
<
2y
-3=
6.
0,
00. Elimination
by
substitution
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve for x and y:

1.
4x
6,
4.
(1) (2)
Solve (2) for x:

(3)
2. Substitute
J(4
3y) in (1):
4(4
6.
(4)
In obtaining equation 4, we have eliminated x by substituting for x from one given equation into the other.
3.
Solve (4) for y:
4. Substitute^/
2 in
(3):
1(4
6)
- 1,
1.
Hence, the solution of the system
is (x
2).
135
SUMMARY.
1.
To
solve
a system of two linear equations by elimination and sub-
by substitution:
Solve one equation for one unknown in terms of the other stitute the result in the other equation.
2. Solve the
equation obtained in Step 1 for the second unknown.

of the second unknown in any equation inand find the value of the first unknown.
3. Substitute the value
volving both
unknowns
EXERCISE 50
Solve by elimination by substitution
and
y y
check.
x
1.
= 3y - 1, - 3 = 4. w
f
2w>
2x
+
-
= - 3, - 15. =
0, 0.
fw =
\ 100
6.
2t;
+ 4,
0.
1.
2u
I L i
+
-
1,
-f 3x
5.
4.y
+4=
0,
I
f
0.
+ 2y
y
\ 3z
+ 5y =
8.
0.
= -3, 5x-2y = 21.

by
9.
14.
10-15. Solve Problems 1-6 of Exercise 49
substitution.
Clear of fractions if necessary and solve by any method. your choice to just one of the two available methods.
<^Js i^wv
m^"
Do
"*T^
not restrict
tJ 1/
\J
"
^\ ^^
2x
^ ^y
^^
*
\JJb ^*~*r
mm^m
9J u
ij
m**^
7y
= =
3.
4y
^J ^^ * f
^
*
^f "
^*.
is i
JL^Xo
^*!^^t j
9x
=
-
5.
\ 6r
+ 21s = ~.6a;
7.
4y
.5,
=
~~"~
3.45,
"~
== .O.
1.5.
OI
2I
22.
04
Q ^7
25.
26
* H- Jy
2x
= AIZ
27.
2y 4- 3
5y
0,
'
+ ^2
3
-? =
3a?
o.
+y+4
10
y
_ _
"^5
te
*-2
29.
2-f y
'
3x
-2 -3
136

literal coefficients
101. Systems involving

If
a system involves other letters than the unknowns, it is usually best to solve by finding each unknown in turn by elimination through
addition or subtraction.
T>
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
I.
Solve for x and y:

d:
(
<
ax
+
'
by
\cx-\-dy
I.
= =
et
,
(I)
;;
f.
(2) (3) (4)

bf.
Multiply
(I)
by
adx
Multiply
(2)
by
b:
(4)
v
+ My = bcx + bdy =
be)
de.
of.
3. 4.
Subtract, (3)
x(ad
7*
=
_
de de
(5)
be Suppose that ad be in (5). divide by ad

5.
and
ad
bf be
ce
By similar steps [multiplying (I)

and
(2)
of
by
1
by a] we
find y.
ad
be
02. Systems linear
in
the reciprocals of the

-
unknowns
17,
(1)
- = + x
EXAMPLE
1.
Solve:
+-=
y
10
2.
(2)
SOLUTION.
1.
Multiply
(2)
by
5:
x
7;
^ +-=
10.
(3)
2. Subtract, (3)
(1):
X
:
= -
= -
7x;
= y
1.
3.
Substitute x
= -
1 in (1)
is (x
1,
+-=
17;
The
solution of the system
i).
Equation 1 is said to be linear in l/x and l/y because, if we let u = l/x and v = l/y, equation 1 becomes 3u -j- 50 = 17. Similarly, In place of the preceding solution, we 2. equation 2 becomes 2u Hcould first solve for u and v; then their reciprocals would give x and y.
Comment.
t>
EXERCISE 51
Solve for the literal numbers without first clearing of fractions.
x
1.
17 '
3.
2 4 _ ^4-
5w
3
+ 2i u
4-
137
y
6.
M-H,
6.
10 J_ 9 -h - =
-4.
(x
y
and y,orforw and
z.
Solve for x
ax
7.
2y
= =
2
2
+ 6,
26.
-j-
2cz
8.
dy y
c2
+d
2
,
-f
610
2c.
= a
*'
1 2abx
6,
as
aby
=
*
a?
62 .
10.
aw; 4- bz
= 0, bw = a2
6s
f
11.
/ ??*
+?
22:
ax
12.
by
oi/
= =
3, 3.
2aw
*""
wa2
+
bz
s
62
06,
3a6
, .
+ 26.
2aw
14.
= =
2a
4a2
\ w>
+6
6 a*
2
,
aw
15.
6w>
+ bz =
a
6.
a2
+6 +6
= 2a_
26
16.
_
a
1.
17.
2a
103. Solution of a system of three linear equations
system of three linear equations in three unknowns usually has one and only one solution. In special cases, however, such a system may have no solution, in which case the equations are called inconsistent, or infinitely many solutions, in which case the equations are called dependent. Such cases will not be considered in this book.*
EXAMPLE
1.
Solve for x,
y,
and
z:
+y-z= x + 3y - z = x + y - 82 =
3z 2x
11, 13,
(1) (2)
(3)
11.
SOLUTION.
Multiply
(2)
1.
Subtract, (1)
3:
(3)
:
(2):
by
+
(6) for
:
9t/
2y
82
Subtract, (5)
2.
2x -f 8y
= - 2. = 39. = 28.
3.
2.
(4)
(5)
(6)
Solve (4) and
x and
y:
Subtract, (6)
(4)
Substitute y
3.
3 in
(4):
2x y
2,
6 6
= 30; = - 2;
= =
11;
Substitute (x
2,
3) in (1)
is
+3=
3, z
The
*
solution of the given system
(x
?/
= =
= -
2.
2).
For a more complete treatment, see College Algebra, Third Edition, by WILLIAM L. HART; D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY.
738
SUMMARY.
knowns:
1.
To
solve
a system of
three linear equations in three
un-
pair of the equations, eliminate one of the unknowns; eliminate this unknown from another pair of the original equations.
2.
From one
Solve the resulting equations for the two
unknowns in them.
the
3. Substitute the values of the
simplest of the given

irNote 1.
first
unknowns found in Step 2 in equations and solve for the third unknown.
we
solve a system of four linear equations in four unknowns, would obtain three equations in three of the unknowns by eliminating
To
the other
Then, we
three different pairs of the original equations. would solve the new system of three equations and, later, obtain
unknown from
the value of the fourth unknown.
would apply to systems is presented in advanced college algebra.
A similar but more complicated method in five or more unknowns. A more elegant method
EXERCISE 52
Solve.
'
Do
not commence by clearing of fractions.
3y
1.
3a?
5x
+
y
2
= 1, - 1,
3,
2x
[
2.
2y Qx
= 2, - 5z = 7, + 2z = 1.
+y
7
3.
+
#>
= =
3, 2.
'
12x
22
=
0.
'
1,
5.
4c
+ 6c = 14, - 6 = 2 + 3a,
lOa
14c
7,
*
96
10.
6.
|
+ + 0, = ^ + + 92 3. 2s - y + 2 = 2,
22/
'
x - y + fa = 2x 62 3y
7.
- 2C + 1 = .A+ 3B + 2C= 1.
2A
3J5
0,
3e
9.
,
8.
<
12x -f y 6x - y
+ 62
= 3, = 12.
- 6z - 62 + 3 = - y - x - 2.
y
2
3,
0,
x
10.
11.
-H
L*
60
l
y y
5+1--;
*
in all equations.
o &
z
5.
HINT
for
Problem
10.
Let x
M,
v,
and z
~w
SYSTEMS OF UNEAR EQUATIONS
139
4,
*12.
4s
= 6, 4y + * = 10, = 62 3w 3. -f - y = - 2.
5x y
x
*13.
+ 2y + w =
2 x
3u = 6, 6 = - 2, - = - 2.
104. Applications of systems of linear equations
EXAMPLE
If
1.
The sum
of the digits of a certain two-digit
number
is 9.
the digits are reversed, the new number. Find the given number.
number
is
less
than 3 times the original
SOLUTION. 1. Let t be the tens' digit and u be the units' digit of the number. Then, the number is 10J -j- u.
2. If
the digits are reversed,

is
u becomes the tens' digit and t the units' w

\
I
digit.
The new number

3.
IQu -f
t.
From
the problem,
t
1n lOtt
~ =
'
3(10<
is
+ u) - 9.
We obtain =
EXAMPLE
2.
2 and u
7.
The
original
number
27.
Workmen
if
works 3 days, or
and B complete a job if A works 2 days and both work 2f days. How long would it take each to
do the job alone?

Let x be the number of days alone, and y the number of days for B alone.
SOLUTION.
1.
it
takes
to do the job
2.
The
is
fractional part of the
for
B,
1/y.
does in one day is l/x and, Since they do the whole job, under each set of given data,
work which
12
-=
1
2,3 +x y
1,
and
12
-5
solving the system consisting of the preceding equations of Section 102, we find x = 4 and y = 6.
On
by the method
on an (x, y) coordinate plane which is not parallel to the mx + 6, where m and 6 are y-axis has an equation of the form y constants. We can use this fact to obtain the equation of a line through two given points.
Any
line
ILLUSTRATION 1. To find the equation of the line through we substitute each pair of coordinates for (x, y) in y = mx
(4, 3)
and
(6, 9),
+ 6:
(1) (2)
(when x (when x
4 and y 6 and y
3) 9)
= 4m = 6m
+ 6,
-f b.
solution of [(1), (2)] is (m = 3, b = 9). Hence, the equation of the desired line is y - 3x 9. It can be verified by graphing or by substitution
The
that the given points
lie
on the graph of
this equation.
140

EXERCISE 53
Solve by introducing two or more unknowns.

1.
One angle
of a triangle
is
30
and a second angle

triangle.
is
four times the
third angle.
2.
Find the unknown angles of the

25
The width
of a rectangle exceeds its length

is
by 5
feet
and the per-
imeter of the rectangle

3.
feet.
Find the dimensions.
Two
angles are complementary
and one exceeds the other by 7.
Find the angles.

contractor has a daily payroll of $73 when he employs some men at $6 per day and the rest of his workers at $5 per day. If he should double the number receiving $5 and halve the number receiving $6 per day, his
4.
daily payroll would be $74.

5.
How many employees

solution of alcohol
of a
does he have?
of
How much
How much
of a
20%
and how much

solution?
50%
solution should be mixed to give 8 gallons

6.
30%
ing
6%
7. If
milk containing 2% butterfat and how much containbutterfat should be mixed to form 100 gallons of milk containing
3% butterfat?
each dimension of a rectangle were increased by 5 feet, the area would be increased by 95 square feet and one dimension would become twice the other. Find the original dimensions.
8. If If
a two-digit number
is
divided
by
its units' digit,
the result
is
is 16.
the digits of the given number are reversed, the than the original one. Find this number.
9.
new number
18 less
weight of 5 pounds is 6 feet from the fulcrum on the right-hand side of a lever. It is balanced if we place a first weight 4 feet from the fulcrum on the right and a second weight 7 feet from the fulcrum on the
place the first weight 8 feet to the right and the second weight 9 feet to the left of the fulcrum. Find the unknown weights.
left,
or
if
we
10. If
we
seat a
boy at 5
feet
and a
girl
at 8 feet from the fulcrum on
one side of a teeterboard, they balance a man weighing 160 pounds who is seated 6 feet from the fulcrum on the other side. Balance is maintained if the boy moves to 8J fe6t and the girl to 4 feet from the fulcrum o'n their side. Find their weights.
11.
When we
is
result
13.
divide a certain two-digit number by its tens' digit, the If we reverse digits in the number and then divide by the
result is 31/13.
original
12.
number, the
Find the original number.
The sum
of the reciprocals of
is
two numbers
is
1/2 and the difference
of the reciprocals
1/6,
Find the numbers.

and lead should be added to 100 pounds of a mixture containing 15% silver and 30% lead to obtain an alloy containing 25% silver and 50% lead?
13.
silver
How much
and nickel should be added to 100 pounds of an alloy containing 5% chromium and 40% nickel to give an alloy containing 15% chromium and 50% nickel?
14.
How much chromium
15.
A man
income
divides $10,000
among
6%
per annum, respectively. vestments is $80 less than his income from the third investment and his
total
is
three investments, at 3%, 4%, and His annual income from the first two in-
$460 per year.
Find the amount invested at each
rate.
complete a certain job if they work together for 6 days or if A alone works for 3 days and B alone works for 10 days. How long does it take each man to complete the job alone?
16.
Workmen A and B
In a three-digit number which is 31 times the sum of the digits, the units' digit is one half the sum of the other digits. If the digits are reversed, the new number obtained is 99 greater than the original number. Find its digits.
17.
Find
the equation of the line through the given points
on an
(x, y)
coordinate
system by solving a pair of equations for two unknowns, or by inspection.

18. (2,
20. (3,
3);
2);
(4, 3).
19.
((-
3, 1); 4, 5);
((8, (9,
2,
4). 2).
3).
((-
3, 3,
22. 24.
(-
3, 5);
- 12). - 2).
21.
23. (4,
2);
An
run and Find the velocity of the wind and the speed of the airplane in calm
25.
airplane, flying with the wind, took 2.5 hours for a 625-mile took 4 hours and 10 minutes to return against the same wind.
air.
messenger will travel at a speed of 60 miles per hour on land and in a motorboat whose speed is 20 miles per hour in still water. In delivering a message he will go by land to a dock on a river and then on the river against a current of 4 miles per hour. If he reaches his destination in 4J hours and then returns to his starting point in 3J hours, how far did he travel by land and how far by water?
An army
CHAPTER
EXPONENTS AND RADICALS
105. Proofs of the index laws
We have already employed the following results, called index

which govern the use
1.
laws,
of positive integral exponents.
Law
of exponents for multiplication:

1.
a m an
a;
a.
am+n .
(ra factors)
Proof.
By
definition,
am an
a- a
=a a a
(n factors)
2.
Hence,
ama n
(a-o
a)(a*a-a
a)
= am+n
\_(m 4- n) factors a]
Law for finding a power of a power: m n = am -am am (a ) Proof. 1. +m = am+m+ (By Law I)
II.
' *
(a
;
m ) n = amn
m (n factors a )
(n terms
(a
m)
.
2.
Since (m
+ m 4-
+ m)
to
n terms equals mn,
m
)
= amn
III.
Laws
of exponents for division:
"(ffm>n);
1.
= _
15 Or
ILLUSTRATION
-5 d
a6
"
~V a
,
Proof, for the case
>
am
o"
m.
**
By
a -a-
the definition of am and an
(m
-a-fil'ji1
factors)
$'
(n factors)
1 _____
m)
factors a]
a*a
a n-OT
143
n
Law for finding a power of a product: n = ab-ab (ab) afc; Proof.

IV.
(n factors a,
(ab)
a n b".
(n factors ab)
and
b)
(a a
a) (b b
b)
~ an b n
Law IV
extends to products of any number of factors.

n
Thus,
(abc)
a nb nc n
ILLUSTRATION
2.
2 4 3 (4a 6 )
43 (a2 ) 3 (64 ) 3
Q4a*V*.
n
h) (a\
T
an
M*
a4
ILLUSTRATION
/a\ 4
3.
a4
.
/a2
(a
2 2 ) -
Proo/.
a /^ n a a ^) ^6T"6
(
;
a\
(n factors^
__
(n factors a) (n factors 6)
_ a-a
6 6
a
6
a^
bn
is
Note
1.
The determination
of powers of
numbers
called involution.
EXERCISE 54
Find each power by use of
1.
the definition of
an exponent.
4
26
2.
(-
5)
3.
(-
3)*.
4.
(.I)
6.
(j)
6.
(-
).
7.
What
is
the sign' of an odd power of a negative number?
Perform
8.
the operations
9.
by use of the index laws.

10.
'
a6a8
zV.
232.
11. (x3 ) 5. 15. (5afy) 4 .

4
'
12. (3z) 4 .
16.
13. (2a2 ) 6 . 17.
14. (46) 8 . 18.
ddW.
(- 2zJ).
(-
fy
.
)'.
19.
(- 2a) 4
20. (b*)\
24.
21. (a*) 2 . 26. (cd)*.
22. (c*) 3 26.
23. (d2)**.
.
(o62).
(-
.2a26) 3
27.
(-
er-
144
('
'.
_
64.
62.
(^'?. \yz
if
63.
Prove that part of
Law
4
III which applies
m>
n.
66. (a)
positive
Compute ( integer n will
2)
(
and
n
24
n
(6)
Under what condition on the
3)
3 ?
106. Imaginary numbers
We
it
have
called
a square
roots,
root of
has exactly two square

=t
A. If A is positive, one positive and one negative, denoted

if
2
by
VA.
1.
ILLUSTRATION
If
The square
roots of 4 are db
Vi or
=t 2.
2 P. square root, then z But, if R is either positive or negative then R is positive and thus P has no positive or negative square root. P. Hence, cannot equal P may have square roots, we define the Therefore, in order that
a negative number
P has R as a
P as a new variety of number, called an imaginary numsymbol ber, with the property that
(V^P)* - - P
Thus,
that,
if
and
(-
V^)
V
=-
P.
P has the two imaginary numbers
P as square roots.
we
As an immediate extension
is
and
(M
of the preceding terminology, real number, each of the expressions (M

will
+V
agree
P)
P)
be called an imaginary number.
5 are the ILLUSTRATION 2. The square roots of the negative number 5. (7 18) is an imaginary number. imaginary numbers =fc
+V
number in this book will represent a real number. Imaginary numbers will not enter actively into our discussions until we meet them in the solution of equations
Unless otherwise stated, any
literal
in
later chapter.
145
Note 1. The somewhat unfortunate name imaginary number is inherited from a time when mathematicians actually considered such a number to be imaginary in the colloquial sense. In a similar fashion, our common
negative numbers, at their called illusory or fictitious.
first
The
introduction into mathematics, were also student will soon appreciate that imaginary
numbers deserve consideration on an equal footing with real numbers. Imaginary numbers are indispensable not only in pure mathematics but also in important fields where mathematics is applied. Imaginary numbers will be studied in more detail in a later chapter.
107. Roots
We
z
call
.
R
If
a square
is
R =A
= A and a any positive integer we say that R is an nth root of A if R" = A.

root of
if
cube root of
if
(1)
ILLUSTRATION
25
1.
32.
The only nth
root of
27.
is 0.
is
a 5th root of 32 because
is
a cube root of
following facts are proved in college algebra numbers are treated in a complete fashion.
The
1.
when imaginary
roots,
Every number A, not zero, has just n distinct nth of which may be imaginary numbers.
2.
some or
all
If n is even, every positive number A has just two real nth roots , one positive and one negative, with equal absolute values.
Ifn is odd, every real number A has just one real nth root, which is positive when A is positive and negative when A is negative.
3.
// n is even and numbers.

4.
is negative, all
nth
roots of
are imaginary
If
A
.
is positive, its positive
of
its
If
A is negative and n
2.
called the principal nth root is called is odd, the negative nth root of
is
nth root
principal nth root.
ILLUSTRATION
4th root.
The real 4th roots of 81
are
is
=fc
3 and
+ 3 is the principal
of
125 principal cube root of All 4th roots of 16 are imaginary numbers.
The
+5
and
125
is
5.
it
ILLUSTRATION 3. The real cube root of 8 is 2. Also, by advanced methods 1 + can be shown that 8 has the two imaginary cube roots ( 3) and
146
108. Radicals
A, which we read the nth root of A , is used to denote the principal nth root of A when it has a real nth root, and to denote * any convenient nth root of A if all nth roots are imaginary. In
The radical
v^L, the positive integer n
is
called the index or order of the radical,
and A is and use

I.
called its radicand.
When n
VA instead of \Â for the square root of A.

A
is positive if is negative if is
2,
we omit
writing the index
is positive. is negative
II.
Â
v~A
A
if
and n
is odd. is even.
III.
imaginary
1.
is negative
and n
2.
ILLUSTRATION
^'sl
= =
3.
^32 =
because
v/
is
imaginary.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
y^y
^)
=
3*
=
gj'
By
the definition of an nth root,
(VA)
ILLUSTRATION
3.
A.
7
(1)
(V3)*
(v'c
2
3.
(169)
169.
8 (^ctf) -
2cd*.
+ cd + d
2 4 )
c2
+ cd + #.
avoid ambiguous signs and imaginary numbers in elementary problems, the following agreement will hold in this book unless otherwise specified. If the index of a radical is an even integer, all literal numbers in the radicand not used as exponents represent positive numbers, and are such
Note
1.
To
that the radicand
is positive.
By
the definition of
as a principal nth root,

1,
it
follows that,
under the agreement f of Note
=
ILLUSTRATION
*
a.
(2)
4.
^5 = x.
v'S4
5.
This matter of convenience is discussed in more advanced treatments of imaginary numbers. If all nth roots of A are imaginary, it is not usual to call any particular one of them the principal nth root. n f If a is negative and n is even, then a is positive and the positive nth root
of an
is
a,
or "â*
2.
a.
This case
if
is
is
ruled out
negative,
come under formula
For instance,
by Note Vo* =
and does not
a.

EXERCISE 55
State the two square roots of each number.
1. 64.
747
2. 49.
3. 81.
4.
121.
5. J.
6.
&.
7. .01.
State the principal square root of each number.

8. 16. 9. 144.
10. 100.
11.
&.
12.
&.
216.
13.
State the principal cube root of each number.

14. 8.
16.
27.
16. 27.
17. 125.
18.
1.
19.
20.
State the two real fourth roots of each number.

21. 81. 22. 16.
the specified
23. 625.
24. 10,000.
26.
A.
26. .0001.
Find
power of
the radical, or the indicated root.
27. Vtf.
31. 35. 39.
V&.
(v^)
v^=~8.
6
.
43. 47.
51.
^64.
v^~T.
V400.
65. v'J. 59.
VX)1.
60.
109. Rational and
irrational
numbers
number which can be expressed as a fraction m/n, where the numerator and denominator are integers, is called a rational number. All integers are included among the rational numbers because, if m is any integer, then m can be expressed as the fraction m/1. A real number which is not a rational number is called an irrational
real
number. f are rational numbers. Any terminating decimal fraction is a rational number. Thus, 3.017, or 3017/1000, is a rational number. IT and V% are irrational numbers. A proof of the irrationality of V2 is given in the Appendix, Note 1. Any irrational number can be = 3.14159 expressed as an endless but not a repeating decimal. Thus, v are endless but not repeating decimals. and V% - 1.414
ILLUSTRATION
1.
7, 0,
and
148
If
is
then
VA
not the nth power of a rational number, and vÂ is irrational and is called a surd of the nth order.
2.
is real,
ILLUSTRATION
V3 is a surd.
is
surd of the second order

third order a cubic surd.
not a surd because v'd? 2. A sometimes called a quadratic surd and one of the
v^64
is
are given to a limited
The values of various quadratic and number of decimal places hi Table I.
cubic surds
110. Rational and
irrational expressions
algebraic expression is said to be rational in certain letters if it can be expressed as a fraction whose numerator and denominator
An
are integral rational polynomials in the letters. An algebraic expression which is not rational in the letters is said to be irrational in them.
T
.
1.
-=
,.
oa
is
rational in
a and
x and
x.
2.
V3x
-h y is not rational in
/r
y.
ILLUSTRATION
polynomial in
is
3.
x.
The expression x\ 2 3x 2 \/5 is an integral rational The presence of irrational explicit numbers, A/2 and V5,
of
no concern.
Hereafter, unless otherwise stated, in any integral rational polynomial we shall assume that the numerical coefficients are rational
numbers.
111. Perfect powers of rational functions
rational expression is called a perfect nth power if it is the nth power of some rational expression. Also, we say that a rational
number
is
a perfect nth power
if it is
the nth power of some rational
number. If an integral rational term is a perfect nth power, the numerical coefficient separately is a perfect nth power. Also, each exponent in the term has n as a factor, because in obtaining the nth power of a term each exponent is multiplied by n. In verifying that a term is a perfect nth power, first factor the coefficient.
ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
1.
32y
15
is
a perfect 5th power:
32y
15
= 2V5 =
\3o /
^ 3
3 6
(2I/ )
2.
X* is ^r* e
a perfect square: ^
X2
9o6

112. Elementary properties of radicals
149
following Properties I and II have already been met in Section 108 as direct consequences of the definition of an nth root.
The
II.
Va n =
Vob =
1.
a.
(If a is positive
when n
is even)
III.
vWb.
3z, because
(3x)
2
V&x? = VsVtf =
\fab
9z2
2.
^fc^fb
because
(vWfc) 3 = (â) 3
"
^)
06.
IV 1V
o T ILLUSTRATION 3.
^
4/81
4
= =
81
3
-,
because
/3\ 4
34
(- j
81
, T ILLUSTRATION 4.
-r->
u because
n
-=
/
*
=
an
.' =
a _
6
V. //
m/n
is
an
5.
integer,
vam =
=
a
1 1 *
ILLUSTRATION
i
.
vô^
a4
because
(o
4 s
* au .
The
all
cause then
following proofs are complete if a and 6 are positive, beprincipal roots involved are positive. The interested student
may
consider the possibility of negative values for a and 6. To complete the proofs, it should be demonstrated that in all cases the two sides of each
formula in
(III), (IV),
and (V) are
either both positive or both negative
and
hence are equal.
Proof of
(III).
Raise
(v)
to the nth power:

ab.
n n n a ^b) = (â) (^6) = (V~
Hence, by the definition of an nth
root,
â^fb is an nth
root of ab, or
n/- n/r = n/ r v ab. Vav 6
Proof of (V).
in
By Law
of
,
II,
page 142, (a
Va"*.
n n
)
a"'
- am
Hence,
a"
is
an nth root
a m or a"
150

special case of Property V, with dignify Property II by special attention be-
We observe that Property
II is
m = n.
cause,
if
However, we
we
are able to express
gives
VA by mere inspection.
6.
as a perfect nth power, Property II
ILLUSTRATION
Or,
V&xfiy
- ^(2xV) 8 = 2zV
(Property II)
by
Properties III and V,
EXERCISE 56
Each radicand
1.
is
perfect power.
3.
Find
Vol.
the specified root.

4. 9.
VP.
2.
7.
3d*.
.
Va*.
.
5.
6.
Vy.
<&.
V*2.
tff.
8.
**.
10. 16.
11.
12. vîo. 17.
13. 18. 23.

.
^x5
14. 19.
Vy*.
\/A.
16. 21.
-^.
^Jf.
.27.
-^7?.
20. 25.
29.
22.
^3fc.
28.
24.
^p.
26.
30.
34.
Vm*.
V/8E5
tfrV.
^^.
\/9^.
V^.
v/*.
31. 36.
.
32. 36. 40.
33.
5
.
38.
^SE
"
1
39.
42.
Î6a.
43.
^- .001. ^- 32 VSS5
10
.
37. 41.
46.
^0625.
44.
^06.
113. Fractional powers
We have previously defined a? only when p is a positive integer. We shall now introduce other types of powers in such a way that all
the types, together, will obey laws of the same forms as those for
positive integral exponents. If fractional exponents are to
plication, then, for example,
akcfr
obey the law of exponents for multi-
o^
a,
or
(afy
a;
thus, a&
must be a square root
of a*
Similarly,
we
a6
,
should have
- a6
or
(a$)

so that a$ should be a square root of a5 .
151
if
Accordingly,
m and n are
:
any positive integers, we
define
a n to be the principal nth root of am
m
a"
i
=
=
-v/a1";
(1)
[when
Thus,
of
m=
in (1)]
an
vâ.
(2)
we may
use fractional exponents instead of radicals to denote
principal roots.
The defining equation

1.
1 is
consistent with Property
page 149, which was proved for the case where

ILLUSTRATION
8*
= v^ =
x
2.
(8*
8)*
m/n was an integer. = v^"8 = - 2.

te
ILLUSTRATION
2.
v.
/
=
8)
\& =
2
4.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
(m
8)*
= v (-
vlJ4
4.
In
(1),
we
defined a n to be the nth root of am

also,
It is
prove the theorem that,
m an
very useful to
or
is
the
mth power of the nth root of a,
m
a"
(v^)".
(3)
To prove
(3)
we must show
that the right
members
.
of (1)
and
(3)
are
identical, or that
(4)
ILLUSTRATION 4. To show that \/aJ = ('â) 4 raise the right member to the 3d power and use the laws for integral exponents
,
:
[(>^)4]3
= (^)i2 = [t^) 3] =
4
.
(a)
a4
Hence, (â) cube root is

represented
is
a cube root of a4
If
is
we assume that a
is positive,
then this
positive
.
and hence
identical with the principal cube root
4 by vô
In accordance with Note 1 on page 146, we agree not to deal with m the symbol a" if n is evenjand a < 0. With this case eliminated, we
prove
that
(4)
by
:
raising the right-hand side to the

,
we
obtain am
and thus demonstrating
nth power, showing m is an nth that

(\â)
root of am
~~
a*.
152

5.
ILLUSTRATION
From
(3), since
\/64
6
=
26
2,
64$
(^64)
32.
(1)
Notice the relative inconvenience of the following evaluation by use of 64*

if Note
= ôT6 =
met
&(* = v^ = 2
if
32.
The
difficulties^
an
is
used when a
"
is
are illustrated below where a contradiction

less
negative and n "

1
is
eve
results
from reel
use of the symbol
VÎ =
(-
l)i
= (-
1)*
2 = = v'Pl)' V
114. Zero as an exponent

If operations
tion,
with a are to obey the law of exponents for multiplies then we should define a so that
aan = a+n =
Hence,
if
an
, '
or
aa n =
an
, '
or
=
1.
an
an
1.
0,
we
define a by the equation a

definition,
=
=
ILLUSTRATION
1.
By
1.
(17z)
1.
115. Negative exponents

If
a negative exponent
if
is
to obey the law of exponents for
mul
tiplication, then, for instance,
we should have a3cr3 = a
3"3
Hence,
duced,
we
positive exponent of the types previously intro define or* by the equation apa~p = 1, or
is
any
ILLUSTEATION
1.
--
Br
- I _ 1.
In a fraction, any power which is a factor of one term (numerate or denominator) may be removed if the factor, with the sign of it exponent changed, is written as a factor of the other term. That is
a
_ ~
=
bx
Proof. '
ax~n b
ax""
r b
a
7 n bx
a T
b
==
xn
a _^ r ar*
b
153
We may
use negative exponents in avoiding fractions.

2.
ponents,
-rj-
17o
TJ
17o6~ 2
we may
express the following fraction wityi positive exuse (2) mechanically:

3.
3 3a"26"
To
IF3^4
_ =
3c*b3
~oJoJ
(3)
/
/
j
_ =
Sc3^3
fQ
(
~HT'
'
In more detailed fashion we obtain
as follows:
1
-*-
Pw
Q/7~ 27)3 C/ Otv
/I
^
\
i
I
JL
\ 1
O7)3 OC/
^3 O
2J)3/^ O Ot/
x *v
"r*-*')-'-^-?)--*-;?--*-act as hi (3) but should also appreciate (4).
(4)
The student should
EXERCISE 57 Find
the value of the
symbol by changing from a fractional exponent
to
radical or
from a
negative to
positive exponent if necessary.

6.
4-1
10. 81*. 16. (i)*.
20. 16-*.
25. (.36)*.
'.
30. 35.
(-
S)-
4
.
31. 36.
((-
2)~
6
.
32.
(-
5)-
3
.
33.
(-
1)*.
34.
(-
8)*.
(-
8)-*.
27)-*.
37.
(-
125)*.
38. (.0081)*.
3,
39. (.0001)-*.
Find
40. 8*.
the value of the
symbol by use of formula

42. 4*. 47. (^)*.
page 151.
44. 81*.
41. 25*. 46. ft)t.
43. 36*.
48.
45. 125*.
(-
27)*.
49.
(-
64)'*.
Express with positive exponents.
754

6a~8
75.^-
76.
^ri-
77.
^br
x*
78.
Write without a denominator by use of negative exponents.

80.
iy*
81.
&
82.
83.
4
y
4
-.i
84.
^
a*
4a
M OO.
"*
2a
oft
Ov
&c*
ftft
90.
(L03)"
/- rvo\K* 8
8L
(1.04)"
(1.05)
Rewrite, expressing each fractional power as a radical

fractional power.
94. x*.
99. 5c*.
and each
radical as
95. z*.
96. a*.
97.
&i
v/^3
.
98.
3ai
100. ax*.
101. fcci
102.
103. v/6.
104. (56)*.
105. (6c)*.
110. (2a^)t.
116.
106. Vy>*.
107. (2^)*.
108. (4C3)
9
,
109. (7a')i 114.

118.
111. <Q>.
2
112. ^fe11.
113. >/5?. 117.

121.
-C^HM.
Va2 -f
62 .
119.
Vo â8 -
36.
fe
116.
120.
;
#(a
4- 6)
3
.
2
.
^(c
3d)
3
.
8
.
^ST^
vT^ll
122.
8 Compute (- i)~
(- J)-; (-
.04)~.
116. Extension of the index laws
We have defined ap if p is any

discussion,
rational
number but we have proved
the index laws only for positive integral exponents.
detailed
Appendix, Note 2), shows that the formulas of Laws I to V of pages 142 and 143 apply if the exponents are any rational numbers.
shall
which we
omit
(see
Hereafter, unless otherwise specified, to simplify an expression involving exponents will mean to perform indicated operations as far as possible by use of Laws I to V, and to express the result without
Moreover, unless specifically requested, we shall not introduce radicals for powers having fractional exponents. In operations involving exponents, it is frequently convenient to express the numerical coefficients of terms as products of powers of
zero or negative exponents.
prime
factors.

ILLUSTRATION
1.
755
(x*)$
- aH =
125
i
/
x4
/21te\*
\125arV
/
1
/8-27afa\*
V
8 = /238x\* "
2*3*3*
""
5*
1
25
1
Y"
"1
(-125)
EXAMPLE
1.
-Lrs/
17
iV
!"*
Simplify:
.-a
^f
FIRST SOLUTION.
Change
to positive exponents:
J_
a*
J_
1
q*y*
2
1/
V
(<rV*)(oV)
Multiply both numerator and denominator by to eliminate negative exponents

:
SECOND SOLUTION.
(a-
+ if*)
1
+ ay
We may
2
t/
+a
use the special products of Chapter 5 in multiplying or factoring polynomials involving negative or fractional exponents.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
(ar
y$)(x~*
+ y$)
(Type
II,
page 85)
ILLUSTRATION
3.
(z*
2?/-
2 )
(Type IV, page 85)
ILLUSTRATION
4.
2x-2
+ z" 1
(2s;-
3)(xr
+ 2).
EXERCISE 58
Simplify and, if no
1. 6.
letters
are involved, evaluate.

3. aAr
4
.
a&e2
4
2. a&c*.
7.
8
.
4.
asa.
5. (a*) 4 .
(3 )t.
(2)1
8. (x*)
4
.
9. (4z2)*.
10. (3x~^. 16. (o*)*.
11. (5a~2 )
16. (ax1
12. (cr 1*2 ) 8 . 17. (a*)-1 .
13.
(5)i
.
14. (*t)t. 19. (&)-*.
18. (a2 )"2
20. (a")-.
21. (2X-
2 8 ) .
22. (5a-) 2.
23. (oV)-*.
24.
?56
26. 29.

(3x-y)
2
.
26.
80. 34.
(5arV3 ) 2
271
4 2
!/
27. (Gar 1!/-3 )-2 .

31. 125*.
28. 32.
32i
216i
33. (4-V)t.
(a:-
)*.
35. (27a-8a*)i
36. (25ar2 )-*.
VT of.
2-5
r*
Qfl oo.
a\l
TT:
-
w
QQ
44.
n q1
rr
1
^
;j~
^49.
46.
-^.
60.
46.
47.^.
5L
-^f-s-
48.^.
62.
^S.
i~
63.
67.
PT-r
68.
69.
(27w)i
to
l
.
60. (32a666)*.
61. (125x 6)^.
62. (216ar6 )i
Simplify
63.
single fraction in lowest terms without negative exponents.
a- 1
+ b~
'
64.
3a~2
6.
66.
a^ !r
Zr3
2
66. 5a~ l
+ &-'
A7 67
~ a lb
'
a-l
rt
71.
+ A-l "-l J_ + La-2
Aft **
^-^
/,-2
J.A*
< AQ 69' x^J_,r-2*
S-2 -4-2 7n 70-
72.
5-2
_ T^ 4-2 _
4-1
afl
_.. -2
73.
" a 8
_ 6--
"
74.
3-2
1
.
+ ^-2"
&)->.
76. (Sat)-1 .
76. (c
+ M)'
1
1
-
77. (cr1
+ b^}~
6'
78. (4a~8
Expand and
79. (ar1
simplify, without eliminating negative exponents.
j/-
)^-1
2/" ).
80. (3a
81. (4x
83. (xi
y)(4a;
+ y).
82.
(jg
86. 87.
90.
93.
+ y*)(a:* - y*). - 2)(3ai + 4). (5a* (<r + 6) (2a* + 36ty. (a- + 6) + 4).
2
.
84. (2xi 86. (a* 88. (or1

91. 94.
+ 1). - 26*)(a* + 36*).

3)(3x*
89. (a*
+ 3) (a' + y (2 + ar
1
2
.
+
-
Z>*j
2
.
2 2
92. (x 4
2?/-
2 )
.
2 3 ) .
96. (3
y~
97. (3
- 6arH2

98. (z 3 V*)i
/
157
101. (4a~*6 n ) m
.
99. (3a;*) n
*
100. (3*a*6 n )*.

/
102
to
-
a6 * \*
4z 4 * \*
103 -
455=
106. (c*
l04-
-(*
/.125;r /.
\3
106. (a
6*) (a
a6*
+ 6).
<*)(<
<*d
+
When
if Factor
into two factors involving fractional or negative exponents.
possible, factor as the difference of two squares or as
perfect square.
ILLUSTRATION
Or,
107.
110.
a;
1.
x
(a*)
3
x
2
(yty
(x*
64
.
y*)(x*
+ zfyi +
109. Oar2
112. 9a*
jf.
x*.
108. a~2 111. 4x^
96.
^-
jft.
113. 9x* 116. x*
25^.
1
114. 16a*
2
.
49y*.
2
116. 4o
118. 4a~2 120. 4ot 122. a:-2

124.
+ tr - 4a~ 6~ + b~\
Zxy1 1
117.
Gzor 1
+ 9x~
2
.
119. 9o~2
121.
tor*-* -f
b~*.
20ai6V
+ 256*.
5.
4X- 1
.
123.
tyf
125. Sa
+ 276.
129
126.
By.
127. 216
if Find the
quotient by use of factoring.

.
128
- r> -
uc!.
130
117. Simplification of a radicand

possible to express a radical as a power with a fractional exponent, in some operations it is convenient to retain the This remark applies in particular to the following radical form.
Although
it is
operation.
SUMMARY.
order n:
1.
To remove
factors
from
the
radicand in a radical of
Separate the radicand into factors of which as
many
as possible are
perfect
2.
nth powers.
the
Find
nth
root of each perfect
nth power and express
the final
result
by use of the property 'Vab
= v^v^S.
158
ILLUSTRATION
1.

A/147
A/49-3
A/49A/3
7A/3;
A/147
7(1.732)
12.124.
(Table
I)
T o 2. ILLUSTRATION
\/3a
/o
5 = + -7 x
,
3/3az \;
Hereafter, unless otherwise specified, if a radicand involves fractions, reduce it to a single fraction. If a radical is of order n, simplify
the radicand
power.
form where
a perfect nth Also, in a radical of odd order, change the radicand to a " "
it
by removing from
signs are
3.
any
factor which
is
all
if
possible.
1
ILLUSTRATION
v/^"2 = v/^~Iv/2 = (a
v'-
fl
26
= v'-
+ 26) =
v'^Tv'a
+ 26 = -
v'a
+ 26.
In a sum, two or more terms involving the same radical as a factor may be combined by factoring.
ILLUSTRATION
+ 26\/3 = (5 + 26)\/3. V20 -f 2\/45 = V5\/5 + 2V9A/5 = 2\/5 + 6^5 = 8>/5. V7 + 3V^5) cannot be simplified in form. (\/3
4.
5V/3
ILLUSTRATION
(Using
5.
7\/5
- 3V5 +
I)
6\/5
V5 =
2.236 from Table
= V5(7 - 3 + 6) = = 10(2.236) = 22.36.
10\/5.
EXERCISE 59
Simplify the radical and then compute by use of Table
1.
I.
A/18.
2. 7.
A/75.
3.
V20.
4. 9.
A/24. A/72.
6.
A/200.
6.
A/500.
A/27.
8. A/108.
10.
16.
11. 16.
A/5.
AV3T3.
12. 17.
A24.
xVZTs.
13.
A6.
A^~l6.
14.
19.
A54.
v108.
13.
A^^54
20.
Simplify by removing perfect powers from the radicand.

