GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

AFRICA
APRIL 2010
JONATHAN ADAMS CHRISTOPHER KING DANIEL HOOK

EVIDENCE

THE AUTHORS Dr. Jonathan Adams is Director, Research Evaluation. He was a founding Director of Evidence Ltd, the UK specialist on research performance analysis and interpretation. Christopher King is Editor of Science Watch (ScienceWatch.com), a newsletter and web resource tracking trends and performance in basic research. Dr Daniel Hook is Managing Director of Symplectic Limited, the UK-based research management information company, and holds visiting academic positions at Imperial College London and Washington University in St Louis.

This report has been published by Evidence, a Thomson Reuters business 103 Clarendon Road, Leeds LS2 9DF, UK T/ +44 113 384 5680 F/ +44 113 384 5874 E/ enquiries@evidence.co.uk

Copyright 2010 Thomson Reuters ISBN: 1-904431-25-9

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

AFRICA
APRIL 2010

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

INTRODUCTION
This report is part of a series launched by Thomson Reuters to inform policymakers and others about the landscape and dynamics of the global research base. The global research landscape is changing. Our previous reports have described this as the new geography of science, borrowing from UK thinktank Demos which published a prescient analysis in 2005 pointing out the growth of research alongside emergent economies. Our previous reports have separately examined the scientific enterprise in the so-called BRIC bloc of nations, consisting of Brazil, Russia, India, and China. Three of these countries have rapidly emerged into prominence among the worlds economies, at a rate historically unparalleled and with pervasive implications for the traditional science leaders on the trans-Atlantic axis. Another report assessed Australia and New Zealand, a stable node linked to both old and new geographies. But there are other sides to the world picture. One of these, inevitably, is the countries that have certainly been involved in research networks but seem to have benefitted less from the new dynamics. They have had less policy attention, perhaps because they demand reflective consideration rather than provoking easy headlines. The present report therefore undertakes the daunting task of describing albeit only at a preliminary level an entire continent: Africa. More than 50 nations, hundreds of languages, and a welter of ethnic and cultural diversity. A continent possessed of abundant natural resources but also perennially wracked by a now-familiar litany of post-colonial woes: poverty, want, political instability and corruption, disease, and armed conflicts frequently driven by ethnic and tribal divisions but supplied by more mature economies. OECDs recent African Economic Outlook sets out in stark detail the challenge, and the extent to which current global economic problems may make this worse and further compromise the commitment made in 2005 at Gleneagles, to double official development assistance to Africa by 2010. More than half the African nations are off-track or regressing on objectives to achieve universal primary education by 2015. Internet penetration is good only in North Africa, constraining communication and access to knowledge.i Yet the continent is also home to a rich history of higher education and knowledge creation. The University of Al-Karaouine, at Fez in Morocco, was founded in CE 859 as a madrasa and is identified by many as the oldest degree-awarding institution in the world.ii It was followed in 970 by Al-Azhar University in Egypt. While it was some centuries before the curriculum expanded from religious instruction into the sciences this makes a very early marker for learning. Today, the Association of African Universities lists 225 member institutions in 44 countries and, as Thomson Reuters data demonstrate, African research has a network of ties to the international community. A problem for Africa as a whole, as it has been for China and India, is the hemorrhage of talent. Many of its best students take their higher degrees at universities in Europe, Asia and North America. Too few return. The African diaspora provides powerful intellectual input to the research achievements of other countries but returns less benefit to the countries of birth. That is at least in part because of a chronic lack of investment in facilities for research and teaching, a deficit that must be remedied. As was noted in a 2007 UNESCO report, science and technology are critical not only to the continents economic prosperity but to such matters as food security, disease control, access to clean water, and environmental sustainability.iii One measure of international support for the fostering of African higher education is a proposal, expected to go before the G8+5 nations in summer 2010, for the funding of 1,000 research chairs whose holders would train and mentor a new generation of academics while also stemming the drain of scientific talent from the continent.iv

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

RESEARCH AND COLLABORATION IN AFRICA

More than 50 nations, hundreds of languages, and a welter of ethnic and cultural diversity. A continent possessed of abundant natural resources but also perennially wracked by a now-familiar litany of post-colonial woes: poverty, want, political instability and corruption, disease, and armed conflicts frequently driven by ethnic and tribal divisions but supplied by more mature economies. The current research landscape in Africa is most certainly affected by ongoing continental conflicts, but can analysis of research performance and trends help them transcend such limitations? And what might they do to become emerging leaders on the world stage like Brazil, India and China are quickly becoming?

