Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Kerry Whalley Carol Neville Peter Roberson Greg Rickard Geoff Phillips Faye Jeffery Janette Ellis
Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and associated companies around the world
Pearson Education Australia A division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd Level 9, 5 Queens Road Melbourne 3004 Australia www.pearsoned.com.au/schools Offices in Sydney, Brisbane and Perth, and associated companies throughout the world. Copyright Pearson Education Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2005 First published 2005 All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Designed by Polar Design Edited by Kay Waters Illustrated by Wendy Gorton, Bruce Rankin, Vasja Koman and John Ward Prepress work by The Type Factory Set in Melior 10 pt Produced by Pearson Education Australia Printed in Hong Kong National Library of Australia CataloguinginPublication data: Science focus 4. Includes index. For secondary school students. ISBN 0 1236 0447 8. 1. Science - Textbooks. I. Whalley, Kerry. II. Title. 500
UNIT
iv v viii 1
Motion
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7
Describing motion Acceleration Newtons first law Newtons second law Newtons third law Gravity Work and energy Chapter review
135
136 147 153 159 164 169 176 183
Chemical reactions
1.1 Writing chemical equations 1.2 More and faster! Rate and yield
considerations
2
3 10 15 (on CD) 22
UNIT
185
186 192 196 203 211 221
Materials
Pure metals and alloys Mining and minerals Corrosion of metals Plastics and fibres Science focus: Nanotechnology 2.5 Soaps Chapter review
23
24 29 38 43 54 (on CD) 58
UNIT
UNIT
7
Evolution
The evolution of a theory Evolution unravelled Evidence for evolution Human evolution Scence focus: Putting flesh on old bones: archaeology and Australia today Chapter review
222
223 232 239 249 255 260
UNIT
8
59
60 68 76 84 91 (on CD) 93
UNIT
Global issues
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4
Global warming The ozone layer Nuclear radiation: good or evil? Energy crisis Chapter review
262
263 272 276 285 293
Genetics
Inheritance Human inheritance The molecule of life Controlling inheritance Science focus: Biotechnology and DNA fingerprinting Chapter review
95
96 106 114 120 128 133
UNIT
UNIT
UNIT
9
294
295 299 302 308 310 311
iii
We would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs and text. The following abbreviations are used in this list: t = top, b = bottom, l = left, r = right. The Age: figure 2.1.5. Andrea Simonato: figure SF 9.1. Auscape: figures 7.2.1, 7.2.8(l), 7.3.7. Australian Associated Press: figure 1.2.1. Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation: figure 8.4.6. Australian Picture Library: figures 4.2.3, 5.2.9; Joel W. Rogers, figure 2.1.3; Sandro Vannini, figure 2.1.4; William Taufic, figure 2.2.9; Penny Tweedie, figures 2.4.4, 2.4.9, 6.1.5, 6.4.5, 7.1.5; Rob Lewine, figure 4.2.1; Nick Rains, figure 6.1.6; Lester V. Bergman, figure 6.3.8; Jonathan Blair, figure 7.3.11; Larry Williams, figure 7.4.9; Pam Gardner, figure SF 7.5; Les Stone, figure 8.1.9; Ric Ergenbright, figure 9.1.3; Jim Sugar, figure 9.2.3. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency: figure 8.4.9. Blackmagic Design: figure 3.5.13 Bureau of Meteorology: figure 8.1.7. CSIRO: figures 4.4.11, 8.1.5; CSIRO Human Nutrition. Reproduced from 12345+ Food and Nutrition Plan (K. Baghurst et al., 1990) by permission of CSIRO Australia, figure 6.1.3. David Heffernan: figures 3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.5, 3.5.7, 3.5.9. Dorling Kindersley: p. 2, figures 2.2.2, 3.1.8, 3.4.2, 7.3.5. The DW Stock Picture Library: figure 7.1.1. Fairfax Images: figures 5.1.9, 5.7.2. Getty Images: p. 135, figures 5.7.3, 6.1.7, 6.2.2, 6.4.10, p. 222, figures 7.1.3, 7.4.2, 8.3.9. Greg Rickard: figure 2.1.2. Jim Bowler: figures SF 7.2, SF 7.3(b), SF 7.4, SF 7.6.
Jim DeLillo: photo by Jim DeLillo, figure 3.4.10. Dr Karl Kruszelnicki: reproduced with kind permission from the author of Great Mythconceptions, HarperCollins, 2004. Article can be found on his website <www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments>: p. 91. NASA: figures 5.5.2, 8.1.1(l), 8.1.1(r), 8.2.6. Newspix: Anthony Weate, p. 23; Susan Turner, figure 2.2.4; James Knowler, figure 4.4.7; David Crosling, figure SF 7.7; News Limited, figure 8.4.8. Pearson Education Australia: Ben Killingsworth, figures 1.3.3, 4.4.4; Tricia Confoy, figure 2.3.1; Elizabeth Anglin, figures 2.4.1, 2.5.2, SF 3.1, 4.4.2, SF 4.3, 6.3.2, 6.5.13, 9.1.4, 9.1.5, SF 9.3; Anna Small, figures 3.4.11, 4.2.11, SF 9.2; Peter Saffin, figures 4.2.4, SF 9.4. Photolibrary.com: figures 1.1.5, 1.2.2, 1.3.12, 1.4.5, 2.2.6, 2.4.12, 2.4.13, 2.5.4, SF 2.2, SF 2.4, SF 2.5, SF 2.6, SF 2.7, p. 59, 3.1.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.12, 3.3.6, 3.3.8, 3.3.10, 3.3.11, 3.4.3, 3.5.14, SF 3.2, p. 95, 4.1.1, 4.1.4, 4.1.6, 4.2.5, 4.3.6, 4.3.7, 4.4.1, 4.4.3, 4.4.9, SF 4.1, SF 4.2, SF 4.7, 5.1.2, 5.1.3, 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.3.3, 5.3.5, 5.6.3, 5.6.4, p. 185, 6.3.5, 6.3.6, 6.3.7, 6.3.9, 6.3.11, 6.4.1, 6.4.2, 6.4.4, 6.4.7, 6.4.8, 6.4.9, 6.5.1, 6.5.2, 6.5.4, 6.5.7, 6.5.8, 6.5.9, 6.5.10, 6.5.12, 6.5.14, 7.1.2, 7.1.4, 7.1.7, 7.1.9, 7.1.12, 7.1.13, 7.2.2, 7.2.11(b), 7.2.11(t), 7.4.4, 7.4.6, 7.4.7, 7.4.8, 8.3.2, 8.3.8, 8.3.11, 8.4.2, 8.4.7, 8.4.12, p. 294, 9.2.1, 9.2.2. The Picture Source: figure 2.4.10. South Australian Museum: figure 7.3.3. Willandra World Heritage Area Three Traditional Tribal Groups: published with the consent of the indigenous owners, figure SF 7.3(t). Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite copyright owners to contact them.
iv
The Science Focus series has been written for the NSW Science syllabus, stages 4 and 5. It includes material that addresses the learning outcomes in the domains of knowledge, understanding and skills. Each chapter addresses at least one prescribed focus area in detail. The content is presented through many varied contexts to engage students in seeing the relationship between science and their everyday lives. By learning from the Science Focus series students will become confident, creative, responsible and scientifically literate members of society.
Coursebook
The coursebook consists of nine chapters with the following features. Chapter opening pages include: the key prescribed focus area for the chapter outcomes presented in a way that students can easily understand pre quiz questions to stimulate interest and test prior knowledge. Chapter units open with a context to encourage students to make meaning of science in terms of their everyday experiences. The units also reinforce contextual learning by presenting theory, photos, illustrations and science focus segments in a format that is easy to read and follow.
Each PFA has one Science Focus special feature which uses a contextual approach to focus specifically on the outcomes of that PFA. Student activities on these pages allow further investigation and exploration of the material covered.
Each unit ends with a set of questions. These begin with straightforward checkpoint questions that build confidence, leading to think, analyse and skills questions that require further thought and application. Questions incorporate the syllabus verbs so that students can begin to practise answering questions as required in examinations in later years. The extension questions can be set for further exploration and assignment work and include a variety of structured tasks including research, creative writing and internet activities suitable for all students. Extension questions cater for a range of learning styles using the multiple intelligences approach, and may be used for extending more able students.
Key numeracy and literacy tasks are indicated with icons. Practical activities follow the questions. These are placed at the end of the unit to allow teachers to choose when and how to best incorporate the Prac 1 Unit 1.2 practical work. Cross references to practical activities within DYO the units signal suggested points for practical work. Some practical activities are design-your-own (DYO) tasks. Chapter review questions follow the last unit in each chapter. These cover all chapter outcomes in a variety of question styles to provide opportunities for all students to consolidate new knowledge and skills.
Online review questions Auto-correcting chapter review questions can be used as a diagnostic tool or for revision at school or home, and include: multiple choice matching labelling fill in the blanks.
Destinations A list of reviewed websites is available these relate directly to chapter content for students to access. Interactive activities These are activities that apply and review concepts covered in the chapters. They are designed for students to work independently, and include: interactive animations to develop key skills and knowledge in a stimulating, visual and engaging way drag-and-drop activities to improve basic understandings in a fun and engaging way QuickTime videos to enhance the learning of content in a visual way.