21.
Vx\
22.
Vo*.
28.
23. \Vy*.
24. \V5. 29.
26. vîo. 30. 34.
2 6.
27. A/9o*.
A/8^.
v^.
32.
A20o*.
33.
V2.

36.
?59
38.
36.
V75?.
37.
8
.
V375J5
39.
40.
<>
V- 27a
VsiaV
VxJla5
.
41.
46.
42. 46.
60.
^-
128x.
.
43. 47.
44.
1
'
V/320V5
v^
48.
49.
61.
62.
63.
64.
* ^V12V
69. 62.
66.
662
.
V- |i60.
63.
--S4o2
.
68.
V9 + 92/
V4 -
61.
64.
67.
+ 5a 6.
2
66.
68.
2d
'
â ab
**
,
*
d
2
Simplify and then

71. 5A/2
74.
collect terms, exhibiting
+ 3A/2. Vl2 + V75.

^Sa
4
72. 3\/3
76.
any common radical factor. a\/3. 73. 2\/l8 V50.
Vl47
- VS.
76.
^24
-h 2V/8I.
77. 80.
aV2 - 56V2.
78. 81.
VS + V25a.
^48^ V48i/.
79.
82.
+ *VVa.
118. Products and quotients of radicals

or the quotient of two radicals of the same order can be expressed as a single radical by use of the following properties of radicals.
The product
Also,
we
recall that,
1.
by the
definition of
a root, (\^J)
A.
ILLUSTRATION
(2V3)(5V6)
= loV3\/6 = 10Vl8 - 30V2.

125(3)
ILLUSTRATION
.
2.
(5^3)
- 5(^3) 8 ^J/oS
375.
ILLUSTRATION^
- S
Vg'
^p
/^6
"
V^
/a
"
b\b'
760
ILLUSTRATION
4.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Multiply
(2\/3
is
+ 3V2x)(3V3 -
\/2z).
The product
6(V3)
2
2\/3\/2z -f
=
Comment.
18
- 2Vfo -f
9\/6i
3(2x)
18
The student may
prefer
an expanded solution:
2V3
+ 3\/2z
- V2s
4(multiply)
18
If
+ 7\/3\/2x P
3(2z)
18
Qx
+ 7\/6x.
\Â we
we remove a
must multiply by
positive factor multiplying a radical n under the radical sign because
ILLUSTRATION
5.
3\/6
EXERCISE 60
Express by means of a single radical, and then compute by use of Table I
if necessary.
2.
6.
V2\/3.
3.
7.
\/5vTo.
4.
\/3Vl5.
vWl2.
3V3(2\/6).
6. (-^2) 8 .
(2^6).
11.
14.
17.
8. (3>/5) 2 .
9.
10.
5V6(2V2l).
(3^2)
3
.
V30>/35.
12.
(2V3V5) 2
/
/
13.
16.
16. 3>?
36(v
45).
^^l^ls.
v^
22.
VT/s
18.
-^-
VT4
19.
-^
20.
^?-
v'To
21.
4^-
\/QQ
Express as a single radical and then simplify.

23.
-j^/rfc
24.
^V4C
26.
-^^^
^
26.
-^=a/^^r
27.
Multiply, simplify, and

28.
collect terms.
V3aVl5a.
29.
ZVxVSx*.
30.

31. 34.
76?
33.
zxfa*.
(3VS).
(5i~+i;) 2
.
'
32. 36.
VfoV25xy.
36.
2
.
5\/3a~'3.
2v/4^
4
.
37.
40.
38.
39.
(6V?~+~1)
(-
41. (2
+ 3V6)(3 \/2)(\/3
V5).
42. (2\/2 44. 46. 48.

60.
(3
43. (\/3 46.

47.
49.
61.
64.
56.
68.
+ V5). (3\/2 + V3)(V2 + 4V). (2V3 - V7)(2V3 + V?). (2\/3 + V5)(V2 + 4). 62. (v^ + 5) (V - 2Vi)(Vx + 2V2). (2#x - 3)(5v^ + 2).
2
.
- 3)(5\/2 + 2). - V5)(3V3 -f V5). (2\/3 (Vg - \/5)(V6 + Vg). - 3\/3)(5V2 -f 3\/3). (5\/2
(3^2
+ V3)(\/2 + V6).
63. (\/2
+ 5\/2)2.
65. 67.
2\/3)
2
.
(Vx -
5V^)2.
69.
(Va
+ 6v^)
62.
2
.
60.
(aVy
61.
\^^^- xcoefficient
v^-
Replace the
63.
by an equivalent factor under the radical sign.
3V2a.
64.
68.
sVfo.
65.
aVbx.
66. 70.
67.
S^P.
2â.
69. 2V/36.
119. Rationalization of denominators
denominator in a radical of order n, after the radicand has been expressed as a simple fraction, multiply both numerator and denominator of the radicand by the simplest expression which will make the denominator a perfect nth power. In particular, if the radical is a square root, we make the denominator a perfect square; if a cube root, we make the denominator a perfect cube.
T
To
rationalize a
ILLUSTRATION
1.
/3
1/7
/S
7?
\~7T
= VSI ~
~~T~~
4.583 7
A,K -655.
frr
,
,
(Table
T,
I)
Notice the inconvenience of the following attempt at computation of without rationalization of the denominator; a long division is required.
1<732
'
(Table
ILLUSTRATION
2.
762

3.
ILLUSTRATION
3
/64ar4
__ ""
3/64~
_ ~
8/43.32?
"*
"^43 -3a;2
\9x*
\9z
-3z
ôO
_ = 4^33* 2
3a;
a6
oW
EXERCISE 61
+ <*
Compute by use of Table I

1.
a/ter rationalizing the denominator.

3.
V}.
VJV.
2. 7.
V|.
^}.
12. 16.
Vf
4.
9.
V|.
5.
Vf.
6.
8.
^J.
13.
^S.
14. 18.
10.
^5.
.128.
col'
^~dW
15.
^pj.
Vl)07.
V^.
\/^12.
^.
^-
^T03.
17.
Eliminate any negative exponents, rationalize the denominators, and lect terms involving a common radical factor.
19.
\K-
22.
\ F?>
24.
26. i/T-
26.
27.
28.
29.
S^-
31
"V5S?"
32-
33.
8/6 9o4
34.
s=s-
36.
37.
41.
42.
c3
tf-1
44. v/ 46.
46.
V^Tft'
47.
VF
5
.
48.
VF.
49.
60. vâ~76~2 .
61.
66.
V J + ar'.
67.
61.
68. v^|
+ or*.
62.
69.
v'a -f
60.
63.
^^
5VJ
-h -h
V45.
10V|
$4.
<^.
66.
^F

120. Additional devices
for rationalizing
163
denominators
of the following illustration is frequently equivalent to the procedure of the preceding section.
The method
ILLUSTRATION
to
1.
The denominator below

perfect cube:
is
multiplied
by
^2
in order
make
the
new radicand a
ILLUSTRATION
2.
V3 = V3 Vl5 = = = = \/5 7= 5 V5 \/5 V5

aV&
2
If
a denominator has the form

c
c V5,
we can
rationalize it
by multiplying by aVb +
Vd
because
(a\/6)
(aVb - cVd)(aVb
ILLUSTRATION
2
+ cVd) -
(c\/5)
a'6
3.
3V^ p 2V2 -
\/3
7=
=
2
\/3
6(\/2)
(3
2)
V5 (V3)
(V3)
~ V3 2V2 + \/3 7= 7= 7= 2\/2 - \/3 2>/2 + \/3 9 + V6 9 + 2.449 _ ~ 8 3 5

3\/2
- -
In finding the quotient of two radicals, it may be desirable to write the expression as a single radical before rationalizing.
ILLUSTRATION
4.
EXERCISE 62
Rationalize the denominator and, if no letters are involved, compute by use of Table I. Collect terms in any polynomial.
2>/2
+ V3
V2 + V3
164
2V3 - V5
y
V2)
7="
4v
V2 + 3V3 2V3
34.
+ 3 V2
V2 + V5 3V5 - V2
2 V?
-+
\/3
(1
22.
23.
2\/3
25. (3
3\/7
-7-
2V6
(2
+ V7
26. (\/3
24.
27- :
S
X
+ V2).
-|L
33.
+ VTI) +
VII).
28.
29.-,^=.
30.
-^=.
31.
32.
~^>
-^^.
K
Ol O
-^:.
l
.
36.
37.
*/
*-v
r"
38.
-
40.
"v
41.
^ y
o/
16a3 62
42.
=
2\fc
v27xy*
44.
43.
3
46.
-^p=. + +
SVa;
3
^gVo + - V2o
1 6
46.
8 -
+
=
^
m
\^2a
V3-V2 + V5
vS.
-=
-=
2
7='
47.
p: V3-V6 + V5
=:
>.
V^-VJ
=.<
fc
49.
50.
61.
hfW
21
Changing from
fractional
exponents to radicals
a product of powers involving fractional exponents to radical form, first change the fractional parts of the exponents to fractions with their lowest common denominator.
ILLUSTRATION
1
1.
To change
22. Radical operations performed
by
using fractional exponents
In this section the results

I.
will
be desired in radical form. a

radical:
To find a power
to the
or a root of
1.
Express each radical operation by use of a fractional exponent

radicand.
applied
2.
Simplify the indicated power of the radicand and express the result as a radical.

ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
1.
165
2.
(2v 5x)
4[(5z)*]
be unnecessary to introduce fractional exponents in an operation of Type I. Also, with experience, one observes simple rules such as
recognize that, in simple cases,
it
We
may
"the
wth
root of the
nth
3
root of
is the
mnth
root of
A."
(1)
ILLUSTRATION
3.
v^ =
3.
A^Va =
v'a.
II.
T'o
^/ki the product or the quotient of two radicals of different
orders:
1.
Express each radical as a fractional power of

to their
its
radicand, and
change the resulting fractional exponents

2.
LCD.
Rewrite in radical form and combine into a single radical.

4.
ILLUSTRATION
V^3\/2
3*2*
ILLUSTRATION
5.
(3a6)t
27a3
III.
1.
3a
To reduce
to
the order of
a radical, when possible:
Change
fractional exponents in lowest possible terms with
common
2.
denominator.
Rewrite finally in radical form.

6.
ILLUSTRATION
^625 =
In reducing the order of a radical, it is convenient to commence by expressing the radicand as a power of some expression.
ILLUSTRATION
7.
\/16z2
v"(4z)
166
1
23. Simplest radical form
far as problems in this text are concerned, we agree that an expression is in its simplest radical form if all possible operations of the following varieties have been performed, with any negative ex-
As
ponents eliminated.
SUMMARY.
1.
To reduce a
radical expression to simplest form:
.Express any power or root of a radical, or product of radicals, as a
single radical.
2.
Reduce each radicand
to
a simple fraction in lowest terms.
3. Rationalize all
4.
denominators.
Remove from each radicand all factors which are perfect nth powers, where n is the order of the radical.
5.
Reduce each radical
to the lowest possible order.
6.
Combine any terms with a common radical factor.
inferred that the preceding operations need be performed in the specified order. To simplify a radical expression will mean to reduce it to simplest
It
must not be
radical form.
ILLUSTRATION 1. To simplify the following radical we rationalize the denominator, and finally notice that the order of the radical can be reduced.
ef^~ =
\16c
l
6/q2.4c2
= v
2c2 2c2
\16-4c12
2c2
EXERCISE 63
Change
1. atb*.
to simplest radical
2.
form.
3.
x*y*.
5ai
4. 2z*.
6.
6. a$bt.
7. a$b%.
to
8. xly$.
9. xty$.
10.
Reduce
11. 16.
a radical of lower
12.
2 ^wT
.
order.
\^.
v^.
^27.
^8l.
13. 18.
v^.
Vtf.
14.
Vy\
#9.
^49.
15.
17. 1??.
19.
20. 25.
21.
22. 27.
4T25.
23.
28.
^36.
2 v/iF
.
24.
26.
J/W.
29. V%a*.
30.

Change
31.
to
167
simplest radical form.

32.
(V&.
VS.
.
i
>
33.
V5.
34.
35. 40.
36. (v'a)'.
37. (\/3) 4
38. (V2)'.
39. (v"5) 4 .
41.
(V5).
42. (\/6) 4 .
43.
4
.
44.
45.
50.
4 IBV* fAj/0^4 \ V ^t/y

61.
47.
52. 67.
(2v 3)
48.
63.
(v^
49.
54.
V^.
.
V\/5.
A/V1.
66.
60.
66. -Vâ;.
59.
62. 66. 63.
61.
66. 69.
72. 75. 78.
^yv
64.
68. 71. 74.
^2^2.
70. 73.
67.
v^
-5-
Va.
-^2.
v^-r-
V2 v^
-5-
^3
-i-
4- \/2.
76. 79.
77.
80.
V6~
%Vy
-.
^
>^S.
82.
v
84.
~
81. 86.
90.
83.
87.
91.
85.
vx^.
3
(v^x2 ) 6
.
88.
92.
89.
93.
97.
94.
95.
Vx~*
102.
99.
100.
101.
464
103.
(v^)
7
.
104. (2v 5) 4 . 108.

112.
105.
109.
106.
107.
Wjty
2
.
(av^)
6
.
110. (6V/3) 6
114.
111. (cv/4) 3 .
113.
V3a
+a
4
120. -j
118.
119.
Va +
123.
\/3a
122.
+ 9y~
2
.
;+

EXERCISE 64
Chapter Review
Find
the value of each symbol, using Table I if necessary.
16.
21.
26.
V3 + V2
2\/2
Write without fractions by use of negative exponents.

06'
Ovr
OJL*
'
26
Express without radicals, or negative signs or zero in the exponents, and simplify by use of the laws of exponents.
33.
&?.
v^p.
34. <Vf.
35.
40.
V9.
ty&o}.
36. 41.
Vi^.
37. 42.
47.
38.
43.
39. 44.
v^.
W~
5
.
^C^.
K1 51.
&r
8
.
46. (16z)*.
46. (a6-)*.
62. (2o
+ 6- )2
1
.
63.
S^-1
+ 2y)~
l
.
64. 5(a~2
+ 36- )'
1
2
.
65. State the principal 4th root of
256 and principal cube root of
27.
Change
66.
to simplest radical
form.
68. 62. 66.
70.
V96V.
67.
61.
^32^.
îaF3
69.
v'Vj.
60.
64.
#&.
(V2a).
63. \/J 467. 71. 76. 79.
aW.
(2V3X)
3
.
65.
68.
72. 76.
-C^^.
73.
74. v/49.
V5V5.
77.
\/2lfyr\
78.
169
82
84. 86.
3\/
+ &V8.
87.
86.
5VI2 -
(V2Va - Va -b
.
88.
90.
(Vo
+
36.
89.
2763
-i-
91.
92.
6
93.
3
94.
96.
-J-
v2
62
x
.
xâ2
96.
V(a
97.
-f-
V6- 1
a~2
^-
(V a -
CHAPTER
10
ELEMENTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
24. Terminology and foundation (or imaginary numbers
But, if R is either positive or negative, R is positive and hence cannot equal is not a square root of 1. 1. Obviously R = Hence, no real 1. number is a square root of Similarly, if P is positive, any square P would satisfy the equation root R of the negative number Rz = P. But, 1 is positive or zero for all real values of R and P has no real number R as a square root. Therefore, in hence order that negative numbers may have square roots, we proceed to define numbers of a new type, to be called imaginary numbers. 1 be introduced as a new variety of number, Let the symbol * called an imaginary number, with the property that
By
definition,
is
a square
root of
2
1 in
case
# =
2
1.
For convenience, we
or
i
8
V-
1
1.
= -
1.
let i
Then, by definition
i*i
that the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication will be applied to combinations of i and real numbers as if i were an ordinary real literal number, with i2 Then,
1.
We agree f
=A1
Any
in particular,
(so that
integral
i,
,')
= ,-=_!,
a square root of
1.
(2)
as well as -h
i
i,
is
power of
can be easily computed by

<
positive 2 1 recalling that i
and hence
-(*)(*)
-(-1)(-1)-1.
(3)
Refer to the introduction of negative numbers in Section 6 and observe the similarity of the present discussion, t This procedure can be arrived at logically by a more advanced discussion.

ILLUSTRATION
1.
t
3
171
i(i
t(
1)
i.
t 13
=
(3
W2
ILLUSTRATION
'
2.
+ 5i)(4 + t) = 12 + 23t 4- 5t - 12 + 23i - 5 = 7 4- 23t.

we
verify that
If
P is any positive number,
- - P;
Hence, the negative number
Hereafter,
db
(-
VP) =
t^P
= -
P.
t'
P has
agree that the symbol particular square root t'VP. Then,
we
This agreement about the meaning of P is equivalent to saying that we should proceed as follows in dealing with the square root of a negative number:
P=
the two square roots db P or ( P)^ represents the P has the two square roots
iVP.
(4)
ILLUSTRATION
3.
The square
roots of
5 are
ILLUSTRATION
]Vofe /.
4.
V- 4V- 9
We
(iV4)(i\/9)
6i 2
= -
6.
The formula VaVfe = Vo6 was proved only

real.
Va
and VJU are
where can verify that the formula does not hold if a

for the case
,
and 6 are negative.
Thus, by the formula,
VÎ\A=~9 = V(which
If
is
4)(is
9)
= V36 =
6,
wrong, because the correct result
6 (in Illustration 4).
a and b are real numbers, we call (a + bi) a complex number, whose real part is a and imaginary part is bi. If b 7* 0, we call (a 4- W) an imaginary number. A pure imaginary number is one whose real = and 6^0. part is zero; that is, (a -f bi) is a pure imaginary if a Any real number a is thought of as a complex number in which the - a -f Oi. In coefficient of the imaginary part is zero; that is, a
particular,
means
(0 4- Oi).
772

(2 (6
ILLUSTRATION 5. can be thought of as

Note
2.
3i) is
an imaginary number.
The
real
number 6
+ Oi).
all literal
In this book, unless otherwise stated,
numbers
sent real numbers, except that hereafter i will always represent Any literal number in a radical of even order will be supposed positive,
this is possible
repre1.
if
and adds to our convenience.

seen that
itNote 8.
The student has
we
introduce imaginary numbers in
order to provide square roots for negative numbers. It might then be inferred, incorrectly, that still other varieties of numbers would have to be
introduced to provide cube roots, fourth roots,
etc., of positive
and negative
also roots of all orders of imaginary numbers. An extremely interesting theorem is that the real numbers and the imaginary numbers,
numbers and
as just introduced, provide all the numbers we need in order to have at our disposal roots of all orders of any one of these numbers. Explicitly, in more
advanced algebra,* it is proved that, if k is any positive integer, then any has just k distinct kih roots, which are also complex complex number numbers (including real and imaginary numbers as special cases).
irNote 4- In the theory of electricity, it is customary to use j for because the letter i is reserved for a different purpose.
EXERCISE 65
Express by use of the imaginary unit
1. 6.
i
and simplify
the
remaining radical.
V^~9.
V^
\
17.
11.
16. 21.
v^ÔO.
V-27.
V-^36.
22.
V^
v
32. 36.
29.
30.
34.
V- Ifo*. V- 12t0.
o2^
31.
36.
V
/
V V- 4ay.
33.
V- a V-
2 2
**
.
37.
V-27F.
38.^
42.
*
A89
cW
'
V-
26
4L
V- 546.
State the two square roots of each number.
81.
43.
- M.
44.
46.
-63.
-f
See
De
Moivre's Theorem and related topics in any college algebra.

Perform
47.
i
6
.
173
1 until i
the indicated operation
and simplify by use

60. t8 .
1 of i
does not occur with
an exponent
greater than 1.
48. i7 .
49. %.
61. t 18 .
66. (3 68.
62.
i.
63. (3
t)(3
2
.
t).
64. (3i
66. (2i
69. (5 62. 64. 66.
69.
+ 3)
67.
+ 5) (4 - 3i). - 2)(5i + 7). (3i

(3i
- 2i) 60. - 3t -f 5) (ft - 3). (2i - 7)(ft -f 5i ). (4t

2
.
4)*.
61.
+ 2i)(3 - ft). (4t + 3)(- ft + 5). (4t + 5)

2
.
63. (i3 66. (ft
2i2
+ 4i
+ 3)(3i - 5). - t )(2 + 3t).

2
2
V^~2V^~8.
67.
70.
V^VV^~3(5
2
(a;
75.
68.
V- 27\^ ~3.
:
V^2(3 - 5V^1).
x
2
- V^27).
71. (5
- V^~8)
2
.
72. Substitute
73. If /(*) 74. If /(x)
=*
+ 6i in
-
60;
+ 34).
/(3i); /(2
= =
3a:
+ 2x a?
7, find /(ft);
5i).
a*
3, find /(ft); /(I
+ i).
Obtain an expression of the form a
+ bifor the fraction.
3i-4
HINT
for
Problem
75.
Multiply numerator and denominator by 5
4i.
125. Equations of the second degree

quadratic equation, or an equation of the second degree, is an integral rational equation in which, after like terms are collected,
the terms of highest degree in the variables are of the second degree. A quadratic equation in a variable x can be reduced to the standard
form
axa
bx
+c
0,
(1)
where
a, b,
and
is
c are constants
7*
equation in x
one for which 6
and a 7* 0. A complete quadratic 0, and a pure quadratic equation is
one for which &

ILLUSTRATION and 5x2 7 =
1
=
1.
is
0.
3z2
5x
+7=
is
a complete quadratic equation
a pure quadratic in
x.
26. Pure quadratic equations
To
and
2 solve a pure quadratic equation hi x, solve the equation for x extract square roots.
174

1. 1.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. 3.
Solve:
ly
= 18 + - 3y* - 18;
7y*
3y
2
.
4y
Divide by 4:
y*
= =
18.
Hence, j/ must be a square root of and using Table I, we obtain
j.
On
extracting square roots
EXAMPLE
2.
2.121.
Solve:
2j/
+ 35 = 2
2/
5y*.
SOLUTION.
7y
35;
5.
Hence, y
=b
V
2
.
iV5.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
3.
1.
Solve for x:
a*x*
ft
o2^2
(a
2
a&c2
ab)x*
Factor:
= = =
o&c2
+a
ft .
a2
a2
62 .
3.
Divide by (a2
06)
and reduce to lowest terms:

(a
X2
. a?-& = tf-ab
.
b)(a
a(a
+ 6)
'*
6)
or.
a^
+6
!
4.
Extract square roots and rationalize the denominator:
K
1.
a quadratic equation are explicit numbers and if a radical occurs in any solution which is a real number, always compute the decimal value of the solution by use of Table I. If it is desired to check such a solution, substitute the radical form instead of the decimal
If the coefficients in
value, unless otherwise directed by the instructor. The approximate decimal value, as a rule, could not lead to an absolute check.
EXERCISE 66
Solve for x, or otherwise for the letter in the problem.
1.
5x2
125.
25.
2.
6.
3x2
12.
3.
Jt /
3. 7.
x2
= "
9.
4.
8.
JLm%
4x2
3x2
- -
9.
6.
9x2
t
- == / - G.
2x2
5x2
7.
fii%
11.
1 ft 1Q.
7*2 9 AJU
in QT^ XV* 7*
11 OCftv ^/vr2 XX*
19 &WU 9hr%
2
13. 15
16.
1622
4.
0.
14.
7* *
6.
15.
.
Jx
9x2
+ 49 -
17.
7X2
3s2
18.
- 1 Jx2 2 2 Jx } * fcc

19. l&r2
175
+ 64 c
0.
20.
22. 25. 27.
4oz2
4z 2 4x2
rf.
23.
+ 4 = a*. 4a + 2cz - 4d.

fz*
2
21. fcc
24.
-|9ac* - 46
25a
4&r*.
26. 9az*
2
46
+ 9cz*.
c*
+ 25a =
=
25
+ 4a z*.
28. 2cx*
+ 4d S
for
4<fc*.
29. Solve /r
31. Solve
rov2 for v.
?rr
2
30. Solve 32. Solve
J#*
Jir
A =
for r.
A for
or x.
07 33.
^2
-g-
+ 2 _5 g.
34.
04^.5 j
4
35.
x j
-49
0.
2*
+3
as
+6
127. Solution of an equation by factoring
We know that a product of two or more numbers equals zero when

and only when
at least one of the factors is
zero*
This fact
is
the
basis for the following method, tions of any degree.
which applies to integral rational equa-
SUMMARY.
1.
To
solve
an equation in x by use
of factoring:
Clear the equation of fractions if necessary by multiplying both
sides by the
2.
LCD
of all fractions involved.

the other
Transpose all terms to one member and thus obtain zero as member. Factor the first member if possible.
3.
Place each factor equal

1.
to zero
and
6
solve for x.
EXAMPLE
Solve:
5z
1,
6x2
0.
SOLUTION. 1. Multiply both sides by 2 factoring with a positive coefficient for #

.
to obtain convenience in
2. 3.
Factor:
(3z
+ 5x - 6 = - 2) (2* + 3) 6*2
or
2;
if
0.
0.
The equation
is satisfied if
3x
4. If
5. If
2x
is
+3
f
is
0.
3x
2x 4- 3
= =
0, 0,
then 3x
x
3;
=
x
one solution.
a second solution.
then 2x
This fact holds for a product of complex numbers.
776

2.
EXAMPLE
Solve:
1.
4x*
+ 20s -f 25
or
(2z
.
0.
SOLUTION.
Factor:
(2*
2. If
+ 5) 2
0;
+ 5)(2* + 5) -
0.
2z -f 5
for x,
we
Since each factor gives the agree to say that the equation has two equal roots.
0,
then x
same value
In solving an equation, if both sides are divided by an expression involving the unknowns, solutions may be lost.
EXAMPLE
3.
Solve:
1.
5z2
&t.
SOLUTION.
Transpose 8z:
5z2
Sx 8
= =
0;
x(5x
8)
=
=
0.
2.
Hence, x
or 5x
0; the solutions are
and f
INCORRECT SOLUTION.
Divide both sides of 5z2

5x
&c by x:
8.
Then,
incorrectly,
we obtain x = f
as the only solution. In this incorrect

x.
solution, the root x
was
lost
on dividing by
Some
literal
4.
1.
quadratic equations can be solved by factoring.

Solve for x:
Factor:
b
2a?x*
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. If
(2ax
+ 3a6x - 26 = 0. = 0. (ax + 26)

2
ft)
2ax
=
=
0,
then
2ax
ax
6;
x
x
H--
3. If
ax -f 26
0,
then
= 2a
26;
= --a
4.
has the two The equation ^
solutions 5-
and
--a
EXERCISE 67
Solve 6y factoring.
1.
x2
3z
=
-
10.
2.
5y
=
.
14.
3.
s2 -f *
=
144
12.
4.
z2 -f 3z
3x2 x2
28.
0.
6.
21x
6s2
= =
14z2
Ifo.
6.
W5z2 x2
0.
7.
7x
8.
9.
9z
15
0.
10.
+8-
6x.
3.
11. 4x2
14.
25
2z
= -
0.
12.
15.
8x.
13.
2s3
+ 5z -
3z2
5.
8z2 -f 3

16. 16z2
19. 4y*
177
24x
9.
1.
17.
25y
20y
4.
18.
z2
22. 24.
26.
28.
30.
32.
+ 40 = lOz + 3 -f &c - 0. 6z - 19* + 15 = 0. 8 - 22z + 15z = 0. 8z + 2x - 15 = 0. 49x + 28x = - 4.

2 2
20.
3z2
+2
= -
7*.
21.
+ 6* - - 9. 2z + 7x - - 6.
2
23. 12
5z 2
17z
0. 0.
25. 16z 2
+ 40z + 25 =
27. 15 29.
31. 33.
- 7w - 4w2 = 0. 7z2 + 9z - 10 = 0.
4
2x
x2
0.
+ 5x - 9x = 0. 6 + 5x - 6x = 0.
2 2
Solve for x or
34. 3fo2
+ ex
w or z. = 0.
2
35. 2or2
3dx
0.
36. 38. 40. 42.
x2
+ or - 6a = 0. 2z + bx - 36 = 0. 46 z -h 4a6x + a =
2 2 2
2 2
37. x2
56x
+
-
662
0.
0.
0.
2
39. 3w;2
0.
bw
46 2
=
=
41. 662z2 43.
7bx
2aV -
abx
362
0.
9aV +
12a6x
+ 46 =
0.
62. (x
2w
w
1
0.
2x
+8
ar
*
2
+ 3)(2z -
5)(3z
7)
63. 6z8 -f
15*
0.
64. (2x
3)(3x -f 5)
2x
+ 7.
65. (3z
l)(2x
+ 5)
3z
19.
128. Completing a square
A binomial x* + pa: becomes a perfect square if we add

one half of the
coefficient of x.
:
the square of
if
That
is,
we complete a square
we
add
or
g)'
178

1.
ILLUSTRATION
ofi(6), or 3:
x2
fa becomes a perfect square
if
we add
the square
x2
ILLUSTRATION
2.
Ox
+9-
(x
3)
2
.
To make z2
a*
7x a perfect square, we add
(J)
or
7z
+^-
(x
I)
SUMMARY.
1.
To
sofoe
o quadratic equation in x by computing a square:

to the left side
Transpose
all
terms involving x
and
all other
terms
to the right
member and
collect terms.
2.
Divide both members by the
coefficient of
left
x2
3.
Complete a square on the
by adding the square of one half

to both sides.
of the absolute value of the coefficient of x

4. 5.
Rewrite the
left
member as
the square of
a binomial.
Extract square rootst using the double sign on the right.

1.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
Solve:
1.
a;
+ 4x + 1 =
x2
0.
(1)
1.
Subtract
1:
+ 4x
(2)
left:
Since 4
-*-
2,
add
2? or 4, to
complete a square on the

2
*2
3.
Extract square roots:
+ 4z + 4 = 4- 1; - 3. (x + 2) x + 2 = V3
x
(3)
(4)
or
- -
db
V3.
(5)
Thus, the roots are irrational numbers. To compute approximate values for the roots to three decimal places, we obtain V3 from Table I
:
* 2.
2
%
1.732
= -
.268
x
3x*
= -
1.732
= -
3.732.
EXAMPLE
Solve:
1.
&e
+2
&c
*
**
0.
SOLUTION.
2.
3x*
2.
Divide by 3:
Since
*
sa
8 53 =
2
~-
3.
J,
add
8
(|)*
I
or
^ to complete a square.
16
-
/4\* I
.. .
2 _
\3/
tr
9
10
39
.
16 ^ ^ 6
..
Hence,

4.
179
From Table
I,
VIo =
o
3.162.
SB
Hence,
2.387,
3.162
OOQ>y
.,
and
-=
4-3.162
o
x* -f
.279.
O .n
EXAMPLE
3.
Solve by completing a square:

1.
4s
+7
0.
SOLUTION.
2.
x2 4- 4x
7.
Since (4 4- 2)
2,
we add
2* or
4 to both
sides:
3.
Hence,
& + 4* + 4 4 - 7; or (x + 2)' - - 3. x + 2 - =t VÎJ - * fx/3;

x
- -
*V3.
ox* -f bx
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
4.
Solve for x:
1.
Subtract
c:
+c ax* +
fez
0.
c.
Divide by a:
x1
6*
1
rr*
-f-
6 -
c ---
3.
AJJ/^V Add (TT-)

\2a/
...
, '
or
4a2
-:-=:
-x + +a
,
,
&
/&\*
(^-) \2a/
,
&*
4o
6
^-r a
C ---
o
4ac
Simplify:
4.
+ ^j (x
6
6 \8
-TT"'
2o
_ 5.
,
,
6
JT-:
a;
Subtract
=
2
2a
=2a
1
fe
Vfe2
=b
4oc
2a
fe
=fc
V6*
s
4oc
2a
Note
An
equality
A =B -A -A -
is satisfied if
5, that
is,
if
A=B
J?
arif
A = -B.
is,
(7)
Equally
well,
A2 = B
if
5, that
or t/
t/ If
-A * -
B.
(8)
both sides of each equation hi (8) are multiplied by 1, we obtain equations (7). Therefore, on extracting the square roots of both sides of A* = B1
,
we obtain
all
possible information
by writing
"
A =
."
B, instead of writing
is, it is
B, where use the double sign
A =
we read
d= as
+
if
or
That
necessary to
on just one side

it.
the square roots of both sides of an
equation are extracted in solving
780

EXERCISE 68
Find what must

1. x*
be added to the expression to
make
it
a perfect square, and

4.
then write this square.
Sx.
2. x* 6.
6.
*2
J*.
x2
+ 10*. + f*.
10. 13. 16. 19.
a:
3.
*2 *2
2cx.
*a
+ 4dx.
J*.
7.
+ j*.
0.
8. x*
Sofoe
9.
a;
fo/
completing a square.
2
12.
a;
+ Ox = 7. + 9 = 6*.
4y
2
4- 10s -f
24
*2
15. 2y* 418. 21. 24.
=
=
5.
6x2 4*2
4z.
+ 4* + 4 = 0. x + 13 = 6*. 9x + 1 = 12*.
2 2
+ 4* = 21. 14. 2w^ + 3 = 8w;. 17. x + 5 = 4z. 20. 9s + 6* =

11.
*2
1.
+ 13 16x + 9 =
2
12*.
22.
4z2 4- 4z
=
21.
0.
23. 26.
3z2 -h 8z 4*2
1.
24*.
26. 9*2
12*
12*
5.
Verify the statement by substitution.

27. 28.
= (* = (2
* *2
+ V2)
and *
= (-
2 \/2) satisfy *
+ 4* + 2
0.
3i) are solutions of
*2
4*
+
*2
13
0.
Solve for
29.
x by completing a 2o* - 15a2

.
square.
30.
+ bx =
4*
662 .
c
31. 2*2
56*
362
b
32. 6*2
0.
0.
33. 3*2 -f 2o*
34. .3*2
.06*
.144
0.
36. o*2
37.
+ 4* - c = 0. Hx* + Kx + P - 0.
36. 2*2
38.
+ bx + c = 0. A* + 2B* + C =
2
0.
29. The quadratic formula
In Example 4 on page 179, the quadratic equation
axa 4- bx
+c=
(1)
was solved by the method found to be

x
of completing a square; the solutions were
-n.
In
(2), it is
We
and
call (2)
the quadratic formula.
permissible for a,
6,
c to
have any values, with a
j* 0.
181
SUMMARY.
formula:
1.
To
solve
a quadratic equation in x by use of the quadratic
Clear the equation of fractions and reduce
it to
the standard
form
ax*
2.
bx
0.
b,
List the values of the coefficients a,
and
c.
3. Substitute the values of a, b,
and
62
c in the formula.
ILLUSTRATION 1. = = 6 6, and c
To
2.
solve 3z2
=
6
0,
we observe that a =
3,
Hence, from the quadratic formula,

6)
2
- (_ ~
x
6)
V(6
'
4-3-
(-
2)
_
3
2VT5 ~ _
6
3.873
+ 3 873 =
o
2.291,
and
"
3 873 o
'
= -
.291.
fe
4x ILLUSTRATION 2. To solve 2z2 5 = 0, we notice that = 5. Hence, from the quadratic formula, = 4, and c
2,
db
Vl6 4
40
~4~4~2
4
V- 24
x*
2t>/6
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
Solve for x:
1.
3ex -f 5dx
I5de
0.
Group terms
in
a::
z2 4- x(
3e -f 5d)
15de
0.
In the standard notation, a From the formula,
l,
6=
3e
5rf,
and
- (The radicand becomes
3e
/ox (3)
9e 2
+ 60efe =
25(^4- 30de
+ 9e*
Hence, from
(3),
x
o*
o*?
(.1
i
3e
.
i i
..
+ &0
2
............... 3e)
3e
5d 4- 5d 2
+ 3e
-(5d
'
3e
5d
5d
**
"
The
solutions are 3e
.
and
In deriving the quadratic formula, we showed that an integral rational equation of the 2d degree in x has just two roots (which sometimes are identical). This result is a special case of a general theorem that, if
the degree of the equation is n, the equation has just n roots (with repetitions of values possible among them).
782

EXERCISE 69
Solve by use of the quadratic formula.*

1.
Check
5
if directed
0.
by the instructor.
2
6za
+x8y_
12.
0.
2.
6.
3y
2
j/
+ 2y -
3. 6. 9.
6y
7y
=* 0.
4. 7j/2
7.
2y 4- 10
0.
z2
+
-
13
4z.
0.
4*2
10.
9*2
13. 9z2
+ 9 - 12*. + &c + 1 - 0. + te - 1.
2s
8. 16z2
25 49
=
6z2
0. 0.
4z2
&c
18
+1Ify
8
.
11. 14.
36z2
12. 15. 18.
By
2z2
9s2
+ 4x 3
16.
19.
2*2 9s2
7.
17. 4z* 4-
2z.
+ 3 - 8z. + 6z = 7.
=
4z
22.
+ 16 - 0. 4s* + 5 - 82.
=
4x.
&c.
20. 4z* 23. 26.
+ 13 - 40. a* + .15 = .8z.

=
=
9.
21. 3s2
24. x*
8.
25. 4x2 -f 53
3x2 -f 2x
27. 30.
28. 9z 2
31.
27
29. 4x2 -f 13 32. 21x2

36.
12x.
25z2 -f 4
20c.
15.
19a;
12.
33. 36.
34. 24y2
+ 2y =
4r2 -h 29
= -
8x.
+ 6 = 6z. 4x + Sx = - 9. 18z + 33x = 40. 9y + 23 = 3(ty. 16a; + 34x = 15.

2
Solve for x or y by use of the quadratic formula.

37.
&c2
2
39. 41.
- 5dx - 6tf - 0. ox - dx + 3c - 0. - 3Jty + 6 - 0. 5&2/

2
38. 2z2
+ hx 2
16A2
0.
40. 2oc2 -f 36x 42.

44.
43. y2
45.
47. 49.
+ 2cy + dy -f 2crf * 0. 5fcc* - 6 + lOfcc - 3a: - 0.

2
46. 48.
6% -
4hy -f 10
15y
0.
- c = 0. 2/uc -f 3x - 5A = 0. - 46y + Say - 12o& = 0. y* 8% 4- 12y - 15 - 10% = 0. 2x - 3hx + A* - x = 1.

2
2
3z2 -f 3&c2
6x
+ 5/uc (
10
+ 5x =
6
0.
50.
Check the
solutions
V6
2
4oc)
-i-
2a by substitution in
the equation ax*

51. Solve for
+ 6x -f c = 0.
a;
y in terms of a: x in terms of y:
a;
2y
2
52. Solve for
2y
15z2
+ xy + + 5y = 0. - 2 - x + 3y IZxy =
2
a;
0.
63. Solve for

64. Solve for
*
hi
terms of y in Problem 51.

in
y in terms of
Problem
52.
Table I
is
useful in detecting perfect square numbers.

I
Thus,
if
we meet
V1764, by reference to Table
we observe that 1764 *
(42)*.

130. Outline
for solution of quadratic equations
183
pure quadratic equation should be solved by merely extracting square roots, as in Section 126. Any other quadratic equation should be solved by factoring if factors can be easily recognized. In all other cases, solve by use of the quadratic formula, unless otherwise
specified.
The method
of completing the square
is
not recommended
in-
any problem unless specifically requested; this method was troduced mainly as a means for deriving the quadratic formula.
1
in
31
Applications of quadratic equations
From geometry, we recall the Pythagorean theorem, which we associate with the triangle
in Figure 12.
.
R9
// a and b are the lengths of the perpendicular sides and c is the 2 2 2 length of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle, then a -f fc * c
.
Applications of the preceding theorem frequently introduce quadratic equations.
Find the length of a side of an equilateral triangle whose altitude is 3 feet shorter than a side.
1.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
the triangle.
In Figure 13, let ABC represent Let x feet be the length of a side of
1.
Then, the lengths of spectively, \x and (x 3).

2.
AABC.
AD
and
DC
are, re-
From
the Pythagorean theorem,
AC = Iff +
or
(X
~
fa
(1)
3.
Simplify in (1)
x*
-f
z2
+ 9;
(2)
x2
4.
24*
+ 36 -
0.
Solve
(2)
by the quadratic formula:

X
24
rf
171 * 8
- 12*6^8;
(Using Table
I)
=
The
is
22.39 and 1.61.
smallest root has no significance in the problem because (1.61 negative. Hence, the side of the specified triangle is 22.39 feet long.
3)
184
EXAMPLE 2. An airplane flies 560 miles against a head wind of 40 miles per hour. The plane took 28 minutes longer for this flight than would have
been the case in
still air.
How
1.
fast could the airplane travel in still air?

air-
INCOMPLETE SOLUTION.
Let x miles per hour be the speed of the
plane in still air. In flying against the wind, the speed is (x 40) miles = per hour. From the equation distance (rate) (time), the flight times for a distance of 560 miles against the wind and in still air are, respectively,
560
x
2.
40
and
560 x
From
the statement of the problem
560
560
"
28
"
40
/JA '60
The student should
clear of fractions
and
solve for x.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
70
Solve each equation by three methods, (a) by factoring, (b) by completing a square, and (c) by use of the quadratic formula.
1.
2*2
+ 5* =
33
3.
2.
3* 2
+5
4x
6
= =
2
16*.
3.
12* 2
11*
15.
Solve for x or y or z by the most convenient method.

