2.

Treaty of Tordesillas penned in 1494, between Spain and Portugal; divided the two countries' sphere of influence; gave Brazil and Africa to Portugal, and western South America/North America to Spain 3. Jamestown the first permanent English settlement in the Americas; established in 1607 4. Joint-Stock Company a company whose ownership is divided by separate shareholders 5. Plymouth Colony established in 1620 in present-day Eastern Massachusetts, it was founded by Separatists and Anglicans alongside Jamestown as one of the earliest successful European colonies in North America 6. Mayflower Compact signed in 1620 by the Separatists who were fleeing England; the first governing document of Plymouth Colony 7. Massachusetts Bay Colony the administration controlling English colonial settlements in present-day Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maine, and other states in New England 8. John Winthrop a Puritan lawyer - one of the leading political figures in the formation of the Massachusetts Bay Colony followed 1630 9. Puritans English Protestants, particularly Calvinists 10. John Calvin a French theologian, breaking from Roman Catholic tradition and the rest of Protestantism 11. Salem Witch Trials trials held in Massachusetts in 1692 and 1693 regarding the apparent witchcraft practices of the accused 28 people 12. Pequot Massacre an attack made on a Pequot Indian village by men of Massachusetts Bay on May 26, 1637; done in retaliation for previous Pequot attacks on English settlers 13. Metacom's Rebellion (King Philip's War) conflict in the 1670s between the Pequots, English settlers, and Mohegans against an alliance of Native Americans rebelling against English colonial rule; ended in the defeat of the rebels 14. Virginia House of Burgesses the first legislature in North America established by European settlers that contained elected representatives, first held in Jamestown in 1619 15. Maryland Act of Toleration written in 1649 in Maryland, establishing essential religious toleration and acceptance of Christians in the Province of Maryland 16. Bacon's Rebellion a rebellion led by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676 against Governor Berkeley's policies towards the commonplace Indian attacks along the frontier; first rebellion in the Americas involving settlers being discontent with government rule 17. Indentured Servitude a system employed by planters and leaders of colonial provinces to

bring laborers to the English colonies to provide for the labor of planting and harvesting cash crops; indentured for a fixed time to work for their master 18. Headright System a system in which the governors/leaders of colonial provinces would provide acres of land to a master each time a laborer was brought over to the colonies due to indentured servitude; an incentive to increase production of cash crops, and the overall productivity of the colonies 19. Roger Williams an early supporter and proponent of religious toleration and the separation of church and state in the English colonies; established the Province of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (Rhode Island) in 1636, which became a haven for Christian and other religious minorities 20. Anne Hutchinson a key participant in the religious and political controversy and debate in Massachusetts from 1636-38 21. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut essentially the first constitution in North America; established 1639 22. Halfway Covenant a way to give partial church membership to the descendants of original church members 23. Quakers broke from the Church of England in the mid-1600s, emphasizing non-violence and a simple life free of extravagance 24. William Penn a Quaker who founded the Province of Pennsylvania and began development and construction of the city of Philadelphia 25. Mercantilism an economic doctrine that states that government control of trade and economic activities is the only sure way of economic prosperity; a common practice in 1600s and 1700s English colonies 26. Navigation Acts series of laws passed by Parliament that started to prohibit trade between the North American colonies and foreign powers (mostly France, Spain, and the Netherlands) in order to maximize the economic productivity of the colonies 27. Great Awakening a religious phenomenon in the early 18th century that spanned most of British North America, encouraging the spread of Christianity and a revitalization in religious zeal 28. Johnathon Edwards a Calvinist theologian often cited as one of America's greatest intellectuals and philosophers 29. George Whitefield an Anglican preacher and proponent of the Great Awakening 30. John Peter Zenger a German journalist and printer who was editor of the New York Weekly

Journal; accused and acquitted of libel after revealing corruption of New York City government officials 31. Albany Plan an idea proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 (during the French and Indian War) to create a unified central government of the colonies to coordinate the war effort 32. Salutary Neglect a British policy of avoiding strict adherence and upholding of Parliamentary laws to keep the Thirteen Colonies in line 33. Ben Franklin a political theorist, politician, author, printer, inventor, and later one of the founding fathers of the United States 34. John Locke widely known as the father of classical liberalism, an early advocate for capitalism, which conflicted with the wildly popular ideas of mercantilism in the day 35. French and Indian War the North American theater of the Seven Years' War; fought between Great Britain and the Kingdom of France. While the Iroquois sided with the British, most Native Americans joined the French. Ended with the British capture of Quebec 36. Pontiac's Rebellion war between British authorities and a confederation of Native American tribes 37. Treaty of Paris (1763) the treaty that ended the French and Indian War, with the Kingdom of Great Britain victorious over France and Spain; resulted in cession of the rest of North America to Great Britain 38. Paxton Boys Scots-Irish vigilantes in central Pennsylvania that began to retaliate against local Native American actions following the French and Indian War and Pontiac's Rebellion; responsible for the Conestoga Massacre; stopped by Benjamin Franklin 39. Regulators North and South Carolineans that participated in an uprising against corrupt British colonial officials from 1765 to 1771; often regarded as as a preliminary action to the American Revolution 40. Iroquois Confederacy the Five Nations established by Dekanawida and Hiwatha; the Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes; later the Tuscarora came from the Carolinas and were integrated as well