The use of the Aboriginal flag in the coursebook denotes material that is included to cover Aboriginal perspectives in science.
Companion Website
The Companion Website contains a wealth of support material for students and teachers, which has been written to enhance the content covered in the coursebook.
vi
Homework Book The Homework Book provides a structured program to complement the coursebook. These homework activities: cover various skills required in the syllabus offer consolidation of key content and interesting extension activities provide revision activities for each chapter, including the construction of a glossary cater for a multiple intelligences approach through varied activities have Worksheet icons in the coursebook to denote when a homework activity is available.
Worksheet 2.4 Metal experiments
Teacher resource centre A wealth of teacher support material is provided and is password protected and includes: a chapter test for each chapter, in MS Word to allow editing by the teacher Coursebook answers Homework Book answers Teaching programs.
Teacher resource pack Material in the teacher resource pack consists of a printout and electronic copy on CD. It includes: curriculum correlation grids mapped in detail to the NSW syllabus chapter-based teaching programs contextual teaching programs Coursebook answers chapter tests in MS Word Homework Book answers.
vii
A fully mapped and detailed correlation of the stage 5 curriculum outcomes is available in the Science Focus 4 Teacher Resource Pack.
outcomes
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27
1 23456789
Materials Electricity and communications technology Genetics Motion Health and disease Evolution Global issues Individual research project
Note:
indicates the Key Prescribed Focus Area covered in each chapter. Chapters may also include information on other Prescribed Focus Areas.
viii
Verbs
Science Focus 4 uses the following verbs in the student activities.
Account account for: state reasons for; report on give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions identify components and the relationships among them; draw out and relate implications use, utilise, employ in a particular situation make a judgement about the value of make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size determine from given facts, figures or information make clear or plain arrange or include in classes/categories show how things are similar or different make; build; put together items or arguments show how things are different or opposite Present Propose Predict Explain relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide the why and/or how infer from what is known collect items from different sources recognise and name draw meaning from plan, inquire into and draw conclusions support an argument or conclusion write down phrases only, without further explanation change in form or amount in some way sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of suggest what may happen based on available information provide information for consideration put forward (e.g. a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action present remembered ideas, facts or experiences provide reasons in favour of store information and observations for later retell a series of events investigate through literature or practical investigation provide information without further explanation express concisely the relevant details
Analyse
Critically add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, (analyse/evaluate) knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection or quality to (analysis/evaluation) Deduce Define Demonstrate Describe Discuss Distinguish Evaluate Examine draw conclusions state meaning and identify essential qualities show by example provide characteristics and features identify issues and provide points for and/or against recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; note differences between make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of inquire into
Chemical reactions
Key focus area:
>>>
5.2, 5.7.3
By the end of this chapter you should be able to: write the formulas for some common chemicals construct word equations for simple chemical reactions explain why the equations for chemical reactions need to be balanced construct balanced formula equations for chemical reactions identify some compounds that use covalent bonding and others that use ionic bonding identify the characteristics of some families of organic compounds.
1.1
context
Chemical reactions occur around us all the time. A colour change or release of heat are signs that a chemical change is probably taking place. Chemical reactions can be very simple or highly complex. It is easy to record our observations of chemical reactions, but we also need to be able to represent what is going on at a chemical level. The easiest way to represent reactions is to use chemical equations.
products
going any further. It is essential that you can write correct chemical formulas, or none of your equations will be correct. Here are a few facts you may have forgotten: General: An element consists of only one type of atom, e.g. Fe, O2 and S6. A compound consists of two or more different atoms, chemically bonded together, e.g. H2O, H2SO4 and CO2. Ions are charged particles. Positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+. Negative ions are formed when nonmetal atoms gain electrons, e.g. Cl, S2 and N3. A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle made up of more than one type of atom, e.g. NH4+, SO42 and CO32. Pure metals: The bonding within metals (e.g. iron (Fe), gold (Au) and calcium (Ca)) is called metallic bonding. All metals are solid at 25C, except mercury (Hg), which is liquid. Covalent bonding: Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons and occurs only between non-metals and other nonmetals, like carbon (C) and oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and fluorine (F). A molecule is composed of non-metals and is the smallest number of atoms that exist bonded together in a stable form. Atoms of the noble gases (Group VIII) exist by themselves and are called monatomic. For carbon dioxide (CO2), a molecule consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms covalently bonded together. This molecular formula represents the number and type of atoms in the compound.
The substances present at the start of a reaction are called the reactants, and the new substances formed are called the products. Chemical equations can be written as either word equations or balanced formula equations. For example, the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid may be represented as the word equation:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid
magnesium + hydrogen
chloride
MgCl2 + H2
Whichever way we write it, the reaction probably looks something like that shown in Figure 1.1.1. By now you should be able to write the symbols for many elements and the chemical formulas of many common compounds. If you are not yet sure how to do this, refer to Science Focus 3, Chapters 1 and 2, before
Cl Cl-
Mg
H H + ClH Cl
Mg2+
Fig 1.1.1
UNIT
UNIT
3.1
>>>
Sometimes more than one of a polyatomic ion is needed in a formula. This is when brackets are used, for example Fe2(SO4)3, Ca(OH)2, (NH4)2CO3.
Worksheet 1.1 Writing formulas
Ionic bonding: Ionic bonding almost always involves metals combined with non-metals. Ionic compounds are crystalline solids, unless dissolved in water as an aqueous solution. The formula of an ionic compound is not a molecular formula, since ionic compounds form large crystal lattices, not molecules. Instead the formula shows the ratio of ions in the crystal. For example, the ionic compound magnesium oxide has the formula MgO. This doesnt mean that one atom of magnesium and one atom of oxygen move around together; it just means that in any sample of magnesium oxide, the ratio of magnesium ions Mg2+ to oxide ions O2 is 1:1. A small crystal may contain a thousand magnesium ions and a thousand oxide ions, while a larger crystal may contain a million magnesium ions and a million oxide ions. Either way, the formula is simply MgO.
Fig 1.1.2
Two different ways of representing the structure of the ionic crystal caesium chloride
MgCl2 + H2
Cl ion
In this equation there are a lot of twos! But does each 2 mean the same thing? The small numbers (like the 2 in H2) are called subscript numbers. These show how many of that type of atom or ion are in the formula. If there is no subscript number after an atom or ion, it means there is only one of that atom or ion in the formula. Brackets with more subscript numbers simply multiply everything inside. Take these examples: H2O has 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 1 oxygen (O) atom. MgCl2 has 1 magnesium ion (Mg2+) and 2 chloride ions (Cl). Ca(OH)2 has 1 calcium ion (Ca2+) and 2 hydroxide ions (OH). The brackets indicate that overall there are 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 2 oxygen (O) atoms. Fe2(SO4)3 has 2 iron (Fe3+) ions and 3 sulfate ions (SO42). The brackets indicate overall that there are 3 sulfur (S) atoms and 12 oxygen (O) atoms. You cannot fiddle with or change subscript numbers. These numbers are determined by the place of each element in the periodic table. If you change subscript numbers then you are actually inventing new chemicals! Water (H2O), for example, is the safe liquid we drink and wash in. H2O2 is also a clear and colourless liquid but is a very strong corrosive bleach called hydrogen peroxide. See what happens if you fiddle Prac 1 p. 9 with subscript numbers? The larger numbers in front of formulas indicate how much of each chemical is being used and how much is being produced in the reaction. These are the numbers we can fiddle with to balance an equation. The Law of Conservation of Matter states that matter can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another. This means that there must be the same number of each type of atom on each side of the equation. The atoms
Putting a 2 in front of a formula means two of that species e.g. 2HCl means H Cl H Cl
The smaller subscript numbers are different. They show how many of each type of atom are present. H2O represents
O H H H
The easiest way to balance equations is to The hydrogenoxygen fuel follow steps. To show space o Apoll cells used in the this we will use another missions produced pure water as a by-product. The astronauts example. then used this for drinking. The Sodium carbonate is: on reacti equation for this is added to nitric acid, 2H2 + O2 2H2O producing sodium nitrate, water and carbon dioxide. Step 1: Write the word equation for this reaction.
Fuel cells
sodium + nitric carbonate acid
CH4 represents
C H
Fig 1.1.3
Step 2: Find the formula for each substance in the word equation. Sodium carbonate is Na2CO3 and nitric acid is HNO3. Sodium nitrate is NaNO3, water is H2O and carbon dioxide is CO2. Step 3: Use these formulas to write an unbalanced formula equation.
Na2CO3 + HNO3
are simply being rearranged by the reaction. The unbalanced equation for the above reaction is:
Mg + HCl
MgCl2 + H2
There is one magnesium on each side of the equation, so they are already balanced. However, while there is only one hydrogen atom on the left, there are two on the right. These can be balanced by doubling the amount of HCl we use. A large 2 is added in front of the HCl, giving us two hydrogen atoms on both sides.