4.
2
2/
ty.
3.
6. x*
45.
2*.
6.
7.
14*2
8.
9.
10. 4y*
17
I2y.
11. 1
+ 25* =
5* 2
10*.
0.
0.
12.
+9= 49* + 4 = 6* + 5* =
16</
2
2
24p.
14*.
56.
13. 25*2
16.
20*
1.
14. 16
17.
=
-
16. 6* 2 18.
= =
7*.
6*2
19. 5y2
+ 5 = 0. + 36 - 0.
*
II*2
4*2
49*.
20. 16y2
+1=
.
&y.
21.
20*2
13*
21.
23*
*
X
=3.
3 o
x
7
+x
"" -
2
2
OB
5 2
29.
4
1
~*
*
4
28. 30.
2*T~I
6T=
3-2* "
2*
\g&
&*2
+ a*
2fcc
3S.
4*2 -f 26*
32.
a*2
26*
+ 2 - *. = 2* + 3.
31. 3*2
33. c*2
+ b - 1. 4- hx + 3fc* -f W? + 2hx = 5 + 4kx.
0.

34. Solve for 35. Solve for
185
x by completing a square: hx* x by completing a square: dx*
+ 2fcc
3cx
0.
+h=
0.
eocA problem by introducing only one

36.
unknown number.
is
Divide 45 into two parts whose product
434.
is
area of a rectangle is 221 square feet and one side longer than the other. Find the dimensions.
37.
The
feet
38.
39.
Find two consecutive integers whose product Find a number which

is
is
306.
^^ less than its reciprocal.

is
40.
Find the length of a side of a square where a diagonal

side.
6 feet longer
than a
41.
is
Find the length of a side of an equilateral triangle whose altitude 2 feet shorter than a side.
42. After plowing
a uniform border inside a rectangular field 50 rods long by 40 rods wide, a farmer finds that he has plowed 60% of the field. Find the width of the border.
43.
The diameter
of a circular field
is
40 yards.
yards.
What
(Use
IT
increase in the
diameter
44.
will increase the area
by 440 square
3^.)
A
An
circular field is
is
20 feet and area

46.
surrounded by a cinder track whose width is J of the area of the field. Find the radius of the field.
airplane flew 660 miles in the direction of a wind and then took 40 minutes longer than on the outward trip to fly back against the same
wind.
fast
If the plane flies at the rate of
200 miles per hour in
still air,
how
was the wind blowing?
46. Jones travels 4 miles per hour faster than Smith and covers 224 fast does each man travel? miles in one hour less time than Smith.
How
motorboat takes 2 hours to travel 8 miles downstream and 4 miles back on a river which flows at the rate of 2 miles per hour. Find the rate at which the motorboat would travel in still water.
47. 48.
If-
is
tive area
Solve
E for E in terms of A
an object
is
the measured cross-section area of a chimney, 2AE is the smallest root of the equation E*
its
so-called effec-
+ A*
.36A
0.
and, from the result, find
E if A =20 square feet.
shot vertically from the surface of the earth with an initial velocity of v feet per second, and if air resistance and other dis= vt %g&, turbing factors are neglected, it is proved hi physics that $
49. If
where
s feet is
seconds and g v = 200 feet, use Part a to find
the height of the object above the surface at the end of t (6) If (a) Solve for t in terms of s. 32, approximately,
when
500 feet and
feet.
CHAPTER
ADVANCED TOPICS
EQUATIONS
1
IN QUADRATIC
32. Graph of a quadratic function
quadratic function of x and hence has the form
is
a polynomial of the second degree in
ax* -f bx
+ c,
^
0.
3.
where
a, b,
and
1.
c are constants
and a
z2
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
Graph the function

Let y
2x
xz
2x
3.
We
select values for
x and compute
the corresponding values for y. In Figure 14, we plot the points (- 3, 12), (- 2, 5),
etc.
In the table of values, we arrange
the values of x in their natural order as
they appear on the z-axis, because then the corresponding points on the graph are met hi their natural order as we draw the curve. The curve through the plotted points is the graph of the function and is called a
Fig.
14
parabola.
The
value of the function, and we call V the minimum point of the graph. The vertical line through V is called the axis of the parabola. The part of the curve to the right of this axis has exactly the same shape as the part to the left. That is, the parabola is symmetrical with respect to its axis. The equation of the axis of the parab1. ola y = x2 2x 3 shown in Figure 14 is x
parabola. or 4, is the smallest or
point V at the rounded end is called the vertex of the Since V is the lowest point of the graph, the ordinate of V,
minimum
ADVANCED TOPICS
If
IN QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
187
a parabola is concave downward (open downward), instead of concave upward as shown in Figure 14, then the vertex of the parabola
is its
highest point
and
is
called the
maximum
point of the curve.
At a more advanced
I.
stage,
we meet
proofs of the following facts:
The graph of ax*

this
+ bx -f c is a parabola with its axis perpendicular

parabola is concave upward
if if
to the x-axis;
is positive
and
concave downward
II.
is negative.
The abscissa of
the vertex of the parabola is
5-; when x
value
has this value, the function has its minimum or according as a is positive or negative.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
its
maximum
In Figure
14, at V,
2
7:-Â- \
1.
SUMMARY.
tion f(x):
1.
To form a
table of values in
graphing a quadratic func-
Find
the coordinates of the vertex of the graph.
Choose pairs of values of x where, in each pair, the values are equidistant from the vertex, one value on each side; the values off(x) cor2.
responding
to
each pair will be equal.

2.
ILLUSTRATION selected z = 1 db
etc.
In Example 1, the abscissa of V is x 1. Then, we = 2 and z = 0; x I 3, or z = 4 and x = 1, orz 2; The corresponding pairs of values of y are equal.
2.
*EXAMPLE a maximum.
SOLUTION.
2. 3.
Divide 50 into two parts such that their product
will
be
1.
Let x be one part; (50
x) is the other part.

x), or f(x)
Let/Or) represent the product #(50
50z
x2
of f(x) is attained at the vertex of the parabola which is = 25. Hence, the product the graph off(x), or when x = 2)] [50 * ( of the parts of 50 will be greatest when they are equal, each being 25. The
The maximum
corresponding largest product
is
625.
After having formed a table of values for graphing a quadratic function of x, select the scales on the coordinate axes with care. Choose
Note
1.
the unit for distance on the z-axis large enough to spread out the parabola in order to make it generously open. Choose the vertical unit independently
of the previous choice of the z-unit in order to be able to plot all points from the table of values on the available part of the cross-section sheet.
188
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
EXERCISE 71
For each function,
(a) find the coordinates of the vertex of the
graph and
the
equation of its axis; (b) graph the function, with values of x extending at least 4 units on each side of the vertex; (c) state the maximum or minimum value
of each function.
1. x*.
2.
4z 2
3.
7. a*
x\
4.
6z2
5.
*2
+ 5.
6. x*
4.
9.
2z2 3s2
12.
+ 4* + 3. + 6z - 5.
10.
+ 6z + 5- 3z + I2x.
2
8.
z2
11.
2z2
13.
4z 2
12*.
14. 2z 2
+ 7. -f 8z + 3. - 20z + 4.
4x
State whether the function has

this value without
maximum
3z 2
or a
minimum
value,
and obtain
graphing by finding the coordinates of the

16.
is
vertex.
16.
4z2
IQx
+ 3.
+ 24z -
7.
17.
6z 2
+ 8.
shot vertically upward from the earth's surface with an initial velocity of 96 feet per second, (a) draw a graph of the distance s as a function of t\ (b) from the graph, find when the object commences
18. If
an object
to
fall,
the
maximum
is
height which
it
reaches,
and when
it
hits the sur-
face.
(Recall the formula of Problem 49, page 185.)
shot vertically upward from the earth 's surface with an initial velocity of 80 feet per second, find when the object reaches its
19. If
an object
maximum
20.
elevation, without graphing.
(See Problem 18.)
3 Graph the function z
I2x
+3
by use
of the integral values of
x from
4 to 4 inclusive.
to
ifGraph each of the following functions, with enough computed points

obtain a graceful curve.
21.
x3
22. x4
23.
x*.
24.
z3
26.
xs
+ 2x* -
4*
+ 3.
26.
3x*
4z3
12* 2
+ 6.
each problem by introducing just one unknown x and then finding the maximum of a quadratic function of x, without graphing.
if Solve
27. Divide 60 into

28.
two parts whose product
is
a maximum.
of largest area which
Find the dimensions of the rectangular can be inclosed with 600 feet of wire fence.
field
29. In forming a trough with a rectangular cross section and open top, long sheet of tin is bent upward on each long side. If the sheet is 30
inches wide, find the dimensions of the cross section with the largest possible
area.
30. Divide
H into two parts whose product
is
a maximum.
ADVANCED TOPICS
1
IN QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
789
33. Graphical solution of an equation

If
x has a value for which the graph of f(x) meets the x-axis, then with this value of x we have/(x) = 0. Hence we are led to the following procedure.
SUMMARY.
tion in
1.
To find approximate values of

all
the real roots of
an equa-
x graphically: Simplify and transpose
terms
to
one member
to
obtain
tion of the
2.
form f(x) =
an equa-
0.
Graph
the function f(x)
and measure
where the graph meets the x-axis;

equation f(x)
the abscissas of the points each of these abscissas satisfies the
0.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
page 186.
2.
2
1.
Solve z 2
1.
2x
graphically.
14,
Let y = x* 2x 3 and consider its graph in Figure The graph crosses the x-axis at x = 3 and x = 1.
Since y
which z - 2x
when x = 3 and when x 3 = 0. That is, 3 and
=
1
1,
these are values of x for
are roots of the equation.
are imaginary) this would be indicated the fact that the graph of f(x) would not meet the x-axis.
If the roots of f(x)
1
by
34. Graphical solution of a quadratic equation
In order to solve the equation ax 2

graphically,
+
2
bx
+c=
+
c.
(1)
we
construct the graph of the quadratic function

ajc
bx
(2)
The
I.
parabola, which
is
the graph of this function,
cuts the x-axis in two points unequal real roots;

II. touches the x-axis in just
when and only when equation

to the x-axis,
has
one pointy or is tangent
when
and only when

III. does not
the roots are equal;
meet the x-axis when and only when the roots are
imaginary.
parabola can be defined geometrically as the curve of intersection when a right circular cone is cut by a plane which is parallel to a straight line on the cone through its apex.
Note
1.
790
ADVANCED TOP/CS
I,
ILLUSTRATION 1. In Figure 15, parabolas the graphs of II, and III are, respectively,
left
the functions in the
members
of the fol-
lowing equations.
(I)
z2 z2
(II)
(III)
+1= *'-2z + 5 =
2x
2x
0; 0;
0.
From
roots,
the graphs,
we
roots x
- 4 and x - - 2; (II) has equal = 1; (III) has imaginary roots.
see that (I) has the
In graphing a specified quadratic func-
we have no license to simplify its form by multiplication or by division.

tion,
Fig.
15
But, before solving a quadratic equation graphically, we may (1) clear the equation of fractions; (2) divide out any common constant factor from all terms; (3) make the coefficient of z 2 positive. Operation 3
would cause the corresponding graph to open upward.

EXERCISE 72
Find
1.
the real roots of the equation graphically.
2x
0.
2. x*
4.
7.
+ 4x + 7
13
0.
5.
+ 2x - 8 = x* - 2x + 3 =
=
2z 2
0.
3.
x2
+ 6# + 9
=
2
0.
0.
6.
fz
z2 .
9.
8.
4c
2z2
5.
10.
12x
11.
4x
+ 3.
t
12.
3z 2
6x
5.
grrap/&
o/
x2
4- 4z -f
4 and then in Problems 13 and
14, find
specified results by use of the graph.
13.
Find the values of x

re*
for
which the value of the function
is 1.
14. Solve 15.

ically:
+ 4x -f 4
= 6
by
inspection of the graph.
By
use of a single graph, solve each of the following equations graph2z2 - 5x - 7 = 0. 2s2 - 6x 3 = 0; 2s2 5x = 0;
35. Character of the roots
Let r and
2 represent the roots of ax
-f-
foe
+c
0.
Then, from
the quadratic formula,
ADVANCED TOPICS
b
;
197
- b + V62 2a
4ac
8
- Vb 2
4oc
(1)
2a
numbers and that a j^ 2 4oc Then, the roots are imaginary when and only when b
a,
6,
We
assume that
if
and
c are real
0.
is
negative;
If
ft
one root is imaginary, the other is also. = s = 6/2a. Moreover, 4oc 0, then r
if
on sub-
tracting the expressions in (1)
we
obtain
2 2Vb s =
4oc
S
2a
0;
V6 -4oc - 0.
2
Hence,
if
then
fc
4ac
0.
the preceding remarks and Section 134, we see that the items in any row of the following summary hold simultaneously.
From
THE ROOTS OF
ax
2
THE VALUE OP
62 6s
62
THE GRAPH OF
axz
+ bx + c =
4ac 4oc
4ac
+ bx + c
real
and unequal real and equal

imaginary
>
= <
cuts x-axis in two points
tangent to x-axis does not touch x-axis

is
numbers, the roots are rational when 4oc is real and is a rational number. That is, and only when V& 2 4oc is a perfect the roots are rational numbers when and only when fe
If a, 6,
and
c are rational
2
square.
We
ax*
call
62
4oc
the
discriminant
2
of
the
2
quadratic
c,
equation
+ bx + c = 0,
or of the quadratic function ax -f bx 4-
as soon as
we know
the value of 6
4oc,
we can
tell
because, the general
character of the roots of the equation without solving it, and the general nature of the graph of the function without graphing it.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE USE OF THE DISCRIMINANT
192
ADVANCED TOPICS
/N QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
it
Before computing the discriminant in any equation,

simplified
should be
by
1.
2
clearing of fractions
and combining terms.
EXAMPLE
function
State what you can learn about the graph of the quadratic 6 without graphing. 3a -\- 5x
1.
SOLUTION.
2.
The
discriminant of the function
is
25
72
47.
coefficient
lie
Hence, the graph would not touch the z-axis. Since the of z2 is r- 3, the graph is concave downward and therefore must
below the a>axis.
wholly
136. Conjugate imaginarics
only in the signs of the coefficients of fyeir imaginary parts, then either of the given numbers is called the conjugate of the other.
If differ
two imaginary numbers
ILLUSTRATION
of (a
1.
The conjugate
bi).
of (3
+ 5i)
is (3
5i).
The conjugate
+ bi)
is
(a
the roots of a quadratic equation are imaginary, these roots are conjugate imaginary numbers, because the imaginary parts come
When
from
V6
4oc in the quadratic formula.

2.
ILLUSTRATION
The
=t
roots of x*
-f-
4z
+5
.
=
.
are
,
.
.
v 16 ~
20
i,
conjugate imaginanes.
EXERCISE 73
Compute
1. y*
the discriminant
0.
and
tell
the character of the roots, without solving.
4.
3s2
+ 10 = - 5z + 7 =
1y
2. y* 6.
4i/
21
0. 0.
3.
z2
2z
0.
0.
9z2 3z 5x2
+
-
12z
+4
5z2
.
6.
7.
30
2x
%
3
7
2
= 2%.
fo2
0.
0.
.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13. 8a?
14. 5z2
17.
+ 1 - 2z. - 3x = 0.
=
ftc
2
12.
+ 4z = 25 + 4z = 25z + 1
4x*
2 2
3.
20z.
15. 1 18.
2x
4- .3
16.
+ 5z =
Qx
+ 4.
z2 -f
.4a;
0.
check the graph by computing the discriminant and thus determining the character of the roots.
Solve graphically;
19.
x2
4x
6.
20.
z2
+7-
4x.
21. 4z2
+ 4z =
1.
ADVANCED TOPICS
Compute
IN QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
193
the discriminant of the function and, without graphing, state all facts which you can learn about its graph. 22. 4x* 25.
I2x
9.
23.
7.
2z 2
3z
5x
5.
24. 3**
4x.
3z2
5z
26. 4z 2
+ 7.
30.
27.
3s2
2x
+ 4.
Specify the conjugate number for the imaginary number.

28.
+ 7t.
Sum and
use of
r
29.
W.
+ V^~9.
31.
6\^"T.
37.
By
-- 6 + V6 2
product of the roots
4oc
o 2a
and
-6
a'
2
Vfe2
4oc
2a
'
we
obtain
26
2a
2
'
rs
+ Vb - 4oc - 6 - Vb - 4oc
2a
2a
2
(b
6x
4oc)
4a
2 Hence, for the equation ox
4oc
4a
+ c = 0, swm o/ the roots eqvals --f

:
r-fs= -rs
(1)
c product of the roots equals -:
=
=
c
(2)
ILLUSTRATION
1.
For 3z2
5x
+7
0,
we
find r
+s
and
rs
J.
38. Factored form of a quadratic function
THEOREM
I.
2 If r and s are the roots of ax
+ bx + c = 0,
5).
ax*
Proof.
1.
frt
+c=
a(x
r)(x
(1)
We can write
ox2
+ bx + c =
(Z
at x2 4- -a? 4\
-1
a/
c d
2.
From
Section 137,
4-
=
(r
(r
+ s)
and
=
rs.
Hence,
s).
bx
+c=
a[x
+ s)x 4- rs]
a(x
r)(x
194
ADVANCED TOPICS
1.
equation whose roots are 5 and
ILLUSTRATION
(x
A quadratic
5)
is
+ 3)(z 2.
0,
or
s2
2x
15
0.
[a
1 in (1)]
ILLUSTRATION
A quadratic equation whose roots are J(2 > - i(2 - 30] - 0.
=b 3t) is
To
eliminate fractions
theses to exhibit the
we use a = 4 = 2-2, and then group within sum and difference of two quantities, as an
parenaid in
multiplying:
0;
[(2z
2)
1,
- 3t][(2s - 2) + 3t] we have
0,
or
(2s
- 2) - 9i 13
0.
Since
4z2
&c
+ 4 -h 9 - 0,
or
4s
- &c +
0.
certain circumstances, we have seen how to solve the equa2 c = bx 4- c. tion ax2 -f bx by first factoring the function ax
Under
Formula
permits us to reverse this process and
to /actor the
funo
tion by first solving the equation (of course, not using factoring in
the solution).
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1. 1.
Factor 6x2
Solve 6z2
23a?
-f-
20 by
first
solving an equation.
23z
+ 20
V49 -
0,
by the quadratic formula:

db 7
;
"
a?
23
23
12
l24
O
jr
5 A
A ana
a;
2.
From formula
62*
23*
+ 20 =
6(z
$)(*
j)
(2*
5)(3*
4).
that any quadratic function of x can be expressed as a product of factors which are linear in x. However, these factors involve rational, irrational, or imaginary coefficients depending on
1 states
Formula
the nature of the roots r and

rational roots,
s.
on page 191, we
In particular, from the facts about draw the following conclusion:
c can be expressed // a, b, and c are rational numbers, ax* 4- bx as a product of real linear factors with rational coefficients when and 2 4ac is a perfect square. only when the discriminant ft
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
795
EXERCISE 74
Find
the
sum and
the product of the roots of each equation, in the
unknown
x,
without solving for x.

1.
x2
7
18
+ 5x - 3
&c
=
.
0.
2.
2x
7
5x*
+ 7.
4z*.
0.
3. 4z*
6.
3z
17
6.
4.
2z2
5.
3x
5s2
0.
7.
5x2 .
8.
12z 2
+3=
7z2
9.
9z*
7s.
10.
2z2
5z.
11. 5
4x.
6.
2
12.
4z2
12s
9.
13. ax* 16.
2z2
2z2
18.
14. + dx = h. + 3z + as + c - 0. + + 2a + d = 0.
3a;
cz2
3z
15. 4z*
ox
c.
17. 5z* 10.
+ <w + 3x + d = 0. & + ex* - 2x + ex - d - 5.

J)(*
Compute
20. 4(* 22.
(a;
the indicated product.
f)(x
+ f).
3i).
21. 6(x 23. (x
+
+ 1 + 2\/2).
+ 3i)(x - 2 -
+1-
2V2)(z
Form a
as
roots.
quadratic equation with integral coefficients having the given numbers
24. 3;
28. 32.
7.
26.
2;
3.
26. J;
30. 34.
f;
2i.
27. J; 2.
-f; -f.
}V3.
29. 2;
33.
-.
3V2.
31. 35.
\/2.
t.
36. 1 db
V2.
j}V3.
37.
=t
=fc
V5.
JV2.
38. 3
41.
44.
2\/2.
5t.
39.
42.
45.
40.
43. 46.
4
i
3i.
2i.
Ji.
2iV5.
f tV3.
47.
Jt V2.
Factor, after first solving
related quadratic equation
by use of the quadratic
formula.
48. 12z'
51.
+
-
llz
13*
36.
60.
49. 27z*
62.
24x2
48x2
+ 2Lc - 40. + 50s - 75.

+
-
50. 27x2
53.
fay
12z
16j/
27x2
32.
Without factoring or solving any equation, determine whether or not the expression has real linear factors with rational coefficients.
64. 8z*
+ 7* -
2.
56. llz2
12*
5.
56. 6z*
+ 25xy + 26j/
2x
J
.
ifFactor,
perhaps by use of imaginary or irrational numbers.

10.
57. a?
+ Ox +
58. 4s*
12x
+ 7.
59. 2z*
+ 6.
796
1
ADVANCED TOPICS
in
IN QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
39. Equations
quadratic form
x* (z
2
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. If
1.
Solve:
1.
5z 2
2
+6
2
2)
0. 0.
(1)
Factor:
if
3)(z
=
0,
x*
0,
then x
\/3;
z2
then x
V2.
The given equation has

SECOND SOLUTION.
2.
four solutions,
Vjji
and
=t
V2.
(1),
1.
Let y
2
2/
x2
then
2
i/
z 4 and, from
%+6=
2)
0.
Solve for y:
(y
3)(y
0;
hence, y
3. If 4. If
=
=
3 and
2, 3,
?/
2.
y y
then z2
= =
2 and z
3 and x
= =
is
A/2.
\/3. said to be in the quadratic
x*.
then x2
Comment.
The given equation
form
in
z2
because we obtain a quadratic in y on substituting y
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
2.
1.
Solve:
2ar4
y
z~ 2
3
2
2/
= =
0.
Let
or2
then
(2y
ar4
and
1)
2#
0.
Solve for y:
3)ft/
+
rr
0;
hence, y
=
o
"~
and y
Tf
11
- thpn r~2
2
^1^9
=
a:
r2 *= 3*
1
-4-
2'
-Vfi
3
2'
4. If
2/
= -
1,
then or2
= t
1;
= v
1; x*
= -
1;
t.
5.
The
solutions are
3.
=fc
and
EXAMPLE
Solve:
(x*
+ 3z) - 3x - ftc - 4 =
2
0.
1.
Group terms:
Let y
(z
+ 3z) - 3(x + 3x) - 4

2
2
=
4,
0.
2.
x*
+ 3z;
z2
then y2
3y
4 x2
0; hence,
y
1.
and y
1.
We
should then solve
3x
and
+ 3z
= -
In solving an equation of the form x k = A where A; is a positive integer greater than 2, we agree for the present that we desire only real k solutions unless otherwise specified. The real solutions, if any, of x = A are
1
.
the real
A?th
roots of A.
4 Thus, x
has the real solutions x
= 'v/ci =
8 has no
2.
real solutions while
z6
64
ADVANCED 7OP/CS
EXAMPLE
4.
1.
IN
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
of factoring:
197
Obtain
all
roots
by use
2
8z 3
125
0.
SOLUTION.
2. 3.
Factor: (2x
+ 5)(4z or
lOx
Hence,
2x
+5=
and
0,
4z2
+ 25) = 0. lOz + 25 = 0.
400)
The
solutions are
= 5.
i(10
VlOO -
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
Find the four 4th roots of 625.

1.
If
is
any 4th root
of 625, then x*
625.
Solve for x:
2
x4
25)(z
2
625
0;
0;
(z
+ 25) =
z2
25
or
x*
= -
25.'
Hence, x
Note
2.
5 and x
5i are the desired 4th roots of 625.
In this section the student has met further illustrations of the truth of the theorem that an integral rational equation of degree n in a single
variable
x has exactly n
roots
(we admit the possibility that some of the roots
be equal). Also, we have seen illustrations of the related fact that, if n is a positive integer, every number has exactly n distinct nth roots, some or all of which may be imaginary.
may
EXERCISE 75
Solve by the method of page 196, without first clearing of fractions they occur. Results may be left in simplest radical form.
1.
when
x*
5z2
+4
=
=
.
0.
2.
&4z 4
x4
10z2
+9
=
0.
0.
3. x*
4
8x*
16
0.
4.
9z 4
+4
8
13z2
18.
5.
+
9
15z2
4.
6. 9.
?/
=
16
3
2.
7.
4 z y 4- 7y
8.
=
1
Sly
0.
10.
13. 16. 17.
x6
7r*.
11.
27z
28X3
12.
8/
+ 39y =
=
5.
4ar4
liar2
-3 =
0.
i
14.
36X"4
13ar2
+ 1=0.
0.
250T4
8z6
26x~2
3
+1=
0.
0.
16. 2
+
-
17ar2
9Z-4
+ 35z + 27 =
18. 1
2ar2
=
0.
3or4
0.
0.
19. (x 2
z)
(&c
&c)
+
-
12
20. (x 2
+ 3z) x)
2
2
3z2
9z
=
9
21. 2(2z2 22.
6z2
17z2
+ 3z 60
0.
z2
+ 4z -
68z
0.
798
ADVANCED TOPICS
26 25 '
x*
+ 3*
29.
a;
30. 4x*
31.
zw
30z5
64.
+ - (14z + 14z) + 24 = - 4s + * + 4z - 2x - 15 = 0. 32. 6x + 7s = 20.

2x*
a;
0.
35
2
T
+ 3a x =
3
HINT
36. 2x*
if
for
Problem
33.
Let y
(2
x)/x
2
.
llax 2
+
0.
12a2
0.
36. (2z2
- 3az) 2
2o2a;2
2a4
Find
all roots
by first using factoring.

38. z8
0.
37. 27z* 41. 81
+8
=
3
0.
39. x3
27
0.
40. 16z 4
81.
0.
27.
625z4
42.
Sy
125
0.
43. 125z
+ 27 =
ifFind the three
cube roots of each number.

46. 1.
44.
46. 64.
47.
1.
48. 8.
49. J.
60. ^y.
ifFind the
four 4th roots of each number.

63. 81.
64. 625.
61. 1.
62. 16.
66. 16.
66. 256.
67.
Jf
40.
An
operation sometimes leading to extraneous solutions

sides,
we M N represent any equation. On squaring both if3f = ATorifM = N. Hence, obtain M = N which N* consist of solutions of M = N together the solutions of M N. with those of M =
Let
2 2
,
is satisfied
2 =*
all
ILLUSTRATION
1.
is
the only root of

(x
x
x
3
3)
a *
2. 4.
(1)
On On
squaring both sides,

solving (2) for x
we obtain
find
(2)
we
3
1
2;
hence,
5
(1).
or
1.
Therefore, (2) has the root x

If
besides the root x
5 of
an operation on an equation in x produces a new equation which is satisfied by values of x which are not roots of the given equation, we have agreed to call such values extraneous roots. From
ADVANCED TOPICS
199
the preceding discussion, we observe that, if both members of an equation are squared* extraneous roots may be introduced.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
In Illustration
1,
1 is
an extraneous
root.
141.
Irrational
equations
irrational equation is one hi which the variables occur radical signs or hi expressions with fractional exponents.
An
under
EXAMPLE
(a),
1.
Solve for x in the
folio whig
equations (a) and
(6).
2*
-2 =
1.
4.
(6)
2x
= -
2z*
+ 4.
SOLUTION.
2. 3.
Square both
4.
sides:
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
4x*
4.
2z x =
8x .+ 4 = 2x* + Sx = 0; 2z(z and # = 4.
4z2 2z
2
4)
0.
3. 4.
Sx &c
+
=
Square both sides: 4 = 2x2 4.
+
-
0; 2z(z
4)
0.
and
4.
TEST.
Substitute x
=
No.
(a)
:
in (a) :
TEST.
Substitute x
in (6):
Does
= V4? -2 = 2?
2
4 in
Or, does
Does
= - VI?
*=
Yes.
:
Substitute x
4 in
6?
(6)
Substitute x
Does 8
is
2 6
= - V36?
Does 8
x
is
= V36? = not, and

2
Yes.
Or, does
is
No.
a root.
is not,
and x
a root.
met the extraneous roots x = in solving (a) and x = 4 hi solving (6). The test of the values obtained in Step 4 in either solution was necessary in order to reject these extraneous roots. The necessity for the test is also shown by the fact that, although (a) and (b) are different equations, all distinction between them is lost after squaring.
Comment.
We
SUMMARY.
1.
To
solve
an equation
involving radicals:
to
Transpose
the
most complicated radical
one member and
all
other terms to the other side.
// the most complicated radical is a square bers; if a cube root, cube both members; etc.
2.
root,
square both
mem-
Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with the effort to eliminate all radicals inThen, solve the resulting equation. volving the unknowns.
3.
4.
Test each value obtained in Step 3 by substitution in the given equation to determine which values are roots.
* Also true
if
both sides are raised to any positive integral power.
200
Note
1.
ADVANCED 7OP/CS
IN
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Recall that, if square root of A and that
is
positive,
VA
or A$, represents the positive represents only the principal nth root of A.
VA,
Also, in testing for extraneous roots, remember that m represent only the principal nth root of a
.
we
are using a
to
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
2.
1.
Solve:
(x
Square:
3. Simplify:
- v2* + 5 = 3. Vx - 2 = 3 -f V2z + 5. * - 2 = 9 + 6v2*45 + - * - 16 = 6V2* 4 5. 2)*
2x
+ 5.
4.
Square:
+ 32* + 256 x*- 40* + 76 = 0;

*2
36(2*
+ 5)
(x
38)(*
2)
Possible roots of the given equation are x
38 and x
= 0. = 2.
TEST.
Substitute x
2 and * 2
38 in the original equation:
* *
= =
2: does
38: does
- vT+5 = 3, or does -3 = 3? No. V38 -2 - V76 + 5 = 3, or does 6-9 = 3? No.

V2 =
2 nor *
Hence, neither x
38
is
root.
Therefore there are no solutions
for the given equation.
EXERCISE 76
Solve for x or y or
1.
z.
Va+2
3.
2.
V3 -z =
v'J+l = 3* = 5\/2.
2V3
5s
5.
3. 6.
V2 - 7z = v"6* - 2 = 4.
=
4.
4.
8.
1.
9. (2 -f z)*
10. (3
13.
+z = (2* + 3)*
11.
5.
12. (2
2)*
= -
2.
14.
= =
0.
15.
Vy =
4*2
y. 0.
= 3-2*. - 2* -2 =
17.
0.
3V* +
2*.
18.
0.
+ zV3 =
3j/\/5
20.
v/*?^"24*
-3 =
V2*
21. 2i/2
0.
4- 1
26.
Vi.
1.
4 4 4- V^ =
28.
30,
V2*4-3 = 2. V3 -2* + V242* = 3.
^2 -
27. 29.
V? -2* - V3 - * = 1. V2 - 4* + 2\/l - 3* = 2.
g*4
2*
2.
31.
2*45-
2.
ADVANCED 7OP/CS
32.
33.
201
V3 +
(3
x)*
x*.
34. Solve for x: 35. Solve for z: 36.
+x-2-x = V3x + a - 3Vx + Va = 0. Vz - a + V2z + 3a = V5a.

2Vx2
2
x2
2.
V3-f
3x
= 2V3x Vx"
\/3
x.
37. Solve for x: 38. Solve v
V3x
+ 46 =
2V2x
-h b.
=
=
V20s,
(a) for s;
(6) for 0.
39. Solve
7r\/-> (a) for
Z;
(6) for g.
*40
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
Solve: 4x*
7x
=
2
0.
Let
(4y
2,
xi;
then
y
0;
=
y
x$
and
2
4g/
+
y
7y
J.
0.
Solve for y:
l)(y
+ 2)
=
J
or
=
2
= -
and
2;
3. If
y y
= =
J,
then
xi
or
-Six
'v'x
hence,
x
3
4. If
then
x^
J;
hence,
variable.
(J)
= =
8.
irSolve by reducing to
a quadratic in some new

42. 2x* 45. 48.
41. 52 44.
+ 3Vz = 2. 3x + 7xi = 6.
=
8xi
47. 3xi
60.
4.
2
+ 9xi = 5. 2x* = 6 + a. 4x^ = 7x* + 2.

12.
x2
+ 2x - Vz + 2x - 6 =
all real roots.
61.
+5= 46. 2x-1 + x~* = 6. 49. 4x~ + 3x~* = 2x + 3V2x + 3 = 7.

43.
3X"1
1.
if
Find
62. #* 66. y*
= =
8.
53.
x*
= =
32.
9.
64. 2$
16.
65.
x*
x*
= -
8.
4.
67. x*
68.
&
=
= 27.
243.
69. 62. (2
= -
27.
60. (2x
63.
1)*
4.
61. (5
0.
3x)*
2x~3
15x-*
-8 =
64.
3X3
+ 3x)* = 8. + 26x* -9 = 0.
*1 42. Miscellaneous problems about the roots
EXAMPLE
1.
If c is
a constant and 2
3x 2
is
one root of the equation

0,
7x
+c=
s,
find the other root.
SOLUTION.
Let the roots be r and

r
with r
2.
Then, from page 193,
+8=
or,
+s
*;
202
ADVANCED TOPICS
2.
if
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. 3. 4.
5.
Find the constant h
exceeds the other by 5:

1.
one root of the following equation x2 x Zh = 0.

r
r
s
Given condition:
5.
1.
(1) (2)
Sum
Solve
of the roots:
+s
rs
8
Product of the roots:

(1)
2h.
(3) (4)
and
(2) for r
and
s:
Substitute (4) in (3):

3.
= 3; -6= -
= h
2.
2A;
3.
(5)
EXAMPLE
Find the values of k

kx*
for
which the following equation in

fc
x has equal roots:
+ 2s 2 2
3kx
+ =
fc
0.
SOLUTION.
1.
Group the terms

(k
in standard form:
+ 2)z -
3kx
Hence, the standard coefficients are a

2. If
+ = 0. = k + 2, 6 =
4oc
or
3k,
is
and
=
=
&.
the roots are equal, the discriminant 62
zero:
discriminant
3.
= (8)
3&)
4(&
or
+ 2)(fc)
k
=0;
and
k
5k*
Sk
0.
Hence,
k(5k
I.
0;
THEOREM
2 // one root of ox
+ bx + c =
=
is 2fte negative
of the
other root, then 6
0. s
Proof.
2.
1.
If r
and
are the roots, then r
s,
or r
+ s = 0.
6
Hence,
'
+s=
=
a
0,
0, '
or
0.
Therefore
0.
THEOREM
II.
7/6 =
then one root of ax 2
bx
+c
=
is the
negative of the other root.
Proof.
Since 6
0,
then
=0 = r + s.
Hence, r
s.
Note 1. Theorem II is the converse of Theorem I. Theorem II could have been abbreviated by adding the words and conversely at the end of Theorem I. Or, both theorems are included in the following statement:
.
"
One
root of ax*
+ bx + c =
is the negative of the other root
when and only
when
=
I,
0."
Theorem
In this statement we justify the phrase only when by and the word when by Theorem II.
4.
EXAMPLE
+ 9A
2.
a?
Find the values of the constant h so that the equation 3 -\- x will have one root the negative of the other.
1.
SOLUTION.
Write in standard form:

II:
From Theorem
W-
hx* -f
1
x(W
h
1)
3
.
0.
0;
d=
ADVANCED TOPICS
IN
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
203
*EXERCISE 77
use of the discriminant, find the values of the constant k for which the equation will have equal roots for the unknown x.
By
1.
4x*
fcc
2
4
6.
+1+ 3fo + 5 =
Zkx
0.
2.
4z 2
+ 5kx + 4
5.
=
fcr
0.
2
3. 2fer2
+93. 4.
\2x.
0.
0.
x2
a;
5s2
2fcc
a;
=
k
7. 0.
&2:t2
fcc
2
x
2x
=
=
8.
x2
kx
9. fee
+x +
the
Axe
Find
5z 2
<Ae values of the constant
k for which
graph of the function of x

12.
will be tangent to the x-axis.
10.
2kx
+ k.
3fc
11. 2kx*
3fcc
+ 5.
2x2
s2
3x
fcc.
13. 2z 2
+ 2z -
2A;x.
14.
2Jb 2
5kx
+ 5.
=
0.
In
all
probkms, x
is 3, is
is
is the
unknown and
all other letters
are constants.
15. If 16. If
one root
one root
find the other root:

2, find
2z2
5x + d
the other root:
3x2 -f dx
+5=
0.
17. If
18. If
one root one root
5, find
the otherôot:
2z2
3z2
is J,
find the other root:
+ bx 3 = 0. + 7x + h = 0.
4x
5hx
Find
19.
the value of the constant
h under
5:
*
the given condition.
The sum
of the roots
of
tl|e
is
is 7:
20. 21.
22.
23.
The sum
roots
The product The product One

One
of the roots of the roots
is
9:
is
by
by
6: 2:
root exceeds the other root exceeds the other root

is
24. 26.
3:
One
four times the other:
+ 6 = 0. 5x - hx* -f Mhx + 4 = 0. 2x 3/u: - 6z + 4/i = 0. 3/w; + 5x + h - 1 = 0. 2x 4A + 5x = 0. 6 = 0. 3z 5x + 3h 2x + 20z + A = 13.

3hx 2
2
One
root is the negative of the other; find h.
27. 2to - ihx - 5h?x + 6 = 0. + Zhx - 5 = 0. 29. h*x* +^h*x + 5hx - 4 = 0. 28. x + 12z - 3A x + h = 0. 31. x - 3A z = A - 2x. 30. hx* + Wx = 3 + x. 33. x - hx 32. 3z + 5h?x = 2 + x. + 2x = 0. ox + bx + c = 34. Prove that, has one root zero, then c = 0,
26. hx*
2
Ox
/i a;
if
and
conversely.
CHAPTER
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
143. Expansion of a positive
integral
power
of a binomial
By
multiplication,
1
we
obtain the following results:
(x
+ y) = x + y\
4
2
(re
+ yY = & + 3x*y 4= x* + 4x*y 4- 6z 4- 4XI/ 4(x + y) 2| = z 5z 4- y) 4+ lO^y + lOz

(x
3
i/
*/
4-.5Z2/
+ y*.
We
I.
see that,
if
n=
the
1, 2, 3, 4,
or
5, the
expansion of (x
+ y) n conx
tains (n 4- 1)
terms with
the following properties:
In any term
sum of the
,
exponents of x and y i& n.

other term the exponent of
II.
The first term. is x n and in each

than in the preceding term.
less
is I
r
the ex-
~ The second term is nx n l y, and in each succeeding term ponent of y is 1 more than in the preceding term.
III.
IV. // the coefficient of any term is multiplied by the exponent of x in that term and if the product is divided by the number of that term, the
quotient obtained is the coefficient of the next term.
*
ILLUSTRATION
1.
In
we obtain
(at^ y}
4
,
the third term
is
6zV* By Property IV,

In (x
-s-
Or 4, of the fourth term. amhe'^pefficient the fourth term is lQx*y*; m^rqjperty IV, we obtain (10-2) the coefficient of the fifth term.* s
(6-2)
-5-
3,
+ y)
B
,
4, or 5, as
V. The
coefficients of
2.
terms equidistant from the ends are the same.

coefficient of the
ILLUSTRATION
The
second term equals that of the
next to the last term, etc.
205
if
We shall assume that Properties I to V are true

integer, although
we have merely verified their truth The theorem which justifies this assumption 4, and 5. binomial theorem, which we shall accept without proof
any positive when n - 1, 2, 3,

is
is
called the
in this text.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
(c
1.
Expand
1.
(c
-f w)
7
.
By
use of Properties
c5
2
I, II,
and
III,
we obtain
c2
+ w) =
7
c7
+ 7cfiw +
left for
-f
cV +
eW +
^6
cufl
+w
7
,
where spaces are

2.
the
unknown
coefficients.
is
By
Property IV, the coefficient of the third term

is
(7-6) 4- 2, or 21;
that of the fourth term

3.
(c
(21 -5)
-5-
3, or 35.
By
7
Property V, we obtain the other
coefficients; hence,
+ w>)
c7
+ 7c*w + 21cV + 35cV -f
(w\
2a
-r
SOLUTION.
1.
(2a
=
|)
[(2a)
(- |) ]'
2.
We use
Properties I to
V with x
2a and y
and keep the terms ^ o
of the binomial within parentheses in finding the coefficients:
'
(2a)
80
.
or
160
...
20
following array of numbers is called Pascal's Triangk. The successive rows give the coefficients in the successive positive integral powers of x -f y. To form any row after
ATote 1.
The
the second, we first place 1 at the left; the 2d number is the sum of
the 1st
and 2d numbers in the preceding row; the 3d number in the new row is the sum of the 2d and 1 10 10 5 5 3d numbers in the preceding row; etc. This triangle was known to Chinese mathematicians in the early fourteenth century, and it appeared in print in Europe for the first time
in 1527.
14641
121 1331
1 1
206

exhibits the fact that the largest coefficient the coefficient of the central term oMerms.
The preceding diagram

hi
any power
of
+y
is
observe that the signs are alternately plus and minus hi the expansion of a power of a binomial where one term bears a plus sign
We
and the other term bears a minus

144. The
factorial
sign.
symbol
is
The symbol
ILLUSTRATION
n\
read
"n factorial," and

I
product of all integers from

1.
ton inclusive,
an abbreviation for the where n is a positive integer.

is
5!
1-2-3-4-5
120.
31
=
1
1-2-3
6.
1L =
10!
1-2-3-4-5-6-7 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10
J_
720*
8-9-10
EXERCISE 78
Expand each power by use

1.
of Properties
d)
6
.
ItoV.
(x
6.
9.
+ 6) (2 + a) (a + 6
(a
6
.
2.
(c
3.
7
.
y)
9
.
4.
4
.
6.
(x
2o)
7.
(36
y).
6 2 ).
8.
+ 3) (2c + 3d)
6
(c
8
.
2 8
) 6
.
10. (c8
3d}
a)
9
.
4
.
11. (a2
12. (c
x3 ) 6
13. (x
i)
14. (1
2 4
16.
(Vz - v^).
5
.
16. (z*
19. (z*
+ a)
6
.
17.
(- a
+ JT
.
18. (2T8
x)
2a~ 1 ) 4
20.
21
,
1.(?-36>V \a /
26. (a2
.
Find only
23. (a
the first three terms of the expansion.