Chapter I
Early Native Americans
majority of Native Americans (near 40 million) inhabited Central America when Columbus arrived in 1492 and in Peru (the Incan Empire); another 7 million in Northern United States and Canada creation stories varied among Native American groups; Iroquois ancestors fell from sky most original Native American ancestors came by land across the Bering Land Bridge Tuscarora Indian tradition claims that a famine in the Old World (Eurasia) forced ancestors to travel east, where the New World gave them abundant game and food Olmecs began the flowering of civilization in Central America around 700 BC, living along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico by 200 BC more than 20,000 people were living in the Mayan city of Tikal; most however were farmers highest-ranking aristocrats claimed descent from the gods and effectively controlled Mayan society Mayan art depicted jaguars, warriors and combat, and complex and elaborate religious rituals astronomers created an accurate calendar that predicted eclipses of the sun and moon another large civilization developed in Central Mexico, centered around the city of Teotihuacan, which had the Pyramid of the Sun and 100 other temples, and over 100,000 residents by 800, however, long-term drought and invasions of nomadic peoples brought about its fall the Aztecs constructed Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco in Central Mexico in 1325 mastered the irrigation techniques of native peoples and established an elaborate culture and society with a focus on order

Aztecs were highly aggressive and eventually subjugated most of Central Mexico; often demanded sacrifices from among subjugated peoples to ensure fertile fields and the reign of the emperor by 1500 Tenochtitlan had more than 200,000 inhabitants, far larger than most European cities of the time societies and Native American groups north of the Rio Grande were generally less organized and complex most parts of independent tribes, clans, or families elders and chiefs ruled with limited power, governing through consent; therefore not technically a ruling class around 100 AD, the Hopewell people in Ohio had domesticated plants and organized a system of large villages, with a trading network stretching from Louisiana to Wisconsin imported copper from the Great Lakes, obsidian from the Yellowstone region, and pottery from the Gulf of Mexico built large burial mounds that still exist around 400, for unknown reasons, the trading network collapsed around 600 AD, the Hohokam people emerged in Arizona and New Mexico, utilizing irrigation to grow large amounts of crops to support growth by 1000 AD they were constructing large multi-room houses called pueblos by 900 AD the Anasazi people became master architects, to the north however, extended droughts and soil exhaustion from large-scale irrigation disrupted maize production around 1150 AD, collapsing most of Pueblo society the last large-scale culture to emerge north of the Rio Grande was that of the Mississippian people around 800 planting new strains of maize and beans, the Mississippians produced an agricultural surplus that allowed them to live in small, fortified temple cities by 1350, however, the Mississippians were in rapid decline, suffering from overburdening the environment and depleting nearby forests and herds of deer the Eastern woodland Native American groups, chiefly the Iroquois peoples, were highly

matrilineal in nature; women cultivated the fields when Europeans eventually arrived, most Indians inhabiting the Eastern woodlands lived in small kinship-based societies; the city-states that had been along the Mississippi and in the Southwest had vanished

Europeans Encounter Africa and the Americas

by 1400, Europe had just come out of the Black Plague Chinese merchant vessels and exploratory fleets had already reached the Eastern coast of Africa Muslim-dominated Middle East controlled all of Europe's trade with the Far East in 1450, only Naples, Paris, and London had as many as 100,000 residents the large majority of European people were peasants, whose families were leased homes on the land of a lord in return for working the fields disease and malnourishment wracked the ranks of peasants, however disease killed half of all peasant children before the age of twenty-one before 1500, princes and kings benefited from the labor of the peasants, and conscripted en-masse their subjects to participate in wars the lower and upper nobles, however, had far more influence than the monarch European society highly patriarchal; wife and children had to submit to father of the household originally most Europeans were pagan; the advent of Christianity taught to convert pagans and to remove heretical teachings inconsistent with the teachings of the Church Renaissance began due to flourishing and mixing of arts with the Middle East the rich cities of Venice and Genoa, which maintained a monopoly on Eastern goods flowing to Europe, were republics practiced civic humanism which emphasized loyalty to the state Michelangelo, Andrea Palladio, and Filippo Brunelleschi designed great architectural wonders Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Jacopo Bellini produced magnificent works of ark and paintings

Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513, a guide to ruling; viewed humans as inherently evil monarchs allowed merchants to trade through their realms Portugal, under the direction of Prince Henry (1394-1460) led a surge of maritime commercial expansion instigated an attack on the Muslim port of Ceuta, which revealed the trade of gold and slaves across the Sahara oversaw the creation of the caravel by 1435 Henry's explorers had reached Sierra Leone where they traded salt, wine, and fish for African ivory and gold