Mg + 2HCl
Step 4: Balance each element, one by one, until there are the same numbers of each type of atom on both sides. Sodium (Na): Two on the left, but only one on the right. Put a big 2 in front of the formula for sodium nitrate (NaNO3):
Na2CO3 + HNO3
MgCl2 + H2
This also balances the chlorines. When an equation is balanced, the mass of the products is equal to the mass of the reactants. Nothing has been destroyed and nothing new has been created. All the atoms have just been rearranged. This is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass, and is another way of stating the Law Prac 2 of Conservation of Matter. p. 9
Carbon (C): One on each side. No balancing required. Oxygen (O): Six on the left, but nine on the right. Placing a big 2 in front of the formula for nitric acid (HNO3) solves the problem:
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3
O H H + H H H O O O H H H
The other way to balance for oxygen would have been to put a 2 in front of the formula for sodium carbonate. This would have solved the oxygen problem, but it would have unbalanced the numbers of sodium and carbon. Hydrogen (H): There are now two on each side, so no more balancing is required. Step 5: Double check the numbers of atoms on each side to make sure your final equation is correct.
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3
2H2
O2
2H2O
A balanced equation has the same number and types of atoms on each side of the equation.
Fig 1.1.4
UNIT
1.1
>>>
(aq) to show that a substance is in aqueous solution (i.e. dissolved in water). Including states, the above reaction would look like this:
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
CO + Al 3CO + 2Al
But what form is each chemical in? Are they solid or liquid, a gas or dissolved in water? In order to complete the picture of the reaction, we use more subscripts to indicate the physical states of the reactants and products. These were briefly introduced in Chapter 2 of Science Focus 3. The subscripts used are: (s) for a solid substance (g) for a gas (l) for a pure liquid
Fig 1.1.5
Lights, action!
Calcium oxide (quicklime) produces an intense white light when it is burnt and so was used as an early spotlight in theatres. The performers on stage were in the limelight, a term that is still used for a person who is the centre of attention.
All the details of the reaction are now clear. Two atoms of solid calcium react with one molecule of gaseous oxygen, producing two solid calcium oxide ion clusters. This gives a lot more information than before. From this point on, try to write all your chemical equations The fall of Rome including state subscripts. Lead poisoning probably played a significant part Unless told otherwise, you in the fall of the Roman should always write the states of Empire. Infertility was reactants and products as they caused by drinking wine from leaden vessels. Lead occur at Standard Laboratory was also used as a cure Conditions (25C and normal for diarrhoea. Cosmetics 1 atmosphere pressure). used by ancient peoples For example, at Standard included white lead on the face, mercury sulfide Laboratory Conditions, mercury as lipstick, and arsenic (Hg) is a liquid and sulfur (S) sulfide as eyeshadow; the a yellow solid. They react to ultimate self-poisoners make-up kit! form mercury sulfide (HgS), the reaction being:
Hg(l) + S(s)
HgS(s)
Normally we think of nitrogen as a gas but it can also be cooled down to make it into a liquid.
liquid mercury
solid sulfur
Hg(l)
S(s)
Fig 1.1.6
Compounds have very different physical properties from the elements that made them.
Worksheet 1.2 Writing and balancing chemical equations Worksheet 1.3 Revising chemical equations
UNIT
1.1
[ Questions ]
15 Identify the equation that is not balanced. A C5H12 + 8O2 CO2 + 6H2O B Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2 C 2Zn + O2 2ZnO D 4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3
Checkpoint
Equations and formulas
1 Chemical equations have three main parts. State the name of each part. 2 State what + and mean in chemical equations. 3 List the three main types of chemical bonding.
Skills
16 At Standard Laboratory Conditions (SLC), oxygen exists as O2(g). Construct the formula for each of these substances at SLC, including the appropriate state: (aq), (l), (s), (g). a water b carbon dioxide c dilute sulfuric acid d calcium chloride e neon f hydrogen g magnesium carbonate crystals h dilute nitric acid 17 For each of the following substances, state: i the chemical formula ii the type of bonding as metallic, ionic or covalent a magnesium b strontium sulfate c oxygen gas d carbon monoxide e calcium chloride f sulfur dioxide g sodium h argon 18 Modify the following equations so that they are balanced. a P4 + O2 P2O5 b KClO3 KCl + O2 c BaO + HNO3 Ba(NO3)2 + H2O d Pb3O4 PbO + O2 e Pb(NO3)2 PbO + NO2 + O2 19 Modify these equations so that they are balanced. Include any missing states. a H2(g) + O2(g) H2O b Na + Cl2 NaCl(s) c CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + O2 d CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O(g) e HNO3 + Ca(s) Ca (NO3)2(aq) + H2 20 Jessica heated some bright blue copper(II) nitrate crystals in a test tube. She noticed brown nitrogen
Think
8 Compare the Law of Conservation of Mass with the Law of Conservation of Matter. 9 Compare the use of subscript numbers in chemical equations with the use of larger-sized numbers. 10 Contrast NaCl(s) with NaCl(aq). 11 Identify the molecules in the list below. a CO2 b H2O c NaCl d Li2CO3 e N2 f CaO g Ar 12 Calcium forms the ion Ca2+ and chlorine forms the chloride ion, Cl. Identify the correct ionic formula for calcium chloride. A CaCl B Ca2Cl C CaCl2 D Ca2Cl 13 Explain why Na2SO4 is not a molecular formula, but H2O is. 14 Identify the equation that is correctly balanced. A HNO3 + MgO Mg(NO3)2 + H2O B 2HNO3 + MgO Mg(NO3)2 + H2O C 2HNO3 + 2MgO 2Mg(NO3)2 + H2O D 2HNO3 + 3MgO Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
UNIT
1.1
>>>
Analyse
22 David added some dilute hydrochloric acid to some solid limestone (calcium carbonate) in a beaker. When he weighed the products after the bubbling had stopped, he noticed that there had been a reduction in mass. Explain why his results did not seem to agree with the Law of Conservation of Mass. 23 Solid sodium reacts with oxygen to produce solid sodium oxide. The following experimental data were obtained for the reaction between sodium and oxygen, producing sodium oxide:
dioxide gas being produced. A glowing splint held at the top of the test tube re-lit, proving that oxygen gas was also produced. A fine black solid, copper(II) oxide, was left in the test tube. a In this reaction state the reactants and the products. b Construct the word equation for this reaction. c Construct the balanced chemical equation, including states.
21 For each of the following reactions, construct: i the word equation ii the balanced formula equation, including states a Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with grains of sodium hydroxide. Water and sodium Mass of sodium Mass of oxygen Mass of sodium oxide chloride are the products. reacting (grams) reacting (grams) produced (grams) b Ammonia (NH3) gas is produced when 2.00 0.70 2.70 nitrogen gas is added to hydrogen gas. 3.00 1.04 4.04 c Carbon monoxide gas combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas. 4.00 1.39 5.39 d Solid iron combines with chlorine gas to produce solid iron(III) chloride. a Construct a word equation for this reaction. e Dilute sodium hydroxide solution is added b Construct an unbalanced chemical equation for the to dilute sulfuric acid. Sodium sulfate and reaction, then balance it. water are produced. c Modify the equation to include the states of the f Ammonium nitrate dissolves in water to produce reactants and products. ammonium and nitrate ions. d Explain how the above results prove the Law of g Hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium metal. A Conservation of Mass. solution of calcium chloride is produced, through which rise bubbles of hydrogen.
[ Extension ]
Complete the following activities by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 1 and clicking on the destinations button. 1 Investigate green chemistry. a Describe what is meant by green chemistry. b Outline some examples of what is being done in the study of green chemistry. c Present your information as a poster to convince the general public that green chemistry is important for society and the environment. 2 Connect to the CSIRO double helix website and locate the Cool Experiments page. a Identify an experiment that involves a DYO chemical reaction and can safely be done at home. b Perform the experiment and present a scientific report on your findings. 3 Complete the tutorial on balancing chemical equations. This may mean spending some time each day over about two weeks working through the tutorial. Record your self-assessment in a log during this time.
UNIT
1.1
Prac 1 Unit 1.1
[ Practical activities ]
Studying a reaction
Aim To make quantitative observations of the reaction of magnesium metal and an acid Equipment
Magnesium strips, 1 M sulfuric acid, large beaker, small filter funnel, 100 mL measuring cylinder, cling wrap, gloves, lab coat, safety glasses
Prac 2 Unit 1.1
Conservation of mass
Aim To investigate conservation of mass in a
chemical reaction
Equipment
Solid calcium carbonate, 0.5 M hydrochloric acid, 200 mL conical flask, balloon, spatula, 100 mL measuring cylinder, lab coat, safety glasses, access to an electronic balance Fig 1.1.8
cling wrap
Fig 1.1.7
Method
1 Cut a 4 cm long strip of magnesium. Place it under the filter funnel in the beaker. 2 Fill the beaker with water until it covers the filter funnel. 3 Fill the measuring cylinder with acid and cover it in cling wrap. 4 Carefully invert the measuring cylinder on top of the filter funnel. Let the neck of the filter funnel pierce the cling wrap. 5 After the bubbling seems to have stopped, measure the volume of gas collected in the measuring cylinder.
Method
1 Measure out approximately 0.2 g of calcium carbonate in the conical flask. 2 Measure out 30 mL of hydrochloric acid into the measuring cylinder. 3 Place the conical flask, measuring cylinder and balloon on the balance and record their total weight. 4 Pour the acid into the conical flask and quickly place the balloon on top. 5 When the reaction is complete, re-weigh the flask (with balloon attached) and empty measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Construct a word equation and the balanced formula equation for this reaction. The products are hydrogen H2 and magnesium chloride MgCl2. 2 Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas that you would expect to have been produced if you had used instead: a an 8 cm strip of magnesium b a 1 cm strip of magnesium
Questions
1 Construct a word equation and balanced formula equation for this reaction. 2 Assess whether your results agree with the Law of Conservation of Mass. 3 If your results do not agree with the Law, propose reasons why.