DATA SOURCES
Volume and subject area analyses used the 2008 editions of the Thomson Reuters National Science Indicators. Collaboration analyses were carried out using Research Performance Profiles data in InCites, the new web-based platform for research evaluation from Thomson Reuters. Database years were used to delineate years, and only article, note and review document types were considered. To analyze performance at a category level the 21 main fields in Thomson Reuters Essential Science IndicatorsSM were used. National Science Indicators, Essential Science Indicators and InCites use publication and citation data derived from the citation data found in Web of ScienceSM, also from Thomson Reuters. Analysis was extended and illustrated by Symplectic using Wolfram Mathematica 7 to create maps and collaboration diagrams.

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
For our analysis we have taken the broadest possible view as a starting point and we then progressively move in on more specific aspects of Africas research activity. Our first approach to assessing African science is to divide the continent into major regions and see how each fares in terms of output. Figure 1 does this, plotting the annual number of papers for African nations aggregated into three very broad regional groups: north, central and south. These regional groups broadly correspond to the regional scheme employed by the United Nations, although the five UN groups have been compressed into three, with the nations designated by the UN as eastern, middle, and western generally placed into the central region for the purposes of this survey. (See adjoining box.) The south region corresponds to the member nations of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), an inter-governmental body devoted to economic development and other measures to raise the standard of living in its constituent countries. Two nations listed by the UN Saint Helena and Western Sahara are not currently included in the Thomson Reuters National Science Indicators database, from which these figures were derived. For the years 1999 to 2008, the central region of Africa produced the smallest quantity of papers, roughly 7,100 per year, despite being the region with the greatest number of countries: more than 30. The north region actually accounted for the highest number of papers in recent years, with more than 10,500 in 2008, even though the region consists of only six countries. Similarly, the south region, although made up of only 14 countries, also produced more than 10,000 papers. This immediately points to an uneven distribution of research and innovative capacity at both country and regional levels. For scale, it should be appreciated that the total of about 27,000 papers per year is about the same volume of published output as The Netherlands. A breakdown of these figures demonstrates the extent to which each region and African science as a whole is dominated by three nations: Egypt in the north, Nigeria in the middle, and South Africa in the south. In the ten years between 1999 and 2008, for example, Egypt produced nearly 30,000 papers which was about three times the total for Tunisia, its next-place and regional neighbor. In west-central Africa, Nigerias total for the same period was over 10,000, compared to roughly 6,500 for Kenya which is the leading research economy in the east of the continent. South Africas dominance, as might be expected, is even more pronounced: nearly 47,000 papers during 1999-2008, compared to the southern regions next-most-prolific nation, Tanzania, which fielded just over 3,000.

(Listed within each region by descending order of publication volume, 1999-2008)

African Nations by Region

North Central

Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan Nigeria, Kenya, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda, Ghana, Senegal, Cote Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Madagascar, Benin, Gambia, Reunion, Gabon, Mali, Niger, Republic of the Congo, Togo, Eritrea, Guinea Bissau, Rwanda, Mauritania, Central African Republic, Guinea, Chad, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Sao Tome & Principe, Somalia South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, Namibia, Mozambique, Mauritius, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Swaziland, Seychelles, Angola, Lesotho

South

FIGURE 1

Africas output of publications indexed on Thomson Reuters Web of ScienceSM databases between 1999 and 2008, with papers grouped by region (see box above for index of countries by region)

3000

Publications over period 1999-2008

North
2000

Central
1000

South
0

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Source: Web of ScienceSM

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FIELDS OF RESEARCH
What happens when we break the Thomson Reuters data down by field of research?
Table 1 provides a closer look at African output, presenting the five most-prolific nations in each of 21 main fields, according to the classification scheme employed for Thomson Reuters Essential Science Indicators. Here we have also looked at a more recent slice of activity and the analysis reflects papers indexed in the five-year window between 2004 and 2008. A discernible pattern in Table 1 is Africas relatively high representation as a share of world publications in fields that are relevant to natural resources. The highest percentage of any field, for example, is South Africas 1.55% share of Plant & Animal Science. Not far behind is the same countrys 1.29% portion of Environment/Ecology. A review of the more detailed analyses in Thomson Reuters Essential Science
TABLE 1

The most prolific African nations during the five-year period 2004-2008 in the 21 main fields used in Thomson Reuters Essential Science IndicatorsSM database. The top five nations are highlighted below by color.