West African Society

most West Africans lived in extended families composing smaller villages and farmed nearby plots lived in diverse ethnic groups and spoke four basic languages there were some, however, city-states that produced high-quality leather, metals, textiles, and pottery new plants and animals introduced to West Africa by European traders after 1492, maize, manioc, and tomatoes were introduced to Africa from the trade with the Americas however, yellow fever, malaria, and dysentery often killed many European traders and explorers venturing into Sub-Saharan Africa in 1488, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, Vasco da Gama landed in India, circumnavigating the Middle East trading routes that fed to the cities of Venice and Genoa, which had previously maintained a monopoly on East Asian goods and services soon the Portuguese government set up fortified trading posts along the African coast Portuguese began to involve in the African slave trade in the late 1400s significant number of African slaves were trade slaves by 1550, the maritime slave trade expanded enormously as Europeans set up sugar

plantations in Portuguese Brazil and the Caribbean region

The Spanish conquest

Spanish reconquista sought to push Muslims from Iberia in 1492, Granada was captured and the Muslims were pushed from now-Christian Iberia Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon commissioned the Genoan mariner Christopher Columbus to open up a second route to India to compete with the Portuguese Columbus believed the native tribes would easily convert to Christianity, and demanded tribute from the Arawak, Taino, and Carib peoples In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon explored the coast of Florida the same year, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean the Conquistador Hernan Cortes led an expedition to Tenochtitlan; captured and killed the Aztec emperor Montezuma and destroyed Tenochtitlan, killing thousands with disease and using the Aztec's enemies to destroy an entire civilization a smallpox epidemic ravaged Tenochtitlan during the war with Cortes and the Spaniards, which killed Montezuma's brother and thousands of others that were unprepared to deal with European disease in 1524, Francisco Pizarro, another conquistador, led an expedition against the Inca Empire in Peru and the Western Andes mountains conquered the Inca Empire with 168 men and 67 horses over half of the Inca population died from European disease by 1532 disease brought Mesoamerican population from 30 million to 3 million from 1500 to 1650 conquistadors and descendants held encomiendas royal grants that gave them legal control of the labor of the native population, allowing them to gather immense wealth and influence horses, animals, and food brought west the Columbian Exchange resulted in population growth in Europe and provided a new

source of income for European traders Mesoamericans and other Native American peoples converted and assimilated en-masse during initial Spanish colonization over 350,000 Spaniards immigrated to the royal holdings and colonies in the Americas between 1500 and 1650 3.2 million Spaniards, 5.5 million mixed Indian and Europeans, 1 million African slaves, and 7.5 million Indians

The Protestant Reformation

the German monk Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses condemning Catholic practices of the day, including the purchasing of indulgences for the forgiveness of sins Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Pope sought to imprison him, but the German princes (that opposed the Emperor due to political reasons and in quest for more autonomy) harbored Luther and prevented his arrest Luther rejected the idea of working for salvation and instead believed only faith would give entrance to Heaven downplayed the role of the Pope and the clergy as mediators between the people and God upheld the belief that the Bible, and not Church doctrine, was the ultimate authority in matters of faith John Calvin established the most rigorous Protestant regime preached the doctrine of predestination lack of free will King Henry VIII of England initially opposed Protestantism, but when the Pope refused to grant his request for divorce with his wife (to marry Anne Boleyn), he established the Anglican Church of England Puritans including Calvinists and some Anglicans wanted to purify the Church of England by simplifying its doctrine

Spain and England

gold and silver from Mexico and Peru made Spain the wealthiest nation in Europe, with King Philip II is most powerful ruler

presided over city-states in the Low Countries, Italy, America, Africa, and the East Indies Philip tried to root out Islam in North Africa and Protestantism in the Low Countries Spanish-led Christian fleet devastated Ottoman fleet at Lepanto in 1571 Spanish Netherlands became extremely wealthy from trade with Portuguese Dutch and Flemish revolted in 1566 Elizabeth I sent 6,000 troops to assist the rebels Philip sought revenge and dispatched the Spanish Armada to defeat the English and restore Catholicism to England a fierce storm and the English fleet, led by Francis Drake, defeated the armada easily oppressed by taxes (to fund his wars) and worried of constant warfare, 200,000 Castilians migrated to the Americas Dutch merchants created the West India Company English population increased from 3 to 5 million from 1500 to 1650 wool industry relied on outwork: merchants bought wool from the owners of great estates and then hired landless peasants to spin and weave the wool to cloth English economy supported by doctrine of mercantilism; government encouraging of domestic manufacturing inflation struck during the Price Revolution as nobles lost wealth, their power within the House of Lords diminished rapidly rising gentry members rose in the House of Commons Price Revolution therefore encouraged representative government and institutions that previously did not exist or maintain much power/influence enclosure acts passed by Parliament, allowed owners to fence in open fields that surrounded many peasant villages and put sheep to grave on them Little Ace Age around 1600 brought about huge price increases in crops and social discontent