16
.
+
-
12)
.I)
24. (c 28. (1
3)
25
.
+6
3 20
)
.
26. (1
.
+ 2a)
2
10
.
27. (1
22
.
12
.2)
29. (1
- V2) -
12
30. (1
3s3 ) 18
31. (2x
36. (*
a2) 80,
n.
32. (z*
y)
36.
+ &)". (a + z)*.
expression.
33. (a" 1
+ 3) M
y)
34. (x 38.
a"2) 11
)*.
37. (z2
(w; .-h
Compute each factorial

39. 6! 40. 8!
71
ot
41. 11!
42.
3!
43.
5! 4!
^fVi
45. General term of the binomial expansion
By
use of Properties I to
IV
of Section 143,
we
obtain

,
207
(z
T y)
,
v.
%n
+
,
,
nx n~ ly
i
n(n
~-jr
1) ^ (1)
n(nas
In
(1)
in y, y* t
" we read the dots " and y8 we observe special

,
"and
so forth."
In the terms
cases of the following facts, which
we
shall accept
without proof.
,
SUMMARY.
r Description of the term involving y in (x
+ y) n
A. The exponent of x
B. The denominator
that is,
is
r.
product of all integers from the denominator is rl

the coefficient
is the
tor inclusive;
C.
The numerator of
r
f-
has r factors, the first being
n and
each other being
1 less
than the preceding factor.
The
last factor is
1.
When
.
(A), (B),
.
and (C) are combined, they

t
.
state that
r 4* 1)
the
term involving yr
is
n(n
1) -
(n
p
write
xn
. r
r r
.
/\
(2)
By
use of formula
(x
2,
we may
-*"
*
+ y) n =
n(n
+
-? r!
1)
nx~*y
n(n
xn ~*y* -f
(3)
(n
1) vn _ r, ir r AC" -
y
ir
J_
l*n i-y-
We
write
refer to (3) as the binomial formula.
By
use of
(2),
of (3) without writing the other terms. n refer to (2) as the general term of the expansion of (x y)
any term
we can Hence, we
.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
The term
jj
4 involving y in the expansion of (x
+ y)
is
7.5.5.4
x*y*
or
35zV.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Find the 8th term of (3o*
11
6)
The 8th term

Hence, use
is
will involve the
the binomial.
8th term
''
(2)
with r
7th power of the 2d term of

3a*,
7,
and y
b:
<3*ty<-
W-
26,730a'&'.
208
Note
1.
derive a formula for the rth term in (3), we notice that this term will contain y*" 1 as a factor. Hence, we substitute (r 1) for r in
(2)
To
and
find that
tte rth term is
*i
~*u
n(n
1) '
(n
^.
4 2)
ixn-r+i^r-i.
(4)
We may call
solved
(4),
as well as
(2),
the general term.
by use
of (4) with r
Example
could have been
8.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
Find the term involving

Since 2"
zlz in the
expansion of
(v
z3 ) 7 .
4,
=
is
(z
3 4
we use formula 2 with n

t;3
=
.
7, r
v,
and y
z3 : the
term
T~o~q~l
6
(~~
2;3 )
4
>
or
35V3 ;?12
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
3.
Compute
(1.01)
6
(1.01)
(1
correct to 3 decimal places.

6
2 = I 6 + 6(1) (.01) (.01) 4 = 14 6(.01) + 15(.01) 2 -f 20(.01) 4 = 1 -f .06 + .0015 + .000020 H (negligible = 1.06152 = 1.062, approximately.
6 4 3
4 .Ol) 4 15(1)
terms)
EXERCISE 79
Find only
1.
the specified term.
Term
Term Term
6 involving y in the expansion of (a 6 involving x
2.
4 y) in the expansion of (z + x)
y)
9
.
10
.
3. 4.
involving y* in the expansion of (x

6 involving z in the expansion of (x
7
.
Term
4 3y)
8
.
5.
7.
4th term of (a 6th term of (a 2
x)
9
.
6.
3d term of (w
10th term of (x 2
11
z)
4 x)
-
7
.
8.
4y
.
3 10
) 7
.
9.
4th term of (x
5y)
.I)
10. 5th 12.
term of
(1
.02)
11. 6th
term of
13.
(1
8
.
4th term of (Jx
Term
Term
s involving 2 in the expansion of (x
22 ) 6
14.
involving
w10 in
the expansion of (w*
4
y)
8 8
I/ )
.
15.
Term
8 involving y in the expansion of (x
n.

16.
17. 18.
209
a
Term
Term
3 involving z in the expansion of (o
involving x% in the expansion of (y

(x*
+
2 8 ) .
Middle term of
y)
19.
.
20.
Middle terms of (a*

22.
7
2/)
21.
+ 3* Middle terms of (2s* + j/*).

Middle term of (a
(
Term
involving -j in the expansion of
23.
Term
involving -g in the expansion of
(sp
-\
(y
Find
power.
25. (a
the term or terms with the largest coefficient in the
x\* o)
'
expansion of the
28. (c
+ x)*.
-
26. (c
10
w>)
27. (a2
+ 6)
9
.
rf
)".
of the binomial theorem. In any problem involving decimals t use only enough terms to obtain the result correct to three decimal places.
Compute by use
a)
4
.
29. (10 33. 51 3

.
30. (100
2)
3
.
31.
99 4
32. 394
34. (1.01) 7 .
35. (1.01) 12 . 39. (.98) 6 . 43. (.49) 9

.
36. (1.02).
37. (1.03) 7 . 41. C1.02) 11

.
38. (.99) 6 .
42. (.52) 8 .
40. (1.04) 10.

.
44. 101 B
45. 62*.
CHAPTER
13
AND VARIATION
RATIO, PROPORTION,
146. Ratio
The ratio of one number a to a second number a/6. The ratio of a to 6 is sometimes written a:b.
tion,
is
the quotient ratio is a frac-
and any
fraction can be described as
ratio:
a:b
=
|if
(1)
The
of the
ratio of
two concrete quantities has meaning only

Their ratio
is
same
kind.
they are the quotient of their measures in
terms of the same unit.

ILLUSTRATION
1.
The
ratio of 3 feet to 5 inches is
^.
147. Proportion
proportion
is
proportion proportion
a statement that two ratios are equal. That is, a merely a statement that two fractions are equal. The
is
*
a:b = c:d
means
read
that
-r
3a
is
(1)
The proportion
a: 6
c:d
is
"a
is
to 6 as c
to d."
We say
that the four numbers 'In a proportion a: 6

are called
and d form a proportion. = c:d, the first and fourth numbers, a and d, the extremes, and the second and third, b and c, are called
a, 6, c,
the
means
it
of the proportion.
1.
ILLUSTRATION
change
solve the proportion a;: (25 x) 3:7, to fractional form, and then solve the resulting equation:
To
we
first
x
*"~
Z X
3
*'*
Jx =
75
3z;
ICte
75;
hence, *
7.5.
RAT/0, PROPORTION,
AND VARIATION
211
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. Also,
3.
1.
Divide 36 into two parts with the ratio 3:7.

1.
x\y
Let x and y be the parts; then x - =* 3 = 3:7, or Hence,
+ y " 36.
7x
3y.
(2)
(3)
On
solving the system [(2), (3)]

If
we obtain
(x
10.8,
25.2).
ATote
Jf .
two
triangles (or polygons of
any number
of sides) are similar,
then
(a) the ratio of
any two
sides of one triangle equals the ratio of the corre(6) the
sponding sides of the other triangle, and
area of one triangle is

is to the
to the
area of the other as the square of any side of the first triangle
the corresponding side of the other triangle.
square of
EXAMPLE
2.
similar triangle,
a triangle are 12, 8, and 15 inches long. In a the longest side is 40 inches long. Find the other sides.
sides of
The
Let x and y be the lengths in inches of the sides of the similar triangle corresponding to those sides which are 8 and 12 inches long in the first triangle. Then, SOLUTION.
1.
y:12
= =
40:15 40:15
or
r | o
(4)
z:8
2.
or
~
4ft
JLO
(5)
Solving (4) and (5)
we
find y
32
feet
and x
21J
feet.
EXERCISE 80
Express each ratio as a fraction and simplify.
2.
J:.
3.
5:7.
7. 9.
4.
x:-
6.
Find
6. 8.
the ratio of the given quantities.
75 pounds to 160 ounces.

51 pints to 17 quarts.
10.
27 days to 156 hours.
25 miles to 3175 yards.
72 cubic feet to 1320 cubic inches.
Change
11. 3:(20 13. x:(x
15.
to fractional
form and
solve.
2x)
5:2.
12. (2 14.
16.
25)
3z)
6. 2.
2*:(5
+ 5y) = 3:2. - x):(3 + x) - (4 - *):(2 -f x). (2 - - 2:5*. (4 + x):(3 + x}

3y):(4
17.
line
the ratio 5: 4.
18 niches long is divided into two parts whose lengths have Find the lengths.
272
RATIO, PROPORTION,
AND VARIATION
Solve by introducing one or more unknowns.

18. Divide
19.
45 into two parts whose ratio
is
4: 11.
Divide 90 into two parts such that the ratio of one part decreased
by 5
to the other part decreased
by 10
is
1:4.
is
20. 21.
Find two numbers whose difference
18 and whose ratio
is
4:3.
The
triangle,
a triangle are 12, 8, and 18 inches long. In a similar the shortest side is 40 inches long. Find the other sides.
sides of sides of
22.
The
is
a polygon are
10, 7, 4,
and 8 inches
long.
If
the long-
est side
lengthened by 2 feet, by how lengthened to obtain a similar polygon?

23.
much
should the other sides bo
niches.
24.
whose base is 15 inches long has an area of 220 square Find the area of a similar triangle whose base is 6J feet long.
triangle
of a quadrilateral is 49 square feet and its longest side is 12 feet long. Find the area of a similar quadrilateral whose longest side is 15 feet long.
25.
The area
The area
feet.
of a triangle
is
150 square feet and
its
shortest side
is
12 feet long.
Find the shortest side of a similar triangle whose area

6 feet
is
30 square
26.
A man
tall
stands at the foot of a tower and casts a shadow

is
10 feet long.
27.
How
high
the tower
if its
shadow
is
69 feet long?
9J
A man 5J feet tall stands 40 feet from a street light and casts a shadow feet long. How high is the light?
3: a;
28. Solve the proportion 29. Solve the proportion,
z:27
for #.
x.
a:x
called
=
a
x:b for
If a:x If a:x
x: 6, then
is
x:b, then x*
ab or x
proportional between a and b. =t Vo&; or, if neither a nor b is zero,

b.
mean
there are two
mean proportionals between a and

4.
Find the mean proportionals

32. 2
between each of the following pairs of numbers.

30. 33. 36.
64 and
31.
4 and
2 and
8.
J.
and
8.
25 and 25. 2o3 and 4o.
34.
36. 38.
3 and 27.
37. y*
and x~4
-4
y
,.-,,-12. 2-t/
'
zy and * + 2z + 4 2-2
to
*// a:b = c:x, then x is called the fourth proportional Find the fourth proportional to each set of numbers:
41. 2,
a,
b,
and
c.
5,
and
14.
42. 5, 4,
and
7.
43. 3, 6,
and
a'6.
RAT/O, PROPORTION,
AND VARIATION
a and
b.
213
Find
the
*// a
6 x, then x is called the third proportional to

:
third proportional to each pair of numbers:
44. 18; 50.
45. 2J;
46. 2xy, y.
47. 5m*n;
3m3
*// a:b
48.
c:d and
if
no denominator involved
is zero, prove the following
properties of the proportion.
PROPERTY
I.
ad
6c; or, in
any proportion,
the product of the
means
equals the product of the extremes.

49.
PROPERTY
II.
==
-?;
tt
or, the
means may
be interchanged without deis
stroying the proportion.
(The resulting proportion
said to be obtained
from a:b
50.
c:d
by
alternation.)
PROPERTY
III.
(The resulting proportion
is
said to be ob-
tained from a:b
c:d
by
T
inversion.)
51.
tion.
PROPERTY IV.
-7
(Said to be obtained
by composi-
To
prove, add 1 to both sides of a: b

r
c:d.)
52.
PROPERTY V.
-7
(Said to be obtained
by
division.)
148. Direct variation
Let x and y be related variables.
Then, we say that

to x,
is
proportional
or
y varies
y
directly as x, or
is directly
proportional
}
to
x or
y
y varies as x
in case there exists a constant k such that, for every value of x, there
is
a corresponding value of y given by
y =
kx.
(1)
We call k the constant of proportionality or the constant of variation.

ILLUSTRATION
radius r
The circumference C of a circle varies directly because C = 2irr. The constant of proportionality is 2ir.
1.
as the
From y =
kx,
we
obtain k
= 11
X
Hence,
if
is
is
proportional to x,
the ratio of corresponding values of y and z
a constant.
Con-
RATIO, PROPORTION,
versely,
is
if
AND VARIATION
y
*
the ratio of corresponding values of two variables y and x

is
a constant, then y
proportional to x, because the equation X

a function of x and
leads to y
kx.
2.
ILLUSTRATION
then y
If
If
is
is
if it is
known
that -
4,
4x,
and y
proportional to x.
y is proportional to x, then x is proportional to y. In other words, the proportionality relationship is a reciprocal property. This is true
because,
if
kx, then
*- T
y.
(2)
Hence, if y varies as x, with fc as the constant of proportionality, tnen x varies as y, with l/k as the constant of
proportionality. If y varies directly as x, so that equation 1 is true, then the graph of the relationship
is
a straight
y.
line,
because
(1) is linear
in
x and
of k,
of (1).
observe that, for any value the graph of (1) passes through the
We
origin,
because (x
0,
0) is
a solution
ILLUSTRATION 3. If y is proportional to x, with 3 as the constant of proportionality, then The graph of this equation is given y = 3x.
in Figure 16.
1
49. Inverse variation
Fis.
16
We say that
y y
in case there exists
is
is inversely proportional to x,
or
varies inversely as x,
x, there
a constant k such that, for every value of a corresponding value of y given by
y *
k x
(i)
From
of
this equation, k
is
xy, or the product of corresponding values
x and y
a constant.
RATIO, PROPORTION,
ILLUSTRATION
1.
AND VARIATION
215
necessary for a train to go a given distance d varies inversely as the speed s of the train because t =* d/8. The constant of proportionality here is d.
The time
with k as the constant of proportionality, then likewise x varies inversely as y, because the equation A; xy, which comes from (1), leads to both of the equations
If
y varies inversely as
x,
and
2.
=y
If
(2)
ILLUSTRATION
y varies
in-
versely as x, with 4 as the conthen of stant proportionality, y = 4/x or xy = 4. The graph of
y as a function of x is the graph of the equation xy = 4. This graph
has
or
no
y
points
for
which x
j* 4.
=
0,
because in such
cases
xy
and hence xy
We
Fis.
make up the following table of values by substituting the values of x in y = 4/z. The graph, in Figure
17
extends beyond all limits upward and downward, approaching the y-axis as shown. Similarly, as x grows numerically large without bound, either through positive or through negative
17,
values, y approaches zero

in Figure 17
is
and the curve approaches the

a hyperbola.*
z-axis.
The curve
an
illustration of
50. Joint variation
We say that
z varies jointly as
x and
y,
or
z is directly proportional to z is proportional to
x and
or
y,
or
x and
d)
y,
z varies as
x and
y,
in case z is proportional to the product xy, or
z'= hxy,
*
(2)
Graphs of hyperbolas are considered
in detail in
Chapter
16.
216
RATIO, PROPORTION,
AND VARIATION
Notice that the significance is that x and y are multiplied
where k is a constant of proportionality. of the word and hi each statement hi (1)

in (2).
Any
of the various types of variation

1.
may be
combined.
inversely
ILLUSTRATION
To
say that z varies
directly as
x and y and
as uP means that z
kxy/vP.
If
ILLUSTRATION 2. and inversely as z3

.
P=
lOafy/s
3
,
then
P varies
directly as
#2 and
y,
51
Applications of variation equations
Suppose it is known that certain variables are related by a variation equation, with an unknown constant of proportionality, k. Then, if one set of corresponding values of the variables is given, we can
find
A;
by
substituting the values in the variation equation.

1.
EXAMPLE
and
If
is
proportional to x and
w2
and
if
36 when x
w~
3, find
y when x
3 and
w=
4.
SOLUTION.
constant.
2.
1.
We
are given that y
ku?x, where k
is
an unknown
To
find k, substitute (y
36,
36
3.
&(3 )(2);
From
(1),
(a?
4. Substitute
3,
w-
4) in
= 2, w = 3) in y = 36 = 18fc or k = 2. = 2w*x. (2): y - 2- 16-3 =

x
kw*x:
(1) (2)
96.
Notice that the following steps were taken hi Example

1.
1.
The variation statement was

*
translated into
an equation
involving
an unknown
2.
constant of proportionality.
The unknown constant was found by substituting given data. 3. The value of the constant of proportionality was substituted in the equation of variation, and this equation was used to obtain the value
of one variable by use of given values of the other variables.
Useful information can be obtained

tion
by use
of
an equation
of varia-
on many occasions when the data are not
sufficient to enable
us
to find the value of the constant of proportionality.
EXAMPLE
square of
2.
The
kinetic energy of a
moving body
is
proportional to the
Find the ratio of fye kinetic energy of an automobile traveling at 50 miles per hour to the kinetic energy of the same automobile traveling at 20 miles per hour.
its velocity.
RATIO, PROPORTION,
SOLUTION.
2
AND VARIATION
217
1.
,
Then, E = kv permit us to find the value of &.) 2. Let EI be the energy at 20 miles per hour, and E2 the energy at 50 miles per hour. Then, #1 - *(20) 2 or Et - 400fc; (3)
Let E be the energy, and v the velocity in miles per hour. Where A; is a constant of proportionality. (The data do not
# =
2
&(50)
or
# =
2
2500&.
(4)
3.
From
(3)
and
(4),
E1 _ ~
Ei
Thus,
2500fe
_ ~
26
"
400&
^ **'
2 is
6J times as large as EI.
In applications of an equation of variation, the constant of proportionality will depend on the units in terms of which the variables in the problem are measured. Hence, if the constant is determined for one set of units, care must be exercised to employ the same units whenever this value
Note
1.
of the constant
is
used.
EXERCISE 81
Introduce Utters if necessary and express the relation by ing an unknoum constant of proportionality.
1.
an equation
involv-
H varies directly as x and inversely as wP.

B is proportional to x
Z is proportional
to
2
2. 3. 4.
6. 6.
and inversely proportional to

varies inversely as y*.
2
z.
\ x and
/r
K is proportional to z and w and inversely proportional to xy. (x + 2) is inversely proportional to (y + 3).

The
area of a triangle
of
is
proportional to
is
its altitude.
its radius.
7.
The volume The volume The weight The power
a sphere
proportional to the cube of
8.
of a specified quantity of gas varies inversely as the

it, if
pressure applied to
9.
the temperature remains unchanged.

inversely
as the square of
10.
body above the surface of the earth varies the distance of the body from the earth's center.
of a
available in a jet of water varies jointly as the weight of the water per cubic foot, the cube of the water's velocity, and the crosssection area of the jet.
11.
The maximum horsepower
of the boiler which can be served

is
by a
chimney of given cross-section area

the height of the chimney.
proportional to the square root of
218
RATIO, PROPORTION,
give
AND VARIATION
the variable
For each formula,

language of variation.
12.
a statement about
letters
on
the left side in the
All
except the constant

14. z
k represent
variables.
7w.
13. z
4-
3x\
r2
5xy*.
16.
16. w y
4*
-T-
17. 10
18.
<>
u =
z
19.
rt
w-
By
20.
employing
all data, obtain
21.
P is directly R is inversely
=
2
an equation relating the variables. 18 if x = 4. proportional to x* and P

proportional to x and directly proportional to
5.
2
;
y,
while
R=
y
4 when x
3 and y
22.
U varies directly as 3 and y, and inversely as z

and
2
3.
C7
15
when
a;
5,
2,
23.
# varies jointly as x and y and inversely as Vz; H =

3,
when z =
2,
and
9.
if
24. If
w
y
is
- -
proportional to z and
w=
5 when x
7, find
w when
y
6.
is
25. If
inversely proportional to
x and
if
5 when x
20, find
when x
26. If
15.
is
=
27.
3 when
proportional to x and inversely proportional to when y = 9 and x = 5. 2 and y = 4, find
y,
and
if
The distance fallen by a body, starting from a position of rest in a vacuum near the earth's surface, is proportional to the square of the number of seconds occupied in falling. how far will it fall in 7 seconds?
28.
v, is
If
a body
falls
256 feet in 4 seconds,
kinetic energy E, of a mass of pounds 1 = 2500 foot-pounds proportional to mv . If
The
moving with a velocity when a body weighing
64 pounds is moving at a velocity of 50 feet per second, find the kinetic energy of a body weighing 30 pounds whose velocity is 2400 feet per minute.
one body is sliding on another, the force of sliding friction is proportional to the normal pressure between the bodies (if this pressure is moderate). If the sliding friction between two cast-iron plates is 60 pounds when the normal pressure is 270 pounds, find the normal pressure when the
29. If
sliding friction is
600 pounds.
safe load of
a horizontal beam supported at its ends varies directly as its breadth and the square of its depth and inversely as the distance between the supports. If the maximum is 2400 pounds for a beam 4 inches wide and 10 inches deep, with supports 15 feet apart, find the maximum load for a beam of the same material which is 3 inches wide and 5 inches deep, with supports 25 feet apart.
30.
The maximum
RAT/0, PROPORTION,
31.
AND VARIATION
219
the supports be placed if a beam 5 inches wide and 8 inches deep, like those in Problem 30, supports 6000 pounds?
far apart
How
may
32.
A beam like those in Problem 30 is 6 inches wide and

How deep must the beam be
of
the supports are
12 feet apart.
33.
to support 3500 pounds?
steam per second which will flow through a hole varies jointly as the steam pressure and the area of a cross section of the hole. If 40 pounds of steam per second at a pressure of 200 pounds per square inch flows through a hole whose area is 14 square niches, (a) how much steam at a pressure of 260 pounds per square inch will flow through a hole whose area is 20 square inches; (6) what is the area of a hole which allows 30 pounds of steam to flow through it when the pressure is 300 pounds
per square inch?
34.
The approximate amount
The
electrical resistance of .a wire varies as its length
and inversely as
the square of its diameter. If a wire 350 feet long and 3 millimeters in diameter has a resistance of 1.08 ohms, find the length of a wire of the same material whose resistance is .81 ohm and diameter is 2 millimeters.
y is proportional to x and if y = 16 when x = 4, graph the relation between x and y. Make a statement about the change in the value of y (a) if x varies from any given value to a value three times as large; (6) if
36. If
t
x increases by
36.
25%
from a given value.

is
Repeat (a) and (b) of Problem 35 in case y to x and y = 16 when x = J.

37.
inversely proportional
The approximate
is
round object,
ject's
is
velocity of a stream of water, necessary to move a proportional to the product of the square roots of the obits specific
diameter and
gravity.
If
a velocity of 11.34 feet per second
needed to move a stone whose diameter is 1 foot and specific gravity is 4, how large a stone with specific gravity 3 can be moved by a stream whose velocity is 22.68 feet per second?
38.
Read Example 2
in Section 151.
is
of a skater
is
whose speed
Find the ratio of the kinetic energy 20 miles per hour to his energy when his speed
15 miles per hour.

39.
safely transmitted by a solid circular steel shaft varies jointly as the cube of its diameter and the number of revolutions it makes per minute. If a shaft 1.5* in diameter rotating at 1520 revolutions per
The horsepower that can be
minute can' transmit 135 horsepower, find the speed at which the
shaft could transmit 162 horsepower.
illumination received from a source of light varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source, and directly as its candle power. At what distance from a 50 candle power light would the illumination be
40.
The
one half that received at 30
feet
from a 40 candle power light?
220
41.
RATIO, PROPORTION,
AND VARIATION
Newton's Law of Gravitation states that the force with which each of two masses of m pounds and pounds attracts the other varies directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance between the masses. Find the ratio of the force of attraction when two masses are 8000 miles apart to the force when they are 2000 miles apart.
approximation, it is found that the wind pressure on a surface at right angles to the direction of the wind varies jointly as the area of the surface and the square of the wind velocity. What wind velocity
42.
first
As a
would be necessary to cause the pressure on 40 square feet of surface to be double the pressure exerted on 10 square feet by a wind velocity of 30 miles per hour?
current in an electric circuit varies directly as the electromotive force and inversely as the resistance. In a certain circuit, the electromotive
43.
force
is
The
volts, -the resistance is b

is
ohms, and the current
the resistance
increased
by 20 %,
;
amperes. If what per cent of increase must occur
is c
in the voltage to increase the current
by 30%?
Note
1.
The statement x
r, s,
is to
t is
are proportional to that there exists a

if Find x, y,
and
number k
z
9*
y is to z as r is to s is to t, or x, y, and z abbreviated by x: y:z = r:s:t, and means such that x =? AT, y = ks, and z kt.
and
4:
under
2:5,
the given conditions.
44. x:y:z
and
2&;
x
z
+ %y + z =
=
5k.
40.
HINT,
4k;
Substitute in the given equation
and
find the value of k.
46. x:y:z
46. x:y:z 47. x:y:z
= = =
5:
3:2,
and
x*
2:5:1,
3:
and
1:2,
and
= 12. + y2 + 2 = 120. x2 + y2 + *> = 56.

x
y
z
:
48. Divide 2800 into four parts proportional to 5 3

49.
2.
Divide 1250 into four parts proportional to 3:5:11:6.
CHAPTER
14
PROGRESSIONS
52. Arithmetic progressions
A seqwnce
of things is a set of things arranged in

is
a definite order.
An arithmetic progression
(abbreviated A.P.) called terms, each of which, after the first,
a sequence of numbers
ceding one by adding to it a fixed number ence. The common difference can be found by subtracting any term from the one following it.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
derived from the precalled the common differis
common
difference
is
In the arithmetic progression 3. The 6th term would be
9, 6, 3, 0,
3,
the
6.
153. The nth term
in
an arithmetic progression
Let a be the first term and d be the common difference. Then, the second term is a + d; the third term is a -f 2d; the fourth term is a -f 3d. In each of these terms, the coefficient of d is 1 less than the number of the term. Similarly, the tenth term is a + 9d. The nth term is the (n l)th after the first term, and is obtained after d has been added (n 1) times, in succession. Hence, if I represents the nth term, - l)d. / = a (1) (n
ILLUSTRATION
1
1.
If
3 and d
4,
the 18th term
is
-f-
17(4)
71.
54.
Sum
of an arithmetic progression
S be the sum of the first n terms of an A.P. The first term is a; the common difference is d', the last term is I; the next to the last On writing the sum of the n terms, forward and term is I d, etc. backward, we obtain
Let
222
PROGRESS/ONS
l;
(1)
S~l +
On
(l
-d)
(l
-2d)
+ --- +
(1)
(a
+ 2d) +
(2)
(a
+ d) + a.
(2)
adding corresponding sides of
and
we
obtain
where there are n terms (a
1).
Hence, 2S
= n(a +
0, or
(3)
S = 5 (a
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1. 1.
+
a
I).
Find the sum of the A.P.

First obtain
I
+
(n
5 4- 2 4l}d.
to twelve terms.
from
+
I
2.
- - 3, and n = 12: From (3), S = 6(8 - 25) = a

8,
We have = 8 + 11(- 3) = -
25.
102.
If
we
rewrite (3) in the form
S =
we
observe that the
np-J)>
of
(4)
sum
*
of
an A.P.
n terms equals n times
the
average of the first
and
I
last terms.
On
substituting
(n
l)dm
4- (n
(3),
we
obtain
S = % [2a &
The quantities a,
d,
I,
l)d].
(5)
n,
and S are called the elements of the general
arithmetic progression. When three of the elements are given, we may obtain the other two by use of I = a 4- (n l)d and formulas
3 and
5. 2.
EXAMPLE
I
Find the remaining elements

26.
in
an A.P.
for
which a
2,
402,
and
n =
1.
I
SOLUTION.
2.'
We
a
wish to find d and S.

(n
From
(3),
S =
13(404)
rf
5252.
From
l)d,
402
+ 25d;
hence,
16.
If
a sequence of three numbers a, 6, and c forms an A.P., then a c 6, because each side of this equation is equal to the
difference.
3.
common
EXAMPLE
Find the value of k

k
if
(17, k, 29)
form an A.P.
hence,
SOLUTION,
17
29
k',
2k
46;
23.
PROGRESSIONS
t
223
12 H
171.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
4.
1.
Find the sum of the A.P.
+9+
I
h 171.
We have given a - 6, d 3, and = To find n, use = a + (n - l)d: 171 = 6 + 3(n- 1); 171 = 6 + 3n-3;
Z
n =
56.
3.
To
find 5, use (3)
8 =
+ 171) - 4956. ^ &

(6
is
KA
EXAMPLE
5.
Find the 3&th term in an A.P. where the 4th term

is 5.
and the common difference
SOLUTION. 1. Think of a new A.P. where 8 is the 39th term is the 36th term of the new progression.
2.
1st term; the former
Use
(n
l)d with a
desired 39th term
= - 8, d = 5, and n = = - 8 + 35(5) - 167.
36:
EXERCISE 82
Write the first six terms of an A.P. from
1.
the given data.
a a
= =
15; d
18;
=
d
3.
2. 2. 4.
a o
= =
17;
&;
d d
= A.
3.
3.
Which
sequences do not form arithmetic progressions?

6.
6. 3, 7, 11, 15.
15, 17, 20, 22.
7. 23, 20, 17.
8. 35, 32, 30, 28.
Find
the value of b for
which
the sequence
forms an A.P.
* 12. b, 17, 23.
9. 3, 8, b.
10. 25, 21, b.
11. 15, b, 13.
Find
13.
14. 15.
the specified term of the

4, 7, 10;
5,
A.P. by use of a formula.
Given terms:
Given terms: Given terms: Given terms: Given terms:
find the 50th term.

8,
11; find the 29th term.
4, 2, 0; 3, 3J,
find the 41st term.
16.
3J; find the 83d term.
17.
18.
2.4, 2.6, 2.8; find

3, 2.95, 2.9; find
the 39th term. the 201st term.
Given terms:
Find
the last term
and
the
sum
of the A.P. by use of formulas.

20. 3, 5, 7, 22. 13, 8, 3,
19. 8, 13, 18,
to 15 terms.
to 28 terms. to 33 terms.
to 41 terms. to 17 terms.
t
21. 9, 6, 3,
28. 2.06, 2.02, 1.98,
24. 5, 4i, 4,
to 81 terms.
224
In each problem,
the
PROGRESSIONS
certain of the elements a, d,
I,
n,
and
are given.
Find
missing elements.
25. 27. 29.

31.
10, 17,
= -
410, 381,
3,
n d
26.
4.
26. 28.
a
i
= =
4,
72,
4,
n =
n
18.
a
I
53, 27,
d
Z
= =
19.
J.
87,
60,
d
Z
- =
0,
n -
18.
f. J.
30. a
32.
11,
= 52,
= d
S =
n
26,
2496,
n =
=
16.
3.
33.
S =
2337,
n -
38,
34.
S =
5278, d
Ftnd
the value of
k for which
the sequence of three terms
forms an A.P.
36. (3 37.
2*);
(2
*);
(4
+ 3*).
36. (2
+ *);
t
(2
is
+ 4fc);
(6fc
1).
Find the 45th term in an A.P. where the 3d term

is J.
7 and the
common
difference
38.
Find the 59th term in an A.P. where the 4th term

.4.
is
9 and the
common
difference is
39. In the A.P. .97, 1.00, 1.03,
-,
which term
is
is
5.02?
40. In the A.P. 16, 13.5, 11,
which term
129?
is
Find the 37th term is 54.

41.
common
difference of
an A.P. whose 6th term
9 and
155. Arithmetic means

term, 'a, and the last term, l in an arithmetic progression are called the extremes of the progression. The other terms are called
first
}
The
means between a and /. To insert k arithmetic means between two numbers, a and J, means to find a sequence of k numbers which, when placed between a and Z, give rise to an A.P. with a and /
arithmetic
as
its
extremes.
1.
EXAMPLE
Insert five arithmetic
means between 13 and
11.
SOLUTION. 1. After the means are inserted, they will complete an A.P. of seven terms, with a = 13 and I = 11. We shall find d for the progression and then form the terms.
2.
From
(n
11
l)d,
3.
13
+ 6d;
d
4),
- or 9;
4.
Hence, the missing terms are (13 The A.P. is (13, 9, 5, 1, 11). 3, 7,
are
(9, 5, 1,
or 5; etc. Therefore the arithmetic means

(9
4),
3,
7).
PROGRESSIONS
225
mean is inserted between two numbers, it is called the arithmetic mean of the numbers. Thus, if (6, A, c) form an A.P., then A is called the arithmetic mean of 6 and c. Then, A - b = c - A or 2 A = c + 6. Hence,
When
a single arithmetic
x _ A
or the arithmetic
the arithmetic
mean of two numbers is one half of their sum. Thus, mean of b and c is the number which is frequently
and
c.
called the average of 6
ILLUSTRATION
Note
1.
1.
The
arithmetic
mean
of 7
and 15
is
J(7
15)
11.
average of k numbers is denned as their sum divided by k. As a generalization of equation 1, the average of k numbers is frequently called the arithmetic mean of the numbers. Unless we are dealing with just
The
two numbers, so that k 2, the arithmetic mean of k numbers has no connection with the notion of arithmetic means as they occur in arithmetic progressions.
1
56. Applications of arithmetic progressions
In a problem dealing with an A.P., write down the first few terms of the progression and describe them in the language of the problem. Then, decide which elements are known and which you wish to find.
EXAMPLE
1.
A man invests $1000 at the end of each year for 30 years at

if
6%
simple interest.
end of 30 years, SOLUTION.
Find the accumulated value of his investments at the no interest is withdrawn until then.
first
1.
The
$1000 invested
29 years, or a total of $1740 interest; 30 years is $2740.

2.
draw interest at 6% for the resulting amount at the end of

will
The second $1000

is
sulting interest
3.
invested will draw interest for 28 years; the re$1680 and the amount at the end of 30 years is $2680.
Etc.; the $1000 invested at the end of 29 years will
draw
is
interest for
just
one year; the resulting amount is $1060. the end of 30 years and receives no interest.
4.
The
last
$1000
invested at
The
total
amount at the end

274Q
of 30 years
is
+ 2680 + 2620 +
=
S
2740, n
+
=
1060
30,
1000.
We
wish
for
an A.P. in which a
and d
= -
60.
5.
From S - 5 (a
!),
=.^(2740
1000)
$56,100.
226
PROGRESSIONS
2.
contractor has agreed to pay a penalty if he uses more than a speckled length of time to finish a certain job. The penalties for excess time are $25 for the 1st day and, thereafter, $5 more for each day
EXAMPLE
than for the preceding day. If he pays a total penalty of $4050, excess days did he need to finish the work?
,
how many
which form an A.P. SOLUTION. 1. The penalties are $25, $30, $35, = 5, and S = 4050. We wish to find the number of terms, n. where a 25, d
2.
From
S = Jn[2a
(n
1)<T|,
4050
3.
-[50 *
+ 5(w by
2:
2
1)
(1)
To
solve (1), multiply both sides
8100
50n
+ 5n 1620
5n;
0.
w2
+ 9n -
(2)
On
n
solving (2)
45.
by factoring, or the quadratic formula, we find n = 36 and The negative root has no application in the problem. Hence,
there are 36 excess days.
CHECK. The student should compute the sum

25
of
+ 30 + 35 H
to
36 terms.
EXERCISE 83
1. Insert
four arithmetic
means between 2 and means between
17.
2. Insert five 3. Insert five

4. Insert
6.
arithmetic arithmetic
2 and 40.
17.
means between 7 and
four arithmetic
12. 16.5.
7.
Insert six arithmetic
6. Insert
seven arithmetic means between f and

arithmetic
7. Insert five
means between
/
f m and
6.
Find
8. 6;
the arithmetic
mean
of the numbers.
10.
38.
9.
15; 37.
all all
13; 27.
11.
15;
23.
12. x; y.
13.
14. 15. 16.
Find the sum of
even integers from 10 to 380
inclusive.
Find the sum of
odd integers from 15 to 361

first
inclusive.
3.
Find the sum of the

Find the sum of
all
38 positive integral multiples of
positive integral multiples of 5 which are less
than 498,
PKOGKESS/ONS
17.
227
There are 16 rows of billiard balls in a symmetrical triangular arrangement on a table, with 46 balls in the first row and 3 less balls in each other row than hi the one preceding it. How many balls are on the
table?
Find the sum of between 55 and 357.

18. 19.
all positive
and negative
integral multiples of 6
horizontal base of a right triangle is 15 feet long and the side perpendicular to this base is 45 feet long. At intervals of 1 foot on the
base, a perpendicular is drawn to the base and reaches to the hypotenuse. Find the sum of the lengths of all perpendiculars, including the vertical leg of the triangle.
20.
The
A man
invests $1000 at the

is
simple interest. What the end of 12 years?
end of each year the accumulated value of
for 12 years at
6%
his investments at
Find
21.
for
the total
sum
of
money paid by
the debtor in discharging his debt.
Debtor borrows $10,000. Agrees to pay: at the end of each year 10 years, $1000 principal and simple interest at 3% on all principal
outstanding during the year.