Most Prolific African Nations in 21 Main Fields, 2004-08

Top five nations ranked by number of papers / percent of papers in field FIELD
Agricultural Sciences Biology & Biochemistry Chemistry Clinical Medicine Computer Science Economics & Business Engineering Environment/Ecology Geosciences Immunology Materials Science Mathematics Microbiology Molecular Biology & Genetics Neuroscience & Behaviour Pharmacology & Toxicology Physics Plant & Animal Science Psychiatry/Psychology Social Sciences, General Space Science Source: Web of ScienceSM

1
Nigeria 952 / 0.95 South Africa 1,242 / 0.46 Egypt 3,634 / 0.62 South Africa 4,183 / 0.41 South Africa 359 / 0.24 South Africa 507 / 0.69 Egypt 2,311 / 0.58 South Africa 1,707 / 1.29 South Africa 1,534 / 1.13 South Africa 518 / 0.86 Egypt 1,421 / 0.61 South Africa 652 / 0.52 South Africa 534 / 0.66 South Africa 276 / 0.20 South Africa 310 / 0.21 Egypt 600 / 0.66 Egypt 1,880 / 0.40 South Africa 4,179 / 1.55 South Africa 667 / 0.56 South Africa 2,107 / 1.06 South Africa 556 / 0.93

2
South Africa 692 / 0.69 Nigeria 1,004 / 0.37 South Africa 2,059 / 0.35 Egypt 2,584 / 0.26 Egypt 240 / 0.16 Kenya 54 / 0.07 South Africa 1,385 / 0.35 Kenya 420 / 0.32 Egypt 434 / 0.32 Kenya 269 / 0.45 Tunisia 575 / 0.23 Morocco 444 / 0.35 Egypt 243 / 0.30 Egypt 139 / 0.10 Egypt 75 / 0.05 South Africa 375 / 0.41 South Africa 1,194 / 0.26 Egypt 798 / 0.30 Nigeria 102 / 0.09 Nigeria 331 / 0.17 Egypt 86 / 0.14

3
Egypt 461 / 0.46 Egypt 521 / 0.19 Algeria 1,065 / 0.18 Tunisia 1,587 / 0.16 Algeria 170 / 0.11 Ethiopia 42 / 0.06 Algeria 800 / 0.20 Egypt 367 / 0.28 Morocco 294 / 0.22 Uganda 207 / 0.34 Algeria 572 / 0.25 Tunisia 444 / 0.35 Tunisia 213 / 0.26 Tunisia 113 / 0.08 Tunisia 58 / 0.04 Nigeria 235 / 0.26 Algeria 933 / 0.20 Kenya 784 / 0.29 Egypt 43 / 0.04 Kenya 222 / 0.11 Namibia 51 / 0.09

4
Kenya 380 / 0.38 Tunisia 505 / 0.19 Tunisia 980 / 0.17 Nigeria 1,392 / 0.14 Tunisia 163 / 0.11 Nigeria 39 / 0.05 Tunisia 752 / 0.19 Nigeria 351 / 0.27 Algeria 148 / 0.11 Tanzania 110 / 0.18 South Africa 524 / 0.23 Egypt 368 / 0.29 Kenya 147 / 0.18 Kenya 58 / 0.04 Morocco 45 / 0.03 Morocco 101 / 0.11 Morocco 646 / 0.14 Nigeria 602 / 0.22 Uganda 38 / 0.03 Tanzania 179 / 0.09 Morocco 31 / 0.05

5
Tunisia 247 / 0.25 Morocco 200 / 0.07 Morocco 866 / 0.15 Morocco 867 / 0.09 Morocco 74 / 0.05 Tunisia 29 / 0.04 Morocco 459 / 0.12 Tanzania 206 / 0.16 Tunisia 141 / 0.10 Egypt 89 / 0.15 Morocco 294 / 0.13 Algeria 297 / 0.24 Cameroon 76 / 0.09 Morocco 45 / 0.03 Nigeria 37 / 0.03 Tunisia 90 / 0.10 Tunisia 601 / 0.13 Tunisia 527 / 0.19 Kenya 30 / 0.03 Ghana 140 / 0.07 Algeria 24 / 0.04

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

Indicators shows that many of South Africas most highly-cited papers in this field pertain to climate change and its effects on plant propagation. Following this theme, South Africas 1.13% share of Geosciences is in keeping with the regions mineral richness. In short, Africa, as was noted above, is a continent abundant in natural resources. The question, of course, is how much does Africa itself benefit from those resources?