UNIT
1.1
1. 2
context
UNIT
>>>
Some reactions are slow. Others are fast. When we take an antacid, we hope its reaction with the acids in our stomach will be a quick one, since it will relieve our indigestion. Some reactions are so fast, however, that they explode! When solid potassium is added to water, large volumes of explosive hydrogen gas are rapidly The Hindenburg disaster produced, the energy released by On 6 May 1937, the hydrogen-filled the reaction setting the hydrogen Hindenburg airship burst into flame alight. Other reactions like the while landing in New Jersey, USA. The hydrogen was viewed as the culprit rusting of iron, or milk turning for many years. Extensive recent sour, are very slow. How quickly research has, however, discovered For a long time, hydrogen was Fig 1.2.1 a reaction happens can make the that hydrogen did not cause the initial blamed for the Hindenburg disaster. high fire. The actual cause was the difference between it being safe or flammability of the fabric cover. It was dangerous. The speed of a reaction If, for various reasons, only 5 g was made of a cotton substrate with an aluminised cellulose acetate butyrate obtained then the yield was 5/11.3 100 = is also important in industry. covering. The observations at the 44%. When producing chemicals a slow scene were consistent with a huge d ignite So how are a fast reaction rate and a good reaction may be unprofitable. aluminium fire. The fabric was e. spher atmo the in ty activi yield achieved? by electrical Speeding up industrial reactions is The hydrogen only exploded once the a very important area of chemistry. fire had burnt through the covering. The electrolytic refinement of copper An especially important Australian produces copper bars like these. Fig 1.2.2 example of this is the production of sulfuric acid.
Industrial reactions
For a reaction to be carried out profitably in industry it must occur fairly quickly, and it must give a good yield. The yield is the amount of product obtained, and can be expressed as the percentage of the expected product that is obtained. For example, if 6 g of aluminium reacts according to the equation:
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
10
Methods commonly used to improve yield include: carrying out the reaction at a reasonably high temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater the energy of the reactants, making the reaction more likely to occur. using a catalyst. Catalyst are substances that are not consumed in a reaction, but help the reaction to proceed more quickly. removing the products as they are formed. constantly adding reactants to replace Prac 1 p. 13 those used up. Specific reactions may have particular conditions associated with them. Prac 2 DYO
p. 14
Fig 1.2.3
nitroglycerine
Boiling point 340C Very soluble in water Dissolving the concentrated acid in water releases a lot of heat (highly exothermic). Is a dessicant (absorbs water from surroundings) Can cause severe burns to skin Can cause blindness if it gets in eyes.
Sulfur burner
SO2
Deduster
SO2 + air
Diluter
Converter
Storage tanks
SO3
Fig 1.2.4
SO2(g)
11
UNIT
1.2
>>>
The gases are passed over several catalyst beds, rather than just one, to give them more chance of reacting, thus increasing the yield further. Step 3 In the absorber, oleum (H2S2O7) is produced. Like the other reactions involved in sulfuric acid manufacture, this is exothermic. The energy released can be used to make electricity, which helps maintain the cheap price of sulfuric acid.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l)
H2S2O7(l)
Fig 1.2.5
feed gas
2H2SO4(l)
Who was the False Geber?
The man who discovered sulfuric acid around 1300 did not write under his real name. Instead, he borrowed the name of Geber from a long-dead Arabic alchemist. His real name was never revealed, so this great chemist has always been known as the False Geber.
420C reaction bed 1 600C 63% conversion 450C reaction bed 2 510C 84% conversion 450C reaction bed 3 475C 93% conversion 420C reaction bed 4 535C 99.5% conversion
heat exchangers
You can see that to make this series of reactions occur faster and with high yield, they are maintained at a reasonably high temperature and a catalyst is used. Products are removed as they are formed, and fresh reactants are injected. This combination gives the industrial process for sulfuric acid production a 99% yield.
Worksheet 1.4 Rates of reaction
Sulfuric acid
7 Sulfuric acid is known as the king of chemicals. Explain why.
UNIT
1.2
[ Questions ]
8 State three major uses of sulfuric acid. 9 State five properties of concentrated sulfuric acid. 10 Identify the catalyst used in the contact process. 11 State the formula for the following substances: a sulfuric acid b sulfur dioxide c sulfur trioxide d oleum
Checkpoint
Industrial reactions
1 State an example of: a a fast reaction b a slow reaction 2 Clarify what is meant by the yield of a reaction. 3 Clarify what is meant by the rate of a reaction. 4 State what the ideal yield of a reaction would be. 5 A fast reaction rate and a good yield are particularly desirable for industrial reactions. Explain why.
Think
12 Several catalyst beds are used in the contact process. Explain why. 13 Propose a reason why it is called the contact process.
12
14 Explain what happens in the converter, including how the rate and yield are maximised. 15 Construct balanced equations for each step in the production of sulfuric acid by the contact process. 16 Draw a simplified flow chart to demonstrate the four steps in the contact process. 17 Evaluate the importance of considering the rate and yield in an industrial reaction.
Skills
18 Identify the elements that make up sulfuric acid. 19 It was expected that 2 tonnes of aluminium was to be obtained from 4 tonnes of ore, but only 1.65 tonnes was obtained. Calculate the percentage yield.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research a chemical reaction of industrial importance. This may include one of the following: the Haber process for producing ammonia the Ostwald process for producing nitric acid the production of margarine the catalytic converter in car engines and power plants the Solvay process for producing sodium hydrogen carbonate the production of superphosphate a Construct a labelled diagram or flow chart outlining the chemical process. b Describe how the reaction conditions are controlled to obtain: i the maximum yield of product ii a fast reaction rate c Outline three significant uses for the product obtained in the industrial process researched. d Present your information in a form that is suitable for display at a science fair.
2 The airbag in a car works because of a very fast chemical reaction. a Investigate how an airbag works. b Present your findings in a brochure that explains this clearly to car owners. 3 Sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide can cause problems in the environment. Research what these problems may be and produce a web page or PowerPoint presentation that outlines your information.
Surf
4 Find out more about the Hindenburg disaster by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 1 and clicking on the destinations button. Write a newspaper article to assess the true chemical nature of the Hindenburg disaster.
UNIT
1.2
Prac 1 Unit 1.2
[ Practical activities ]
Rates of reactions 1
Aim To investigate the variables that affect reaction rates Equipment
acid + Mg
ice water
acid
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, magnesium strips, ice, 1 M HCl, hydrogen peroxide solution, solid manganese dioxide, stopwatch, spatula, 4 test tubes, test-tube rack, 10 mL measuring cylinder, 2 100 mL beakers
1 Time the reaction from the moment the magnesium is dropped into the acid, until there is no magnesium left.
2 For the second experiment, cool the acid before adding the magnesium.
>>
Fig 1.2.6
13
UNIT
1.2
>>>
7 Add 5 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution to each of two beakers. Hydrogen peroxide gradually breaks down according to the equation 2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 8 To one beaker, add a very small amount of manganese dioxide. 9 Compare the two beakers and record your observations.
Method
1 Add a 2 cm strip of magnesium to a test tube. 2 Add 5 mL of acid and time how long it takes for the reaction to finish. The reaction is Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) 3 Place 5 mL of acid in the second test tube and sit it in a beaker of ice water. 4 Once again, add a 2 cm strip of magnesium and time how long it takes for the reaction to finish. 5 Add 2 mL of acid and 3 mL of water to a third test tube. 6 Add a 2 cm strip of magnesium and time how long it takes for the reaction to finish.
Questions
1 Identify factors that made the reactions proceed faster or slower. 2 Predict the effect of heating the reactions. 3 Identify the role of the manganese dioxide in the hydrogen peroxide reaction.
Rates of reactions 2
Prac 2 Unit 1.2
Aim To investigate how the surface area affects reaction rate Equipment
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, marble chips (large and small), powdered calcium carbonate, dilute hydrochloric acid, stopwatch, spatula, 4 test tubes, test-tube rack, 10 mL measuring cylinder, electronic balance
Method
1 Using the equipment listed, design and perform an experiment to test the effect of surface area on the rate of reaction. 2 Construct a graph to display your results.
DYO
Questions
1 Use your results to deduce how surface area affects the rate of reacton. 2 Propose how your experiment could be improved.
3 Leave for a few minutes. 4 Add 23 spatulas of glucose or sucrose to another beaker. 5 Carefully add about 15 mL of conc. H2SO4. 6 Leave for several minutes.
Method
1 Add 23 spatulas of blue copper(II) sulfate crystals to a beaker. 2 Carefully pour about 10 mL of conc. H2SO4 over the crystals.
Questions
1 Describe your observations for each experiment. 2 Construct an equation for each reaction.
14
. 13
context
currently being marketed as 100% organic. Does this mean that the water was grown by natural methods or does it mean that it is full of both living and dead organisms? Marketing campaigns frequently misuse terminology and should be treated with carefor example, a brand of marshmallows is currently being labelled as fat free. Marshmallows have always been fat free, but are full of sugars, which will be converted to fat if you eat too many!