Chapter II

France, Spain, and the Netherlands in the Americas

in Mesoamerica, the Spanish seized Indian lands and quickly began converting them to Catholicism early Spanish explorers, after seizing Central America, made expeditions into what later became the Southwestern United States by 1560s Spanish became determined to defend their colonies from the English Algonquins destroyed Jesuit religious missions along the East Coast, as far north as the Chesapeake Bay military setbacks prompted Spanish crown to adopt Christianization placed primary responsibility for pacification of new lands under missionaries, rather than conquistadors Indians that practiced polygamy were whipped and sold into slavery Franciscans converted, assimilated, and used force labor Franciscans ignored laws protecting native peoples and allowed encomenderos (landowners) to extract goods and forced labor from natives in 1610, the Spanish established a system of forced labor in New Mexico, establishing Santa Fe Pueblo population over the next two generations lowered from 60,000 to 17,000 Pueblo shaman Pope called for Pueblos to expel the Spaniards in 1680, a rebellion killed hundreds of Spaniards, but by 1690 they were put down

New France and Canada

in the far Northeast, the French attempted conversion of their own Louis XIV subsidized immigration to the new colonies, making New France a royal colony indentured servants served for 3 years, who were paid yearly and would eventually receive a lease-hold farm of 27,000 that migrated to New France before 1760, almost two-thirds eventually returned to France New France became a great venture of acquiring profitable furs from the North and West French introduction of diseases destroyed between 25% and 90% of many Indian groups

Five Iroquois Nations participated in many fur trading-related wars could acquire guns and goods from the Dutch and then attack other Indians and the French by water the devastation of neighboring Indian tribes by the Iroquois led to undisputed dominance of upstate New York and full control of trade with the Dutch and the French by 1701, tired of bloodshed, the Iroquois signed a series of peace treaties with both the English and French Jesuits originally founded to counter the Protestant Reformation were the key to French conversion and assimilation of local Indian peoples epidemics brought by French traders and missionaries killed thousands

The New Netherlands colony and New Amsterdam

by 1600 the Netherlands was the trading hub of Northern Europe in 1609, Dutch merchants dispatched Henry Hudson to locate a new source of supply in North America discovered the Hudson River and established Fort Orange (later Albany, effectively starting the New Netherlands colony) West India Company established with a monopoly over the fur trade, and established New Amsterdam; initially failed to prosper by 1646, only one proprietor Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, succeeded

The English arrive in the Americas

English occupied New Amsterdam and renamed it New York City in 1664 after a Dutch revolt in 1673, it was ruled more like a conquered province than a colony minor nobles organized first English colonies in 1580s Sir Humphrey Gilbert's settlement in Newfoundland collapsed for lack of financing, and Sir Ferdinando Gorges' colony along the coast of Maine foundered due to harsh weather Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke Colony the Lost Colony - most famous in North Carolina traders a part of the Virginia Company established Jamestown in 1607, for gold; but there was none by 1611 the Company had sent more than 1,200 settlers, but fewer than half survived

disease and weather destroyed colonies Powhatan, leader of Algonquin-speaking peoples near Jamestown, treated English as allies-through-trade by 1622, land ownership, self-government, and a judicial system attracted some 4,500 new colonists Indian named Opechancanough became leader of a confederacy of Indian tribes, renaming himself Massatamohtnock in 1622; led an attack by twelve tribes that killed 347 white settlers, nearly a third of their number English fought back by seizing Indian food and supplies sold surviving Indians into slavery in 1624, King James I and IV revoked the charter for the Virginia Company and made it a royal colony second tobacco-growing colony in Maryland King Charles I succeeded James as King, and was secretly sympathetic to the outcast Catholics in 1632, he granted the lands bordering the Chesapeake to Cecilius Calvert, a Catholic aristocrat who carried the name Lord Baltimore Maryland's population grew quickly as laws prevented persecution of fellow Protestants tobacco quickly became chief export prospect of owning land brought thousands to Maryland and Virginia by 1700 over 100,000 lived there, most as indentured servants most indentured servants did not escape from poverty female indentured servants generally fared better than male counterparts legal slavery did not exist; English common law did not exist chattel slavery (person owning slave as property) tobacco boom ended in 1660s; limited demand outstripped by high production, causing extremely low prices Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, and 1663) restricted trade of colonies to only Great Britain, with any foreign trade heavily supervised and delivered from British markets in

Europe amount of exports increased, despite this, due to increasing population and immigration to the Americas elite nobles came to own half of all land in Virginia by 1720, Charles Carroll owned 47,000 acres of land and had it cultivated and farmed by hundreds of slaves, indentured servants, and workers William Berkeley made governor in 1660 number of Indians in Virginia by 1675 was down to just 3,500 fighting broke out in late 1675 when several militiamen murdered thirty Indians; defying the governor's orders, over 1,000 other militia attacked an Indian village and killed five chiefs Indians retaliated by attacking outer settlements and killing 300 whites Berkeley proposed idea of defensive strategy, with forts ringing the outer territories of the colonies Nathaniel Bacon, a young, charismatic, wealthy, and influential man a part of Berkeley's gubernatorial council, demanded to lead troops against the Indians; denied, he did so anyway Bacon was arrested and then freed, and his supporters demanded new elections; new political reforms curbed the power of the governor and re-established the poor man's vote Bacon's army burned Jamestown and plundered the plantations of Berkeley's allies sudden death of dysentery in October 1676 destroyed the rebellion and order was soon restored in 1705 the House of Burgesses legalized chattel slavery formally