RESEARCH AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY IN AFRICA

Absolute volume of published papers is one indicator of research activity and indirectly of research capacity. It will therefore be obvious that the output of a country reflects how much money is going in to its research system, and that is likely to be partly dependent on its general economy. Bigger countries with a larger economy should be producing more papers, if they invest at the same level as smaller countries. However, land area and population density vary a great deal. We have compared publications with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for each country, reasoning that proportionate investment in the knowledge economy is a good index of a governments commitment to maximize the longer term benefit of resource development and exploitation for the general wealth of its people.

MAPS OF GDP AND OUTPUT

FIGURE 2: Output by country FIGURE 3: GDP by country

Publications in 2008
More than 7000

GDP in USD
Over 60 Billion USD

Fewer than 20

Under 1 Billion USD

Source: Web of ScienceSM; Analysis: Wolfram Mathematica 7

Source: Web of ScienceSM; Analysis: Wolfram Mathematica 7

FIGURE 4: Output / GDP by country

The leading countries by output (Figure 2) are South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, Tunisia, Algeria and Kenya. Four of these are also leading countries in terms of GDP (Figure 3) (South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria and Algeria) while Kenya and Tunisia fall in the second GDP tier. Indexing output against GDP (Figure 4) provides further interpretation. Zimbabwe is relatively the most productive country but this is anomalous because it retains its legacy research base despite a collapsing economy and very low current GDP. The real leaders are Tunisia and Malawi with very different economic bases but strong relative productivity in both cases. South Africa, Kenya and Egypt all have significant relative productivity, as do a number of other countries in East Africa (Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania) and West Africa. (Cameroon, Ghana). It is clear, however, that despite Nigerias high volume output it is not returning as much research as would be expected given the size of its economy. The value of its resources is not yet being felt in its knowledge base. In fact, the same research productivity gap between resources and investment applies to several other countries. This is an area where Africa is not yet benefitting from the best use of its own natural resources.

Publications per USD GDP

1.2 x 10^-7

Source: Web of ScienceSM; Analysis: Wolfram Mathematica 7

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

COLLABORATION WITHIN AFRICA

In this analysis we have counted all the collaborations between countries represented by co-authorship on the publications we have collated from within Thomson Reuters Web of Science. The counts are by paper not by number of researchers. For example, a paper co-authored by two researchers from Ghana, three from Nigeria and one from Kenya counts as a single paper in each countrys total and as one link between each pair of countries. We set a threshold, to clarify where the stronger collaborations occurred. This was set at a minimum of five papers per year, or 25 papers in total over the five-year period 2004-2008. This meant that some countries did not appear at all in the analysis because they had too low a level of recent collaboration. We then moved the countries around the rim of the wheel until groups with strongest cross-links were placed close together.
NETWORK OF COLLABORATION:

A new visual interpretation of collaboration, by paper not by number of researchers, reveals clusters of countries with the strongest partnerships.

Source: Web of ScienceSM; Analysis: Daniel Hook v

There is a marked interaction between the countries in North Africa which share both language and culture and are also relatively prolific across the fields analyzed in Table 1. Thus this network is probably the strongest group overall since it links countries which are individually research active across multiple fields. The group does little research with the rest of Africa, however, other than through the Egypt-South Africa link. A West Africa group (Benin-Togo) pivots around Cameroon, a relatively research-productive country. The common factor within this group is almost certainly their common use of French as the cross-national business language. Language also gives us the clue to the large group which includes Kenya and geographical neighbors in East Africa but also includes Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. Those countries appear to have English as a common language or a strong Anglophone influence. The SADC economic grouping does not emerge as a research network since it is split between that group linked to Kenya and Nigeria and a second group most closely linked to South Africa, but which also includes Sudan and Gabon. The overall collaboration network, to the extent that one exists at all, is dependent on a small number of key players linking these regional and cultural groupings. Nigeria, despite its disappointing level of research investment, nonetheless has an important connecting role. Not only is it a part of the Anglophone collaborative network but it also has significant albeit weaker connections with its West African neighbors, and it connects strongly to South Africa. South Africa is a similarly strong node with a spread of links into other groups. These two, with Kenya and Egypt, create the strongest cross-continent links and are also key nodes into global research networks.
GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