UNIT
It is common nowadays to see organically grown produce in shops, and see labels that say 100% organic or made from organic ingredients. This means the food has been grown by natural methods, avoiding the use of synthetic chemicals such as insecticides. In chemistry, the term organic refers to the Organic water chemistry of substances in One brand of mineral water is
which carbon is the main element. Organic substances also contain other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, but carbon is always the backbone. Organic substances are the basis of all living things, and of everything that was once living.
Deadly rhubarb
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. Carbon has four outer-shell (or valence) electrons and can covalently bond with up to four other atoms, usually other carbon atoms, hydrogen or oxygen. In this way, carbon is unique
in that it is able to form millions of different stable compounds. Compounds like carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are inorganic compounds, as are methane (CH4) and vinegar (acetic acid, CH3COOH).
Multiple bonds
Fig 1.3.1
This person contains many organic compounds, including proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
Before we go any further, it is important that you understand the difference between single bonds, double bonds and triple bonds. Some information to help you understand the bonds: A single bond is one pair of electrons being shared between two atoms. A double bond is two pairs of electrons being shared between two atoms. A triple bond isyou guessed itthree pairs of electrons being shared between two atoms. Carbon has atomic number 6, which means it contains six protons and six electrons. It has two electrons in the first shell, and four electrons in its outer (valence) shell, giving it an electronic configuration of 2.4. Its four valence electrons place it in Group IV of the Periodic Table. To achieve a stable eight valence electrons, carbon needs to gain four more electrons. It does so by forming four covalent bonds. These can be: four single bonds, or two double bonds, or a single and a triple bond, or one double bond and two single bonds.
Rhubarb contains high levels of a deadly organic compound, oxalic acid. Although the edible stalks contain a very low level of oxalic acid, the level in the leaves is high, so high that during World War I, people died from eating them as a vegetable. Beetroot and peanuts also contain significant amounts of oxalic acid, but you would have to eat a lot to overdose. Oxalic acid kills by lowering our blood calcium below the critical level.
15
100% organic
Multiple bonds
Single bond Double bond
>>>
Fig 1.3.2
C C C C
where n is the number of carbon atoms. Put simply, the number of hydrogen atoms equals double the number of carbon atoms plus two. For example, if the compound contains two carbon atoms,
n=2
H H H C C
H H H
H C H C
Ethene contains one carbon-carbon double bond and four carbon-hydrogen single bonds Triple bond
The molecular formula is therefore C2H6. The alkanes form a related series of molecules called a homologous series. Each molecule in the series is a little bigger than the previous one: each subsequent molecule has an additional CH2 unit added to it. The first two members in the homologous series of alkanes are methane, CH4, and ethane, C2H6.
Fig 1.3.4
Methane and ethane
Ethyne contains one carbon-carbon triple bond and two carbon-hydrogen single bonds
H H H C H H H H H C
H C H H C H H H
Hydrocarbons
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons. These are compounds that consist only of carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbon compounds are important in our everyday lives. Cars run on hydrocarbon fuels and other hydrocarbons lubricate their engines. The many plastics we use are derived from hydrocarbons.
C H H C
H methane CH4
ethane C2H6
Fig 1.3.3
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds. They have the general formula
CnH2n + 2
The first part of the name indicates how many carbon atoms are in the compound. The prefixes used for naming are listed in the table. The second part of the name indicates what type of compound it is. For alkanes, the name ends in ane. For example, the alkane containing four carbons is called butane. It has the formula C4H10.
Prefix
Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec
16
Crude oil is formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago, and is composed mostly of alkanes. The crude oil is refined (separated into its components) by fractional
distillation. This means that the crude oil is heated and passed into a column where the components are separated according to their boiling points into the different fractions. Some of the fractions are used as is, while others are cracked to produce shorter-chain alkanes and some new chemicals, alkenes. Cracking involves heating the large molecules in the presence of a catalyst. An example of one of these cracking reactions is shown in Figure 1.3.7.
A cracking reaction
Fig 1.3.7
H H H H C C H H C H
H C H H C H heptane
H C H C H H H heat
H H C H ethene C H H + H H H C C H H C H pentane
H C H C H H H
Fig 1.3.5
Crude oil forms from the remains of dead animal and plants under the Earths crust. Oil rigs are used to extract the oil.
Alkenes
cool (25C) Name of fraction Gas Petrol Kero Diesel oil How many carbons in chain? 14 410 1016 1620 What is it used for? Fuel Fuel for cars Fuel for jets Fuel for central heating. Can also be cracked to make smaller molecules Oil for machines like cars. Can be cracked Fuel for ships and power stations Waxy papers, candles, polishing Roads
2030
3040
Bitumen
50 and over
This means the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule is exactly double the number of carbon atoms. The two smallest alkenes are ethene and propene. Alkenes are named in the same way as alkanes, except that their names end in ene. The major use for alkenes is in making plastics such as polyethene, the material used to make shopping bags. The double bond can break, and the molecules can join end-on-end to form long polymer chains. You will learn more about this in Chapter 2, Materials.
Fig 1.3.6
17
UNIT
1. 3
100% organic
Alkenes
H H H C H H H H ethene C2H4 H propene H C3H6 C H C C H H C C H
>>>
Fig 1.3.8
H
Alkynes
Alkynes contain triple bonds and have the general formula
C2H2n 2
H C H C
H C H C
The number of hydrogen atoms in an alkyne molecule is equal to double the number of carbon atoms minus two. Two alkynes are shown in Figure 1.3.11.
Alkynes
Fig 1.3.11
H
C C
C H
H C H
H H C C H H C C propyne C3H4 C H H
ethyne C2H2
Checking out
Twenty million Australians Part of a polyethene polymer looks like: use nearly seven billion plastic check-out bags every H H H year! Organic chemicals have H H changed the way we live and C C C the resources we use. But ly careful think C C also we must H H H about how we use them. als chemic organic Many H H are not biodegradable. This means they do not break The formation of Fig 1.3.9 down naturally, but instead polyethene for ment environ the stay in hundreds and sometimes thousands of years. Plastic bags in the ocean are a great Plastic bags kill thousands of sea birds and marine cause of concern as they animals every year. Fig 1.3.10 are mistaken for jellyfish by turtles, whales, sea birds and other animals that eat them. Once in the gut the bags slowly and painfully kill the animal. The bag is then released back into the ocean, to kill again when the animals body decomposes. Do you use alternatives to plastic bags when shopping?
The simplest alkyne is ethyne, commonly called acetylene. It is highly reactive due to the presence of a triple bond. If acetylene is burned in a stream of oxygen, very high temperatures (almost 3000C) are reached. This is why the oxyacetylene torch is used in welding. Other alkynes are used in many manufacturing processes.
Fig 1.3.12
Alcohols
Alcohols contain the hydroxy group, OH. The hydroxy group is known as a functional group. A functional group is an atom, or group of atoms, that affects the properties of a compound.
18
H H H H C C O H H H H H H C C H C O H
The biological molecule cholesterol is an alcohol and an important component of our bodies.
H H May be called 1-propanol or 1-hydroxypropane. The hydroxy group is attached to the first carbon. May be called 2-butanol or 2-hydroxybutane. The hydroxy group is attached to the second carbon.
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)
How to name alcohols
Fig 1.3.13
Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine and spirits and is the best known of the alcohols. Ethanol has many other uses, however: it is an excellent solvent, is found in many glues, paints and inks, and is used as a reactant to make rubbers and flavourings. One way to produce ethanol is by fermentation of fruit or vegetable matter. This reaction may be represented as:
glucose C6H12O6(aq)
Sometimes, if the supply of oxygen is limited, incomplete combustion may occur. This is usually characterised by a black, smoky flame. In incomplete combustion, two reactions tend to occur simultaneously:
ethane + oxygen
2C2H6(g) + 5O2(g)
ethane + oxygen
2C2H6(g) + 3O2(g)
Incomplete combustion produces less heat energy than complete combustion and can also produce a deadly pollutant, carbon monoxide gas.
The catalyst for this reaction is yeast. Another widely used alcohol is 1,2ethanediol, better known as antifreeze. The addition of this molecule to radiator fluid lowers the melting point of the liquid so that it wont freeze in cold weather. Methanol is the main component of methylated spirits. Propanol is used as rubbing alcohol. 1,2,3-propanetriol, known as glycerine or glycerol, is a component of many moisturisers.
Incomplete combustion in car engines produces carbon, carbon monoxide and other chemicals that contribute to photochemical smog and air pollution.
Fig 1.3.14
Prac 1 p. 21
19
UNIT
1. 3
100% organic
>>>
[ Questions ]
15 Complete the table by identifying the molecule or its formula.
Molecule name
Pentane C4H8 C10H18 Hexene Octane C3H8 Propyne
UNIT
1. 3
Checkpoint
Organic chemistry
1 Clarify what is meant by organic chemistry. 2 List the main elements in organic compounds. 3 Explain what is meant by a hydrocarbon.
Molecular formula
Multiple bonds
4 Contrast single, double and triple bonds.
Hydrocarbons
5 List two examples of hydrocarbons that have: a single bonds only b a double bond c a triple bond 6 List five important hydrocarbon products. 7 Explain what is meant by a homologous series.