The Northeastern Colonies

between 1620 and 1640, thousands of Puritans fled to America many to New England Pilgrims that settled in Plymouth were religious separatists Puritans who had left the Church of England only half of the original 102 Pilgrims survived through the winter to the next spring

by 1640, there were 3,000 settlers in Plymouth King Charles dissolved Parliament and claimed power to rule through divine right; thousands flocked to America began in 1630 with departure of 900 Puritans led by John Winthrop, who later became the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony Winthrop and allies established the Massachusetts Bay Colony, centered around town of Boston transformed joint-stock corporation into a representative political system originally the General Court of shareholders Puritans tried to recreate simplicity of first Christians, eliminating bishops and placed power in the hands of the ordinary members of the congregation hence name of Congregationalist Puritan magistrates purge their society of religious dissidents to receive God's favor

Challenges to Puritan authority

Roger Williams, a minister of the Puritan church in Salem, north of Boston, taught that magistrates over only the physical world, but not spiritual lives followers established Providence and received a corporate charter in 1644 to establish Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson put on trial by magistrates in 1637 for teaching that inward grace freed an individual from the rules of the church found guilty for having heretical beliefs, and banished; she followed Roger Williams in exile to Rhode Island

English Civil War

Archbishop Laud imposed a Church of England prayer book on Presbyterian Scotland in 1642, and a Scottish army invaded England, sparking the English Civil War Parliamentarian forces, led by Oliver Cromwell, secured final victory in 1649, and Parliament executed King Charles I, then proclaiming a republican commonwealth when Cromwell took dictatorial control in 1653, popular support began to buckle after his death in 1658, moderate Protestants and a vengeful aristocracy re-established

the monarchy and put Charles II on the throne in 1660 viewed as a victory for the Antichrist by many Puritans

Puritanism in the Americas

Puritans believed world filled with supernatural forces this belief stemmed from Catholic belief in miracles, Protestants with faith in grace, and even parts from paganism and Native American animism and shamanism thousands of Puritans followed the pagan astrological charts to determine best times to marry and plant crops zealous ministers attacked these practices fervently between 1647 and 1662, New England civil authorities hanged 14 people for witchcraft, mostly older women for being double-tongued or having an unruly spirit in Salem in 1692, the Massachusetts Bay authorities arrested and tried 175 for potential witchcraft, hanging 18 of them and pressing another to death many were disturbed by the mass-execution, which provided a basis for not prosecuting people in the future on charges of witchcraft beginning stages of the Enlightenment also discouraged such accusations (began around 1675 in Europe) Puritans constantly rejected practices of feudal European society General Courts of Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut bestowed title of each township to a group of settlers proprietors who den distributed land among male heads of families most adult men participated in town meetings in Massachusetts Bay Colony, ordinary farmers had more political power than in Chesapeake Bay area

The Indians in the East

citing the Book of Genesis, the magistrates of Massachusetts Bay declared that Indians were not native to their land; it belonged to English like most people of the time, the English Puritans saw the Indians as savages though not viewed as genetically inferior, they were viewed as whites with sun-darked

skin who were culturally inferior Puritans created praying towns in the 1670s, there were three times as many whites as Indians roughly 55,000 English like Opechancanough in Virginia and Pope in New Mexico, Metacom concluded that only war could save his people; in 1675, he forged an Indian alliance and attacked white settlements throughout New England war only ended when Indians ran out of powder, ammunition, and guns; and when Metacom was killed following a betrayal by the Mohegan and Mohawk peoples over the course of the 1770s, the Indians would gain revenge against the English Puritans with help from the Catholic French all Indian peoples were diminished in number by diseases, guns, and alcohol trade a strength of the English and French; Indians did not realize the worth of the animal furs they sold to the Europeans Iroquois noted for women advising the chiefs; essentially matriarchal

Chapter III
The British in America
initially in the first half of British rule in the 1600s, the government ruled decentralized; therefore, local oligarchs and governors ruled as they pleased when King Charles II ascended to the throne, he gave to eight noblemen the area of Carolina, and gave New Jersey and newly-conquered New Netherlands to James, Duke of York (his brother), renamed New York the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669) prescribed to the manorial system, though not fully carried out inspired by Bacon's rebellion, residents of Albemarle County in 1677 staged their own uprising future South Carolina rejected the Fundamental Constitutions Carolina merchants traded with neighboring Indian peoples by trading manufactured goods and deerskins