22.
for
Debtor borrows $20,000. Agrees to pay: at the end of each year 20 years, $1000 principal and simple interest at 5% on all principal
outstanding during the year.

invests $1000 at the beginning of each year for 20 years at simple interest. Find the accumulated value of his investments at the end of 20 years.
23.
A man
5%
24.
The 4th term
of *an A.P.
is
215 and the 44th term
is
55.
Find the
sum
of the first 20 terms.
25. If
5x
-j-
8, find
the
sum
the successive integral values x

26.
1,
of the values of y corresponding to 30. , 2, 3,
28 inches long and each other rung is one half inch shorter than the rung below it. If the ladder has 18 rungs, how many feet of wood were used in making the rungs?
The bottom rung
of a ladder
is
*.
157. Geometric progressions

geometric progression (abbreviated G.P.) is a sequence of numbers called terms, each of which, after the first, is obtained by multi-
plying the preceding term

it.
by a fixed number
called the
common ratio.
The common ratio equals the ratio of any

preceding
term, after ihe first, to the one
223
PROGRESSIONS
8, -f 4,
ILLUSTRATION 1. In the G.P. 16, - J; the 5th term would be (- J)(-
2,
1.
the
common ratio is
2)
= +
determine whether or not a sequence of numbers forms a geometric progression, we divide each number by the one which precedes it. All of these ratios are equal if the terms form a G.P.
ILLUSTRATION
If the
2.
To
If 3, 8,
and x form a G.P., then

reversed,
8
O
=x
O
or
64
-=-
terms of a G.P. are

ratio
is
common
the terms will form a G.P. whose the reciprocal of the ratio for the given G.P.
(4, 8, 16, 32),
ILLUSTRATION 3. In the G.P. the terms are reversed, we have
the
common ratio is 2. When

is
(32, 16, 8, 4),
where the ratio
ILLUSTRATION 4. The G.P. (a, ar, ar2 ar3 ) has the common the G.P. (ar8 ar2 ar, a) has the common ratio arVar8 or 1/r.
,
ratio r
whereas
58. The nth term of a geometric progression
Let a be the first term and r be the common ratio. Then, the second term is ar; the third term is ar 2 In each of these terms the
.
exponent of r is 1 less than the number of the term. Similarly, the 7 The nth term is the (n l)th after the 1st and eighth term is or n-1 hence is found by multiplying a by (n 1) factors r, or by r Hence, if I represents the nth term,
.
(1)
ILLUSTRATION
1
1.
If
3 and r
2,
the 7th term
is
3(2
192.
59.
Sum
ar
of a geometric progression
Let
(a,
S be
2
,
the
*,
sum
of the first
,
n terms
of
a G.P.
is
The terms
are
ar,
" arn 2
ar"-
),
where ar
n "2
the (n
,
l)th term.
(1) (2)
Hence,
S
Sr
=*
+ ar
2 4- ar
+
-f
and
in (2)
ar -f ar2
+ ar
-f-
+ arn~* -f arn-1 arn-1 + arn

;
multiplied both sides of (1) of (2) from the corresponding side of
we
by r. On subtracting each side

(1),
we
obtain
(3)
S - Sr = a ,
arn ,
because each term, except arn on the right in (2) cancels a correspond- a arn or r) ing term in (1). From (3), S(l
,
PROGRESSIONS
229
Since
ar n
~l
y
then
rl
arn
Hence, from
(4),
In using
(4), it is
sometimes convenient to rewrite

1 S = ai
it
as
r L.
(6)
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Find the sum of the G.P.
2, 6, 18,
(4),
to six terms.
n =
6;
=
2
2; r
3.
From
2
S==
2-3
1-3
1458
-2
Z is
79R 728
'
Formula 5
EXAMPLE
2.
is
convenient when
explicitly given.
Find the sum of the geometric progression

(1.05)
2
+
2
(1.05)
2
;
+
8
(1.05)
3
;
+
I
+
2
(1.05)
35
.
86
.
SOLUTION,
a
o = 6
(1.05)
(1.05)
(1.05)
From formula
88
3
5,
(1.05)
- (1.05) (1.05) 1 - (1.05)

3
36
(L05)
1
(1.05)
(1.05)
r,
Note
L When a sufficient number

by use
of
I
of the elements (a,

,
n,
Z,
S) are given,
we
find the others

3.
ar n-1
2,
rl
(4),
Z
and
(5).
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
If
S =
750, r
and
400, find
n and
a.
1.
From S
t-rrr\
a
l
750
<
-=
J.
=~; ~~ &
hence,
50.
K/%
2.
From
arn~\
2n-i
400
23;
=
n
50(2*-');
1
2r~ l
or
=
n T4.
8;
hence,
3,
If three
numbers
(a, 6, c)
form a G.P.. then - =

a
10
ILLUSTRATION
1.
If (a, 10, 50)
form a G.P. then
50 Tn
or
230
1
PROGRESSIONS
60. Geometric means
term, a, and the last term, I, in a G.P. are called the extremes of the progression. The other terms are called geometric
first
The
means between a and I. To insert k geometric means between two numbers, a and I, means to find a sequence of k numbers which, when placed between a and Z, give rise to a G.P. with a and I as its
In asking for geometric means, valued means.
extremes.
we
shall desire only real
EXAMPLE
1.
Insert
two geometric means between 6 and ^.
SOLUTION. After the means are inserted, they will complete a G.P. of four terms with a = 6 and I = *-. We shall find the common ratio of the = arn~lt with n = 4, progression, and then its two middle terms. From I
we
obtain
i? 9
firor;
rsA.
27
'OE..? ^27 3'

are 4
The G.P.
is (6, 4,
f *).
,
The geometric means
and f
EXERCISE 84
Write the first four terms of a G.P. for the given data.
1.
= =
5; r
3.
2. 2.
= =
16; r
J.
J.
3.
4; r
4.
27; r
= -
In case the numbers form a G.P., more terms of the G.P.

6. 4,
state its
common
ratio
and
write two
12, 36, 108.
6.
10, 5, J,
7. 8,
f f ft.
, ,
\
8. 4, 2, 1, 0.
9. a, ax,
ax 2 , ax8
10. (1.02) 4 , (1.02), (1.02) 8 .
11. (1.01)-5 , (1.01)-8 , (1.01)-*.
Find
the value of
so that the three
numbers form a G.P.

14. 4, x, 16.
12. 5, 20, x. 16. If the
13. x, 12, 36.

9, 3) is reversed,
15. x,
4,
ia
G.P. (81, 27,
what
fact
do you observe?
use of I = ar"""1 , find the specified term of the given G.P. without finding the intermediate terms.
By
17. 3, 9, 27; find the 6th term. 19. 12, 6, 3; find the 8th term.
18. 4,
12, 36; find the

3,
9th term.
20. 6,
find the 9th term.
PROGRESSIONS
Find
the last term
237
and
the
sum
of the G.P.
22. 12, 6, 3,
21. 4, 12, 36, 23. 5,

25. 3,
to 7 terms. to 6 terms. to 7 terms.
to 6 terms.
15, 45,
6, 12,
24. 25, 2.5, .25,

26.
jfc,
to 7 termu.
to 6 terms.
}, 1,
27. 3, 66, 1262 ,
to 8 terms.
to
28. 4,
8z2 16s4
to 7 terms.
Employ formula 5 on page 229

29.
find the
sum
of the G.P.
+2+
tfie
4- ife.
30. 5
15
+
=
I
+ 3645.
3;
Z
Find
31.
missing elements of the G.P.
5; r
2;
640.
I
32.
2; r
486.
33. r 35.
10;
.001;
2;
2
100.
34. 36. 38.
5 S =
a
2186;
1458; a
2.
S =
275; r 256; r
= i;
=
J.
400.
*#*; a
1458; r
- =
J;
135.
37. a
Find Me
39. 40.
41.
specified term without finding the first term of the

if
G.P.
The 10th term,

The 12th term,
the 6th term

the 8th term
is
5 and
common
ratio is 2. ratio is
.1.
if
is
25 and
common
The 4th term,
if
the 8th term

the 9th term
is
40 and 80 and
common common
ratio
is 2.
42.
The 5th
term,
if
is
ratio is J.
*
number of geometric means. 44. Five, between 128 and 43. Five, between 2 and 128.
Insert the specified
45. Three, 47. Six,
2.
between 4 and 324.

.1
46. Four,
between J and 81.

j
between
and
1,000,000.
48. Three,
between 16 and
.0001.
// x and y are of the same sign, and if a single geometric mean G of the same sign is inserted between x and y, then G is called the geometric mean
of x and y;
49. J;
53.
16.
(x,
G, y) form a G.P.
60. i; 36.
Find
the geometric
mean
of the numbers
51. 4; 25.
y.
52.
9;
Find the geometric mean of x and
S*wte the result in words
Find an expression for the sum and simplify by use of the laws of er but do not compute. Use formula 5 on page 229 when convenient.
54. 1 55.
56.
+ 1 + (LOS) (1.05) (1.02)* + (1.02) + (1.02)< +
(1.03)
-I-
+ +
(1.03)
+ +
(1.03).
(1.05)
(1.02)".
232
67. (1.06) 4
58. 1
-I-
PROGRESSIONS
(1.06)
3 6
(1.06)
(1.06);
(1.02)
16
(1.02)
H---- to 21 terms.
18
69. (1.02)60. 61.
+ (1.02)-" + (1.02)- + (1.03)-" + (1.03)-" + (1.03)~ + 1 + (1.02)* + (1-02) + (1.02)* +

12
+ +
-
(1.02)-*.
(1.03)(
4
.
-f
62. If the 7th
term of a G.P.
is
5 and the llth term
is
3^, find the inter-
mediate terms.
For what values of and (20k + 5) form a G.P.?

63.
k.
do the three quantities

.
(k
+ 3),
(6k -f 3),
64.
-66.
Find the sum of a G.P. of 7 terms whose 3d term
is
j and 6th
is -fo.
How many
if
ancestors have
in
ations
5.
no ancestor appears
you had in the twelve preceding genermore than one line of descent?
An
much
the
investment paid a man, in each year after the first, twice as as in the preceding year. If his investment paid him $13,500 in
four years,
first
how much
did
it
pay the investor
in the first
and the
fourth years?
agreed that the first ticket drawn will pay its owner $.10 and each succeeding ticket twice as much as the preceding one. Find the total amount paid on the first 10 tickets drawn.
67. In a lottery, it
is
68.
Find the sum of the

10
first
19 positive integral powers of 1.03, given
that (1.03)
1.344.
61
Applications of geor #r. progressions .1;

>..
,
..
./,.'.'
*W^\en a proHe*^ is met where a sequence of terms is suspected of ^ A.P., generally it is an advantage to compute the explicit forming values of the first few terms in simplest form in order to verify the
'istence of
%
a common difference between the terms. On the other d, if a sequence of terms is suspected of forming a G.P., it is best 4te the first few terms, without actually computing them, in a hich will exhibit clearly any constant factor which appears to
r
e powers.
*
1.
i,
*,
rubber ball is dropped from a height of 100 feet. On the ball rises one half of the height from which it last fell. has the ball traveled up to the instant it hits the ground for
PKOGRESS/ONS
SOLUTION.
ball:
1.
233
We
= =
list
the
first
few distances traveled by the bouncing
1st fall 1st rise
100ft. i(100)ft.
\
=100
4(100)
ft.
ft.
=i(100)ft.
= 3d fall = 3d me =
2d
rise
i(i)(100)
ft.
i(100)ft.
i(i)(100)
ft.
)-m-100)ft.
efc.
10
ft.
2.
The
1st fall brings in
an unsymmetrical term.
On
up
porarily, the total distance, in feet, traveled otherwise 12th fall is the sum of
neglecting it temto the time of the
100, i(100), J(100),
to eleven terms.
(1)
In
(1)
we have a G.P. with a =
100, r
J,
and n
11.
The sum S
is
obtained from
rn
ion
"
11
(i)
_ ininsik! ~" ~ ~ _ ~
100(2047).
1024
'
_
3.
25(2047)
256
adding the 1st fall to S, we find that the total distance traveled by the ball is 299|fJ feet.
On
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
Solve by methods involving progressions.
1.
85
If
$500
is
to be divided between 10
and each succeeding man preceding man, how much will the 10th man receive?
ceives $5
2.
one reobtains a fixed amount more than the

so that the
first
men
At a bazaar, tickets are marked with the consecutive even integers and are drawn at random by those entering. If each person 2, 4, 6, pays as many cents as the number on his ticket, how much money is received
if
1000 tickets are sold?

3.
of each swing, after the first, of a pendulum bob long as the preceding swing. If the first swing is 40 inches long, does the pendulum travel on the first 8 swings?
The path
is .9
as
far
how
152 logs in layers so that the top layer contains 2 logs and each lower layer has one more log than the layer above. How many
4.
A man
piles
logs will be in the lowest layer?
234
6.
PROGRESSIONS
In a professional golf tournament, the total prize money of $5187 is divided among the six players with lowest scores, so that each man above as much as the man below him. How much does the the lowest receives
man
with the lowest score receive?
dropped from a position of rest in a vacuum near the earth's surface, will fall approximately 32 feet farther in each second, after the first, than in the preceding second. If a body -falls 10,000 feet in 25 seconds, how far does it fall in the first second?
6.
A body,
7.
Find an expression for the sum of the
first
n
n
positive integers.
positive
8.
9.
Find an expression
for the
sum
of the first
even integers.
the beginning of each year, a man invests $300 at simple interest at the rate 7%. At the end of 15 years, what is the total value of his in-
At
vestments
is
if
none of them have been disturbed, and
if all
required interest
paid on that date?

10.
motor truck contains 10 gallons of water. We draw off 1 gallon and replace it with alcohol; then, we draw off 1 gallon of the mixture and replace it by alcohol; etc., until 9 drawings and replacements have been made. How much alcohol is in the final mixture?
The
radiator of a
11. 12.
Find the sum of the
first
40 positive integral powers of
x.
In creating a vacuum in a container, a pump draws out J of the remaining air at each stroke. What part of the original- air has been removed by the end of the 7th stroke?
-
pendulum bob moves over a path 15 inches long on its first swing. fifths of the distance of the In each succeeding swing the bob travels foûr preceding swing. How far does the bob travel during the first six swings?
13.
In a potato race, tw^njiy potatoes are placed at intervals of 5 feet in a line from the starting poih^with the nearest potato 25 feet away. A runner is required to bring the potatoes back to the starting place one at a time. How far would he run in bringing in all the potatoes?
14.
15.
speculator will
make $1200 during

less
the
first
month and,
there-
after, in
each month, $100
than in the preceding month.
If his original
capital is $2700,
16.
when
will
he become bankrupt?
Two men
start in a distance run.
One man proceeds at a uniform

travels 435 yards hi the
speed of 300 yards per minute.

first
The second man
minute, but, thereafter, in each minute he goes 30 yards less than in the preceding minute. When will the first man overtake the second?
17.
Prove that the squares of the terms of a G.P. also form a G.P. Then state a more general theorem of this nature.
18.
Prove that the reciprocals of the terms of a G.P. also form a G.P.
PROGRESSIONS
19.
235
rubber ball
bound, the ball rises tance has the ball traveled up to the instant the ball hits the ground the 7th tune?
dropped from a height of 300 feet. On each reone third of the height from which it last fell. What disis
for
20. In a certain positive integral number of three digits, the digits form an A.P. and their sum is 15. If the digits are reversed, the new number is
594
less
than the original number.

1.
Find the original number.
the value of a certain quantity now, and if its value increases at the rate i (expressed as a decimal) per year, then the new value
Note
If
is
at the end of one year
is
(P
-f Pi), or
P(l 4-
i).
That
is,
the value at the
end of any year is (1 -f t) times the value at the end of the last year. values at the ends of the years form a G.P. whose common ratio is (1 If A represents the value at the end of n years, then
The
+ i).
This formula
principal
is
referred to as the
compound
t,
P is invested now at
the rate
i)
interest law because, if a compounded annually, the amount
A at the end of n years will be P(l +

interest will be treated later.
In
all
Applications involving compound of the following problems, it will be

>
assumed that any
rate is constant.
21. If 300 units of a
commodity are consumed

is
in
first
year,
and
if
the annual rate of increase of consumption for the amount consumed in the 7th year;
12 in the first 12 years, given that (1.06)
6%,
(a) give
an expression
(6) find
the total consumption
2.012.
$1,000,000 worth of its products this year and the sales will increase at the rate of 5% per year. Find the total sales
22.
corporation will
first
sell
during the
23.
25 years, given that
(1.05)
26
3.38635494.
Find
24.
of a city increased from 131,220 to 200,000 in 4 years. the rate of increase per year.
The population
piece of property
is
value
25.
now
$15,360.
was purchased 4 years ago for $4860 and its Find the annual rate at which the value increased.
as a
end
for
of a certain quantity decreases at the rate w (expressed is the value at the decimal) per year. If // is the value now, and n of n years, prove that H(l w} (This formula is the basis
The value
K=
computing depreciation charges in business under the so-called constant-
percentage .nethod.)
26.
is
n-.otor
$1024.
27.
truck was purchased for $2500, and its value 4 years later .Find the rate, per year at which the value has depreciated.
Find
3 years ago for $512,000, is sold for $343,000. tytel, purchased te per year at which its value has depreciated. the
236
PROGRESSIONS
*162. Harmonic progressions
A sequence of
their reciprocals
numbers is said to form a harmonic form an arithmetic progression.

The sequence
(1, J,
,
progression
if
ILLUSTRATION
1.
^, J) is
a harmonic progression
because the reciprocals
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
form an A.P.
k harmonic means between two numbers, we first insert k arithmetic means between the reciprocals of the numbers. The reciprocals of the arithmetic means are the harmonic means.
To
insert
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
Insert five harmonic

1. First,
means between 4 and
16.
we
insert 5 arithmetic
means between J and

-j^,
$.
From
= a -f
(n
l)d,
with a
J,
and n
7,
we
find
3. 4.
Hence, the A.P.
is (J,
A=4 &
progression
is (4,
The corresponding harmonic
3ft -^, 3?, 8,
^,
16).
Hence, the harmonic means are
(3ft
^,
8,
*EXERCISE 86
Insert the specified
1.
Four, between
Four, between
number of harmonic means. and ^. 2. Five, between J and

.
3.
& and
J.
4.
6.
Four, between 4 and 24.
5. Five,
between f and
d)
Four, between
J and
3.
//
(c, .ff,
mean
7. 4;
of c
J.
is called the harmonic /orw a harmonic progression, then and d. Find the harmonic mean of the numbers. 8. 9; 6.
9. 4;
8.
10. 12; 36.
11.
x and
y.
*163. Geometric progressions with

Let
infinitely
many
terms
,
Sn
represent the
(4),
sum
of the progression o, ar, ar2,
ar"" 1
Then, by
page 229,
a + ar + ar2 H---Suppose that a set of strings of the same diameter and substance are stretched to uniform tension. If the lengths of the strings form a harmonic progression, a harmonious sound results if two or more strings are caused to vibrate at one time. This fact accounts for the name harmonic prop ession.
*
PROGRESSIONS
ILLUSTRATION
1,
1.
237
Consider the endless geometric progression

,
- ->
=jj^j
to infinitely
many
terms.
(2)
In
(2),
-;
the nth term

1
is
^;
-r=
^;
ar"
^(3)
By(l),
If
+ l + 1 + + ...+^ ^2--^.
without
if
n grows
larger,
limit,
to zero as
we
please,
is sufficiently large.
JL
J_ n-i
2
64
__
the term
^
grows smaller, and

if
is
as near
Thus,
65,
18,446,744,073,709,551,616*
0) as we practically zero. Hence, in (3), 8n will be as near to (2 please for all values of n which are sufficiently large. To summarize this statement we say that as n becomes infinite Sn approaches the limit 2, and
which
is
2 the sum of the progression 1, 4, 4, We sometimes use "n >oo " to abbreviate our conclusion can be briefly written limit Sn
call
we
4,
to infinitely
many
terms.
"n
becomes infinite."
Then,
2.
Now,
consider
is
(a, ar,
ar2 ,
to infinitely
many
terms),
under the
,
> oo 1 and -f 1. Then, as n a number between the absolute value of the numerator arn in (1) grows smaller, and is as near to zero as we please for all values of n sufficiently large. Hence, from (1) we see that, as n grows large without limit, the value
condition that r
of
Sn
approaches
/
\r=r
That
is,
0_\ r^7/'
limit
n
too
or
a r^"r"
(4)
Sn =
=-2
1
r
This limit of the sum of n terms, as n becomes infinite, is callejd the sum of the geometric progression with infinitely many terms. If S represents this sum, then
Thus,
if
|
(5)
<
or
1,
(a
<n*
to infinitely
many
terms)
(6)
238
Note
1.
PROGRESSIONS
Recognize that S in (5) is not a sum in the ordinary sense of the word, but is the limit of the sum of n terms as n grows large without bound.
ILLUSTRATION
4-
2.
By
T
use of
(6),
with a
5 and r
terms]
},
4-
to infinitely
many
7-377
10.
Practically, this
means
that,
if
we should add a
relatively large
number
of
we would obtain approximately 10, and that by adding enough terms we can obtain as close to 10 as we may desire. Thus, Su =
terms,
The
a
indicated
series.
An
a sequence expression of the form

of
sum
of
numbers
is
frequently called
+ u% + u* +
is
to infinitely
many terms
(7)
left in
called
an
infinite series.
Accordingly, the expression on the
(6) is referred
to as the infinite geometric series.
EXAMPLE
.5818181
1.
Find a rational number equal to the endless repeating decimal
SOLUTION.
.5818181
Because of the meaning of the decimal notation,

-
.5
.081 4- .00081 H---- to infinitely
many
is
terms,
where we notice that (.081 = .01. with a .081, and r
+
-
.00081
(6),
+
the
.081
.99
) is
an
infinite
geometric series
By
.081
sum
of this series
=
.5
9
110*
.01
Hence,
.5818181
----
+ rf^
& + rf* - f?
1,
use of the method of Example endless repeating decimal is a rational number.
Comment.
By
we can show that any
represent the sum of the first n terms. Then we say that the series has a sum S, and call the series a convergent infinite series which converges to S in case the
In any
infinite series
such as
(7), let
Sn
Sn is S as n becomes infinite. If Sn has no limit as n becomes infinite, we say that the infinite series is divergent, or diverges.
limit of
In this section we have proved that the infinite geometric series in parentheses in (6) has a sum, or converges, when r < 1. When r ^ 1, the series is divergent, or does not have a sum, because in this case Sn in (1) does not approach a limit as n > oo Thus, for the G.P. (1, 2, 4, ) where Note
2.
| \
|
2,
we
find that
Sn
increases
beyond
all
bounds as n -
oo
PROGRESSIONS
*EXERCISE 87
239
of each of the followng infinite geometric series by use of the established formula.
the
I-
Find
7
sum
3. 6.
7.
+J+I+ 15 + 5 -f f + 1 - J + t 1 - .01 + .0001

' .
'
2.
4.
6.
8.
to the
+3+J+ 10 - 5 + f + 1 - J + J .8 + .08 -f .008 H

12
-
-.
Find a
9. .333
rational
number equal
given endless repeating decimal, where
repeating parts are written three times.

.
10. .444
.
11. .666
.
12. .0999
13. .8333
.
14. .1666
.
15. .212121 18. .838383
16. .050505 19. .454545
17. .030303
20. 4.222
.
..
21. .2111
22. .345345345
-.
23. .210210210 26. 25.05050

.
24. 252.525.27.
25. 16.7167167
.
-.
-.
.153846153846153846
28. .076923076923076923
being brought to rest by air resistance. The path of each swing, after the first, of the pendulum bob is .98 as long as the path of the previous swing (from one side to the other). If the path of
29.
pendulum
is
the
first
swing
is
30 inches long, how- far does the bob travel in coming to dropped from a height of 100 inches. to f of the height from which it last fell.
ball in
a position of rest?
30.
rubber ball
ball rises
is
rebound the
each Find the
On
distance traveled
31.
by the
coming to
rest.
The side of a certain square is 10 inches long. A second square is drawn by connecting the mid-points of the sides of the 1st square; a 3d square is drawn by connecting the mid-points of the sides of the 2d square; Find the sum of the areas of all the squares. etc., without end.
Note
as
1.
If
|
<
1,
we know that
and
equal to
Sn
if
is large,
S, of (5) on page 237, is approximately our confidence in this approximation increases
n increases. When n is large, it is decidedly easier to compute S than in place of Sn /Sn, and hence it is convenient at tunes to use S
<
32. (I) Find
Sn
for the
G.P.
3,
f f
,
(II)
Find the sum of
this pro-
gression extended to infinitely

33.
many
terms.
Find
&, approximately, for the G.P,
8 -f J
+fH
CHAPTER
15
LOGARITHMS
164. Logarithms
Logarithms are auxiliary numbers which are exponents, and which permit us to simplify the operations of multiplication, division, raising to powers, and extraction of roots, applied to explicit real numbers. Previously, we have introduced exponents only under the assumption that they are rational numbers. In connection with logarithms, however, when we mention an exponent, it may be any real number, rational or irrational. A logical foundation for the use of irrational exponents is beyond the scope of this text. Hence, without discussion, we shall assume the fact that irrational powers have meaning and that the laws of exponents hold if the exponents involved are real numbers, either rational or irrational, provided that the base
is positive.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
with the symbol 10^ are obtained

as exponents.
10^ =
if
The student may

101
-
414
---.
safely use his intuition in connection Closer and closer approximations to
the successive decimal approximations to
v^ are
used
165. Logarithms to any base
In the following definition, b represents any positive number, not is any positive number. 1, and
DEFINITION
I.
exponent of the
The logarithm of a number power to which b must be raised
N
to
to the
base b is the
obtain
N.
In other words, if 6* to the then x is the logarithm of to the base b," we write base 6. To abbreviate "the logarithm of Then, by Definition I, the following equations state the "log*, i/V." same fact, the first equation in exponential form and the second in
LOGARITHMS
logarithmic form:
247
N=
ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
1.
b*
5
,
and
then 5
x
is
log*
N.
(1)
If
- 4
the logarithm of
to the base 4. base 2":
2.
"Iog 2 64"
since
is
read "the logarithm of 64

hence
Iog 2 64
to the
64
2*,
6.
ILLUSTRATION
3.
Since v^5
5$,
hence Iog 5 \^5
.333
ILLUSTRATION
4.
To
5 o
find Iog 2
J-,
we
,
express J as a power of 2:
Aence
Iog 2
since
=
&
= = =
2~3
=
o
3.
ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
5.
If logb 16
4,
then b 4
16; 6
v'Te
2.
6.
If log
1
J,
then cri
2.
Hence,
For any base
b,
we have
log & 1
=
0;
and
61
b.
Hence,
log b 6
1.
(2)
Note
1.
We
1 is 1
power of
the base
'x
do not use b = 1 as a base for logarithms because every and hence no number except 1 could have a logarithm to
1.
In the definition of
log&
if
N, we stated that
That
is,
in this book,
we
shall
mean a
b is positive.
we stated that the base These agreements were made to avoid meeting impositive
we speak of number N.
the
N was a positive number. logarithm of a number N

it is
Also,
aginary numbers as logarithms.
In advanced mathematics
proved that,
of
if
N and b are positive, there exists just one real logarithm

b.
N to the base
Since 27
EXERCISE 88
1.
3 s what
,
is
the logarithm of 27 to the base 3?

2.
3.
Since 625 Since J Since

1
54 what
,
,
is
3"1 what
6, what
is
the logarithm of J to the base 3?
4.
is
242
5. If
LOGARITHMS
the logarithm of
N to the base 4
2 as
its
is 3,
find
N.
6.
What number has

the
logarithm to the base 4?
Find
7. log,
number
*
10.
N - 4. - 2. logio N
= - |.
N whose logarithm is given. 8. log. N = 2. 11. Iog N = 0.

7
9. logio
1.
12. log* JV
3.
- = J.
1.
13. logw AT 16. Iog10
1.
14. Iog 2
'AT
- =
J.
2.
16. Iog4 AT 18. Iog26
3.
4.
17. Iog4 AT
N=
=
19. logs AT
20. logioo
N-
21. logioo AT
22. 23.
Find the logarithm of 125 to the base
5.
Find the logarithm of 1,000,000 to the base

the specified logarithm.
10.
Find
24. logs 25. 28. log, 27.
25. log* 16. 29. Iog4 64.
26. Iog 2 8. 30. logio 1000.
27. log? 49.
31. Iog 5 625.

35. log^ 3.
32. logu 5. 36. Iog4 J.
33. Iog 9 3.
37. loge J.
34. logioo 10.

38. Iog2 J.
letter
39. log,
&.
kFind
the value of the
unknown
in the problem.
40. Iog6 16
2.
41. log* 125

3.
J.
3.
42. log*
625
4.
43. Iog5 1000

46. loga 7 49. Iog6 2
62.
44. log, 9 47. log*
46. Iog 4
2.
= 2.
1.
- -
1.
- -
48. log
y=
J.
60. logb
63.
-fs
==
2. 3.
61. Iog6 .0001
= .
2.
logj
16
x.
log^
64. logs
N= -f
166.
Common
logarithms
Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithms and are the most useful variety for computational purposes. Hereafter, unless otherwise stated, when we mention a logarithm we shall mean a common logarithm. For abbreviation, we shall write log N, instead
3!
logw N, for the
logarithm of N.
and read log as the logarithm of Then, from the definition of a logarithm, the follow-
common
ing equations are equivalent:
N=
10
and
log
N.
(1)
LOGARITHMS
ILLUSTRATION
Since Since
1.
243
log 10,000
Since
10,000
log
10 4 ,
hence
.333
4.
Îo =
.01
10*,
hence
Îo
1Q-2 ,
hence
log .01
2.
have seen that log may be either positive, negative, or zero, depending on the value assigned to N. Also, we notice that log N is an integral power of 10. is an integer when and only when
We
ILLUSTRATION
2.
For future
following logarithms
by
reference, the student should verify the use of the definition of a logarithm.
167.
Some
properties of logarithms
The
base
1. 6,
following properties hold if the logarithms are taken to any but we shall write proofs only for the case where b = 10.
the
The logarithm of a product equals factors. For instance,

log
sum
of the logarithms of
its
MN =
log
M + log N.
N
,
(1)
.
= 108 then MN = 1010 = 108 = 3, log N = 5, and log MN = 8. Also, by the definition of a logarithm, log M
ILLUSTRATION
1.
If
M=
1.
103 and
Hence, log
MN
log
M + log N in this special case.

I.
Proof of Property
Let log
M = x and log N
MN 10*10*
y.
Then,
M=
2.
10*,
N-
10",
and
10*+.
Since
!T/ie
MN = 10*+", hence log MN - x + y - log Af -f log

logarithm of a quotient equals the logarithm of the dividend
II.
minus
the logarithm of the divisor. 7
That
is,
log
log
M - log N.
N * y.
Then,
(2)
Proof.
1.
Let log
M
=*
x and log
(By a law of exponents)

x
2.
Hence,
log -^
y - log Af
log AT.
244
ILLUSTRATION
log 300
2.
LOGARITHMS
If
we
are given log 3
.4771, then
log
= log 3(100) - log 3 + log 100 = .003 = log Ttffof = log 3 - log 1000 =
EXERCISE 89
.4771 .4771
+23
2.4771;
2.5229.
Express each number as a product or quotient, and find

of the given logarithms
its
logarithm by use
and
the logarithms of integral
powers of 10.
log 2
1. 6.
.3010; log 3
2. 21.
.4771; log 7
.8451; log 17
1.2304.
6. 70.
3. 34.
4. 51.
5. 30.
168. Characteristic and mantissa
Every number, and hence every logarithm, can be written as the sum of an integer and a decimal fraction which is positive or zero and
log TV is written in this way, we call the integer the characteristic and the fraction the mantissa of log N.
less
than
1.
When
N= log N =
log
(an integer) -f (a fraction,

characteristic
0,
<
1)
+ mantissa.
-f-
(1)
= 4.6832 = 4 ILLUSTRATION 1. If log tissa and 4 is the characteristic of log N.
.6832, then .6832 is the
man-
ILLUSTRATION
3.
2.
If log
N=
-f-
3.75, then log
lies
between
4 and
Hence, log
3.75
N
The
(a fraction).
To
4
.25.
Hence, log TV
3.
= -
3.75
= -
find the fraction, subtract:
.25.
ILLUSTRATION
ods.
The
following logarithms were obtained by later methstudent should verify the three columns at the right.
LOGARITHMS
1
245
69. Properties of the characteristic and mantissa
ILLUSTRATION
1.
All
numbers whose logarithms are given below have the
same significant digits (3, 8, 0, 4). To obtain the logarithms, log 3.804 was first found from a table to be discussed later; the other logarithms were then obtained by the use of Properties I and II.
log 380.4
log 38.04'
log 100(3.804)
log 10(3.804)
+ log 3.804 - log 10 + log 3.804 log 100
log 3.804
log .3804
=.5802
Q
=log~
=
log
-
804
=
=
log 3.804
log 10
+ .5802; 1 + .5802; + .5802; = - 1 + .5802;

2
log .03804
if
log 3.804
log 100
= -
+ .5802.
Similarly,
is
any number whose
significant digits are (3, 8, 0, 4), then
equals 3.804 multiplied, or else divided, by a positive integral power of 10; hence, it follows as before that .5802 is the mantissa of log N.
In Illustration
is 1, etc.
the characteristic of log 380.4 is 2, of log 38.04 These facts could have been learned as follows.
1,
ILLUSTRATION
2.
To
find the characteristic of log 380.4, notice the

lies:
two
successive integral powers of 10 between which 380.4
100
<
380.4
< >
1000.
or,
Hence,
log 100
<
log 380.4
<
log 1000;
0,
2
1);
<
log 380.4
<
3.
=2 Therefore, log 380.4 characteristic of log 380.4

In Illustration
1
(a fraction,
\
<
or,
by
definition, the
is 2.
we met
special cases of the following theorems.
The mantissa of log depends only on the sequence That is, if two numbers differ only in of significant digits in N. the position of the decimal point, their logarithms have the same
I.
THEOREM
mantissa.
N is an integer positive or zero, which is one less than the number of digits in N to the
1, the characteristic of log
,
THEOREM II. When N >

the decimal point.
III.
If
left of
THEOREM
integer;
if
N<
1, the characteristic
of log
the
first significant digit of
N is in the fcth
a negative decimal pkce,

is
then
'k is the characteristic of log N.
246
ILLUSTRATION
3.
LOGARITHMS
we find the characteristic of log N by merely inspecting N. Thus, by Theorem III, the char4 because "3" is in the 4th decimal place. acteristic of log .00039 is By Theorem II, the characteristic of log 1578.6 is 3.
By
use of Theorems II and III,
70. Standard form for a negative logarithm
Hereafter, for convenience in computation, if the characteristic of is negative, - ft, change it to the equivalent value log
[(10
ILLUSTRATION
log .000843
1.
k)
10],
or
[(20
*)
20], etc.
.9258,
Given that log .000843 4
we
write
- -
.9258
(6
10)
.9258
6.9258
10.
The characteristics of the following logarithms are obtained by use Theorem III; the mantissas are identical, by Theorem I.
IST SIGNIP. DIGIT IN
1st decimal place
of
ILLUSTRATION
Loo
AT
STANDARD FORM
9.9258
2d decimal place
6th decimal place
N= NN=
.843
.0843
.00000843
+ .9258 = 2 + .9258 6 + .9258 =

1
8.9258 4.9258
10 10 10
71
Four-place table of logarithms
Mantissas can be computed by use of advanced mathematics, and, except in special cases, are endless decimal fractions. Computed
mantissas are found in tables of logarithms, also called tables of mantissas.
ILLUSTRATION
fifteen
1.
The mantissa
for log
10705
is
.029586671630457, to
decimal places.
correct to four decimal places Table II gives the mantissa of log has at most three. significant digits; a decimal point is underif lies between 1 stood in front of each mantissa in the table. If is zero so that log is the same and 10, the characteristic of log as its mantissa. Hence, a four-place table of mantissas is also a table of the actual logarithms of all numbers with at most three sigis less than 1 10.00. In case 1.00 to nificant digits, from
or greater than 10, use of Theorems II
the characteristic of log by and III besides obtaining the mantissa of log
we must supply
by use of Table
II.
LOGARITHMS
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
247
Find log .0316 from Table

1.
II.
To
obtain the mantissa:
N in the
"6."
2.
table;
in the
is
row
for
column headed "31," read the entry in the column headed

find
"31"
in the
The mantissa
.4997.
By Theorem
III, the characteristic of log .0316 is
2, or (8
10):
log .0316
= -
+
II
.4997
8.4997
10.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
From Table
and Theorem
II, log
31,600
4.4997.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
is
2.
Find
1.
if
log
N=
7.6064
10.
.6064;
2.
this is
locate the
the mantissa of log found in Table II as the mantissa for the digits "404."
the significant digits of
To find
N:
To
or
decimal point in
III,
N:
the characteristic of log

.00404.
N is (7
10)
3; hence,
by Theorem
ILLUSTRATION 3. If log 3.6064, the characteristic is 3 and, by has 4 figures to the left of the decimal point: the mantissa Theorem II, 4040. is the same as in Example 2. Hence,
DEFINITION I. A number is catted the antilogarithm of ~ L, and for abbreviation we write = antilog L. log
L in case
ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION
4.
5.
Since log 1000
3,
hence 1000
antilog 3.
10).
In Example 2 we found antilog (7.6064
EXERCISE 90
each number is the logarithm of some number N. the characteristic and the mantissa of log N.
1 to 8,
1.
In Probkms
2.9356.
3.5473.
State
2. 6.
15.2162.
3.
6.
7.2356
10.
7.
1.300.
4.
8.
-2+
5.1942
.3561.
5.675.
10.
Write the fottowng negative logarithms in standard form.

9.
.2562.
10. .3267
3.
11. .4932
6.
12.
3.4675.
State the characteristic of the logarithm of each number.

13. 637,500.
14. 368.
to
16. .000673.
16. .00897.
17. .000007.
Use Table II
18. 65.4.
find the four-place logarithm of the number.

20. 178. 25. 17,800. 21. .00785. 26. .00005.
19. 43.2.
22. .0346.
27. .086.
23. 9.46.
24. 6530.
28. .000358.
29. 101,000.
30. .00089.
31. 157,000.
32. .0000002.
248
Find
LOGARIJHMS
the antilogarithm of the given logarithm
by use of Table
36. 1.8785. 41. 2.4800.
II.
83. 2.3856. 38. 2.1461. 43. 7.7701 46. 4.8915

49. 9.4216
34. 3.3927.
36. 3.6684.
37. 0.1553.
42. 0.5611.
39. 1.8692.
40. 0.9727. 44. Q.8041 47. 4.9542

60. 8.7284
10.
10.
10. 10.
46. 8.9823
10.
10.
10. 10.
48. 2.9340
61.
2.3010.
72. Interpolation for a mantissa
Interpolation in a table of mantissas is based on the assumption are that, for small changes in N, the corresponding changes in log proportional to the changes in N. This principle of proportional parts is
merely an approximation to the truth but leads to results which are sufficiently accurate for our purposes.
agree that, whenever a mantissa is found by interpolation from a table, we shall express the result only to the number of decimal places given in table entries. Also, in finding by interpolation in
We
a table
of mantissas
when
log
N is given, we agree to specify just four
or just five significant digits according as we are using a four-place or a five-place table. No greater refinement in the result is justified
because the unavoidable error, which may arise, frequently will be as large as 1 unit in the last significant digit which we have agreed
to specify, although the error
is
rarely larger.
t
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Find log 13.86 by interpolation

1.
in
Table
II.
We
notice that 13.80
<
13.86
<
13.90.
Hence, by the
is
principle of proportional parts, from 13.80 to 13.90,
we assume
that, since 13.86
3% of the way
log 13.86
&
& of the way from log 13.80

log 13.80
to
log 13.90, or log 13.80).
log 13.86
2.
.6(log 13.90
Each logarithm below has

table:
1 for its characteristic,
by Theorem
II.
From
From
log 13.80 log 13.86 log 13.90
table:
= = =
1.1399"
Tabular difference
is
log 13.86
1.1399
? 31 .1430 - .1399 = .0031. = .00186, or .0019. 1.1430J .6(.0031) + .6(.0031) = 1.1399 + .0019 = 1.1418.
Comment. We found .6(31) = 18.6 by use of the table headed the column of proportional parts in Table II.
"
31
"
under
LOGARITHMS
ILLUSTRATION
~ 10
1.
249
To
find log .002914:

'
T2910:
L2914:
2920:
mantissa mantissa
is is is
-46391
?
Tabular difference
15
_
is
is
.4654
.4639
.4(15)
mantissa
.4654
.0015.
6.
Hence, the mantissa for 2914
.4639 4- .0006
.4645.
Hence, by Theorem
III, log .002914

if
= -
.4645
7.4645
10.
EXAMPLE
2.
Find
1.
log
1.6187.
is
SOLUTION.
The mantissa
of the
.6187
not in Table II but
lies
between the
consecutive entries .6180 and .6191, the mantissas for 415 and 416.
2.
Since .6187
is -fa
way from
.6180 to .6191,
we assume
that
N is
of the
way from
41.50 to 41.60.
11
[1.6180 Ll.6187
^1.6191
= = =
log 41.501
log
41.60
.10
41.50
.10
J*
A(-IO)
.064, or
.06.
log 41.60
J
41.50
approximately
N=
ILLUSTRATION
2.
41.50
+ -&C10) = N
if
-06
41.56.
To
find
log
N=
6.1053
10:
34
= .4. Hence, 10 x = .4(10) = 4. 1270 + 4 = 1274. J .1072, mantissa for 1280 = .0001274. Hence, .1053 is the mantissa for 1274 and N
15
r.1038, mantissa for 1270H ? J L.1053, mantissa for
.4
Comment. We obtain Jj = columns of proportional parts.

13.6
by
inspection of the tenths of 34 in the
We
read
.4(34)
or
.4,
and
is
^=
if
.5.
Since 15
is
nearer to 13.6 than to 17, hence J|
nearer to
.4
than to
is
.5.
Note 1
When interpolating in a table of mantissas,

digits,
there
equal reason
two successive make that choice which gives an even

for choosing either of
for uniformity
we agree
to
digit in the last significant place of
the final result of the interpolation.