16 Fractional distillation separates the alkane fractions in crude oil. Outline how this is achieved. 17 State the name of the alcohol we drink. 18 State another name for: a antifreeze b acetylene c methylated spirits 19 Identify the products formed from: a the complete combustion of methane b the incomplete combustion of methane 20 Compared with the blue flame of a Bunsen burner, the yellow flame is relatively cool and very dirty, leaving a layer of black carbon on anything heated in it. Propose reasons why two flames can be so different when they burn the same gas.
Alcohols
11 Identify the special functional group that alcohols contain.
Analyse
21 a Identify the reactants and the products in the fermentation equation. b State two uses for fermentation. 22 Explain the meaning of the statement: Fermentation is catalysed by yeast. 23 Evaluate complete and incomplete combustion in terms of their efficiency in releasing the energy in fuel, and their effect on the environment. 24 Discuss the importance of organic chemistry for society.
Think
13 Identify one carbon-based compound that is not an organic compound. 14 It is not possible for the molecules methene and methyne to exist. Account for this fact.
20
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Carbon compounds play an important role in our everyday life. Research information on ten useful carbon compounds. For each compound: a State the correct chemical name and common name. b Construct a model. c Describe one significant use.
ACTIVITY
Making molecules
Use a molecular model building kit to construct models of some alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and alcohols. Draw and name the models you make.
UNIT
1. 3
Prac 1 Unit 1.3
[ Practical activity ]
Complete and incomplete combustion
Aim To examine the products of complete and incomplete combustion Equipment Method
1 Light the candle and note things like the colour of the flame and any sign of soot. 2 Put a few drops of ethanol on a watch-glass and light it carefully. Observe the flame. 3 Light the kerosene burner and observe the flame.
Ethanol, Pasteur pipette, kerosene with wick, lab coat, safety glasses, heat mat, watch-glass, candle
Questions
1 Describe any evidence observed for: a complete combustion b incomplete combustion 2 The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH. Kerosene is a mixture of hydrocarbons with an average formula of C12H26. Explain the difference in the way these compounds burned, in terms of their formulas. 3 Is the burning of petrol in cars an example of complete combustion or incomplete combustion? Justify your answer.
ethanol
kerosene
Fig 1.3.15
21
UNIT
1. 3
1. 4
context
In any reaction billions of atoms, ions and molecules are colliding with each other and rearranging each other. A single drop of water, for example, contains billions of water molecules and a beaker of water has many, many more. When chemists run an experiment, they deal with very large numbers of atoms, ions and molecules and not just single atoms or small groups of them. The numbers involved are so huge that a new way of counting is needed. This is where the mole comes in. The maths involved in chemistry is tricky at first, but very useful once you get the hang of it!
mole of carbon atoms must be 12 grams. The mass of one mole of oxygen atoms is 16 grams. Likewise, if we weighed out 127.6 g of tellurium (Te) then we would have a mole of tellurium atoms.
Typical information from the periodic table. Some periodic tables may be arranged slightly differently.
atomic mass (the mass in grams) of 1 mole of these atoms
UNIT
>>>
The mole
If you were asked how many eggs are in a dozen, you would of course say 12. We use a dozen instead of counting individual eggs, so three dozen is 36 eggs, 10 dozen is 120 eggs and so on. The mole also stands for a group of things, although a mole has many more things in it than a dozen. The mole in chemistry has nothing to do with small, furry, burrowing animals but instead stands for a huge number, called Avogadros number. This number is an incredibly large 6.02 1023, or 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 or 602 thousand billion billion! There would be 6.02 1023 eggs in a mole of eggs, and a mole of people means 6.02 1023 people. This is well over a thousand billion times the current world population! In chemistry, a mole of carbon atoms would contain 6.02 1023 carbon atoms and a mole of water would have 6.02 1023 water molecules in it. The mole is useful in chemistry because it gives us a number of atoms or molecules that we can actually see and measure out. A single atom or molecule is far too small to work with.
Fig 1.4.1
atomic number
Weighing a mole
The periodic table on page 310 of the Science Focus 4 coursebook includes all the details of each element. It also includes the atomic mass (sometimes called the atomic weight) of the element. The atomic mass is the mass in grams of a mole of those atoms. For example, the atomic mass of carbon C is 12, so the mass of one CD2
How big is a mole? A mole of cane toads would cover an area the size of Queensland with a layer of amphibians many kilometres thick! Maybe we should call it a toad instead!
Fig 1.4.2
Masses in a reaction
The mole is useful because it allows us to use the periodic table and balanced chemical equations. We can calculate exactly what mass of a reactant is required for a reaction and how much product the reaction will produce. As an example, lets look at the reaction of liquid mercury with sulfur powder to form mercury sulfide. The word equation is:
mercury + sulfur
Fig 1.4.3
6 hydrogens
This tells us that one atom of mercury reacts with one atom of sulfur to form one ion cluster of mercury sulfide. It also tells us that one mole of mercury atoms would react with one mole of sulfur atoms to produce one mole of mercury sulfide. So:
1 mole Hg(l) + 1 mole S(s)
1 mole HgS(s)
or, using the atomic masses from the periodic table on page 310 of the coursebook:
200.6g Hg(l) + 32g S(s)
232.6g HgS(s)
In words, this means that 200.6 g of mercury will react with 32 g of sulfur to produce 232.6 g of mercury sulfide. Lets look at another reaction, this time between gallium and oxygen. Its word equation is:
gallium + oxygen
gallium oxide
The mass of 1 mole of a compound is called the formula mass. To calculate formula mass, simply break the substance down into its elements. For example, ammonium carbonate has the formula: (NH4)2CO3. This is made from 2 nitrogen atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, 1 carbon atom and 3 oxygen atoms. From the periodic table, the atomic masses of these elements are:
Symbol
N H C O
In other words, four gallium atoms react with three molecules of oxygen gas to produce two ion clusters of gallium oxide. It also tells us that:
4 moles Ga(s) + 3 moles O2(g)
2 moles Ga2O3(s)
2Ga2O3(s)
(69.7 g 4) + (16 g 6) 374.8 g
Unlike the example above, here we need to do some calculations for masses:
4Ga(s)
(69.7 g 4) 278.8 g +
3O2(g)
(16 g 6) 96 g
Hence, the formula mass = (14 g 2) + (1 g 8) + (12 g 1) + (16 g 3) = 96 g This means that one mole of (NH4)2CO3 has a mass of 96 grams.
This means that 278.8 g of gallium reacts with 96 g of oxygen to give 374.8 g of gallium oxide, or:
278.8g Ga(s) + 96g O2(g)
374.8g Ga2O3(s)
Prac 1 p. CD7
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
UNIT
1.4
Maths in chemistry!
Formula mass of oxygen (O2) = 16 g 2 = 32 g Formula mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) = (12 g 1) + (16 g 2) = 44 g Formula mass of water (H2O) = (1 g 2) + (16 g 1) = 18 g
The combustion of methane
>>>
Dephlogisticated air
Joseph Priestley first isolated oxygen in the eighteenth century, calling it dephlogisticated air. Priestley was an English clergyman and was dubbed Dr Phlogiston by newspaper reporters of the day. He was delighted with the effects of breathing his pure oxygen, dephlogisticated air. He wrote that my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time afterwards. Who can tell but that, in time, this pure air may become a fashionable article in luxury. Hitherto only two mice and myself have had the privilege of breathing it. Unfortunately, the mice died soon after in Priestleys experiments. As predicted by Priestley, breathing pure oxygen became fashionable for a short time in the early 2000s, particularly in California, USA. Patrons of oxygen bars would be hooked up to breathe bottled oxygen.
Fig 1.4.4
O H H H C H H + O O O O O O H + H H
Fig 1.4.5
This equation shows that 1 mole of methane molecules (16 g) reacts with 2 moles of oxygen molecules (2 32 g = 64 g), producing 1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules (44 g) and 2 moles of water molecules (2 18 g = 36 g). Another way this could be written is:
16g CH4(g) + 64g O2(g)
Using the atomic masses from the periodic table, the formula masses are found to be: H2S = 34 g Cl2 = 71 g HCl = 36.5 g S = 32 g In terms of masses we have:
H2S(g) 32 g + Cl2(g) 71 g
The mass of reactants is 80 g and so is the mass of products: the Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed. Lets say that we only have 8 grams of methane, and not 16 g as assumed in the equation above. The formula mass of methane is 16 g so this is equal to 8/16 or half of a mole. Half a mole of methane will only need half the oxygen and will obviously only produce half the amount of carbon dioxide and water, i.e.: Mass of oxygen used = 1/2 64 g = 32 g Mass of carbon dioxide produced = 1/2 44 g = 22 g Mass of water produced = 1/2 36 g = 18 g Getting the hang of it? Lets try another example to make sure. Hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine gas to give hydrogen chloride gas and solid sulfur. The balanced chemical equation for this reaction is:
H2S(g) + Cl2(g)
But what if we dont want 32 g of sulfur, but only want to produce, say, 4.5 g? How much of each reactant will we need to mix? Mass of one mole of sulfur = 32 g We dont need one mole of sulfur, but need only a fraction of a mole. The fraction of sulfur produced = 4.5/32 mole. So we only need this mass of hydrogen sulfide reacting: = 4.5/32 34 g = 4.8 g The mass of chlorine reacting needs to be: = 4.5/32 71 g = 10 g
2HCl(g) + S(s)
CD4
carbon, and the rest comes from oxygen. Calculated as a percentage of the total mass of 44 g we get: Percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide = 12/44 100 = 27% Percentage of oxygen in carbon dioxide = 32/44 100 = 73% Carbon dioxide can be formed in many ways. For example:
C(s) + O2(g)
Proportions: this simply states that a compound will always have the same proportions of each element, regardless of how it was made.