by 1708, white Carolinians were working on coastal plantations with 1,400 and 2,900 African slaves; South Carolina a violent frontier settlement until the 1720s settlers in Pennsylvania pursued a pacifist policy in regards to the Indians in 1681, Charles II gave Pennsylvania to William Penn in due to a debt owed to Penn's father designed Pennsylvania as a refuge for his fellow Quakers the Society of Friends like Puritans, the Quakers wanted to change Christianity back to its early simplicity and spirituality rejected Puritan pessimistic doctrine of Calvinism followed teachings of two English visionaries: George Fox and Margaret Fell; argued God had imbued all men and women with an inner light of grace and understanding Penn's Frame of Government applied the radical beliefs of the Quakers to political structure of his colony ensured religious freedom prompted thousands of Quakers mostly yeomen to come to Pennsylvania established city of Philadelphia with wide streets and city parks Penn published pamphlets in Dutch and German to attract European Protestants in 1683, Saxon immigrants founded Germantown, which soon became a hub of German immigrant activity mercantilism gained hold in English economic circles and helped to manage the economic growth and trade of the American Colonies Revenue Act of 1673 placed a plantation duty on American exports of sugar and tobacco English government backed the policies of mercantilism by force of arms in three commercial wars between 1652 and 1674, the English drove the Dutch from New Netherlands, and attacked Dutch forts and ships along the Gold Coast English merchants expanded their fleets from 150,000 tons to 340,000 tons (1640 to 1690) many colonists refused to comply with English mercantile laws

Massaschusetts Bay assembly declared that the laws of England did not apply to the colonies in America Lords of Trade began to punish those that opposed the royal/parliamentary edicts on mercantile trade denied Massachusetts Bay claims to the territory of New Hampshire and even created a new colony to spite them, placing it in control of a royal governor in 1679

Change in England affects the Colonies

James II and his accession to the throne in 1685 prompted further imperial regulations by the King aggressive and absolutist, he had lived in France during Cromwell's regime, where he admired the absolutist authority of Louis XIV believed that monarchs maintained a divine right to rule their realms James invited political opposition by ignoring the advice of Parliament, revoking many townships in the Americas, and openly practicing Roman Catholicism Protestant bishops and parliamentary leaders in the Whig Party led a quick and bloodless coup known as the Glorious Revolution, deposing James II and forcing him into exile Whigs did not want a democracy; rather, they craved political power forced King William and Queen Mary to accept the Declaration of Rights in 1689, thereby enhancing the power of the House of Commons cited the works of John Locke (Two Treatises on Government, 1690) to justify their actions in deposing the King uprising in Maryland where Puritan leaders seized Governor Andros, supported by militia, and sent him to England had economic and religious causes since 1660, falling tobacco prices hurt smallholders, tenant farmers, and former indentured servants in New York, Jacob leisler led rebellion against the Dominion of New England a former German soldier initially, all classes and ethnic groups rallied behind him

denunciation of political rivals soon alienated many English-speaking New Yorkers William and Mary promoted an empire based on commerce following the absolutist rule of James II Parliament created Board of Trade in 1696 to supervise American settlements; resulted in another period of lax in administration Creek Indians wanted to be the dominant tribe in their region in 1704, the Creek destroyed Franciscan missions in northern Florida, attacked Pensacola, and sold 1,000 Apalachees to South Carolinian slave traders Iroquois followed policy of peace with English despite stalemate in the Americas, the English won major territorial and comercial concessions through its victories in Europe Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 allowed English occupation of Newfoundland, Acadia, and the Hudson Bay region of Northern Canada from France British interest in American affairs reflected growth of new agricultural system: centered around sugar, tobacco, rice, and other subtropical products from the Caribbean and South America Africans formed majority of transatlantic migrants to the Western Hemisphere merchants imported slaves from Africa to provide labor on plantations producing sugar cultivation of sugar and coffee after 1750 drove the slave trade even further more English residents in the West Indies than the Chesapeake and New England colonies combined (44,000 vs 35,000 total) Scottish economist Adam Smith noted in The Wealth of Nations that sugar was the most profitable crop in Europe and America

The reliance on the slave trade

at the height of the slave trade (around 1790), Britian was exporting about 300,000 guns to Africa, to exchange for captives and equip slave raiders, and a British ship carrying 300 to 350 slaves left an African port every other day stimulated British shipbuilding and manufacturing Atlantic slave trade uprooted over 11 million Africans

Middle Passage from the Gold/Slave/Ivory Coast to the New World nearly 100,000 slaves died on mid-voyage uprisings, and more than a million died of sickness on the month-long journey (15% of transported slaves) relentless exploitation of slaves on plantations of Northwestern Brazil and West Indies sugar prices high and price of slaves low; plantation owners worked slaves to death and simply bought more after Bacon's rebellion, planters in Virginia and Maryland took advantage of the increased British trade in African slaves a new plantation regime built upon African slavery rather than earlier indentured servitude by 1720, blacks made up 20% of the Chesapeake population, and slavery became central feature of society conditions of slaves in the mainland colonies were much less severe than in the West Indies slaves in South Carolina labored under oppressive conditions by 1705, more blacks in SC than whites slaves came from many states in Western Africa initially, blacks only thought of themselves as part of a specific state, clan, or family over time they made friendships and married across ethnic lines a common language (English, French, or Gullah) was key to allowing the development of an African American community to take place African values, despite being suppressed by white slaveowners, persisted through generations drastic limits on slave creativity; education was denied and accumulated few material goods and private property if any slaves who disobeyed or resisted would often be lashed or beaten some newly-arrived Africans fled to the frontier, marrying into Indian tribes or establishing traditional clans/families those fluent in English tried to pass as freemen/women