4
73. Scientific notation for a number
Any
positive
number
N can be written in the form

.
(1)
250
LOGARITHMS
where P is a number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10, and fc is an integer, either zero or positive or negative. We refer to the right-hand side of (1) as the scientific notation for N.
ILLUSTRATION
1.
5,832,900
5.8329(10*).
.00000058329
5.8329(.0000001)
5.8329(10~
7
).
notation gives a brief and easily appreciated form for writing very large or very small numbers.
scientific
The
ILLUSTRATION 2. The nucleus of an atom has a diameter which is estimated as less than 3(10~12 ) centimeters. The mean distance from the sun One to the outermost planet Pluto is approximately 3.67 X 109 miles. light-year, the distance which light will travel in one year hi interstellar 12 space, is approximately 6 X 10 miles.
In equation 1, and P have the same significant digits because the factor 10* merely alters the position of the decimal point to change P into N. Hence, the scientific notation is very useful hi writing a number N, particularly if it is very large, when we wish to show how are significant. This feature was referred to in many digits in Section 48, page 53, for the case where k of (1) is positive.
68,820,000 is the approximate value of some quantity and if just five digits are significant, this is not indicated by the usual form of the number. We write it as 6.8820(107) to show that one of the zeros
ILLUSTRATION
3. If
is significant.
ILLUSTRATION
log
4.
If
1.352(10*), then,
by Property
I,
page 243,
log 1.352
+ log
108
0.1309
is
+8=
8.1309.
Thus, 8
\
is
the characteristic and log 1.352
the mantissa of log N.
= P(10*) where k is an integer Consider any number N, where and 1 ^ P < 10. Then k is the characteristic and log P is the mantissa of log N, because
log
N - log P-f log 10* - log P + k,

1,
where
log
P<
since 1
^ P <
10.
= 9.7419, and ILLUSTRATION 5. If log we have k = 9 and log P = .7419:
if
we
use the form
=>
P(10*),
P-
5.520
and
2V
5.520(10*).
(Four digits
significant.)
LOGARITHMS
Note
1.
251
logarithms, the only other variety used appreciably is the system of natural, or Naperian logarithms, for which the base is a certain irrational number denoted by e where e = 2.71828
Besides
common
Natural logarithms are useful for theoretical purposes.
logarithms were invented by a Scotchman, JOHN NAPIER, Baron of Merchiston (1550-1617). His original logarithms were not the same as
Note
2.
Naperian logarithms, in his honor. Common logarithms, also called Briggs logarithms,' were invented by an Englishman, HENRY BRIQQS (1556-1631), who was aided by Napier.
those
now
called
EXERCISE 91
î
Find
1.
the four-place logarithm of each

2. 25.63. 6. 1.293.
number from Table

3. 532.2. 7. .3013.
II.
1826.
4. 12.67.
5. 35.94. 9. .5627.
8. .4213.
10. .03147. 14. 203,500.

18. 1.417(10').
11. .01563.
15. .001439.
19. 3.126(103 ).
12. .001139.
16. .05626.
13. 90,090.
17. 1.233(10-4 ).
20. 2.438(10-*).
II.
Find
the antilogarithm of each four-place logarithm
from Table
21. 3.2367.
26. 3.1395. 29. 6.3350
33.-
22. 7.1247
26. 2.9276.
10.
23. 6.1640. 27. 1.6016.
24. 8.9935 28. 0.4906.
10.
10.
30. 4.1436 34. 2.1952.
10.
31. 9.6715 35. 0.0130.
10.
32. 8.0255
36. 5.5511.
10.
8.8862.
10.
37. 5.9885
38. 8.3358
20.
39. 9.6270
10.
40. 6.4228.
74. Computation of products and quotients
Unless otherwise specified,

given problem are exact.
we
shall
assume that the data
of
any
Under
this assumption, the accuracy of a
product, quotient, or power computed by use of logarithms depends on the number of places in the table being used. The result is frequently subject to an unavoidable error which usually is at most a
few units in the

usually
last significant place given
by
interpolation.
Hence,
at least five-place logarithms to obtain four-place .accuracy, and with at least four-place logarithms to obtain As a general custom, in any result we shall three-ylace accuracy.
we must compute with
give all digits obtainable by interpolation in the specified table.
252
LOGARITHMS
1.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
Compute
Let
.0631(7.208) (.5127)
by use
of Table II.
represent the product. By Property I, we obtain log by adding the logarithms of the factors. We obtain the logarithms of the factors from Table II, add to obtain log P, and then finally obtain
P from
Tkble
II.
The computing form, given

the first step in the solution.
in blackface type,
was made
up completely as
log .0631
8.8000
10
(Table II) (Table II)
log
7.208= 0.8578
9.7099
19.3677
.2332.
= log .6127 (add) log P = Hence, P r>
10
(Table 'II)
20
[
,
9.3677
10.
antilog (9.3677
10),
Table II]
EXAMPLE
2.
or.* Compute
1.
431.91
equals the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator.
SOLUTION.
By
Property
II, log q
Before computing, we round off each given number to four significant For instance, 15.6873 bedigits because we are using a four-place table.
2.
comes
15.69.
log 431.9 _(-) log 15.69 log q
= =
2.6354
1.1956
1.4398.
(Table II)
(Table II)
Hence, q
27.53.
(Table II)
EXAMPLE
3.
257 Compute q = Sn^s'
SOLUTION.
We employ Property II.

= =
2.4099 3.9521
???
log 267
(-) log 8966

log q
= = =
12.4099
3.9521
10
10.
8.4578
Hence, q
.02869.
Comment.
When we
result
first tried
saw that the
would
to subtract log 8956 from log 257, we be negative because log 8956 is greater than log 257.
In order that log q should appear immediately in the standard form for a negative logarithm, we changed log 257 by adding 10 and then subtracting 10 to compensate for the first change. Actually,
log q
2.4099
3.9521
- -
1.5422
8.4578
10.
necessary to subtract a larger logarithm from a smaller one in computing a quotient, add 10 to the characteristic of the smaller logarithm and then subtract 10 to compensate for the change.
it is
Whenever
LOGARITHMS
253
'
* * A EXAMPLE^ Compute
(log
g=
First
v (4.803)
(269.9) (1.636)
(7880)(253.6)
make a computing form.

.
4.803
(+)
log 269.9
[log 1.636
*"
log
(
)
log
= numer. = denom. =
log q
= = \log 263.6 log denom. =

flog
7880
Hence, q
=
of Table II.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
5.
Compute the
Let
reciprocal of 189
by use
R =
189
log 1
= (-) log 189 log R = Hence, R =

Comment.
0.0000 2.2765
?
= = =
10.0000
10
10.
2.2765 7.7235
.005290.
In writing any approximate value, it is essential to indicate all final zeros which are significant. Hence, in writing R = .005290 in Example 5, the final zero was essential. It would have been wrong to write R .00529, because this would not show that we had reasonably accurate information concerning the next digit, zero. Note
1.
Before finding the four-pl&ce log
NUN has more than

digits.
four
significant digits,
round
off AT to
four significant
EXERCISE 92
Compute by use of four-place

1.
logarithms.
31.57
.789. .137.
2.
6.
.8475 .0179
X
X
.0937.
3.
6.
925.618 3.41379
X
X
.000217.
.0142.
4.
7.
925.6
.35641.
8.
(-
84.75) (.00368) (.02458).
(-
16.8) (136.943) (.00038).
HINT.
all factors
Only
positive
numbers have
real logarithms.
First
compute as
if
were positive; then determine the sign by inspection.

728.72
675
13.21
**
.0894 .6358
895
*
325.932
1
568.5
lv
^rfc
^ ^
1A JL4
23.14
753.166 /\rti*n o 9273.8
1K JLO
.0421
w
.53908
100,935
254
17
16.083
LOGARITHMS
256
9.32X531
.8319
JL f
47
.0158
.5685
.53819
X X
.0673
.42173
'
.3852
X .217 X .956
5.4171
X .429 18.1167 X 37
n.
(5.6)
.00073
.965
(- .29)(.038)(- .0065) (- 1006.332) (2.71)

Compute
25. 63283. 29. (a) 80. (a)
the reciprocal of the
(-
3.9078) (- .00031)
(132) (- 1.93)
number.
27. .02567. 28. .0683(.52831).
26. .00382.
Compute
652(735);
.351
(6)
compute
(6)
(log 652) (log 735). (log .351)

-5-
Compute
*
*
625;
compute
(log 625).
*175. Cologarithms
The logarithm
and
is
of the reciprocal of
N is called the cologarithm of N

=
!
written colog N.
colog
Since log
1=0,
N=
.031
log
log
N.
log 1
(1)
ILLUSTRATION
1.
n Colog
i
noi
= =
10.0000
1.5086.
10
log
-ggjl
, )log .Q*31= 8.4914-10

colog .031
can be quickly obtained by inspecpositive part of colog tion of log N: subtract each digit (except the last) in the positive part
of log
,,
The
N from 9, and subtract the last digit from 10.

,
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Compute q
16.083
47
is
256 , AICQ "7 use
r ^
.,
coioganthms.
the same as to multiply by 1/N. Hence, instead of subtracting the logarithm of each factor of the denominator, we add the cologariihm of the factor:
divide
To
by
16.083
256
47
_ "
.0158
(16 083
'
/ 1 \ /
log 16.08 log 266 log 47 log .0158
1.6721; hence,
8.1987
q
colog 47 10; hence, colog .0168 5542. < (add) log q
= 1.2063 = 2.4082 - 8.3279-10 - 1.8013 - 13.7437 - 10 .
3.7437.
The
instructor
may
wish to direct occasional use of cologarithms.
LOGARITHMS
1
255
76. Computation of powers and roots
We
III.
establish the following property of logarithms as
an aid
to
computing powers. The logarithm of

the
kth power of a number
N equals k times
(1)
the logarithm of
N:
log
N* = k
log
N.
Proof.
Let x
log
N.
N-
Then, by the definition of a logarithm,
10*.
Hence,
Nk Therefore,
(10*)*
10**.
i
(A law
of exponents)
by the
log
definition of a logarithm,
Nk
kx
k log N.
(Using x
7.
log
N)
ILLUSTRATION
1.
6 Log 7
5 log
Log N* = 3
log
N.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
'
1.
Compute
(.3156)
4
.
By
Property III,
log (.3156)*
log (.3166)*
= -
4 log (.3156) - 4(9.4991 37.9964 - 40 = 7.9964

4
10).
10.
Therefore, (.3156)
.009918.
Recall that any root of a number is expressible as a fractional power. Hence, as a special case of Property III we obtain
IV.
log
Proof.
Since
3/N = W*, we
log y/Jf
use Property III with k
T-
log JV
-T
log
N.
ILLUSTRATION
2.
Since
VJ? = Ni and
log
log
VN = ilog N\ 2
4/N
*/N = \ 3
log N.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
Compute ^.08351.
By
Property IV, log
log AT.
Hence,
256
LOGARITHMS
_
8.9218
6
10
*
log v^.08361
58.9218
6
60
9.8203
10.
(2)
Therefore, \/. 08361
.6611.
Comment.
usually
it is
Before dividing a negative logarithm by a positive integer, best to write the logarithm in such a way that the negative part
will be
10.
after division,
Thus, in
(2),
we
10 to make it subtracting 50 from 60, and compensate for the subtraction; the result after division standard form for a negative logarithm.
T7
altered (8.9218 10) by by adding 50 to 8.9218 to
by 6
is
in the
EXAMPLE
3.
on*/
Compute
Let
q
05831)
~=\*
]
\65.3VT46/
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
represent the fraction.
Then
log q
log F.
Notice that log (.5831) 3

log .6831
3 log .5831; log
Vl46 - i
/
1 j
log 146.
= log 146 = 3 log .6831 = = ( -) log denom. = log F

,
9.7658 2.1644 9.2974

2.8971
10 10
\
j
log 66.3
log
= log 146 denom. = =
1.8149
1.0822
2.8971.
6.4003
10;
21ogF - 2.8006
10
42.8006
50.
log q
= 21ogF =
jp
42.8006 g
50
c Am 8.5601
,
10.
Hence, q
.03632.
EXERCISE 93
Compute by use of four-place

1.
logarithms.
4
.
(17.5)
8
.
2.
(3.1279)
3. (.837)*.
4. (.0315) 8 .
8.
6.
VT09.
(1.04)
7
.
6. -v/2795.
9.
10. (10,000)*.
12. (.0138273)*. 16.
13. (700,928)*.
17.
(-
1.03)*.
18.
(-
1796)*.
23.
20.
(-
.00831)
8
.
21. (143.54)*.
22.
24.
(-
.0057)*.
24. (157)"8 .
).
HINT
for
Problem
Recall that (1$7)~8
1/(157
26. (13.67)*.
26. (3.035)-*.
27. (.98)-*.
28. (.831447)-6
LOGARITHMS
29. (1.03)-.
1.
257
.
30. (1.05)-.
31. (1.04) 100
32. (1.04)-.
Given the seven-place log 1.04 = 0.0170333, compute Problems 31 and 32 and compare with the less accurate former answers.
Compute by use of four-place logarithms.

33. .958(12.167) 2 .
34. 10'- 66
V265.
* 38.
35. 102 W1J8147.
36.
-
37.
4 31
;
!.-
21.4V521.923
2 (25 >'. 1893.32
;I^
89-1
"" 39.
0198
(3.82616)
40
758>32
'
(46.3)
"
41
\163 X
.62*
^ \.031 X
A0
/
47.5317
.964*
10-*V?78
(.983174)'
**
10-i"v387
'
..
^- 463.19
5731.84
(57)(8.64)'
46 *
/(- 316)(.198)
.756392
'
47
/54.2VT89\
'
V .157386 )
Observe that no property of logarithms is available to simplify the computation of a sum. Use logarithms below wherever possible.
ATofe ^.
49.
62 "
+ 89.532 V57 + 2.513 +1 (1.03)* + 1

. -
'
U'
^45 2
364.1
(.9873)
R1 5L
16.3*
"453
.110173
B3
log 86
log 53.8*
66. (53.17)57.
4
.
*
67. (60.2)--.
log 567
20
log 235
58. (.065) M2 .
-
66. (2.67) 1 -*2 .
HINT
69.
for
Problem
.43 log 59.2

2
;
= -
.7621
9.2379
2
.
10.
Compute
(a) (antilog
I.
2.6731)
(ft)
[antilog
(-
1.4973)]
DEFINITION
The geometric
mean
of
root of the product of the numbers.
Thus, the
n numbers is defined as the nth geometric mean of M, N, P, Q,
and
is
^MNPQR.
the geometric
In each problem, find
mean
of the given numbers.
60. 138; 395; 426; 537; 612.
61. .00138;
.19276;
.08356; .0131.
//
that
a, 6,
and
c are the three sides of
a triangle
by
c),
it is
proved in trigonometry
A,
the area of the triangle, is given
A = VS(S Find
the area of
a)(8
b)(8
where
S =
J(a
+6+
c).
a triangle whose sides are as follows.

63. .089312;
62, 375.40;
141.37; 451.20.
.0739168; .024853.
258
The time
is
I
LOGARITHMS
t
in seconds for one oscillation of a simple pendulum whose length
centimeters, is given
byt
wv->
where g
980 and
v =
3.1416.
Find the time for one oscillation of a simple pendulum .985 meters long. (6) Find I if the time for one oscillation is 3.75 seconds.
64. (a)
65.
centi-
Let d be the diameter in inches of a short solid circular

is
steel shaft
which
horse power designed to transmit safely safe value for d is revolutions per minute.
when
revolving at
Find the number of horse power which can be safely transmitted at 1150 - 1.9834. revolutions per minute if d
pounds of steam per second, which will flow through a hole whose cross-section area is A square inches, if the steam approaches the hole under a pressure of P pounds per square inch, is approximately w .0165AP-*7 How much steam at a pressure of 83.85 pounds per square inch will flow through a hole 12.369 inches in diameter?
66.
The weight w,
in
*1 77. Exponential and logarithmic equations
A logarithmic equation is one in which there appears the logarithm

of
some expression involving the unknown quantity.

EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve for x:
log x
log
6.
-^-
By
use of Properties I and II of page 243,

log
+ log 2 -f log x
6
log 5
6.
2 log x
log x
+ log 5 - log 2
x
6.3980.
(Table II)
3.1990;
antilog 3.1990
1581.
(Table II)
An
is
equation where the
unknown quantity appears
in
an exponent
an exponential equation. Sometimes, an exponential equation can be solved by taking the logarithm of each member.
called
EXAMPLE
2.
Solve 16*
74.
sides:
SOLUTION.
Equate the logarithms of the two

1.8692
1.2041*
x log 16
log 74;
log 74 log 16
"
(-)
log 1.869 log 1.204 log
0.2716
0.0806
0.1910;
hence
1.552,
LOGARITHMS
*1 78. Logarithms to various bases
259
convenient for a system of logarithms when they are being used to simplify computation. The only base other than 10 which is used appreciably is the irrational number e = 2.71828-
The base 10
is
which is fully as important a constant hi mathematics as the familiar number IT. Logarithms to the base e are called natural, or Naperian,
logarithms.
mon
Natural logarithms have many advantages over comlogarithms for advanced theoretical purposes.
= 6* and x Recall that the equations and b are given, we can find log$ Hence, if
b* by use of common logarithms. equation the natural logarithm of can be found by solving
tial
are equivalent. by solving the exponenlog&
In particular,
e* for x.
EXAMPLE
1.
Find
log, 35.
Let x = log, 35; then, 35 = e*. logarithm of both sides we obtain x logio e = logio
SOLUTION.
On
35.
taking the
common
logio
35
logio e
1.5441. 0.4343'
log. 35.
(-)
log 1.544 log .4343

log
3.555
I.
= -
10.1886
9.6378
0.5508.
10
10
THEOREM
If a and b are any two bases, then

log
N=
(toga &) (log* N).
(1)
If.
Proof.
Let y
Hence,
= lo& N; then = logo If - y logo logo N

loga b
is
Nb
(2)
(logo 6)(log&
N).
The number
called the
with respect to the system of to the base 6, we could form a table of logarithms to the base a by multiplying each entry of the given table by logo 6.
*EXERCISE 94
Solve for x or for n, or compute the specified logarithm.
1.
modulus of the system of base a base b. Given a table of logarithms
12'
.67*
28.
8. "" 1
2. 6.
51*
569.
3.
&* -
28(2').
4.
15s*
85(3*).
6.
.093*
12.
7. (1.03)-"
.587.
8. (1.04)"
1.562.
9.
(1 ' 05 iT e
6.3282.
.UO
12. log. 1360.
10. log
W+
log
5.673.
11. log. 75.
13. log, 10.
14. logu 33.
15. log.s 23.8.
260
16.
LOGARITHMS
Find the natural logarithm of (a) 4368.1; (6) 4.3681. (Notice that the results do not differ by an integer, so that Theorem I of page 245 does
not hold for natural logarithms.)
*1 79. Graphs of logarithmic and exponential functions
We recall that y =
logo tion of x
call
loga
x and x = av are equivalent
relations.
We
x a logarithmic funcand av an exponential
function of y.
ILLUSTRATION 1. In Figure 18, we have the graph of y = log, x. For any base a > 1, the graph of This logo x would be similar.
graph
assists
us hi remembering
the following facts.

'
I.
If x is negative, Iog x is
not defined.
II.
If
<
<
1,
loga
is negative,
and loga
0.
// x increases without limit, log a x increases without limit; if x approaches zero, log a x decreases without limit.
III.
Since y
loga x
same graph.
= av these equations have the equivalent to x v Thus, in Figure 18 we have a graph of x *= e

is
,
.
*EXERCISE 95
1.
.3.
Graph y
10
-.e.
logio
x for
< =
30.
From the graph,
read the value of
io.s.
2.
Graph y
2*
from x
6 to x
4.
From
the graph, read log z
6.
*1 80. Applications to compound
interest
On page 235 we saw that,

pounded annually, the
given
$P is invested at the interest rate i comamount $A on hand at the end of n years is

if
by the formula
A = P(l
ILLUSTRATION
1.
i)
n-
$1000 is invested for 20 years at annually, the amount at the end of the time is
If
5%
compounded
A =
1000(1.05)*>
1000(2.653)
$2653.
(From Table
III)
LOGARITHMS
For unusual values
table as in Illustration
of
1,
t,
261
it is
impossible to employ an interest
but then logarithms can be used.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Compute
log 1.036
A =
=
2000(1. 036)
26
.
0.0153;
25 log 1.036 log 2000

log
Hence,
A =
$4826.
= = A =
0.3825
3.3010 (+)
3.6835.
We claim
only three significant digits in the result because accuracy is lost The 4th digit in 4826 is unreliable. in the multiplication 25 log 1.036.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
2.
1.
1
Solve for the rate

(1
i:
2500
or
(1
=
=
2000(1
1-250.
+ i)
8
.
+ t)
=
= $$&
+ i)
Hence,
4- i
v' 1.250;
we compute
this root
by use
of Table II.
1.028.
log 1.250
3.
0.0969;
1
J log 1.250
0.0121;
or,
i
hence,
v/ L250 =
Therefore,
+i=
1.028;
1.028
.028
2.8%.
ÊXERCISE 96
By
the
1.
use of Table III, find the compound amount at the end of the time if
is invested at the specified rate
money
compounded annually.
2.
$2500; at $1600; at
4%, 3%,
for 16 years. for
$1200; at
$400; at
6%,
for 13 years.
3.
35 years.
4.
5%,
for
42 years. Use
this
From
5.
A =
P(l
+ i) n
and Table IV
to solve
we obtain Problems 5 and 6.

,
P=
A(l
+ i)-*.
5%
result
principal should be invested now at compounded annually to create $2500 as the amount at the end of 15 years?
What
principal should be invested now at compounded annually to create $1000 as the amount at the end of 26 years?
6.
What
6%
At what interest rate compounded annually grow to the amount $3500 at the end of 10 years?
7. 8.
will
a $2000 principal
At what
itself
interest rate
compounded annually
will
a $3000 principal
double
9.
by
the end of 15 years?

it
if
How
at
5%
10.
take $300 to grow to the amount $750 compounded annually? (Recall Section 177.)
long will
invested
How long does it take money to double if invested at 6% compounded

How
long does it take money to double if invested at Compare with the result of Problem 10.
annually?
11.
6%
simple
interest?
CHAPTER
16
SYSTEMS INVOLVING QUADRATICS
81
Graph
of a quadratic equation in
two
variables
A solution of an equation in two variables x and y is a pair of values

of the variables
which
satisfies
the equation is the set of all real-valued solutions of the equation.
the equation. The graph or locus of points whose coordinates, (z, y), form
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
equation are
2.
1.
Graph:
1.
z2
0,
2
-f- j/
=
25;
25.
When x =
and
x2
(0,
5.
Two
solutions of the
(0, 5)
5).
When
0,
solutions of the
5. 25; x equation are (5, 0)
Two
and
(-
5, 0).
3.
We plot the
four points just found, with
and OY in Figure 19, and verify an advance inference that the graph is a circle whose center is the origin and radius is 5.
the same unit on
OX
Comment. Let P, with the coordinates (x, y), be any point in the coordinate plane with origin at 0, in a system where the same
unit
is
Fig.
19
used in measuring
all lengths.
Then
(OP)
2
.
x*
+ y* P
Hence, if x with (OP) 2
+
=
2.
2
j/
25, the point
must
lie
on a
circle
about
as center
25, or with radius 5.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
Graph:
1.
9x*
4y*
36.
(1)
Solve for x in terms of y:
9z2
36

-
263
g
9
x
2.
=
=
9+
=t 2. If
2
.
(2)
We
if
assign values to y
Thus,
0,
then z
= =
and compute the corresponding values

\/9
of x.
=t
=fc
3,
then
vl8 -
2V2 =
2.8.
We
tabulate the corresponding values of x and y in the following table.
We plot
the points given by the pairs of values of x and y in the table. In Figure 20, the points listed for (a) in the table give the open curve FDE; the points for (6) give HBO. These two open curves, together, are called
a hyperbola, and it is called a branch of
is
it.
the graph of equation
1.
Each
piece of the hyperbola
2 Comment. The equation 9x2 4y = 36 defines z as a tow-valued function of y, as shown in (2), or y as a tow-valued function
of x.
The graph
of the equation consists
of the graphs of the tional functions
two single-valued
irra-
and
x
is
The graph
of the first of these
the branch
and the graph of the second is HBO. The two branches together make up the graph
FDE
of equation
rical
1.
The branches
are symmetr-
Fig.
20
with respect to the y-axis.

1.
every hyperbola there correspond two characteristic lines, called asymptotes, which are indicated by dotted lines in Figure 20. As we recede out on any branch of the hyperbola, the curve approaches the corresponding asymptote but never reaches it. By moving far enough out
Note
To
on the branch, we
is
approach the asymptote as closely as we please. It for equaproved in analytic geometry that the equations of the asymptotes
may
tion 1 are obtainable as follows:
264
1.

Replace the constant term in the equation by
0,
and factor
0.
the left
member:
9x2
2.
3x
4t/
0;
(3x
2y)(3x
+ 2y) =
0.
Equate each factor separately
to zero:
2y
and
3x
+ 2y =
=
These are the equations of the asymptotes.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
3.
1.
Graph:
Solve for y:
x 2 -f 4y2
25.
(3)
y
2.
i(25
x2 )
= =
JV25 -
x2
(4)
To obtain real values for y,

Thus,
if
the numerical value of x
may not be allowed

is
to exceed 5.
3.
8,
V25
x2
39,
which
imaginary.
Place x
in (3) to determine the t/-intercepts:
25;
Hence, two points on the graph are (0, and (0, f ), labeled A and C in Figure 21.
4.
Place y
in (3) to determine the
x-intercepts:
x2
25;
5.
(5,
Hence, two points on the graph are
0)
and (5.
5, 0), labeled
B and D in Figure 21.
Fi 9 .
21
As many more points as desired can be found by substituting values of x in (4) and computing the corresponding values of y. When the points are joined by a smooth curve we obtain the oval ABCD in Figure 21. The curve is called an ellipse. The graph of the positive valued function x2 from (4), is the half of the ellipse above the x-axis. The y = JV25
,
graph of y upper half.
JV25
The
the lower half, which whole ellipse is the graph of (3).

is
x2
is
symmetrical to the
The
facts stated in the following
summary
are proved in
more
advanced mathematics.
The graph of any quadratic equation in two variables x and y with real solutions is either an ellipse, a hyperbola, a circle, a parabola, a pair of straight lines, or a single point.
,
SUMMARY.
1.
J/fc is positive, the
a a graph of jc H- y
c is a circle whose radius is
\/c and center is the origin, provided that the same unit is used on the scales of the x-axis and y-axis.

2.
265
// a,
6,
and
c have the
same
sign, the
9 graph of ax
&y*
c is
an
with center at the origin; if a b, the ellipse is a circle, provided that the same unit is used on the scales of the x-axis and y-axis.
ellipse, 3.
// a and b have opposite signs and if c is not zero, the graph of
ax* -f by2
4.
c is
a hyperbola.
graph of xy = c is a hyperbola; ifc>Q, one branch of the hyperbola lies wholly in quadrant I, and the other in quadrant III; if c < 0, the branches are in quadrants II and IV, respectively.
If c j
0, the
The coordinate axes are

5.
the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
// a quadratic equation in
is
x and y does not
involve
2 y or xy,
the
graph of the equation

if the
a parabola whose axis is parallel to the y-axis; 2 equation does not involve x or xy, the graph is a parabola whose
to the x-axis.
axis is parallel
ILLUSTRATION
of 5x
2
1.
y
is
is
= 8 is an ellipse, of the equation 3#2 7y* a hyperbola, and of 4z 2 -f- 4y* = 25 is a circle, whose
The graph
radius
5/2.
4.
EXAMPLE
Determine the nature of the graph of

2x*
xy
3y*
0.
(5)
SOLUTION.
Hence,
1.
Factor:
(2x
(x, y) in
3y)(x 4- y)
=
0.
0.
(5) is satisfied
(a)
by values
2x
case
(6)
3y
0,
or
+y=
Therefore, the set of all points (x, y) satisfying (5) consists of those satisfying Or, in other words, the graph of (5) consists (a) and those satisfying (6). of the graph of (a) and the graph of (6).
of (a) and (6) are straight lines through the origin. the graph of (5) consists of these two straight lines.
2.
The graphs
Hence,
Another case similar to Example 4 was met in finding the asymptotes in Example 2. They were the two straight lines which are the 2 2 4y = 0. graph of the equation 9z
Comment.
EXAMPLE
5.
Determine the nature of the graph of

5x
7 y
= =
0.
SOLUTION.
2.
1. is
Solve for y:
x,
is
|z
fx
+ J.
To graph
a quadratic function of given equation is a parabola whose axis
Thus, y
and therefore the graph of the

parallel to the y-axis.
the equation, we would compute the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola and proceed as in Section 132, page 186.
266
182. Routine for graphing
be able to construct reasonably good graphs quickly. Beyond this, it is also essential to have a procedure for improving on such graphs when the necessity arises. The following
It is important to
suggestions are of aid hi constructing graphs quickly for equations of
the second degree hi x and

1.
y.
Refer to the summary of Section 181 and if possible decide on the nature of the graph before carrying out details of the work.
2.
When
the
z graph of ax
H-
by
= =
c is
circle,
find
its
radius, 17 ->
and
3.
construct the circle with compasses.

the
When
graph of ax*
4- by*
c is
an
ellipse,
find the x-intercepts
by placing y ~ and solving for x, and find the y-4ntercepts by placing x = in the given equation. Then, sketch the ellipse through the four intercept points thus obtained*
4.
When
a hyperbola: Find its asymptotes by replacing c by and constructing two straight lines which are the graph of ax 2 -f- by* - 0.
the
4-
2 graph of ax
by
c is
the
Find
the x-intercepts or the y-intercepts. (One set of intercepts witt be imaginary because the hyperbola will cut just one of the
coordinate axes.)
Sketch the hyperbola through the real intercepts thus found, with each branch of the curve approaching the asymptotes smoothly.
5.
When a
solve for it
quadratic equation in (x, y) is linear in one variable, in terms of the other variable and then graph the resulting
parabola by the method of Section 132.

2 ILLUSTRATION 1. To graph 9x2 4y = 36 quickly, we first note that the graph will be a hyperbola. We substitute y = and find that the ^-intercepts are real, x = 2; we thus obtain points B and D in Figure 20, page 263.
We obtain the asymptotes, as in Note 1, page 263. Then we sketch branches EDF and GBH through points B and D in Figure 20.
as obtained through the preceding suggestions, or when doubt arises as to the nature of a graph, solve the given equation for one variable in terms of the other and compute as many points as needed, with Example 2 of Section 181 as a model.
* Illustrated in
To improve on a graph
Example
3,
page 264.

EXERCISE 97
267
Graph each equation on

1. x*
cross-section paper.
2.
5.
4.
7.
+ y* = 9. 4z + 4y = 9.
2
36.
3.
6.
4x2
2
j/
6.
16.
4.
xy
4y
2
9z2
0.
8. 0.
0.
9.
9x2
36.
10. (Qx 12.
3/)(3s
+ 2y) 9. 0.
11.
\
a;
4x
+ 7.
4y
2
2y
4s -f 6z2
13.
3s2
(a;
+ 4xy
2y)(3z
0.
14. 36
*2
9w2
16.
2y
6)
0.
16. Rewrite statements I
and
x
II of page 187 for the graph of
ay
+ by +
is
c,
where
it is
understood that the o>axis
to be horizontal as usual.
Graph each 17. x = 4y2

.
equation, with the aid of Problem 16.

18.
2y
+ Sy - 6.
19.
0.
183. Graphical solution of systems involving quadratics
EXAMPLE
1.
Solve the following system graphically:
=
SOLUTION.
1.
(1) (2)
graph each equation, on one coordinate system. The graph of (1) is the hyperbola and the graph of (2) is the ellipse hi Figure 22. 2. Any point on the hyperbola has coordinates which satisfy (1), and any point on the ellipse has coordinates which satisfy (2). Hence, both equations
are satisfied
We
and
Z>,
the coordinates of A, B, C, which are the points of intersection
by
of the ellipse
and the hyperbola:

(x
A: B:
D:
9,
(x
y
3,
3,
=
y
2).
C: (x
(x
3,
- -
- 2). - - 2).
2).
Fig.
22
These pairs of values are the solutions of the system [(1), (2)] and can be checked by substitution in the given equations.
can be found by the preceding graphical method and, usually, solutions can be read only approximately from a graph.
Only
real solutions
268

EXERCISE 98
Solve graphically.
-
(*2
**
+ = 16, -2 = 3.
2
2/
(2*
+ y = 3, tf + f -9.
2
o *
9t/
36,
*i
/
<
25x2
+y =
2
/y.2
25,
"""
Q i/
- 2z2 = 12.
2
Sx
+ 9,
2z2
2
z?/
2
4.
6y
0,
+ +
=
2
4t/
=
9.
36,
\25z
1
4-
4y
100.
\z
2
t/
84. Solution of a simple system
system consisting of one linear and one quadratic equation in two unknowns x and y usually has either (a) two different real solutions, or (6) two real solutions which are the same, or (c) two imaginary solutions.
These
possibilities correspond, respectively, to the
the straight line, which is the graph of the linear equation, (a) may cut the graph of the quadratic in two points, or (b) may be tangent to, or (c) may not touch the graph
following geometrical possibilities:
of
the quadratic.
EXAMPLE
1 1.
Solvebolve.
4x 2 - 6^ 2* - 3y =
9t/
63,
(1) (2)
3.
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve
(2) for x:
:
3y
"
Zi
3
-
(3)
2. Substitute (3) in (1)
'
.
3 )(y
63.
2,2
3.
In
(3), if
. y =
(y
3,
+2 =
)
0;
3
2,
and
then
v
= x
2.
then
x
3,
3;
if
= x
= -
9/2.
4.
The
./.
solutions are
and
=_i
=_2
Since a solution of a pair of equations in x and y is a pair of related values of x and y, it is very essential that each solution should be
plainly indicated as a pair of values, as in
Example
1.
system of the type considered in called a simple system,

%.
Note
this section will hereafter
be
269
SUMMARY.
1.
To
solve
a system of one linear and one quadratic equation
in x and y algebraically:
Solve the linear equation for one unknown in terms of the other, say for y in terms of x, and substitute the result in the quadratic equation; this eliminates one unknown.
and, for each value of the unknown obtained, find the corresponding value of the other unknown by substitution in the given linear equation.
I
2. Solve the
quadratic equation obtained in Step
EXERCISE 99
Solve, (a) graphically
,
and
(b) algebraically.
<>
-16,
, *
\4d
+ 3c
7/
50.
\u
+ 2v -
6.
+ 2b -
4.
Solve algebraically.
(2x
\
2z
+ + 3 = 0, + y - Qy = 9.
2
(z2
\x
12.
92/
=
3y
25,
0.
\ a
-46 = + 2a -
12,
46
y,
/ y
+ 2y - 2x +
=
1
5.
0,
+ 24i/
'
t
36.
+ 2z - 4y = 23 -1 2x2/ + 3?/ + 4x = 0. \2aj + y + 3 = 2o - 1, 2x + / + 4x + y = 2a \

z2
f
z/
0,
4a;
2xy
2
2/
+ 8z =
2y
3.
+y z
2by
2a2 -f &2
185. Solution of a system of two quadratic equations
When both equations of a system are quadratic, the system usually has/owr different solutions, all or two of which may involve imaginary
numbers.
The student should

The
recall his graphical solutions of sys-
tems
of this type
1
.
where four solutions were obtained.
fact stated in the preceding paragraph is a special case of the following theorem which is proved in a later course in algebra:
Note
270
system of two integral rational equations in x and y, in which one equation is of degree m and the other is of degree n hi x and y, usually has
mn
solutions.
Thus, a system consisting of an equation of the third degree and a quadratic usually has 3 X 2 or 6 solutions. Usually, the algebraic solution of two simultaneous quadratics brings hi the solution of a fourth degree equation
hi one variable.
At
this stage in algebra, the student is able to solve only
very simple fourth degree equations. Hence he is not prepared to consider the solution of all systems of simultaneous quadratics. Therefore, in this chapter we consider only special elementary types of systems.
1
86. Systems linear
in
the squares of the variables
both equations have the form ax 2 -f 6t/2 = c, the system is 2 linear in x2 and y2 and can be solved for x and y2 by the methods applicable to systems of linear equations.
When
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2.
1.
Solve:
(* *2
'
'*
\ x*
1.
+
=
2
~ ""> 2 2y = 34.
50.
db 4.
(1) (2) (3)
Multiply by 2 in
(1)
2sa -f 2y2
Subtract, (3)
Substitute x2
3.
(2):
z
16 -f
4,
2/
16;
x
y
16 in (1):
25;
9;
3.
4.
Hence, if x -f 3 and y
is
either 4*
as corresponding values 3, and there are four solutions of the system.
4 or
we obtain
-4,y
4,
= -
4,
EXERCISE 100
Solve each system, (a) graphically
*' ^
-
and
(b) algebraically.
--
2'
9.
is2
+
" 2
2
t/
36.
"
\9z
-f
W2
16.
Solve algebraically.
L /
,
z2 *
+ 4s/ =
2
S*y2
14,
'
/ ^
1
re rt
t/
Ifi. 16.
-f
= 4, v2 - 11.
2
2 / 2* A' I
32/
2
5ar
-h 2w
3,
17.
9i2 9s* 2 \ &C

f f
10'
<*
7.
- %* -
6,
ft **
ISc2 - 8 -h , / ^ <n x - r^/v A 12d 20c*. 1 15

i
V
1
- 3^
+ 5r*.
= 4.
7r*
-1- Ait2
\ llr*
= 3ft 5a* - -
7r*
2
11 '
4.
^
+ 2y
ft?/ 2
\ 9x
= =
AQ
'
12
<
13.
2 2 \ 4x -h 9y

1
271
87. Reduction to simpler systems
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
2. 3.
1.
Solve:
* + * ~ 14J ( x 3xy + 2y \
2 , 2
ft
0.
0.
<J> (2) (3)
1.
Factor
(2):
(x
2y)(x
y)
Therefore, (2)
is satisfied if
either
if
2y
=
if
0,
Hence, (1) and (2) are the folio wdng systems:

(
satisfied
and only
x*
y = 0. x and y satisfy one of

or
& + yt =
14,
2
2/
14,
4.
On
solving (I)
(x
\/7,
(a?
by the method of Section 184, we obtain two solutions: V?). From (II) we obtaui V7, 2/ = y = V7) and (x =
= fVTO,
JVTO);
(a;
- - fVTO,
- -
say that the given system in Example 1 is equivalent to the systems I and II because the solutions of the given system consist of the solutions of (I) together with those of (II). The preceding method applies if, after writing each equation with one member zero, we can factor at least one of the other members.
1
We
88. Elimination of constants
system in which all terms involving the variables are of the second degree can sometimes be solved by use of the equation we obtain on eliminating the constant terms from the original system.
EXAMPLE
1.
Solve:
Multiply
(1)
(2)
1.
Eliminate the constants.
by by
2:
7:
(4):
Multiply
+ fay 7xy + 28y =

2z*
2
56.
56.
(3)
(4)
Subtract, (3)
- 28y = (2x + 7y)(x - 4y) 2z2
xy
0; or,
0.
(5)
is
2.
To solve [(1),
(2)]
we may now solve

2
[(2), (5)].
This system
2
equiva-
lent to the following simpler systems:

4t/
8,
/ xy
+ 4y =
0.
8,
(6)
Instead of using (2) in (6) we could equally well have used (1). system in (6) has two solutions and thus [(1), (2)] has four solutions.
Each
272

EXERCISE 101
Solve algebraically
and
graphically.
{% vj
j /
**'
\
1i
/
'
H" y)(x
.
""
2y)
0.
\ (x
2/)(x 4-
3y)
0.
Hereafter in this chapter, leave all surd values in radical form. Moreover, unless otherwise stated, to solve a system will mean to solve algebraicatty.
f
Solve by reducing to simpler systems.
2z2
2
+
-f
5*s/
3y
2.
0,
(3x*
\
\2s
*
Zxy
+ 5xy r + sy = 4.
=
(a;
-f 3y
7.
2z
xy
0,
2y*
8.
Solve by eliminating the constant terms.
+ 3xy = \xy + 4y* =

I
x*
'
28,
8.
'
- 5o;y + 6t/2 = \x*-xy = 4.

f
x2
10,
2c2
2cd
15.
2a:
+ 2/ =
2
5.
=
\t
22
11,
fx2
\
f
+3
6
0.
x2
a^
+ 4y =
z
40.
0,
2w2
-f
-f
3mn =
8n
2
1,
2
2/
35.
\9w
,
=
t/
9.
2
2mn
-f
n2 =
1D *
64.
\x
for
Zxy
+ 7 = 0, - If + 4 - 0.
*189. Additional devices
reducing to simpler systems
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
1.
Solve:
+ * = 27 ( x + , I y = 3.
*
(1):
'
(2)
1.
Factor
(*
2.
3.
+ y)(x* - xy + y*)
=
x2
27.
(3)
Divide, (3)
by
(2)
xy
+ y* =
9.
(4)
Hence,
(z, #) satisfies [(1), (2)] if

f
and only
3,
if (x,
y} satisfies
(5)
+yxy
\ x*
+ y*
9.
(6)
The student should complete the method of Section 184.
solution
by
solving [(5),
(6)]
by
the

EXAMPLE
2.
273
(7) (8)
Solve:
*+
(
I
xy
=^ 5.
(8):
+*x*
20,
2.
2
1.
Add,
(7)
3.
From (9), (x + !/) = 25; hence To solve [(7), (8)], we would solve each
(x
+ 2xy + y* z + y = 5, or +y
a;
25.
(9)
5.
of the following systems:
+y=
5.
5,
1 xy
X +.V = = 5. \ xy
!
5,
*190. Determination
of tangents to curves
Find the value of the constant k so that the graphs of the equations in the following system will be tangent:
1.
EXAMPLE
+ \x + y
f
x2
?/
= k2 = l.
(1) (2)
(1),
graph of (2) is tangent to the graph of the two solutions of the system [(1), (2)] must be identical. - fc2) = 0. 2z 2 - 2x 2. Substitute y = 1 - x in (1) (1
1.
:
SOLUTION.
If the
then
(3)
notice that (3) discriminant must be zero, or

3.
1,
From Step
(2)
2
we
must have equal

2
roofa.
Hence, Us
4(2)(1
line is
fc )
0;
8fc
0;
=fc
i>/2.
Thus, the straight
tangent to the
in
circle if its radius is .707.
*191. Equations symmetrical
x and
y.
equation in x and y is said to be symmetrical in x and y in case the equation is unaltered when x and y are interchanged. A quadratic 2 equation in x and y is symmetrical in x and y if the coefficients of x and 2 y are equal and those of x and y are equal. The method of the next example applies where each equation is symmetrical in the unknowns.
An
EXAMPLE
1.
<a
Solve:
<
2xy -f x
+y
,
= -
2y
=
4.
*
8,
(1)
) rt \
(2)
1.
Substitute
+ v;
= u
v.
(3) (4) (5)
From
From
2.
(1) (2)
2w2
2w2
-f 2t^
+ 4u = 8, - W + 2u - - 4.
*
Solve the system [(4), (5)3 for

y2 , [(4)
u and
4w2
v:
Eliminate
3.
(5)]:
+ 6u - 4 =
0.
(6)
(u, v)
Solve (6) for u; then obtain v from (4). Each pair of values when placed in (3) gives a solution of [(1), (2)].
274

*EXERCISE 102
Solve by
8
any convenient method.

s
\8a
( a; 2
+6
2*
98.
( a
3*
3.
+ y) ( y(x + y)
24,
40, 20.
H-
4.
2 xy H- y
7,
*
\
}-
uv
4t^
0.
6.
4,
=
3.
9,
+v
z2
OPfl/
8.
I
+
=r ^^
3,2
ft "
13,
f4c2 -h3^-f2/2
/ \ xy
8,
^ **y
1.
=
12.
11.
2.
=
f
5.
2
2/
\ 3j/
'
icy
y*
13"
4.
*
icy
+ xy +
=
29
61,
y.
x
14.
+ 2y -f 2 =
+ ^ -f
3,
y = 6, = 14.
16.
2?/
1,
8.
Find
the values of
k for which
the graphs are tangent.
Then, if k
is real,
graph the equations of
the resulting system.
16
'
17'
'
5.
\Sy
+ 3x -
18*
1
*.
+ 2y + kx =
0.
an expression for
c in terms of the other constants in case the graphs
of the two equations in the variables (x t y) are tangent.
i.
1ft
/!/ <
- mx
.
c,
+ 4y2 ^
the
2 4x y 6 = 0.
36
^ -w.
4y
.
(y
|
= mx
.
fl2a
_ ^2 = (W>
c,
(x
- my
-f
c,
method applying
to
symmetrical equations.
22.
17,
22
/
1
^ "~ 3a^ +
2x
2
2 ==
2/
1,
xy -h
2t/
17.
24.
without
first clearing
of fractions.
25.
^
=: H- 28
11,
26.
27.
0.
7.