AFRICAS EXTERNAL COLLABORATION

For each of six key countries we have analyzed collaborative research links by collating co-authorships with other countries and analyzing collaboration with the USA and the UK (Figure 5), which are globally the most frequent partner for most countries, and three other frequent partners. For almost every country the most frequent collaborative partner is the USA. Often this is a consequence of researchers who have studied in the USA maintaining links with those research groups when they return home. The UK and Germany are the other common partners to the five countries featured here. Between them the USA, UK and Germany have authors on almost half the worlds research papers recorded on Thomson Reuters databases every year. There is a striking difference between the three countries pulled out in North Africa and those in other regions. Globally, the most frequent collaborative partner is the USA. Often this is a consequence of researchers who have studied in the USA maintaining links with those research groups when they return home. The UK and Germany are the other common partners to the countries featured here and France has a major role. Between them the USA, UK, Germany and France have authors on half the worlds research papers recorded on Thomson Reuters databases every year. For many countries the UK is the second most important partner, but this is not the case in North Africa which also supplies the exception to the USAs normal role. Algeria and Tunisia have unique links with France, which has a coauthor on an exceptional share of their publications. There is, in fact, a similar example for the UK which is a co-author on no less than 45% of research publications from Malawi. Algeria is linked to Egypt which itself has strong links to Saudi Arabia, signaling an extension of this local network into the broader Islamic research world. Egypt also produces a link further east, to Japan. Nigerias global reach is marked by its collaboration with China. It is of course well-positioned to extend its links westwards and partner with the emerging Brazilian research base. It could thus serve as a key doorway into the West African and into Anglophone African research base for some of the most exciting research now appearing in Asia and Latin America. What we have not analyzed here is the underlying nature of the partnerships we are describing at a general, national level. Many of these links will be mediated through health and agricultural programs. The Gambia, which we referred to above, is the site for long-term research into tropical diseases for the UKs Medical Research Council, which also works in Uganda. The Wellcome Foundation has similar, major research investments in Kenya and Malawi. A significant intellectual benefit is thus secured outside Africa, often then with subsequent returns in medical programs deployed within the continent.
FIGURE 5: TOP COLLABORATING COUNTRIES FOR SIX KEY AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Algeria
USA UK France Italy Spain 2.6% 2.3% 42.0% 2.6% 2.6%

Tunisia
USA UK France Italy Spain 2.8% 2.1% 32.6% 2.7% 2.5%

Egypt
USA UK 9.6% 4.0% Saudi Arabia 6.0% Germany 5.2% Japan 3.7%

Kenya
USA UK 32.0% 23.6% Germany 6.8% Netherlands 5.8% Belgium 4.8% 7.4% 5.9% 2.9% 1.8% 1.5%