South Carolina witnessed the largest slave rebellion Stono Rebelliong of 1739 Spanish governor of Florida promised refuge and freedom for escaped slaves 69 slaves escaped by Feb. 1739 when war broke out between England and Spain in September, 75 Africans revolted and killed many whites near the Stono river

Slavery expands in the south; society in the Colonies

southern colonies became full-fledged slave societies William Byrd II, a colonial, mocked in English schools for being such Virginia estate of 43,000 acres and 200 African slaves failed to impress father of his would-be wife to avoid another Bacon's Rebellion, Chesapeake gentry tended to concerns of middleand lower-class whites gradually lowered taxes; encouraged smallholders to improve their economic fortunes by investing in slaves Chesapeake and South Carolinian wealthy women emulated the English elite by 1700, the economies of the West Indies and New England were strongly interwoven South Atlantic trading system linked the entire British Empire merchants in Boston, Newport, Providence, Philadelphia, and New York invested their profits in new ships and factories that processed raw materials into manufactured goods transatlantic commerce expanded greatly 500 annual voyages in the 1680s to 1,500 in the 1730s by 1750, populations of Newport and Charleston at 10,000; Boston had 15,000, New York almost 18,000 Philadelphia the largest at 30,000 in 1776 prosperous merchants dominated seaport cities in 1750, 40 merchants controlled 50% of Philadelphia's trade; taxable assets averaging 10,000 pounds

a tailor was lucky to accumulate 30 pounds worth of property, far less than the 2,000 owned by an ordinary merchant at death of the 300 listed in the probate inventory of a blacksmith laboring men and women formed lowest rungs of colonial urban society stagnant commerce threatened the financial security of merchants and artisans

New Politics of the Empire

following the Glorious Revolution, representative assemblies in the Americas followed the example of the English Whigs, limited the powers of crown officials many assemblies in the early 1700s refused to give royal governors salaries despite demands from the King leading the increasingly powerful legislative assemblies were the wealthy colonial elite most property-owning white men had the right to vote Parliament persuaded to pass the Molasses Act of 1733 when American rum distillers began to buy cheap molasses from the French islands Act allowed mainland colonies to export fish and farm products to the French islands, but placed a high tariff on French molasses ten colonial assemblies established land banks, lending paper money to farmers, who used their land as collateral for the loans used currency to buy tools or livestock or to pay their creditors, thereby stimulating trade Parliament passed Currency Act in 1751, barred New England colonies from establishing new land banks and prohibited use of paper money to pay private debts new regulations angered a new generation of political leaders in England Charles Townshend charged that American assemblies had assumed many duties of the crown illegally in 1749 in 1650s, England sought to create a government-controlled system of colonies in the Americas; they had succeeded economically, but internal unrest (Glorious Revolution) and neglect resulted in increased independence in the American colonies

Chapter IV

Society in New England

in 1630s, Puritans left England, where handful of nobles owned 75% of the arable land and relied on servants to farm it Puritans' commitment to independence did not extend to women women's subordinate role in society impressed upon them throughout their lives women assumed role of dutiful helpmates to their husbands throughout all the colonies bearing and rearing children were equally important tasks size of farms shrank, many couples chose to have fewer children despite this, women still remained tightly bound by web of legal and cultural restrictions property ownership and family authority were closely related marriage law in 1700s English common law was not contract between equals father's duty to provide inheritances for children; failure meant loss of status in community New England's population doubled every generation parents had less to give to children; therefore had less control over their lives New England farmers survived on smaller plots by developing full potential of exchange of labors and goods between families the Middle Atlantic colonies (New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania) became home to peoples of differing origins, languages, and religions Scots-Irish Presbyterians, English and Welsh Quakers,German Lutherans and Moravians, Dutch Reformed Protestants, and others ample fertile land and a long growing season attracted migrants to the Middle Colonies, compared to New England despite land demand, many migrants refused to settle in New York's fertile Hudson River valley most tenant families hoped that hard work and luck would let them sell enough wheat to buy their own farmsteads in rural Pennsylvania and New Jersey, wealth was distributed more evenly at the other end of social scale, one-half of White population in Middle Atlantic colonies

owned no land and little personal property merchants and artisans took advantage of amply supply of labor to organize an outwork system bought wool/flax from farmers and paid propertyless workers and land-poor farm families to spin it into yarn/cloth

Ethnicities and nationalities in the Colonies

Middle Colonies not a melting pot: European migrants held tightly to their traditions, creating a patchwork of ethnically and religiously diverse communities migrants preserved cultural identity by marrying within ethnic and religious lines in Pennsylvania and western New Jersey, Quakers were the dominant social group; first because of their numbers, and later because of social status, wealth, and influence in 1737, Governor Thomas Penn used dubious tactics to remove the Lenni-Lenape Quaker vision of a peaceable kingdom attracted 100,000 German immigrants who were fleeing their homelands because of war and military conscription Germans soon dominated many districts of eastern Pennsylvania, and thousands more moved down the Shenandoah Valley into the western parts of Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas migrants from Ireland accounted for the largest group of incoming Europeans; about 115,000 in number lured by the place that God has opened a door for their deliverance... all that a man works for is his own; there are no revenue hounds to take it from us here in Western Europe, leaders of church and state condemned religious diversity in colonies, religious sects enforced moral behavior through communal self-discipline in 1740s, Quaker dominance of Pennsylvania came under attack by 1750s, ethnic and religious passions flared in Middle Atlantic colonies