CO2(g)
or
Whichever way carbon dioxide is formed, it will always contain the same proportions of carbon and oxygen. This is called the Law of Constant
10 Iron reacts with sulfur, producing iron(II) sulfide. a Given that iron(II) is Fe2+ and sulfide is S2, construct the formula for the compound iron(II) sulfide. b Construct a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. c 55.9 g of iron completely reacts with sulfur. Calculate the mass of sulfur needed and the mass of iron(II) sulfide that will be produced.
Skills
11 Using the following equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
UNIT
1. 4
The mole
[ Questions ]
Checkpoint
1 Clarify what is meant by the term mole in chemistry. 2 Outline why the mole is used instead of individual atoms in chemistry.
Masses in a reaction
3 The large numbers that appear in front of compounds are the only ones we can alter to balance a chemical equation. Explain how these numbers relate to the number of moles of each chemical taking part in the reaction. 4 The formula mass of water is 18 g. Explain how this was calculated.
calculate a the number of moles of each reactant required b the number of moles of water produced c the masses of each reactant required and the expected mass of the product 12 Use the information from the periodic table on page 310 of the coursebook to calculate the formula mass of: a glucose, C6H12O6 b calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2 c hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 d sodium phosphate, Na3PO4 13 Given that the formula of lead oxide is PbO2 calculate the masses missing in the table below.
Mass of lead reacting (g)
2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00
Think
9 Calculate the number of each in the following examples: a socks in a pair of socks b eggs in a dozen eggs c gold atoms in a mole of gold d H2O molecules in a mole of water e dozens of eggs in a mole of eggs f pairs of socks in a mole of socks
Analyse
15 Consider these two reactions: Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) In a flask, 2.5 g of calcium reacted with sufficient hydrochloric acid. In another flask, 2.5 g of magnesium reacted with sufficient hydrochloric acid. a Identify the common product from both reactions.
CD5
UNIT
1. 4
Maths in chemistry!
>>>
18 Nitrogen forms many different compounds with oxygen. One of these was found to contain 28 g of nitrogen for every 64 g of oxygen. a Calculate how many moles of nitrogen and of oxygen this is equivalent to. b Identify the probable formula of this compound. 19 Is it cheaper to buy sodium carbonate (washing soda) as the anhydrous (waterless) salt Na2CO3 at $2.00 per kilogram, or as the decahydrate salt, Na2CO310H2O, at $1.00 per kilogram? Justify your answer. 20 A student produced a compound that he believed was Al2O3. He found that his compound was 45% aluminium and 55% oxygen. Is it Al2O3? Justify your answer. 21 Sarah conducted an experiment where she burned 0.3 g of magnesium in oxygen. From her results she calculated that 0.7 g of magnesium oxide was produced. Her prac partner, Stephen, said that was impossible. Decide which of them is correct, and justify your answer.
b Which flask would produce more gas? Justify your answer. (Hint: Think about how many moles of each metal there are at the start.) 16 Copper(II) carbonate (CuCO3) decomposes when heated, producing copper(II) oxide (CuO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). a Construct a formula equation for this reaction and balance it. b If 6 g of copper(II) oxide is produced, calculate the mass of copper(II) carbonate that must have reacted. 17 When methane gas (CH4) burns in oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide and water vapour are formed. a Construct a balanced formula equation for this reaction. b Calculate the minimum mass of oxygen needed for 4 g of methane to completely burn.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research information to discover how scientists have contributed to the understanding of maths in chemistry. a Describe how Amadeo Avogadro came to have a very important number named after him. b Antoine Lavoisier deduced the Law of Constant Proportions. Explain how he did this. c Outline the contribution of one other chemist in this area. 2 Estimate how many people are alive in the world today. Is this equal to, more than, or less than a mole of people?
ACTIVITY
Reacting ratios
The following table shows the results of an experiment in which various masses of the fictional metallic element mysterium, symbol M, were reacted with sulfur, producing mysterium sulfide: xM(s) + yS(s) MxSy(s) 1 List the reacting masses of sulfur in the table. 2 Construct a line graph of the mass of mysterium reacting (vertical axis) against the mass of sulfur reacting (horizontal axis). 3 Justify whether this graph proves the Law of Constant Proportions. 4 Explain why logically the graph should pass through the origin. 5 Use rise/run to calculate the slope or gradient of the graph. 6 Construct an equation for the straight line in the graph.
Mass of mysterium reacted (g)
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
CD6
UNIT
1. 4
Prac 1 Unit 1.4
[ Practical activity ]
TEACHER DEMONSTRATION Reacting amounts
Aim To calculate the mass of the product that should be obtained from reacting magnesium in air and compare with experimental data Method
1 Clean the magnesium strip with the sandpaper. 2 Curl the magnesium strip and place in the crucible. Place the lid on, and weigh it. 3 Place the crucible on the pipe clay triangle over the Bunsen burner. DO NOT LOOK AT THE BURNING MAGNESIUM DIRECTLY OR ALLOW STUDENTS TO VIEW DIRECTLY. 4 Heat it until combustion starts. If necessary, lift the lid slightly from time to time to keep the combustion going. 5 When the combustion is complete, let the crucible cool, then reweigh it.
Equipment
5 cm magnesium strip, crucible with lid, tripod, Bunsen burner, pipe clay triangle, electronic balance, heat-proof mat, tongs, sandpaper, gloves, safety glasses, lab coat
Questions
1 Constuct a balanced equation for the reaction of magnesium with oxygen, O2, producing magnesium oxide, MgO. 2 Record the mass of magnesium that reacted, and the mass of magnesium oxide produced. 3 Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that you should have obtained from this amount of magnesium.
heat mat
Bunsen burner
4 Compare the theoretical mass with the actual mass. 5 Propose reasons why the theoretical and actual mass are probably close, but not exactly the same.
Fig 1.4.6
CD7
UNIT
1. 4
>>>
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 Clarify what the Law of Conservation of Mass means with regard to reactants and products. 2 Explain the purpose of using a chemical equation. 3 List the possible states in which chemicals may exist and list the symbols used for them in an equation. 4 Write a chemical equation demonstrating the following features: reactants and products, states of each substance, correctly written formulas, and numbers balancing the equation. 5 Define the term SLC. 6 State one thing that could make a reaction go faster, besides using a catalyst. 7 State the percentage yield obtained in the manufacture of sulfuric acid. 8 Summarise the four steps in the production of sulfuric acid. 9 Using equations, outline how the yield and rate are controlled in the contact process. 10 List three properties and uses of sulfuric acid. 11 Use an example to help define the term homologous series. 12 List five important uses for organic compounds. 18 Draw diagrams to demonstrate the molecular structure of ethane, ethene and ethyne. 19 An organic molecule has five carbon atoms. State its name if it is an alkane, alkene or alkyne. 20 Describe how a polymer is made from ethene.
[ Interpreting questions ]
21 Extrapolate in order to complete this word equation: magnesium + hydrochloric acid 22 Describe in words what these equations are showing: a 2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2NaOH b CuO + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O 23 Solid lithium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide. a Identify the likely salt produced. b Construct a word equation for the reaction. c Construct a balanced formula equation for it, with subscripts indicating the states of each chemical. 24 For each of the reactions below, construct: i the word equation ii the balanced formula equation, including states a Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with a lump of potassium hydroxide to produce water containing dissolved potassium chloride. b Sulfur dioxide is added to oxygen, producing sulfur trioxide gas. c Solid magnesium combines with chlorine gas to produce solid magnesium chloride. d Silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride solution, producing sodium nitrate solution and a precipitate of silver chloride. 25 Contrast complete and incomplete combustion. 26 Write the word and formula equations for the complete combustion of propane. 27 a Outline the process of fermentation. b Discuss the importance of fermentation as a chemical reaction.
Worksheet 1.6 Chemical reactions crossword Worksheet 1.7 Sci-words
[ Thinking questions ]
13 Assess whether a fast reaction rate guarantees a good yield. 14 Evaluate the need to consider rate and yield in industrial reactions. 15 Which of the following two formulas is a molecular formula? SO2 or Na2SO4 Justify your answer. 16 Modify the following chemical equations so that they are balanced. a Al(OH)3 + HNO3 H2O + Al(NO3)3 b H2O + K H2 + KOH 17 Describe organic chemistry.
22
>>>
Materials
Key focus area
By the end of this chapter you should be able to: relate the properties of substances to their structures relate the uses of substances to their properties explain how materials such as metals and plastics have changed our world construct word equations for the rusting of iron and the corrosion of aluminium balance formula equations for the rusting of iron, the smelting of iron, and the electrolysis of sodium chloride explain how metals can be protected from corrosion discuss the impact of mining on Australian society and the environment explain why conservation and recycling of materials are important to our continued well-being.
2.1
The metals gold and silver have been much prized since primitive times. Copper, its alloy bronze, and later iron and its alloy steel, replaced the stone spearheads and axes of primitive humans, improving their chances when hunting and waging tribal fights. Each newly extracted metal allowed technology to change. And society changed with them.