Nigeria
USA UK Germany Italy China

South Africa
USA UK 15.1% 11.7% 5.7% 4.5% 3.9% Germany Australia France

Source: Web of ScienceSM; Analysis: Wolfram Mathematica 7

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

SUMMARY
This report can provide only an introduction to the patterns of research activity in Africa. The volume of activity remains small, much smaller than is desirable if the potential contribution of Africas researchers is to be realized for the benefit of its populations. The challenges that the continent faces are enormous and indigenous research could help provide both effective and focused responses. The resources that are available in some countries are substantial, but they are not being invested in the research base. But other countries with limited resources are making notable and effective contributions of a high standard. Other analyses show that Malawi, with one-tenth the annual research output of Nigeria, produces research of a quality that exceeds the world average benchmark while Nigeria hovers around half that impact level. Some countries are already mounting research programs with capacity across a range disciplines. The North Africa network of collaboration is strong both in the activity of individual countries, notably Egypt, and the close collaboration between them that will help to address larger challenges. Strong historical ties to France, and also to Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK, ensure a high level of external input and links to European programs while new links to Saudi Arabia and to Japan provide the opportunity for participation in emerging networks elsewhere. The historical legacy of past ties is reflected in the collaborative networks associated with Francophone and Anglophone groups of nations. The Francophone group has the benefit of proximity in West Africa, and this could prove an important regional focus and development opportunity. The Anglophone group has good links to the USA and UK, and its common language base means that it already accesses and is exposed to the international community that uses English for research publication. However, the extent to which collaboration reflects long-term research links or current research interests for G7 partners is not clear. The test will be whether the research activity reflected in these links is maintained when economic constraints start to bite in Europe and North America. The translation of the emergent SADC regional economic grouping into a research network has not yet happened. The research focus for many members remains further north. South Africa is the outstanding research leader in the region, has by far the greatest research output of any country, well ahead of Egypt in second place, and has high impact for much of its research. Indeed, its capacity and diversity stimulates a comprehensive and diverse portfolio which supports both peaks and platforms in its research base.vi By comparison, it is only the peak of other countries research activity that emerges into the international literature. The activity map and collaborative networks make evident a potential transformational role for specific countries. This report has identified a pair of axes, running between Egypt and South Africa and between Nigeria and Kenya, which engage a high proportion of Africas research and which link the rest of the continent in collaborative networks. The essential regional role of other countries, such as Cameroon and Tunisia, is also marked. The future of the African research enterprise must depend to some significant extent on the ability of these countries to help facilitate further growth, through leadership, strong local investment and the creation and support of key facilities and centers to draw in and assist currently less well resourced partners. It would be inappropriate to suggest that the preliminary analysis in this report can provide a clear direction. The information may, however, help to provide a further context to that set by the OECDs economic reports, while also furnishing background against which to view the pertinent regional dispatches in the UNESCO Science Report 2010, due at mid-year.

GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT

REFERENCES

Recent publications about research policy and developments in Africa

A. Pouris, Still a way to go for South Africas science revolution, Nature, 463 (7282): 729, 2010. I. Scoones and D. Glover, Starved for Science: How Biotechnology Is Being Kept Out of Africa, Nature, 460 (7257): 797-8, 2009. Anon., Strengthening research capacity in Africa, Lancet, 374 (9683): 1, 2009. O. Oukem-Boyer, et al., Tackling human resources in Africa: How one institute leverages overseas talent to develop its research strategy, Scientist, 23 (1): 24, 2009. P. Kagame, Challenges and prospects of advancing science and technology in Africa: The case of Rwanda, Science, 322 (5901): 545, 2008. R. Gallagher, Africa needs basic science, Scientist, 22 (7): 13, 2008. J.N.A. Matthews, Institute nurtures African math and science graduate students, Physics Today, 61 (5): 25-6, 2008. J. Van Den Brink and I. Snyman, Advancing science in Africa, Nature Materials, 6 (11): 792-3, 2007. M.H.A. Hassan, A new dawn for science in Africa, Science, 316 (5833): 1813, 2007 M.H.A. Hassan and D. Schaffer, Building scientific capacity in sub-Saharan Africa: From despair to hope, Discovery and Innovation, 18 (4): 279-87, 2006. E. Masood, Africa pursues goal of scientific unity, Nature, 445 (7128): 576, 2007. M. Cherry, Science in Africa: Conscious of change, Nature, 444 (7118): 416-7, 2006. Anon., A foundation for Africa, Nature, 442 (7102): 486, 2007. Anon., A scramble for Africa, Nature, 440 (7083): 383-4, 2006. Anon., Networks for Africa, Nature, 438 (7067): 395, 2005. M.H.A. Hassan, Can science save Africa? Science, 292 (5522): 1609, 2001.

END-NOTES
i ii iii iv v

OECD (2009). African Economic Outlook: overview. AfDB/OECD. ISBN 978-92-64-06170-5 The Guinness Book Of Records (1998), ISBN 0 5535 7895 2, p 242 UNESCO (2007), Science in Africa (http://www.unesco.org/science) Research Europe, 25 February 2010 T  his analysis was completed making use of methodology described in: Danny Holten and Jarke J. van Wijk, (2009). 11th Eurographics/IEEE-VGTC Symposium on Visualization (Computer Graphics Forum; Proceedings of EuroVis 2009), Pages 983-990. A. Clauset. (2005). Finding Local Community Structure in Networks, Physical Review E, 72, 026132. The May/June edition of the Thomson Reuters publication Science Watch examines South Africas recent  scientific output and impact in greater detail; www.sciencewatch.com.

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