The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening

two great European cultural movements hit the Americas in the middle-1700s: the Enlightenment and Pietism (emphasis of personal relationship with God)

initially, many turned to folk wisdom to explain the natural happenings of the world colonists held to beliefs despite scientific revolution of 16th and 17th centuries, which challenged both folk and traditional Christian world views English philosopher John Locke Concerning Human Understanding, Two Treatises on Government revolutionary ideas and theories those ideas came to America by way of books, travelers, and educated immigrants Benjamin Franklin exemplar of American Enlightenment like many urban artisans, wealthy Virginia planters, and affluent seaport merchants, Franklin became a deist: God set wheels in motion for life, but did not directly intervene in day-to-day affairs Franklin popularized the practical outlook of the Enlightenment in Poor Richard's Almanack many educated Americans turned to deism in 1720s, German migrants carried Pietism to America, sparking a religious revival American-born Pietist movement appeared in Puritan New England in 1730s, Jonathan Edwards restored zeal in Congregational churches in the Connecticut River Valley Solomon Stoddard taught that God was compassionate and Sainthood was not limited to a select few; Edwards rejected this took inspiration from teachings of John Calvin in that men and women were helpless, and were completely dependent on God George Whitefield transformed local revivals inspired by Edwards and the Tennants into a Great Awakening spanned all the British colonies in North America skilled publicity and compelling presence assisted in transmitting message across the colonies Great Awakening very controversial; conservative ministers condemned fainting, crying out, and convulsions that had become a part of revitalist meetings undermined the allegiance to legally established churches and tax-supported ministers

conservative ministers attacked the practice of giving women right to speak at church, which was becoming popular Awakening challenged authority of all ministers in many rural villages, revivalism reinforced communal values of farm families by questioning the moneygrubbing practices of merchants and land speculators as religious enthusiasm spread, churches founded new colleges to educate their young men and to train ministers in southern colonies (royal crown colonies officially), religious enthusiasm triggered sharp social conflict Anglican ministers few in number, and landless whites attended church irregularly in the southern colonies, the Great Awakening challenged the dominance of both the Church of England and the planter elite to halt spread of New Light ideas, Virginia's governor denounced them as false teachings New Light Baptist ministers had no problem reaching out to ordinary folk and therefore won large numbers of converts in Virginia in the 1760s even slaves welcome at Baptist revivals; George Whitefield had urged Carolina slave owners to bring blacks into Christian fold in 1740s despite attacks, Baptist numbers continued to grow by 1775, about 15% of Virginia's whites and hundreds of black slaves had joined Baptist churches Baptist revival in the Chesapeake may have changed the form of worship, but did not change the social order to a significant extent

The French and Indian War

in 1754, both France and Britain had laid claim to much of the land west of the Appalachians for decades, native peoples used their control of the fur trade to bargain for guns and subsidies from French and British officials at the Albany Congress (meeting between Board of Trade and Iroquois) the British asked for help against the French

Benjamin Franklin proposed the Plan of Union; included continental assembly plan rejected a rising British statesman, William Pitt, and Lord Halifax, were strong advocates for colonial expansion in 1756, the conflict had spread to Europe (Seven Years' War) William Pitt emerged as architect for British war effort; a master of strategy, both commercial and military committed a fleet of ships and 30,000 British regulars to the American conflict French outnumbered in Americas 14 to 1 forced the French to abandon Fort Duquesne, and General James Wolfe took Quebec after the Battle of the Plains of Abraham Montreal captured in 1760, completing the conquest of Canada Treaty of Paris in 1763 confirmed Britain's triumph

The aftermath and industrial growth

Pontiac's Rebellion: Indians besieged Detroit, killed/captured over 2,000 settlers; result of French & Indian War Proclamation of 1763 declared that white settlements west of the Appalachians were prohibited Britain's unprecedented economic resources facilitated easy victory over France mechanical power was a key ingredient of Britain's industrial revolution colonists increased their exports of tobacco, rice, indigo, and wheat to pay for manufactured goods Americans used their profits from trade to buy English manufactures in a consumer revolution, raising the standard of living Dutch tenant farmers, Wappinger Indians, and migrants from Massachusetts all laid claim to land held by the Van Rensselaer and Linvingston families other land disputes erupted in New Jersey and the Southern Colonies revival of proprietary claims by manorial lords and English nobles reflected the rising price of land in the Atlantic coastal plain

colonial population continued to grow, intensifying demand for arable land as landowners moved west, they sparked new disputes over Indian policy violence broke out in backcountry of South Carolina South Carolina Regulators rose in demand of greater representation in the South Carolinian government for the western districts and counties North Carolinian debtors defied the government's authority to save their farms from grasping creditors and tax-hungry officials in 1771 (like 1675), colonial conflicts became entwined with imperial politics