*
275
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 103

Solve graphically.
+ y = 25, '\2x + y = T.
f4*2
2
f
2 A
fa*
2
+ 42,*=
2
fi
16,
^
(a
2)(*
1)
\* -s/ = - 0,
*
1
f*
\ z*
+ y'20,
4y
2
9.
4.
- s*,
results
6-8. Solve Problems
1, 2,
and 4
algebraically
and compare the
with the solutions previously obtained.
Graph each
fc
4z
+V-
equation.
0.
10.
4z
ty*
0.
11.
4x
9y*
36.
algebraically.
-2*+ 1=0,,
Sx
4y
3y*.
4x*
xy
110
17 '*
y*
2
t>
- 4. - 9,
,
'
V*
r'
3.
rA
75.
or
a;
2o6
2
.
Solve each problem by introducing two unknowns.

22.
The sum
of
two numbers
is
28 and the
sum
of their squares
is
634.
Find the numbers.

23.
Find the dimensions of a rectangle whose area

is
is
60 square feet and
whose diagonal
24.
13 feet long.
The area
The sum
is
.
of
a rectangle
is
55 square feet and
its
perimeter
is
49
feet.
Find the lengths of the sides of the rectangle.

25.
of the reciprocals of
two numbers
is
3 and the product of the
numbers
26.
Find the numbers.

divides $500 between
two investments at simple interest, a first part at twice the interest rate obtained on the second part. The first investment grows to the amount $345 in 3 years, and the second to the amount $220 hi 4 years. Find the interest rates and the sums invested.
A man
276
27.
is
The sum of the squares of the two digits of a positive integral number 65 and the number is 9 times the sum of its digits. Find the original
number.
Some men row 15 miles downstream on a river to a mountain and then climb 12 miles to its summit. They take 9 hours for the journey and, the
28.
Find the rate at which they row in still water and their speed in ascending the mountain, if they descended 1 mile per hour faster than in ascending, and if the rate of the current of the river is
next day, 9 hours to return.
1
mile per hour.

29. 'A weight
on one
side of
a lever balances a weight of 6 pounds placed

side.
If the
feet
from the fulcrum on the other
unknown weight
is
moved
2 feet nearer the fulcrum, the weight balances 2 pounds placed 9 feet from the fulcrum on the other side. Find the unknown weight.
equal size and pays each of his workmen $4 per day. He paid a total of $42 to 2 Workmen after each, working alone, plowed one of the fields. These men took 2f days to plow the third field
30.
farmer has 3
fields of
when working
field
together.
How many
days did
it
take each
man
to plow a
alone?
31.
Two
At 6
A.M.,
towns on opposite sides of a lake are 33 miles apart by water. from each town a boat starts for the other town, traveling at uni-
pass each other at 9 A.M. One boat arrives at its destination 1 hour and 6 minutes earlier than the other. Find the time it
form speed.
The boats
takes each boat to

32.
make
the trip across.
wheel of one automobile makes 96 more revolutions per mile than a wheel of a second automobile. If 20 inches were added to the length of the
automobile, the result would be the diameter of a wheel of the second automobile. Find the diameter of a wheel of each
radius of a wheel of the
first
automobile, using 22/7 as the approximate value of
TT.
APPENDIX
NOTE
If there exists
1.
THE IRRATIONALITY OF V2
2,
a rational number which is a square root of exist two positive integers m and n, such that
then there
n
where
(l)
m
is
7T
a fraction in lowest terms.
In other words,
if
V2
is
rational
there exist
is
two
integers
true.
1.
Let us show
factor, such that (1) that this assumption leads to a contradiction.

n,
(1):
m and
without a
common
Square both sides of
=
2n2
the right member.
or >
(2)
2
;
= m
2
.
We see that 2 is a factor of the left member of 2n2 = m

Therefore 2
is
not be a factor of
2.
2
.
That
(2)
:
is,
hence 2 is a factor of a factor of because otherwise 2 could = 2k, where k is some positive integer.
Place
m=
2k in
2n2
= w2 =
(2fc)
4&2 ;
(3)
is
2k2
Consider n2
factor of n.
3.
2&2
since 2
is
a factor of the right member, hence 2
We have shown in Steps
and 2 that
contradicts our original assumption that Hence, the assumed equation 1 has led us to a contradiction, and it follows that (1) itself must be false. Therefore no rational number exists which is a
m and n have 2 as a factor. This m and n had no common factor.
square root of
2, or,
\/2
is
an
irrational number.
Comment.
(1.414)
2
We
1.4,
easily
verify
that
(1.4)
1.96;
(1.41)*
1.9881;
1.999396; etc.
1.41,
On
considering the sequence of numbers

1.4142,
1.414,
1.41421,
-,
(4)
see that the square of each number in (4) is less than 2 but that, on proceeding to the right in (4), the squares of the numbers approach 2 as a
we
limit.
in (4)
a rational number; we refer to these numbers as the successive decimal approximations to A/2.
Each number
in (4) is
278
APPENDIX
NOTE
2.
EXTENSION OF THE INDEX LAWS TO
RATIONAL EXPONENTS
complete proof that the index laws hold for any rational exponents could be constructed by showing, hi succession, that the laws hold if the
exponents are
(1)
any
positive rational
numbers and
(2) zero, or positive or
negative rational numbers. Without giving a complete discussion, we shall indicate the nature of the methods involved by proving some of the necessary theorems. For convenience in details, we shall assume tha$ the base is
positive.
In our proofs, we use the index laws for positive integral exponents
definitions of Sections 113, 114,
and the
and
115.
a n) = a n (m\p
Proof,
mp
.
(a*)*
= [(o)
W
]
= (a)
mP
;
[(3),
page 151;
(II),
page 142] page 151]
a n) (!\p
tap
[(3),
THEOREM
II.
// m, n, p, and q are positive integers t then m j> m j mq+np

2\ n fl
Proof.
[a* an)
J>\nq
= _
m \*tf/
<
(a*)
Uv
2\*m
[(IV), page 143]
am apn
(Theorem
[(I),
I)
a oJ (m
Therefore,
am *+*.
root,
\A.
;
page 142]
by the
definition of
an ngth
/
.
ao
â
mfl+pn n
o> (m\
r/
Suggestion for proof.
!\
Compute
|_
*/
fl
In the remainder of this note we shall assume that the index laws have been completely established for all positive rational exponents.
THEOREM
Comment.
IV.
Law
I of Section 105 holds if the exponents are
any
positive
or negative rational numbers.
been established if both exponents are positive. Hence, it remains to show that, if h and k are any k = h a*~*. positive rational numbers, then a~ a~ o~*~*, and o*a~*
are assuming that
I has
We
Law
Incompkte
proof.
By
the definition of a negative power,

-; "*
-*a-*
=*.--=
a*
a*
a*"
1
or,
APPENDIX
279
NOTE
of
3.
ABRIDGED MULTIPLICATION
method for abbreviating multiplication digits when the result is desired with
^The following example illustrates a
numbers with many
significant
accuracy only to a specified number of places.
EXAMPLE
places.
1.
Compute
11.132157(893.214), accurate to two
decimal
893.214, multiply in succession by 800, 90, 3, .2, .01, and .004 and add the results (in ordinary multiplication these Since we desire accuracy in the second operations are in reverse^ order).
1.
SOLUTION.
To
multiply
by
decimal place,
2,
we carry two
extra places, or four decimal places, in all items.
In the abridged method, to multiply by 800 we multiply by 8 and move the decimal point; all digits of 11.132157 are used in order to obtain This first operation accurately locates the four significant decimal places.
decimal point for the
rest of the items.
3.
To
obtain four decimal places

of 11.132157;
when multiplying by 90 we do
not need
the
last digit
to indicate this place

'
'V"
over *'7" and
over "5" and multiply 11.1321 multiply 11.13215 by 90. Next, place " by 3; then >/" over "1" at the right and multiply 11.132 by .2; then " " >/" over "2" and multiply 11.13 by .01; then V" over "3" and multiply
II. 1
V"
by
.004.
Then add and round
off to
two decimal
places, obtaining
9943.40.
Note
point
tion.
is
1.
The advantages
As compared
of the preceding abridged method are obvious. with the ordinary method, less labor is involved, the decimal
accurately located,
and fewer mistakes
will occur in the final addi-
abridged method of division can be developed similar in princiole to the method of abridged multinlicatioiv abova.
Note
g.
An
280
APPENDIX
NOTE
The
arise
1.
if
4.
FALLACIOUS PROOF THAT
following absurd result that division by zero occurs.
2=1
illustrates the contradictions that
Suppose that
Multiply by y:
Subtract 6s :
Factor:
(y
6)
:
y
y
2
6.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Divide by (y
Since y
6. 7.
6 (Step 1),
On dividing both sides by 6, we obtain

In Step 5 we divided by
5, 6,
= by. - 6> - by - 6*. y* - 6)(y + 6) = b(y - 6). y 4- 6 = 6. 6 + 6 = 6, or 26 =* 2=1.

y
6
6.
Discussion.
zero, because
=
is
if
6.
Hence, Steps
and 7 are not
valid, because division
by
zero
not allowed.
NOTE
5.
THE SQUARE ROOT PROCESS OF ARITHMETIC
Consider finding V7569. Since the radicand has four digits to the left of the decimal point, the square root must have two digits to the left of the decimal point, because the square of any number of units is less than 100,
and the square of any number of hundreds is greater than 10,000. We observe that 80 is the largest whole number of tens whose square is kss than 7569.
Hence, we consider finding
x,
a number of units, so that
<80
z)
7569.
(1)
By
the formula for (a -f 6) 2 from (1)

,
we obtain
7569;
,(2)
2
6400
2-80- x
From
(3),
+ a* = 160* + z = 160z + z = z(160 + x) =

2
7569
1169.
6400;
(3)
1169,
1169
ieo+T
trial divisor
An
approximation to
;
(4) is
obtained
if
we use the
160 in place
/
of (160 -f x)
this gives
x
Then, we take x
167, gives
115?
160
_ ~
7+ 7
'
(5)
7 and verify that the complete divisor, (160
-f-
x) or
1169
,,
7, exactly.
Hence,
V7669 = 80
-h
87.
We verify by squaring that 87* -
7669.
APPENDIX
In the following examples, the student
28?
will observe, in brief form, steps
corresponding to those just explained in detail by reference to the formula 2 for (a &) Hereafter, the details will be carried out without making the
possible contacts with the square of a binomial. Essentially, at each stage of the following arithmetical process, we have knowledge of a in a binomial
(a -f 6)
and we obtain an approximation
to
b so that (a
+ 6)
will
be as
root is
nearly equal as convenient^ at that stage, to the

being obtained.
number whose square
EXAMPLE
1.
Find V7569.
SOLUTION. Arrange 7569 into groups of two figures each, starting at the decimal point. After each of the following steps, read the corresponding
explanation below.
Step 3
Step 4
8
75 69 64
160
11 69
Ififi A v/vr
87
75 69 64
11 69
167
The largest perfect square less than 75 64 below 75. Write V64, or 8, above 5 of 75. 2. Subtract 64 from 75. Bring down the next group, 69.
Explanation.
1.
is
64.
Write
3.
4.
Form
the trial divisor:
2X8=
16;
annex
(160).
.
Obtain the complete divisor: 1169 -f- 160 = 7 + 167 as the complete divisor. Write 7 over 9 of 1169.
5.
Add 7
to 160, forming
Find 7
87.
167,
or
1169.
Subtract.
Since the remainder

5.
is
zero,
V7569 =
written in
The complete
solution.
solution appears as Step
It alone
would be
an actual
2.
1.
EXAMPLE
Find V1866.24.
First trial divisor:
SOLUTION.
2. First
2X4
8.
Annex
0,
giving 80.
- 3+; 80 3 83, complete divisor: 266 -* 80 the complete divisor; write 3 over the right-hand 6 of 66.
43.
16
3.
Place a decimal point in the square root, above that of
18 66.24
1866.24.
4.
5.
Second
trial divisor.
43
86.
Annex
(860).
80-
Second complete
divisor.
1724
-f-
860
2
2+
83
;
266 249
860
+2-
862.
Place 2 above 4 of 24.
862
1724.
OftA 1724 ouu 862 1724
Check.
We find
that (43.2)*
1866.24, or
V1866.24
43.2.
282
APPENDIX
3.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION.
or
2*.
Find V645.16.
1.
Hence,
largest perfect square less than 2 is the first digit of the square root.
trial divisor, 40, it
.
The
is
2.
After forming the
figure
may
and
3.
this is
be 6 since 245 -*- 40 = more than 245. Therefore, we must use 5 as the
appears that the next But 6 X 46 = 276, 6+
2 5. 4 6 45.16 4
second figure of the square root.
To form
500,
we take 2
504.
25 and annex
0.
2016
-f-
500
245 225 2016 504 2016
is 4+.
Then 500
+4=
The
result is 25.4.
SUMMABY.
1.
To find
the square root of
a number, written in decimal
notation:
Separate the number into groups (or periods) of two figures each, both ways from the decimal point.
2.
Below the first group, write the largest perfect square less than Above the group, write the square root of this perfect square.
3. Subtract the perfect
first
that group.
square from the group, thus forming the first remainder.

4.
group;
bring
down
the next
by doubling the part of the root now found, and annexing zero. Divide the first remainder by this trial divisor, taking as the quotient only the whole number obtained. (Possibly reduce the number by I.)
the trial divisor
.
Form
Write
5.
this quotient above the next group.
Form
of the
6.
compkte divisor by adding square root found in Step 4.

the
to the trial divisor the
new
figure
Multiply the compkte divisor by the new figure of the square the product under the remainder. Subtract.
root.
Write
7.
Continue in
this
way, following Steps 4
to 6, until the
remainder
is zero,
or until you have as
many
places in the square root as are requested.
will not be a terminating a random number N, and carry decimal. Then, in finding VAT, we annex zeros at the right in out the square root process to as many decimal places as desired.
Note
1.
As a
rule, for
VN
EXERCISE 104
Find
3969.
the square root of each

to
number.
Obtain the result correct
to
hundredths
by carrying out the process

1.
thousandths.
3. 273,529.
7.
2. 134.56.
4. 8299.21. 8. 2.1904.
5.
105,625.
6. 936.36.
40.8321.
9. 78.354.
10. 15,765.
11. 1643.8.
12. 7.809,
ANSWERS TO
Note.
EXERCISES
Answers to odd-numbered problems are given here. Answers to even-numbered problems are furnished free in a separate pamphlet when
requested by the instructor.
'
Exercise 2.
3.
Page 7
7. 0. 9.
1. 56.
13. 5.
16.
12.
8.
5. 36.
17. 4.
19. 3.
21.
2.
26. 120.
37.
27. 120.
39. 5.
29.
360.
41. 52. 61. 31.
31.
33. 43. f. 63.
96.
8.
11. 56.
9.
4.
23.
168.
36. 2. 46. 60.
13.
47. 14.4.
49. 4.
66. 360.
Exercise 3.
1. 27.
Page 12
7.
3.
18.
6.
13.
16.
9.
11.
35.
13. 0.
16. 29.
13.
17.
18.2.
19.
21. 13. 29. 17; 37. 10. 47. 42.

66. 44; 63.
23. 61;
26.
11.9.
14;
17.
31. 3.3; 39.
33.
30; 4.
5.
27.
36.
36;
7.
32.
7.
70.
10.
41. 22.
61. 28;
4.
43. 3.
63.
46. 13.
\
32.
49. 12.
67. 100.
69. 66. 3;
14;
0;
0.
9;
18;
- 53. - 2.
61.
67. 23;
- 40; - 26. - 36.3. - 23; 0; 0.

>.
Exercise 4.
11.
Page 15
17.
<.
13.
|
<.
| |
16.
>.
3
|.
>.
19.
<.
21.
|
29. 33.
- 5 < - 3; - 5 > - 2 < 7; - 2 < 7.

|
31. 36. 2
> > -
3;
6;
> < |
|
|.
|.
Exercise 5.
1.
Page 17
7. 8.
10.
3.
11. 36.
13.
24.
2.
6. 5.
9. 44.
16. 0.
17.
8a
24.
19.
c.
30c.
13.
21.
2o -f 56
c.
23. 31
31.
5a
29. 15a.
35. 18
8a
(5
y.
26.
12.
41. 16
12a 4- 156.
(4a
37.
3c).
7a
+ 46).
43. 2ac
33. - 15 + 5a + 39. - (- 6 + 3x - (- 3 + 5a - 4c).
+ 36 +
27. 15o.
+ 4y).
Exercise 6.
1. 9-
Page 20
6. 6cd. 7.
lla.
3.
l&c.
5x
166
9fc
6a.
3a
lie.
11.
19c
IScd.
13.
2a
16. 19.
+ db
-
3y.
4c;
7x
lldb
21.
14x
+ 2c.
9ac
17.
- 3m
26 -f 4; - 60 - k - 6h; 9m
23.
10.
7xy
46.
9o
+ 4A.
206.
290
^
ANSWERS
25. 3fl
31. 2t
14A
3.
23*.
33. 2a.
27.
3a
-f 10y
35.
41.
56
10.
43.
3.
s.
29. 37. 2.
21a
Sly
+ 9.
4x.
39. 13
12*
36.
Exercise 7.
Page 24
125a
Exercise 9.
3. 3fl26.
Page 28
6.
1528
7.
9.
4s2*.
11.
6x
2x2j/2
13. 21.
2as 6
20a
2
fc
15.
15.
8o86>.
17.
24rW.
6s
2
19. 12a;
lOa?
4
.
3y.
2x*.
23. 15z
12y.
25.
27.
29. 3^
3hk.
35.
20to* 31. 15t^ l+k h+n 37. Qx
10w>.
33.
6a4 6.
39.
24m6n4
18o2 62
3^44rA;34'*.
41. 46.
14x3
10x4
+ &c 2
.
12x2
43. 3o 46 4 -f 47.
15o6
9o6.
2y
+ 4y
12.
.
4a
lOa
14.
49. 6x
24x*
12.
Exercise 10.
1. 3*
Page 30
7.
4# 2a2 6
+x9*2
3.
2z2
3x
9.
2o
+ ab
x2
.
35.
156*.
5.
20a8 a2
11. 9r
- 43o + - 25a*.
21
13.
ab
15.
J
.
15. c2
^-
17.
19.
W-
8Wfc -H
16A
21. 9a*
12o6
+ 46.
23.
+ 60 + 9. oV - 2a6x -f V
ANSWERS
25. 31.
37.
297
46*.
41. 45. 49.
- x2 - llx + 15. 33. 6 - 5x 20 - 146 - 36* + 6. 2^ - 20y - 6j/2 f 25y - 25. 25x -f 4y* + 9 + 30* - 12y - 2Qzy. 51. 6a - llo8 2x - x2 - 16x +"l5.
x
2
+ 3y* -
10.
27. 3a
+ a'6 2
- 8. - 6x2 - x8 35. 2x - 5x2 - 8x + 5. 39. 6s4 - 7x + 12x - 19x + 7. 43. 15s4 - 17x + 12x2 + 17* - 15.
29. y
.
47. a* -f 6.
17o
+ 30.
53. x*
27y*.
Exrc!$
11.
Pag* 33
41.
fa
+ 56.
43.
46.
2
45.
3a
2a2
47.
5.
+ 5a*.
49. r
2x
+ 3.
53.
+
-h
55.
+ r.A-î 3x 15 5x*
4y
57.
66-3a.
63.
59.
2x
-+? 2
a;
61.
-'-
#-
Exercise 12.
1.
Ps
36
6. 8
+ 4.
3. c
3.
3.
7.
4.
15.
o-6-^--r2o 4- 6
x x x2
17.
+ 2.
25.
19.
3x+ll + x
3
21.
2.
23. 2x
- r-^-r2x - 3
29.
2y *
4y
81.
2
Zy
+
-
27.
33.
x2
4 H
?_^ x 3
35. 4w^
x2
+ xy + y*.
6u>
+ 9.
+ 3xy + 4y 37. a + a^ +
2
.
x2
39.
3x
+ 9.
3.
6*.
2x2
Exercise 13.
Page 39
^
15.
o
21. 36c. 23.
292
29.
-
ANSWERS
35
39. 300.
8L. Q
41. 18,900.
jt.
43.
35..
45.
37.48.
47.
24a36. Page 41
36az 4
80/W.
Exercise 14.
1.
V-
3.
i
H.
23. .
6.
&.
7. ft.
'
^'
11.^3*. 2 -3* + 21.
13.
16.
-|.
17. J|.
6
*/.
^J>.
5r-3fe
26
31.
13
106*
3a
206
._
45.
-4*
7;
3
15ay
3a
.<
'
19o -f 94
20
Art
12
47.
5x -- 9
Ox
-- 10^ +
20
._
49.
.
2y
3
4yz
6y
+9
13z
_.
27y
__
Sab 3
4a2 6*
Exercise 15.
Page 44
9.
11.
H.
5
13.
2
5
3a
3bc
+ 4a'
3
*
46c
+ 3'
'
'
5a2 fe
4x2
2
Zxy*
20x 2
156
+
2o
33.
+
!
3
35. f
.
^.
36
- 3z 37. - I
45
36x
39.
24
&.
41.
&.
43
2a-3fe
'
2a*
3o
5/i*
Exercise 16.
1.
Page 46
7.
60.
3. 0.
6.
13. 17.
15.
-}-
32;
14.
17. 42;
25. a'62
- 4. - 8.
33.
9.
1.
11. 6.
19.
<.
21.
>.
23. 26 29.
37.
9Jk
3a. 31. 15 39. ^f.
3a'6.
27.
11 A.
2o.
-f
foy 35.
43.
12zV.
&.
^.
41. 24
W.
ANSWERS
a2*)2
293
4c
3y
5x
a-5
Pase 50
5.
Exercise 17.
1.
3.25.
3.
100,000.
-f 9.
.0001.
7. .0000001.
9.
3(10
3 )
+
3.
102
+ 4(10)
11.
13. 536.437.
15. 5735.35.
17. 14.1192.
19. .0681.
21. 6.64;
23.
103.7698;
16.0762.
31. .000317.
25. 1.178.
33. 5.738.
27. 5.32.
29. 326,530.
Exercise 18.
1.
Pase 52
6.
4.914.
3.
5.993.
.51312.
7.
13.62528.
9.
.000054322.
11. 2.1435402.
Exercise 19.
1.
Pase 55
.315.
5.
15.326;
15.3.
3.
.31486;
195.64;
196.
7.
.034564;
.0346.
9.
566.5 and 567.5.

.054.
11. 567.35 17. 2738.
and 567.45.
13. 31.54;
.586.
16. 11.4034;
2
19. 2,056,000.
21. 10 (6.7538).
23. 4.5726(104). 29. 2.6(10) cu. ft
25. 4.5312(106 ); 4.53(10).
27. 7.2200(100; 7.22(10').
Exercise 20.
1.
Pase 57
7.
1.37.
3. 57.2.
6-
6.
.263.
150.
9.
.02981.
11. .286.
13.
17.
19. .625.
21. .15.
23. .4375.
Exercise 21.
1.
Pase 62
3.
3.
11.
13. 1.
21. J.
23.
3.
31. 8.
41. 3.
33. 6.
43. .36.
63.
61. f
7.
55. 2.
294
ANSWERS
Excreta 22.
Page 66
*
2a-36
2a6
'
3c
23.
o6c)
-6d
n 9
35.
k
a a
<\j
l)d:
37.
r*
(n
-- I
33.
-\-
5 1
39.
o tt
A >.
M+N P + -r
-
a 1
4t C -
^^,0,0 +
.12n
11. 40';
120'.
6.
Extrcta 23.
1.
Page 69
3. 22.5'
32.5*
and
35.5'.
7.
and
5'.
5. 3f.
15;
16;
17.
9. 8'.
13. 13 nickels;
39 dimes; 36 quarters.
19.
16.
80 bu.
17.
8f
hr.
3H da.
Excrcist 24.
21.
2$ hr.
2%.
Page 72
7.
L
21. 27.
31.
.05.
3. .0375.
6.
1.263.
17.
7%.
26.
9.
11.
135%.
50*f.
13. 8.32.
16.
37*%
29.
of 200.
175%
of 200.
19. 452.9, approximately.

Ib.
560 dimes.
23. $22,000.
75
at 70 ff; 25
Ib.
at
20
gal.
Approximately 88.9 bu. at $1.25 and 111.1 bu. at $.80.

33.
gal.
58&%.
Exercise 25.
Page 74
3.
1. 6.
21^r ft. from fulcrum on other side. 8 ft. from fulcrum on side of 40 Ib. weight.
Exercise 26.
63&
Ib. Ib.
7.
69&
Page 77
hr.
6.
1.
50 m.p.h.
3.
At end 7|
310 m.p.h. >
16$
sec.
7.
~
x
til
sec.
9.
11.
At end 10
yr.
13. 1792 mi.;
hr.
and 28 min.
hr.
16.
17.
Approximately 8.13
1306$ mi.; 7 hr. and 28 min. 19. At lOft min. after 2 P.M.
Exercise 27.
Page 80
3.
L
ft.
$180.00; $5180.00.
$159.00.
7. $2914.98.
$48.00; $3048.00.
9. $42,857.14.
ANSWERS
It
17.
295
18.
$1000.00.
18. $5000.00.
At 5%;
gains $17.86.
$4000 at
5%; $3000
at
4%.
Excreltt 28.
Past 83
db $.
7. 3.
9. 9.
1.
rfc
5.
3.
11.
5.
11. 14.
18. |.
16. i.
17. |.
19. x*.
21. a.
81.
28.
83.
a.
36.?.
25. 2a*.
37.
27. 2^.
39.
29. 7*.
8*c*.
7*A
~-
|-
41.
Extreist 29.
1.
Past 86
6. c*
15a
20t>.
3.
4a6x
16
a*6x.
7. a*
13. 19.
a4
- 96*. 4a* - 20a + 25.
+ 2ay + y*.
25. 6
81.
37.
43.
49.
+ 5x + x*. 6x* + 17 + 12. 21u* + 29u> - 10. + 19x - 20. 9 + 246x + 16Wx*.
3aj*
- y. 16. a* - 60 + 8. 2L 4z - 4u* + M* 27. x* + 4z - 45. 33. 8y - IQxy + 3a?. 39. 8x + 6xy - 9j/.
9.
11.
^ -
17. x*
23.
29.
+ lOx + 25. 4a* -f 4a6 + #. o + 5a6 + 66.

y
36. 6y -f 41.
15.
46. x*
61. 67.
66. <AP 61.
io
- 9z*. - #*.
+ 4a* + 4. - z+i a? + .3x a;*
47.
63.
.1.
69.
.15.
63. .08x*
.2&r
69.
- 12 + Ifo - 5x*. 4*V - 12xy -f 9y*> - ^ + 4. i 6 + 1.1* - .1*.
66. 16
8a*
67.
71. 76.
+ 21x + 7x*. 4s* -f 12xy + 90*. lOOc* - 300cd + 225(P.

14oz
7x
+ x.
20x*.
79. 2a*
83. 12x
- 15M. - sV - 6.
a*6*
73. 4s* - Sxy + 4y*.' 77. 12x* - x* - 6. 8L 21a + a6 - 10M. 86. 9u - 15w*e - 14.
Extrclst 30.
Past 88
L
6.
9.
11. 17.
21. 23.
26. 29.
31.
3. 9 - 12* -f 6y + 4x* - 4xy + &. + y* H- 2xy + 4 + 4x + 4y. 9x + + 25 + 6xy -f lOy + 30x. 7. 16o* -f 6* + - 806 - 8oc + 26c. 4z* - 12ox + 12M* + 9o* + 96* - 18o6*. 13. 16 - 4a* - 4o6 x* + 2xy -f y* - 9. 16. a + 2ab + 6* - x*. - 16. 19. x* - y -f 2y* 9a* - Gay + 4x* + 4xy + y* + a* - 60 + 9 + 4ax - 12x + 2ay - 6y. 4x* + 4x* + y* 8x 4y + 4 + 4xy 2yi + 4z. - 4cd + 4d* - a* - 2ax - x*. - -f 6 - 9. 4a + 4xy + 27. 4a* + 96* + 16c* + 12o6 + 16ac + 246c. + 25x* + 9a* - lOua + taw - 30ax.
x*
!/*
c*
6*.
i/*
*.
z*
j/*
c*
to*
Exttcist 31.
Past 90
6.
t
7.
x(3
+ 6).
a
3.
2x(3y
+ a).
9.
y(2c
+ <P +
1)
x(36
+ c).
(<-<#-
4a).
296
11. ay*(3ay 15.
ANSWERS
21.
27.
31. 41.
+ (w z)(w + 2). - 11). (6d + ll)(ed ($ + u>)(i - 8x). (6a6 + 8x)(6a6 (x + 6)

2
!/*).
13. 17. (8
vto*(Wx
3b).
+ 5wx
-
2 ).
xy)(8
23. (2a
+ 36)(2a I)
2
.
+ xy).
19. (2x
y)(2x
+ y).
1).
25. (16a
+ l)(16a 2
u>).
29. (5w
33. a(x
43. (a
+ cd)(5w> cd). - y)(x + y)(x + y

2
).
45. 12>;
51. (8
(w
a6)
.
6)
47. (x
9)
49. (7x
+ a)'.
65. 20acd;
2
.
53. 12x2;
(2x
57. (3x
63.
.67.
73. 77.
- 5y)*. - 26)(72 + 26). (72 - 5j/ 2 (x s s 25(x - 26 (x + 26 ). 2(3w - 5).

2 )
.
+ &)'.
(2cd
So)
59. (2x2
7)
2
.
61. (2a2
St2 ) 2.
2
65. 4w(3t; 69. x(2o

I)
2
w)(3
+ w).
5)(7w
71. 2(7u2
75. (4x2 79. 3(7x
25^) (2x
+ 5)
5t>)(2z
2
5t>).
5y^)(7x
+ Sw ^).
81. 4(100).
83. 1600.
85. 280.
Exercise 32.
Page 93
L
7.
(x
13.
+ 7)(* - 3). - W). (5 + u>)(8

- 3)(2x - 1). - 5)(x + 2). (3x - 3x). (7 + 2s) (1 \2w + 5z)(4w - 3). -x (lOa + x )(10a - 3c) (8a
2 2
+ 5)(x + 3). + Jb)(6

-
3.
(a
(x
9.
15. (6
19. (9
Jb).
25. (50
31.
27.
37.
43. 49.
63.
).
59. (3x
65. (|
+ 2y)
2
.
- 1). 29. 35. (5a2 - 7)(3a2 -f 4). 33. (4w^ + 3)(2w>' 3). 41. (3x + 2)(x + y). 39. (1 - 3x)(9x + 2). 47. (3a - 56)(2<z - 6). 46. (6u/ + u)(2w - 5u). 61. (x - 2y)(x + 2y)(x + 4y ). 67. 2x(x - y)(x + y). 66. (4 - 3x)(2x + 5). 6L (5x + 106)(5a: - 106 ). 63. r(2 - 5ft) (1 - 3ft).
X2 (4x
21. (x 4
6)(o
6)(x
2).
5.
+ 3). w) (4 + w). + 6). 12)

(a;
11. 17.
- 5)(* - 3). (w - 6)(w + 8). - y). (8 + y)(4

(x
23. (5a
3)(2x
+ 7) (a + 1). - 1). y(Zy + 5)(y
2y)(*
69. (3x2 73. (2y 77. (2x2
+ 5)(x - 4). + 2)(2y* - *). - 5)(x* + 3).

2
+ 2y)(^ + 4j/
).
67. Prime.
71. 24 (5w
75. 79.
- 2)(5to + 2)(25to - (3a - 66). 2 2 2 2 (3a 5s/ )(a + 3y ).
+ 4).
Exercise 33.
1.
Page 95
5.
(2ft
2(x
(2d
+ 2y).
5c)(r
).
3.
(c
7.
13.
19. 4(x
25.
31.
35.
39.
43.
47.
- 6)(ft - 2c). 21. - 3)(x2 + 1). 27. (x - a). (2 + x)(r - y)(22 + w + y). (22 + w - 3x)(2 + 1 + 3x). (2 + 1 - 3* - l)(2a + 32 + 1). (2o - 1 + 3x)(4a + 1 - 3x). (4o
+ (a H- 6)(3c + d).
9.
16.
- 2). - ). (c + 3d)(r - 2)(x - l)(x (x - 3)(a2 + 1). (a

(3ft
+ d)(x + y).
l)(w
3&)(m
11. 17.
+ 1).
s
23.
+ 26) (w - d). (2x + y)(c (x + 2)(x + 1).

(3a
2
- 2). - 2k).
29. (3x
2)(x -f 2).
37.
+ 8 + 3). - 3d - 2x - y)(c - 3d + 2x + y). (c 41. (y + z + 2x)(y + z - 2x). 46. (3x - y + 2)(3x + y - 2). 49. (6 + c)(x - y)(x + y)(x + y
33. (x
3)(x
).
ANSWERS
51. (z2 65. (c
297
67. (3x 61.
(2o
63. (2x
4 2 4 3d + A). - y - 5o 4 5) (3* - y 4 5a - 6). - 36 4 2x + y)(2a - 36 - 2x - y). - 3y)(2x + 3y)(4x + 9y' + 1).

h)(c
2
w)(s 2 - 3d
4w-
1).
63. (r
4 3t 59. (a
6)(r
4 3< 4 a + 6).
3x).
+ 6 + 3x)(a + 6 -
Exercise 34.
1.
Page 98
96s
.
x9
xy
7.
27a
(d
(1
4y
8
.
2
.
3. 9.
a2
1
- 3a6 + - 27x8
.
5. c
4 w>.
8x.
11. 6"
13.
17.
21.
26.
29.
33.
37. 41.
43.
46. 49.
- tO(l 4^4^). 19. 4 10)( - 10 + 100). - 3)(1 + Zx + 9a; 23. (1 - i/z)(36x + 6x2/2 + 27. (7a ). (6x 31. u* -f 9u + 27u -f 27. A - 3h?k 4- 3/iA; 36. 64z + 48z y + 12xj/2 -f &c + 12m + 6w*c + w*. 39. c - G^c + 126c - 86. a - 6a x + 12a x 2 - Sx*. 8c - 36c4z 4- 54c z - 27z - l)(x + * 4- l)(x2 - 2x + 4). (x + 2)(x - 37/)(4x + Qxy + 9y )(x + y)(x2 - xy + y 47. (a (2x - 3x) 61. (c - d - a)(c2 - 2cd + + <w - a^ + a2). (w
2
( 2
-y)(d?
+ dy + y
2
).
15. (y
3)fo
+ 3y + 9).
).
2 2
2/
A;
2 2
).
ffi
Exercise 35.
1.
Page 99
3.
6.
9.
13. 17.
21.
+ a + l)(a - a + 1). - ^z -f )(z (z + hz + - 5a6 4 26 (5a 4 5ab 4 26 )<5a - 4^z 4 8A (z 4 4Az 4 8fc )(z - 2c )(3a - 2ac - 2C (3a 4 2oc - 5y )(3x - 3xy - 5y (3x 4 3xy
(a
2
(3a
2
2 2
+ 2a +
2x
l)(3a
2 2
2a
+ 1).
2
/i
/i
).
7.
(2i0
42aw>43a )(2t0 -2au>43a2 ).
>
).
11.
(x
).
15.
19.
).
2 2
). 2
- 12xz48x (9z 4 12xz48x )(9z - y)(5a - 3y)(a 4 y). (5a 4 3y)(a

2
4 2)(x 4
2x
2
4 2).
).
Exercise 36.
1.
Page 101
5.
(2ob)
(a
3
.
3.
2
(2a6)
2
4
.
(5x y)
8
.
7.
2
).
(4
9.
13.
17.
19.
21.
26.
27. 29.
33.
36.
11. (2 4 x)(a 4 * w)(2 4 w)(4 4 t^ 15. (3 (x< 4 y )(^ 4 y*}(x -)(* + y). 2x)(3 4 Jto)(9 + 4x). - l)(w 4 l)(u 4 w 4 l)(w - u + 1). (u - 2y)(x 4 2y)(x 4 2xy 4 4y )(x - 2xy 4 4y). (x - x 4 1). 23. (x + 9)(x -W + 81). (x 4 l)(z* (4 4 o )(2 a)(2 4 a)(16 4 a<). - ab 4 6 )(a - a 6 4 6). (a 4 b)(a - y)(3x 4 3/)(9x< 4 31. (5 - 2x)(5 4- 2x)(25 -f 4x*). (3x - 26) (a 4 26) (a 4 2a6 4 46 (o - 2a6 4- 46 (a - 3x )(4a 4 6ax 4 9x). (2a
x)(a
4
).
8 8
J/ ).
).
Exercise 37.
Page 103
3. x*
L
6.
x6 a4
4 x*y 4 sV + o^ 4 aV
V 4 xy
ay
8
6
.
- 2xy 4 4xV -
8xy
4y
4
.
298
7. xi
ANSWERS
4
9. 2*
13. 15.
21. 25. 29.
88.
85.
87.
89. 41.
45.
49.
It x + z + x* + x + 1. + w + w^ + w*z + to * - xty + *V - aty 4- *V ~ *Y + *V ~ V + *y* - V*. 19. a - a*b + a6 - 6. 17. x + y a* + 2a + 4. 23. z - xV 4- *V - y x 4- xy 4- tf. 27. z + 2V + 4x*z* + tote 4- 16x. 4s> + 6x -f 9. - t0)(a + w)(o + c). 8t (a - y)(l -f y)d + y + i/)d y (1 + t*V + + v+ (w - l)(16a* + 8a + 4a + 2a + 1). (2o - 32x + 16x - 8x + 4x* - 2x (2 + *)(64 - 3a?)(a' + 3aa; + 9x<). 48. Prime. (a 47. Prime. + t>)(w -!* + - *)(4 + 2x + x)(64 + &r + x<). 5L (u* (2
4
.
(t*
)(ti*
)(ti
).
tt
(ti*
*).
Extreist 38.
Past 105
7.
1.
3. f.
5.
^4^-
9.
2
2s
~11.
a
13.
^-4-r-
15.
^-T^:23.
17.
'
2y
4- ^
!*-*a. a
31.
27.--?*
4- y
.
29.
^.
c
3x 4- 2y
x 3 r-r-r-*
^
83.
- x4-3
,
5
35.
,
.
2x
n
-rr-
26
-x
107
Excrcis* 39.
Pag
+ 3)(* - 2)
.
*
4z
^r ,.
2o
7.
4o6
15(o
6)
15(x
17.
y)
13s
4y
6rf
2c
3(4x
2x
10
*
19x
-6x
(2x'
+4 l)(3x + 3)'
'
6a 2o
* *"*
-6 -3
3xy
+8
*
2x-2y
f^ f 4
6(a-n)
*
%FflV^
3(1
+ 2n - n)(n + 4)
14
\ r \
Vv^r
6c-5c-H30 A - 2)(c* - 9) 2(3c

^^ / ^^ \ X
+ x - 12 Iftc + 36z -f 45
8
^V V
^FUi
(3
2x)(8z
- 27)
ANSWERS
12x
37.
299
43.
- 4)(2z - 3) 9or - t* - 60* -h 81o4 - 9or* -j-'3or* - 3a)(r + 3a) (r

Extrcist 40.
+ llx - 25s - 3) 3(x + l)(2z

27or
13*
2(9
-3 - 4x)(x - 3)
18x
Past 110
6.
Li
(2a -f 36) (a*
3.-9.
+ 4)
06
+ 6*)
19.
12
.
'b-a
2y
17.
23.
Z a + 36 lOsy 4 3x
1
2L
+ 3x
2
29.
+
'
3L
37.
2y(y -r ~ y
_ S3.
2x(x
* v*
36.
c(n
,v)
y
36c
+5
""^
39.
+ 4)
4L^
jiT * 7v***'
ac
i^
a8 6*
i
4a
yy
y^v
**y /
MQ
y)
-x
2a(5a
1)
-6) 3a-26 (3a - 2)(2a - 3)(3 - 3a) (5o

-
ExrcUt 41. Past 115

1.
14.
3.
11. 2.
13.
21. 31.
&.
4
hr.
23.
5.
6.
7.
11.
9. 3.
2. 5.
16. 5.
17. 4.
19.
26. 1.
33.
27. 3.
29. tf
36. 15 m.p.h.
380 m.p.h.
Paft 117
6.
Extrcist 42.
2M-Ja;
<5
3.
3a -f
K
6.
^^.
*
7. 2n.
t _1_
M
.
rf
2o6
17.
-
6
19.
13. 2a.
i
Extreii* 43.
21. 26.
23. r
Pg 5).
118
6.
1.
0s*
7.
- 2501 - 64.
3. 9.
4x* 4- 12x H- 9.
(y
+ 5*)(y
11. (i
6tcy*
4y).
300
13.
ANSWERS
(o
36) (a'
+ 3o6 + 96*).
19. (4x
1).
15. (3y
+
a
2 2
17. (2
23.
.
+ 7)(f - 3). 2(a + 2)(a + l)(a

3x
*
1)(2
to).
21. 5(i
25. (x
36) (x
+ a + 36).
6
36x-f
2y
83.
x*
6
Ol. .
2a
a2
5a6
62
56a
"
*
=
40
o3
c1
36.
-*.
9
37.
-2.
39.-^-a + 6
17. 10 sq. units.
Exercise 44.
13.
Page 120
16.
sq. units.
(5,
1);
area
sq. units.
23. All abscissas are 2.
25.
units.
Exercise 45.
1.
Pase 124 x
(a)
(6)
8 and
4;
(6)
if
i,
f,
and
0.
if
15.
Equals
4.4 or 1.6; equals 10

Exercise 46.
6.5 or
.5.
Page 1ST
f
.
7.
3.
1.
6.
7.
c
2
33.
3; 5;
9.
11. 4c
4;
12C
13. 9;
6*
15. 4;
H*;
(x
+ 2y)/(x 4.
(
+ 3;
c<
|.
y).
17.
5x
+ 9.
2 27; c
+ 66c.
Exercise 47.
19. 23.
Page 130
(5, 0);
5;
21.
f, 0);
Cuts x-axis at
(0, f).
y-axis at
(0, 3).
Cuts x-axis at
#-axis at
25. y
fx
Jgk
Exercise 48.
ATote.
Page 132
In this answer book, in any solution of a system of equations, the values of the unknowns will be arranged in their alphabetical order.
1.
((1,
If).
3.
(2, 5).
5.
(- 2,
3).
7.
(-
2J,
f).
9.
f).
if.
No
solution;
parallel lines.
13.
No
solution; parallel lines.
15. Infinitely
many
solutions.
Exercise 49.
1.
Page 134
5.
(0,
(3, 2).
3.
((i
1,
3).
4).
7. (2,2).
9.
(-
f, |).
11.
|).
13. (2, f).
15. (5, 2).
Exercise 50.
1.
Page 135
6.
(0, 0).
(5, 2). (3,
3.
(7, $).
9.
2).
17.
(-
ff,
3).
7. <0, 0).
V).
19.
(.42, .19).
21.
23. (2, 3).
25. (5,
(-
.35, .27).
27. (3, 2).
29. (5,
3).
Exercise 51.
Page 136
5.
(i,
!(-!,_ 7
/2
'
i).
3. *'
(2, 5).
|).
6\
'
la' 2 j
13. (26,
/a
6\
'
a)
6
/3M-* U UM^'
'
"
""
M
2n
'
9AT2fc/
-3o).
15. (a
+ 6,
-a).
17.
(m -
2m
n,
ANSWERS
Exercise 52.
1.
(1, 2,
301
Page 138
f, |). 6.
(f,
7.
(ft,
- 2). - A, A)-'
3.
(- i 11.
<-
2, 3, 3).
(i
i -
i).
13.
(-
1,
f, f).
1, 3,
2)
Exercise 53.
1.
5.
Page 140
30; 120. 5 gal. of 20%;

1st,
3.
gal. of
41i; 48*. 7. 50%.

16.
11'
by
3'.
9.
lb.;
2d, 6 Ib.
11. 13, or 26, or 39.
13.
40
lb. silver;
80
lb. lead.
$3000 at
17. 465.
19.
2.
= -
4x
3%; $2500
at
4%; $4500
at
11.
21.
- -
6%.
Js
+ 2.
23. ^
26.
Land, 90 mi; water, 48 mi. Page 143

7.
Exercise 54.
1.
32.
3.
243.
6.
11.
16
.
13. 32a".
16.
&. 625zV-
Minus.
9. x*+*.
17.
8z.
19.
16a.
21.
a2*.
23.
d2**.
<w 33.
4
-
25. c*cP*.
27. .09cd.
29.
Zr
1 31.
<M SO.
d3
6s
w 37.
a*
-ISa2 "
66. (a) 16;
_
64s 2
__
w*c*
7.
>
200x
16:
(6)
n odd.
Exercise 55.
Page 147
J.
=fc .1.
1.
8.
3.
9.
6.
=fc
9.
12.
11.
i
3.
13.
f
5.
16.
=fc
3.
.
17. 5.
19.
6.
21.
31. 3. 41. 2. 63. 20.
23.
33. 57. 43. 4.
66.
26.
36.
46. 2. 67.
27. d.
37. 6.
29. 3. 39. 49. 6.

61.
.1.
4zy
3
.
2.
47.
69.
.1.
1.
61. 20.
- i
63.
.2.
Exercise 56.
1. 6.
Page 150
7.
*.
3. a.
.
6. x*.
.
9.
y9
11. 21.
13.
16. 2y.
17. 2y.
19. J.
23.
&.
2a2
.
26. f. 36.
27. 3s*.
.1.
29. 39.
31. x*y*.
33.
37. 2xy*.
- 2z. - 2.
2y
41.
xz*.
43. .2rc.
46. .5x.
47.
^
2x
w . ^-^
Exercise 57.
1. 3.
Page 153
7.
3. 2.
6. J.
&.
9. 8.
11. i.
13. sV.
16.
17.
19. 1.
302
ANSWERS
109. (3ar>
6")(3ar
+ 6-).
111. (2x*
yi)(2xi -f yi).
ANSWBRS
113. (3x*
303
5y*)(3a*
+ 5y).
119- (Sa- 1
115. (2a*
36*)(2a*
36*).
117. (z
3ar)*.
6-).
121. (6x*
123. (Sar 1 127. (6
+ y). - x*)(36 + 60;* + x*).

2y)(or
l
125. (2a*
120. Sar1
+ 36*)(4a* + jr.
5.
+ yty. - 6a*6* + 96t).
Extrclst 59.
1.
Pagt 158
4.472.
8.484.
3^2;
4.242. 5.196.
2.520.
^
3. 0.
2VS;
6V2;
10V;
14.14.
7.
3V3; 2^2;
x*V&-
IL .3V6;
17.
.6708.
13. 10.
15.
3^4;
4.761.
^5;
1.710.
- 3^2; -
3.780. 27.
35.
21. tf^'x.
23. y<^P.
20. 37.
25. 33. 41.
3a.
2ayV^. - o^.
.5xV;.
ayi/lV.
2a^. Sy^^.
2d^cd.
-
31. 30. 47.

55.
43. xy*V3ij*.
51.
y*
45.
53.
40.
V^.
>^.
+ 56.
71. 8^/2?
2y*
57,
- 4; ^2T atr
67.
'
50.
3Vl
81.
aVl
63.
66. x*.
2x^2T
60.
**
^ ab
Pigt 160
73.
75.
3V.
77. (a
5fe)V2.
70. (3
x)^3x.
81. (2x
Exercist 60.
1.
Vl5;
3.873.
3.
5V2;
9^60;
7.070.
5.
6V^
8.484.
32.40.
7. 40.
0.
18\/2; 25.45.
35.24.
23.
11. 5>/42;
13. 54. 10.
15.
17.
- 2^; 25.
2.884.
V7;
2.646.
21.
^9;
2.080.
VH.
?
i
27.
Ô a
375a.
45. 18
_
20.
_
31.
3xV5.
3*V2x.
33.
3a6</2a6.
35.
37. 54s.
30. 6s**
47. 5.
43. 1.
51. 50.
13V6.
14
53. + 10>/2. a + tor + 26Vax.
27
4>/6.
55.
+ 7<s/5. 40. 2>/6 + VlO + 8>/3 + a - 9fy. 57. 6x - 15y +

41.
+ 6.
61.
xyzV*.
^486.
63.
Vl8a.
65.
V^te.
67.
^27V.
Exercist 61.
60.
Pgt 162
5.
1.
^V2;
.707.
3.
i\/10; .632.
11.
iVlO;
.7905.
13.
0.
16.
i<^; .6785. - A^30; -
- ^^7; -
.2646.
J^; .630. rb"^; -05477.

7.
.3107.
17. riîKJ;
.1095.
304
A 21.
ANSWERS
V
23.
'
19.
a
'
25.
3z
-
29.
26
35.
26
39.
5to5
3a
2c
43.
ax
45. 47.
a
53.
49.
3)
_
5ao
61.
4V5.
63. 0.
65.
a
Page 163
5.
;
a.
Exercise 62.
1.
$;
^v^; 9 ~ 5
o
.577.
3.
fV5;
|Vl5;
2.683.
1.549.
.172.
1.155.
1.890.
7.
1.291.
9.
11.
3
;
13.
.057.
15. 3
- 2V2;
7
17.
3
e
6
;
.0694.
.689.
17
.437.
25.
5
;
-.465.
27.
2
31.
i^l8;
29.
- ^100; -
.4642.
i^5;
.342.
33.
35.
87.2o&
89.
41.
26c
45.
4.900.
2V5
+ 4V-3
14
V6
ax*
Exercise 63.
3.
Page 166
5.
7.
9.
It
19.
13.
Vs.
15. 23.
31. 39.
V^.
17.
21.
25.
33.
27.
35. 43.
51. 59.
29.
37. 9.
41.
9a.
45.
63.
61.
47.
49.
67.
^3.
56.
63.
ANSWERS
65. v^27.
305
Vtf
67.
o<
69.
73.
75. 1.
77.
81.
*
9L
93.
3*
y*
6^
26
95.
3^.
97.
101.
26
105. v'a.
113. 2vl2.
46
103. a
111.
107.
#Zy.
109.
119.
2(V
^2).
121.
123.
I
-2a
/-|
Exercise 64.
3.
1.
Page 168
5.
3>/3; 5.196.
7.
125.
9.
11.
fVH;
1.342.
13. 239.
15.
1^12;
4.242.
.572.
17. fcVg; .306.
19.
26.
v^2; 1.260.
21.
3V2;
23.
29. 35. 43.
&VI6;
3zi
.1265.
33.
31.
37.
39. 47.
41. 36.
a;
45.
61.
a
67.
59.
65. 4;
3.
61.
63.
*4
65. 71. Z</x. 73.
67.
6v 6.
83.
75. v*6.
77.
79.
yVx*y.
81.
2zJ
89.
8R
91.
(31
180)^3
87.
-f
i.
(a-
97. 6
06
306
ANSWERS
Exercise 65.
Pa 9
172
7.
L
11.
3i.
3, 6e.
5. St.
5*V2.
9.
#.
.6i.
13.
IT'-
15. it.
17. .3*.
19. ft.
at
31.
23.
itV5.
33. 5tfc\/3.
25.
&iVll.
35.
27.
2W.
37.
29. obi.
2isV2.
SisVVsty.
39. frdi.
41. 49.
~-1.
43. d=fi.
51.
46.
53. 10.
47.
57.
t.
1.
55. 13.
29 4-
11*.
59. 21
67.
20t.
61.
65. 4
19i.
+ 40*.
71.
15.
69.
3*V
10V2.
75.
- 20*V 63. Si
77. 1
40.
17.
2*.
73. (4*
19);
(- 34
6t);
(-
70t
66).
41
.-
Exercise 66.
Page 174
Note. In simplifying radicals in the solution of an equation, it will be assumed that any literal factor of a radicand is positive if this adds to our convenience in the reduction.
1.
=fc
5.
3.
3t.
5.
=fc ft*.
7.
$36;
d= 1.183.
.829.
9.
iv
30
1.826.
IL
17.
-.
6a
13.
.707.
ijl;
*
15.
i2;
19.
2(1
33. db
+ c)
db .707.
m
14.
T
iVl3;
1.803.
*V2;
35.
37.
Exercise 67.
1. 5;
Page 176
5. 0;
f.
2.
3.
4; 3.
9. 0;
11. 19.
f
i;
13.
17. f ;
25.
33.
I
J;
;
|.
f.
27. f ;
35. 0;
-i
3.
21.
f.
7. 0;
3;
2;
i
2.
15. *;
f.
29. f ;
37.
3&;
23. f ;
31.
|;
6;
4.
1.
26.
39.'
6.
-5
49.
S'
i
-
^ 'I -5' 51.
3;
53. 0;
55.
3; |.
Exercise 68.
Page 180
16;
(x
(
4).
3.
7. f|;
+ *)*
^ -
c; (x
c).
7;
1.
11. 3;
5. |;
7.
13.
- ). - 2; - 2,
(
ANSWERS
1C.
307
17. (2
-2
:t
Vl4
:
2.871;
.871.
+ t);
2
(2
t).
o
23.
-~-^=
o
4-*- \/TQ
-: -
2.786;
.120.
25. |;
1.
29. 6a;
d=
3a.
3t
oc
6;
$6.
38.
86.
V4 - +
9
37.
tf
- 4HP
Extrcisc 69.
P*gt 182
5.
1.};
dr
3. f;
.
J.
3t.
7.
f;
f.
2
v.
1<U107 1
1 Rfift l.OOO.
--
-~
41 oi x
v ^ \/2
ttll:i
2
OO.
5V2. ^
^.loo,
1.
2a
12ac
51.
53.
y
a;
x -f 2;
y
2;
y x
^(1
1
x).
2y.
Extrcist 70.
Pag
184
5. 9;
L 9. *;
3;
'
3. |;
f.
5.
7.
2
11. i; i.
.905.
13.
^ o
5
;
.847;
.047.
15. 0; f21. |;
17.
iA';
\/41:
i;
19.
=fcfc6.
1.
23. 6
12.403;
b).
.403.
25. 4;
L
fc;
f.
27. 6;
oo 29.
35.
^(1
wi
01 31.
11
JA.
oo 33.
=*
37. 13'
46.
by
17'.
39.
^; -
tf.
41. 14.928'.
'
43. 6.48 yd.
20 m.p.h.
47. 6 m.p.h.
308
ANSWERS
t
49. (a)
;
<7
(6)
500' at
3.46 sec.
and 9.04
sec.;
0'
at
sec.
and
12.5 sec.
Exercise 71.
Page 188
L
3. 5.
Vertex
Vertex
(0, (0, (0,

(
0);
0); 5);
3,
axis
axis
x x
a;
0;
min.
0;
max.
= 0. = 0.
=5.
3;
Vertex
Vertex
axis
4);
0; min.
7.
9.
axis
x max. x
min.
5.
= =
9.
8.
4.
Vertex Vertex
Vertex
(1,
5);
axis
5); 9);
x =
x
1;
=
2;
11.
13.
(2,
(f,
axis
=
f
;
min.
5.
axis
min.
=
by
15.
Min.
= -
13.
17.
Max.
19.
At end 2$
sec.
27. 30;
30.
29. 7*"
15".
Exercise 72,
1. f.
Page 190
7.
11. 2.6;
3. 3;
.6.
3.
5.
Roots imag.
1.6;
4.1.
(1, 1*);
9.
13.
Roots imag.
3;
1.
15. (0, 2|);
(3*;
1).
Exercise 73.
1. 3.
Page 192
Disc. Disc.
= =
9;
real,
unequal, and rational. unequal, and irrational.
12;
real,
5. Disc. 7. Disc.
9. Disc.
= = =
0;
real, equal,
and
rational.
1705; real, unequal,

0;
real, equal,
and
irrational.
11. Disc. a 23. Disc.
16;
and rational. imaginary and unequal.

is
19. 5.2;
1.2.
21.
1.2;
.2.
49; graph
to the 3-axis,
a parabola concave upward, with its axis perpendicular cutting z-axis in two points, and hence the vertex is below
that axis.
graph is a parabola concave downward, with its axis perpendicular to x-axis, which does not meet that axis and hence lies entirely below it. 29. - 2 + 5i. 31. - 6*. 27. Disc. = 52; etc.
26. Disc.
59;
Exercise 74.
1.
Page 195
5.
5;
|;
3.
3.
f;
9.
f.
11. f ;
f -f
f;
;
|.
7. 0;
tf.
13.
|.
15.
y
3
-
|.
17.
r-|-; 5 -h a 5 + o ^4--
19 25.
fir; fr^1-fcl+c
x2 z8
21 - te'
0.
1*
23. x* 29. 35.
2x
3z
7.
+
-f
5z -f 6 2
= =
27.
33.
3z
10
0.
0.
31. 37.
0.
1
9z2 4- 4
x8
4z
0.
39. 2a
- 7x + 2 - 0. - 18 - 0. - 2x - 13 = 0.
ANSWERS
41.
309
45. x*
51.
x9
47.
53.
57.
+ 34 0. 3z + 4a + 2 - 0. 0. 32 27x + 12x (x + 3 + i)(x + 3

Ox
a
43.
a;*
49.
- 8z + 20 - 0. - 8)(3x + 5). (ftc

56.
- 4x + 24 (8z - 15)(3z 4-
0.
4).
=.
No.
(Disc, is not
i).
59. (x
a perfect square.)
+
.
ft) (a;
-*7.
Exercise 75.
1.
Page 197
2t;
=fc
1;
2.
3.
fc2;
2.
5.
3i;
=t
1. t
9.
|;
db
i.
11.
i?
3;
1;
1.
13.
d= 2i;
=fc
17. 23.
1;
*; 3;
29. 1;
35. d=
- f. 19. - |. 25. - 2; - 4.
=b
fi.
2;
1.
iV. 21. 27. 1; 33.

;
15.
1;
5;
f;
1(1 =t
37. 43.
4;
*(- 3
=t
V5).
31. 2;
;
^2.
tV5).
3;
1;
*(3
*(1
db
V5l).
tVf).
2Va;
f;
iêa.
J(~
;
39. 3;
*(- 3
3tV3).
41.
2;
^(3
1 =b
2t.
3iVi).
45. 4;
51.
(- 2
1;
;
VS).
.
47.
53.
1;
J(l db
3i.
iV).
49. i;
55.
i(-
*V).
=t
3;
57.
d= ft.
Exercise 76.
1. 7.
Page 200
7.
3.
sol.
No
sol.
5.
12.
13.
25.
No No
15. 4.
17. 9.
19. 4;
- 13. - 2.
31. 4; |.
9.
14.
11.
f >/2.
23. 0.
21. 0;
sol.
27. 3;
f V5.
2;
1.
29.
33. 1;
-
3.
35. o. 43. 1;
61.
37. 0; 46.
39.
7T
41.
49. 16.
is
&.
^V2.
243.
45. 8;
53. 4.
59.
^-.
65.
47. 16;
if.
=t
No
243.
57.
solution (any principal root

61.
positive).
25$.
63.
^4
(x~%
8 has no real solution).

Exercise 77.
Page 203
6. 0;
it
1.
db
1
=
1 is
3. 2.
- J.
7. 9.
H (&
10;
not a solution because

11.
2.
13.
.268;
^;
k
.
3.732.
23.
15.
does not give a quadratic equation). does not apply.

17.
21. if.
- &.
=fc
&.
=fc
19.
25.
3V5.
27.
29.
f.
31.
.816.
33. 1;
-i -f
2.
Exercise 78.
1.
Page 206
s
.
3. 5.
7. 9.
+ 5o6 + 10a6 + 10a*& + 5a& + 6 x - 8ofy + 28zV - 56x y + 70x y - 56xV + 28a;V - 8xy 16 + 32a 4- 24a -f 8a + a. 7296 - 14586 y + 12156y - 540&V + 1356V - 18^ + V*. a -f So^ + 3a6* + 6.
a6
J
8
5
-f
y.
IL o
13.
6a w 6
4-
15a6*
20a6
-f
15a6
6a'6l
<>
310
15. a* 17. a*
.
ANSWERS
- 4oir
8x*
I5xy*
H-
32x* ---
40IT
+ IT
8
.
19.
x,
+
,
24x
16
a* 25.
a*
a*
a
27. 1
Ig0ou
lg
-f-
a"
-f
20a&
30
-f
190a6.
/
81.
2x* -
+ 2.31.
-
^
29. 1
12 >/2
^^
\
-j
132.
2ox + 435
_
^
85. *n
87. a*" 41. 39,916,800.
+
48. 126.
89. 720.
Exercise 79.
8.
P3t 208
5.
35z11. .00056.
18.
7.
9.
n(n-l)...(n~5)
6!
15x*.
15.
21.
2016xy10
4000o
28.
3/
25.
27.
126o>6;
83. 132,651.
29. 10,000
36. 1.127.
+ 600a - 40a + o.
39. .904.
3t
96,059,601.
48. .002.
87. 1.230.
41. 1.243.
45. 14,776,336.
Extrcls* 80.
1.
Page 211
,
8.
5.
s/a.
7.
9.
8'.
11.
*.
32'; 21$".
18. 30.
15. f.
17. 10";
19. 20;
70.
2L
28.
5500
sq. in.
25. 5.366'.
85. db 9i.
27. 28.7'. 87.

.
29. db
v^6.
81. d= 1.
88.
25.
$
9m4
5n
39. d= (y
+ 3).
41.
35.
oe
48.
-T3
45. 77
Am
27
175
47.
Exercise 81.
Ps
217
8.Z.
V
a*
7.
9. T
18. z is proportional to x*.
15.
varies directly as
27. 784'. 87.
x9 and
y.
21.
12t/
-rôx
28.
- (6)
25.
^.
48.
29. 2700 Ib.

ft.
4| ft. 89. 1824 r.p.m.

47. (6,
81.
88. (a) 71f Ib.;
sq. in.
5*
in diameter.
4L
(-
/i
/,
1:16.
2, 4) or
6, 2,
56%.
45. (10,
6, 4).
4).
49. (150, 250, 550, 300).
ANSWERS
Exercise 82.
3?T
Page 223
14;
L
9.
15;
13.
i
18; 21;
11.
14.
24; 27; 30.

13. 151.
3.
16.
- 18; - 16; - 76. 17. 10.

23.
I
12;
78;
10;
8.
19.
S -
645-
21.
25.
29.
33.
- - 72; S - - 882. d - 16; 8 - 5460. a - 138; S = 2025. ^ a - - *', I" 126i

.
27.
31.
'
35.
- .78; S n - 92; 5 n - 21; 5 = k - - 1.

41. |f.
46.86.
18,308.
525.
37. 21.
39. 136th.
Exercise 83.
1. 5; 5.
Page 226
3.
8;
11; 6;
14.
10.5;
1.5;
3;
7.5;
8; 10;
7.
12;
1;
13;
f
;
;
15$.
12.
i;
11.
^.
17. 376.
9. 26.
19.
13. 36,270.
15. 2223.
19. 360'.
21. $11,650.
23. $30,500.
25.
2565
Exercise 84.
1.
Page 230
5;
15; 45;
(1.01)
135.
8
.
3. 4;
8;
16;
23.
32.
7.
&;
^.
S = -
9.
or4
or*.
11. 1.01;
13. 4.
15. f.
I
17. 729.
19.
21.
25.
2916;
192;
S =
-S
4372.
= -
&.
1215;
910.
129.
81.
27. Z*>= 3846';
8 n =
8;
6;
29.
35.
W.
a
25;
36;
n -
8;
37.
1275.
33.
5 39.
111.111.
i
n -
5.
n =
11;
S = ^î.
(4;
80.
41. f.
43. (4;
8;
46. (12; 47. 1;

63.
108) or
(.
12;
36;
16;
32; 64) or
16; 32;
64).
108). 49. 2. 66.

61. 10.
1 --
_
67. 63.
-.
10;
if
100;
1000;
0;
10,000;
100,000.
VJJ,
>
v^
if
<
0.
(1.06)>
(1.06)
:rr
59. .
eA .
.06
2.
- -1
^^-
M 05^7
(1.02)-"
.02
Ol. .
(1.02)"
( 1>02)i
- A;
66. 8190.
67. $102.30.
Exercise 85.
1.
Pase 233
6.
$95.
3.
227.8" approximately.
9. $7020.
$3125.
7.
*n(n
1).
13. 55.339" approximately. 19. 599.59' approximately.
21. (a)
23.
Approximately 11.1% per year.

Exercise 86.
x 16. At end 2 300(1.06)*; (6) 5060 units. 27. 12i%.

1
U.
yr.
.
Page 236
6.
1.
i;
t;
il
A-
3.
9.
A;
16.
i; f;
f.
1;
f;
f;
A;
y).
7. 2.
11.
2*y/(*
372
ANSWERS
Exercise 87.
Page 239
7. flft.
5 1O ** TT
1.
14.
3.
22i
33 27.
_7_
r
6.
I
33
29. 1500".
9.
iL
QQ *^
33. 12.
13.
1K *w
1T JL *
19 Q1 *IJL * 90
25.
3^.
31 200
sq. in.
Exercise 88.
1. 3.
Page 241
9.
3.
1.
6. 64.
7. 81.
10.
1L
1.
1.
13.
15.
&.
17. 2.
31. 4.
19. 2.
21. 1000. 35. $. 49. 8.
23. 6. 37.
26. 2.
39.
27. 2.
3.
29. 3.
43. 10.
33. i.
41. 5.
45. 1.
47. 2.
61. 100.
63. 64.
Exercise 89.
1.
Page 244
6.
.7781.
3.
1.5314.
1.4771.
7. 3.2304.
9.
1.6232.
11. .3680. 19.
13. .7533.
16.
17.
.5229.
2.1549.
Exercise 90.
21.
1.7696.
23.
.3853.
1.3768.
Page 247
1.
Ch.
3. 7.
Ch. Ch.
= 2; man. = .9356. = -2; man. = .700. = .325. = 6; man.
6.
Ch.
9.
=
15.
3;
man.
.5473.
9.2562
10.
11. 4.4932
19. 1.6355.
10.
13. 5.
4.
17.
-6.
21. 7.8949
10.
10.
23. 0.9759.
31. 5.1959. 41. 302.
26. 4.2504.
33. 243.
27. 8.9345
35. 4660. 45. .0960.
29. 5.0043. 37. 1.43.

39. 74.0.
43. .00589.
51. .00500.
47. .000900.
49. .264.
Exercise 91.
1.
Page 251
6.
3.2615.
3.
2.7261.
1.5556.
7.
9.4790
9.
9.7503
17. 6.0910
10.
11. 8.1939 19. 3.4950.
10.
13. 4.9546.
16. 7.1581
10. 10.
10.
21. 1725. 29. .0002162.

37. .00009738.
23. 1.459(10).
31. .4693.
25. 1379.
33. 7.695(108 ).
27. 39.95.
36. 1.030.
39. .4236.
Exercise 92.
Page 253
Note. In some classes, the teacher may desire to teach the use of 5-place logarithms. For the advantage of such classes, in the case of each computation problem in the remainder of this chapter, the result obtained by use of 5-place logarithms is given in black face type beside the result found with 4-place log-
arithms.
1.
24.91; 24.909.
3.
.2009;
.20086. 61.098.
5.
7.
.007667;
.006380; .0063797.
11. .1406;
.0076660.
9. 51.10;
.14061.
13. 24.56;
24.668.
27.609.
16. .07808;
.078096.
21. .003467;
17. 5542;
6644.4.
19. 27.61;
.0034669.
ANSWERS
23.
313
L6802(10"
(6)
2.627(10-');
2.6266(10-*).
26. 1.580(10-');
6
6
).
27. 38.96; 38.966.
29. (a) 4.792(10 ); 4.7922(10 ):
8.065; 8.0662.
Exercise 93.
Page .256
6.
5358; 6369.6.
.94986.
3.
.4107; .41082.
1.044;
1.0440.
7. .9500;
9.
1.315; L3158.
11. .6030; 17.
.60296.
13. 28.93; 19. 50.32;
28.936.
60.324.
16. .1585;
.16849.
1.010;
1.0099.
21. 41.47; 41.470. 27. 1.041;
23. .1266;
29. .8630;
.12668.
26. 2.111;
31. 50.12;
2.1111.
60.466.
1.0412.
.86268.
By
preliminary use of 7-place table, the results are .5050;

36. 215.1;
.60604.
33. 141.9;
141.82.
216.08.
.93896.
37. .4971;
.49714.
39. .001352; 46. 61.
.0013626.
41. .9388;
By
1.916;
.136;*
43. .3986;
.39882. 134.84.
1.9166.
47. 21.76; 21.768.

63. 1.118;
4
49. 134.9;
.1366.*
1.1177.
66. 4.908; 4.9086.

B
67. .1730; .17294.
69.
4-place table:
(a)
2.219(10
);
(6)
3.222(10-
).
'
61. .02323;
.023229.
63. .0007867;
.0007869.*
66. 236.1; 236.13.
Exercise 94.
1.
Page 259
6.
1.341;
1.3410.
18.02.*
3.
1.319;
1.3194.
6.634.*
5.195;
6.1923.
7. 18.1;*
9. 5.63;*
IL
13. 2.303;
2.3026.
16.
14.2;*
4.317; 4.3176.
14.20.*
Exercise 96.
1.
Page 261
7.
$4682.
3.
$4502.
6.
$1203.
5.8%.
9. 18.8 yr.
11. 16
yr.
Exercise 98.
1. 6.
(4, .5);
Page 268
3.
(5,
(-
2.8,
2.9).
1.5).
3).
9.
(2.1,
1.5);
(-
2.1,
7.
(3.2, 3.7).
No real solutions.
Exercise 99.
1.
(3,
Page 269
3.
(5,
4);
(6
,
4, 3).
t
;
/6
5.
_
1,
2*W
'1);
3);
(5,
3).
^
7.
+ _*V6\ Y
3, 3).
/6 ^
+ 2t'v
9.
/
>
(-
(-
(4, 2);
(4, 2).
11. (1, *);
(i
2).
15.
(il); (-i3).'
Exercise 100.
Page 270
3.
1. 5.
(1.837,
.790);
1);
(-
1.837, db .790).
1).
(|V2,
(db
);
(- |V^,
(
ffl.
(V5,
(^v^,
(- V5,
(
7.
V2,
V);
i^/7)',
\/2,
(
V5).
9.
iv^S);
is
|V,
iv^S).
11.
(V,
v^,
The
result
not reliable beyond the last digit given in the answer.
314
ANSWERS
Exercise 101.
Page 279
1.
(V2,
V5); (-
3.
(i, 1);
(-
6. 7.
.
13. 15.
- 4); (- 4, - 1); (- 14, 4); (4, 1). (14, - ft);- *), (- f, i); ((I, - i). (ft); (i - ft); 2, i); (2, (_- JV5); (2, 5); ((ftV2, JV5); (- ftV2, - 4); ((6, 4); (- 6,
(ft,
(- V3,
D;_ (- V2, ftV5); (V2, V3); (V3, - V); (- 2, 1);

ft,
(2,
1).
ft,
ft).
ft,
2,
5).
Exercise 102.
X
Page 274
1. 5.
(((i,
9.
2, 3); (6, 2); (- i

ft,
5);
(ft,
3).
1).
3. 7.
(1, 1);
<|Vl5, f Vl6); (- |Vl5,

(f,
2);
(-
1,
f);
(-
1,
Vl5).
1, 1).
2);
(f,
V); (-
1).
11. (2, 1);
(1, 2);
[ft(-
+ ,V6), ft(- 4 - iVe)];

Cft(-
4
5
Vg), J(- 4
+ t-s/6)].
(4, 5).
18.
(- 5
(ft,
+ *Vl4,
1);
15.
2,
(ft,
(ft,
17.
25.
23. (3, 1);
(|);
3,
25. (i,
(i
- 1); (- 2, 1); 2, 2, 1); (- 2, - 1); - 2, 1); (- 19. c V9 + 4m - 1); (1, 3); (- 1, - 3). - i). 27. (i, 1);
ft,
iVII); (- 5
(ft,
Vl4,
ft,
ft,
+ tVl4);
2,
(5, 4);
1);
(d=
ft,
2, 1).
8
.
21. c
Vo + 6m
(-
|,
1).
Exercise 103.
1.
5.
(2,
Page 275
3.
(4.1,
3);
1.8,
(ft,
4).
(2.5,
1.8);
(-
4.1,
=fc
1.8).
((-
-2.1);
-5.2).
7.
(|V65,
1,
*V35); (- f V65,
(1, 0);
ftV5).
13. (f,
2);
(4,
7).
16.
0);
17. (3, 6); 19. (10,
(V5, - 3*V2); (- *V2, 3tV^). (- 3, - 6); (- 4^3, 5^3); (4V3, - 5V). - J^V2). 5); (- 10, 5); (ftV, J^V2); (- ftV2,
1), ft(a
21. [ft(a
1)];
ft;
[ft (a
1),
ft
(a
1)].
23. 12'
by
5'.
26.
27. 81.
29. 3 Ib.
31.
6f
hr.;
5ft hr.
Exercise 104.
1.
Page 282
5.
63 (exact).
3.
523 (exact).
325 (exact).
7. 6.39 (exact).
9. 8.85.
11. 40.54.
INDEX
Numbers
Abscissa, 119. Absolute value, 4. Addition, 8. Antilogarithm, 247.
refer to pages.
Approximate values,
52.
Equivalent equations, 59. Exponential equation, 258. Exponential function, 260. Exponents, general, 150. laws of, 25, 142.
'
Arithmetic means, 224. Arithmetic progression, 221.
Extraneous
positive integral, 25. roots, 114, 198.

3.
Asymptote, 263.
Base, of a logarithm, 240. for a power, 25. Binomial, 28. Binomial formula, 207. Briggs, 251.
Characteristic, 244.
Coefficient, 18.
Factor, definition of a, Factorial symbol, 206.
Factoring, 88. Fractions, 22, 103. Function, definition of a, 121. Functional notati6n, 126. Fundamental operations of algebra, 3.
Cologarithm, 254.
logarithm, 242. Completing a square, 177.
Geometric means, 230. Geometric progression, 227.

infinite, 236.
Common
Complex Complex
fraction, 43. number, 171.
Graph, of an equation, 128. of a function, 122. of a quadratic equation in two

variables, 262.
interest, 260. Conditional equation, 58.
Compound
of a quadratic function, 186.
Conjugate imaginaries, 192.

Constant, 64. Coordinates, 119. Decimals, 48.
terminating, 49. Degree, of a polynomial, 61. of a term, 61.
Harmonic means, 236. Harmonic progression,

Highest Hyperbola, 263.
common
236. factor, 106.
Identical equation, 58.
Imaginary number, 144, 170.

pure, 171. Inconsistent equations, 132. Independent variable, 121.
Denominator,
6.
Dependent equations, 132. Dependent variable, 121.

Difference of numbers, 10. Difference of squares, 85. Discriminant, 191.
Index laws, 25, 31, 142, 154, 278. Index of a radical, 146.
Inequalities, 14, 15. Infinite series, 238. Integral rational polynomial, 28. Integral rational term, 28. Intercepts of a graph, 128.
Dividend,
6.
Division, 6. Divisor, 6.
Ellipse, 264.
Equation, 68.
of a curve, t29. of a line, 129.
Interpolation, for logarithms, 248. Irrational equation, 199. Irrational function, 148. Irrational number, 147.
376
Linear equation, 61. Linear function, 122. Logarithm, base of a, 240.
characteristic of a, 244. definition of a, 240.
INDEX
complete, 173. discriminant of a, 191. graphical solution of a, 189.
pure, 173.
Quadratic in two variables, 262.

Quotient, 6.
Radicals, 82, 146. properties of, 149. simplification of, 157, 166. Radicand, 82, 146. Radius of action, 76. Ratio, 6, 210.
mantissa of
a, 244.
Logarithmic equation, 258. Logarithmic function, 260. Logarithms, properties of, 243, 255. Lowest common denominator, 40, 106.
Lowest common multiple, 38, 106. Lowest terms, for a fraction, 22, 104.
Mantissa, 244.
Maximum value, 187. Mean proportional, 212. Minimum value, 186.

Monomial,
28.
Rational function, 148. Rational number, 147. Rationalizing a denominator, 161.
Real number,
1.
Reciprocal, 44.
Naperian logarithms, 259.

Napier, 251. Natural logarithms, 251, 259.
Remainder, in division, 34. Repeating decimal, 238. Root, of an equation, 59. of a number, 145.
Negative of a number, Negative numbers, 4. Numerator, 6. Numerical value, 4.
9.
Rounding
off
numbers, 53.
Scientific notation for
a number, 249.
Significant digits, 52.

Signs, laws of, 6.
Ordinate, 119. Origin of coordinates, 119.
Similar terms, 18.

interest, 79. Solution, defined for
Simple
an equation,
Parabola, 186.
Pascal's triangle, 205.
in one variable, 59. in two variables, 127.
Percentage, 70. Perfect nth power, 100, 148. Perfect square, 82, 90.
Solution of a system of two equations,

131, 267.
Square
root, 82, 280.
Polynomial, 28.
integral rational, 28. Power of a base, 25.
Subtraction, 9. Surd, 148.
Systems of equations involving quadratics, 262.
Prime Prime
factor, 88.
integer, 38. Principal root, 145.
Systems of
in three in
linear equations, unknowns, 137.
Progressions, arithmetic, 221. geometric, 227. harmonic, 236. Proportion, 210.
two unknowns,
131.
Terminating decimal, 49. Transposing terms, 60.

Trinomial, 28.
Proportional parts, principle of, 248. Pure quadratic equation, 173.
Uniform motion, Unknowns, 58.
75.
Quadratic Quadratic Quadratic Quadratic
form, 196. formula, 180.

function, 186. in one unknown,
Variables, 64, 121. Variation, 213.
constant
of,
213.

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The text makes no attempt

and the completeness

adopted that the student needs refresher training in the operations

the chapter on logarithmic computation

of material not essential

The book was planned quent omissions by the teacher.

to eliminate the necessity for fre-

extent and grading of the exercises.

exercises, either the

In each exercise, the problems are arranged

does not spend

in the text, and free in a separate

pamphlet at the instructor's request.

THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS INTRODUCTION TO FRACTIONS AND EXPONENTS

LOGARITHMS ._. SYSTEMS INVOLVING QUADRATICS

POWERS AND ROOTS

in COMPOUND AMOUNT: (1-K*)*

PRESENT VALUE OF $1 DUE AFTER

THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

are real numbers.

The positive number

THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

and negative numbers may be contrasted concretely

shall desire the results of operations

shall define for

signed numbers to correspond with our intuitions are interpreted concretely.

when the numbers

negative in the past.

Then, the following concrete statea decrease of 12;

ments should correspond to the indicated addition or multiplication.

what meaning would be appropriate for

indicated quantity with opposite signf

+ 5 miles means 5 miles north.

3 means a fall of 3 in temperature.

THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

means 7 north means

20' above sea level.

For -f 30 longitude, For

20 longitude means 20 west of Greenwich.

+ 5' means 5' to the right.

own agreements about

following facts by adding or multiplying signed numbers.

10. Thirty-five steps

to a point 20 steps backward.

new number system.

numbers and zero are involved.

THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

or 6(3) as "six times three."

ILLUSTRATION 2. 4ab means 4 X a a = 2 and b = 5, then 4ab = 4(2) (5) =

any number, we agree that

(-Ijx (-1) = +1.

in COMPOUND AMOUNT: (1-K)