UNIT
>>>
context
Properties of metals
Most metals are very dense, because metal atoms pack tightly together when they combine. Metal atoms also have low electronegativity, meaning that they have very little control over their outer-shell electrons. These electrons move freely throughout the metal without being bound to any one atom. This provides
Metal atoms lose control of their outer-shell electrons, which are free to wander.
free electrons, not bound to any single atom
multidirectional bonding between the atoms and accounts for the following properties of metals: They are malleablethe bonding allows them to stay together and not break apart when hammered or bent. They are ductilethis is the ability to be drawn or stretched into wires. They are electrical conductorsthe free outer-shell electrons enable them to carry electrical currents. They are heat conductorsthese same electrons rapidly transfer heat, making metals excellent thermal conductors.
Pure metals
Very few metals can be used as pure elements because they are generally too soft to be made into anything useful. Copper and aluminium are two of only a handful of metals that can be used in their pure form.
Fig 2.1.1
multidirectional bonding
+ +
bonding will not break even if layers shift
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
24
Pure metal
Aluminium Copper Sodium
Element symbol
Al Cu Na
Uses
Overhead electricity cables, saucepans and cans, Alfoil Electrical wiring Nuclear reactor coolant
Zn Sn Hg Pb
Coating for iron (galvanised iron) Coating for steel cans for food, liquid, etc. Thermometers Flashing around windows and rooftops to stop water entry
Alloys
An alloy consists of a metal combined with one or more other elements. An alloy has properties that are different from those of its components. These new properties are usually an improvement over those of the main or base metal in the alloy. For example, brass is more durable than its base metal, copper. Pure iron is extremely soft, but if small amounts of carbon are added, its strength increases dramatically. The alloy formed is steel. Mild steel has 0.5% carbon, while tool steel has about 1%. If the carbon content increases to between 2.4% and 4.5%, cast iron is formed. This is strong but brittle and shatters easily if hit or dropped. Stainless steel has chromium (20%) and nickel (10%) added to stop rusting.
Fig 2.1.2
Cast iron lace very beautiful, very hard, but very brittle
Jewellery used for body piercings is usually rust-resistant surgical-grade stainless steel but infection may still occur.
Fig 2.1.3
25
UNIT
2.1
>>>
Gold cheaper than iron!
When the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamen was buried 3400 years ago, two daggers were buried with him. One dagger had a blade of gold, the other iron. Because of its rarity at that time, the iron dagger was far more valuable than the gold one!
Fig 2.1.4
Alloy
Brass Bronze
Composition
70% Cu, 30% Zn 95% Cu, 5% Sn
Uses
Household and nautical fittings, musical instruments Statues, ornaments, bells
Advantages
Appearance, limited corrosion, harder than pure copper Appearance, little corrosion, harder than brass, sonorous (rings well when struck) Strong, light Low melting point Hard wearing, looks like silver, attractive Looks like silver, cheaper, resists corrosion Aluminium is light, nickel and cobalt can be magnetised Hardens slowly after being mixed
Duralumin Solder Cupronickel EPNS (electroplated nickel silver) Alnico Dental amalgam
96% Al, 4% Cu, traces of Mg and Mn 60 to 70% Sn, 40 to 30% Pb 75% Cu, 25% Ni Cu, Ni, Ag Al, Ni, Co Hg, Sn, Ag, Zn, Cu
Aircraft frames Joining metals together, electrical connections, low-friction bearings Silver coins Plated onto cutlery, plates and bowls Magnets Tooth fillings
UNIT
2.1
[ Questions ]
Worksheet 2.1 Toothache! Worksheet 2.2 Media analysis: Fry me to the moon
Prac 1 p. 28
Checkpoint
Properties of metals
1 State whether the following are true or false. a Metal atoms pack tightly together, giving metals high density. b Metal atoms have high electronegativity. c Free electrons in metals make the metals good conductors. 2 List the properties that all metals exhibit. 3 Explain whether metal atoms have high or low electronegativity.
Pure metals
4 Outline a factor that limits the use of pure metals. 5 List two metals that can be used in their pure form.
26
Alloys
6 Define the term alloy. 7 Alloys have advantages over their parent metals. Clarify this statement using an example.
Think
8 Explain whether metals would be good or poor electrical conductors if they had a tight hold on their outer-shell electrons. 9 Are coins pure metals or alloys? Justify your answer. 10 List two properties of metals that make them ideal for electrical wiring. 11 Aluminium is used for overhead electrical cables, while copper is used for home wiring. Propose a reason why. 12 List three reasons why mercury is ideal for thermometers.
a State the breaking stress of: i a 50/50 alloy of copper/zinc ii an alloy of 20% Cu and 80% Zn iii an alloy containing 60% zinc iv pure copper v pure zinc b Identify the proportions of copper that make the alloy stronger than pure copper. c Identify the proportions of zinc that make it weaker than pure zinc. d Identify the strongest copper/zinc alloy. e Identify the composition of three alloys that all break at a strain of 25 x 106 N/m2.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Lead and mercury are described as cumulative poisons. a Explain what this means. b Describe how these metals get into the environment and into the bodies of animals. c Summarise the main effects of these metals on the human body. d Present your information as a newspaper article explaining the dangers of these metals to society and the environment. 2 Schools generally use red or green alcohol thermometers. a Investigate which metal was used in thermometers before alcohol. b Explain why this metal is no longer used. c Account for the use of alcohol thermometers. 3 Some dentists are concerned about using dental amalgam as fillings in teeth. a Justify their concerns. b Outline some alternatives to using amalgam. 4 a Research the Bronze and Iron Ages. b Propose ways in which the discovery of copper/ bronze and iron/steel would have changed the way of life of people at that time. c Present your information as a poster or a creative story showing what life was like then.
Analyse
13 State the base metal in a ferrous alloy. (Use element symbols to help you.) 14 List the different types of steel, in order from the lowest carbon content to the highest. 15 Use the table on page 26 to state which metal(s): a is most abundant in Australian gold and silver coins b is the only metal that is a liquid at normal room temperatures c is the main component of steel d is common to both the alloys brass and bronze e is added to iron to make stainless steel 16 Use the information on page 26 to state what fraction and percentage of pure gold is in: a a 12-carat gold ring b a 9-carat gold nose stud c a 22-carat gold chain
Skills
17 The table below shows the stress that different alloys of copper and zinc can take before breaking. Construct a graph of stress (vertical axis) against the percentage of copper (horizontal axis). Analyse your graph to answer the following questions.
0 19
10 16
20 12
30 8
40 5
50 32
60 58
70 40
80 23
90 21
100 33
27
UNIT
2.1
>>>
UNIT
2.1
Prac 1 Unit 2.1
[ Practical activity ]
How much is it worth?
Aim To calculate the value of metal in Australian
coins 3 Convert any prices per tonne into prices per gram by dividing by 1 000 000. For example, if aluminium is A$2781.40 per tonne, the price per gram is 2781.40 1 000 000 = A$0.00278 or 0.278 cents per gram. 4 Convert any prices per ounce into prices per gram by dividing by 28.35 5 Write a complete list of the prices in Australian dollars per gram. Fig 2.1.5 6 Use an electronic balance to find the masses of a $1 and a $2 coin. 7 Copy and complete this calculation for each gold coin: Mass of coin = _____ g [put mass of coin here] Mass of copper in coin Mass of nickel in coin = 92% of _____ = _____ g _____ = _____ g = 2% of _____ = _____ g [put price per gram here]
Equipment
$2, $1, 50 cent, 20 cent, 10 cent and 5 cent coins, the business section from a recent newspaper (not Monday), access to an electronic scale
Mass of aluminium in coin = 6% of [put mass of metals here] Cost of copper Cost of aluminium Cost of nickel 8 9
Add the answers to find the total cost of the coin. What percentage is this of its face value?
Questions
1 2 3 Deduce whether any of the coins are worth more than their face value. Fifty-cent coins originally had silver in them, but now dont. Explain why. Use the prices of gold and silver to calculate the cost of each coin if they were really gold or silver.
Method
1 Find the following values and copy them into your workbook: the US to Australian dollar exchange rate the prices of aluminium, copper and nickel 2 Convert any US dollar prices into Australian dollars by dividing by the exchange rate. For example, if A$1 = US$0.5064 and the price of aluminium was US$1408.50 per tonne, then its price in Australian dollars was 1408.50 0.5064 = A$2781.40 per tonne.
28
2.2
Metals have been used for thousands of years, the first to be used being the native metals such as gold. Unlike gold, most metals are not found as pure elements, but as compounds of oxygen. They need to be released from their oxygen before they can be used. Over the centuries, metallurgists (scientists who specialise in metals) have developed a variety
UNIT
context
of efficient and inexpensive ways of doing this. At first they used heat. The discovery of electricity, however, allowed for the extraction of many more metals, particularly aluminium. Imagine your life without metals!
Gold, gold, gold!
The earliest recorded discovery of gold in Australia was in 1823 at Bathurst, New South Wales by James McBrien, a Department of Lands surveyor. At the time McBrien was surveying a road along the Fish River, between Rydal and Bathurst. The first gold rush had begun!
potassium 2.2% sodium 2.8% magnesium 2.2% calcium 3.6% iron 5% aluminium 8.1% all the other metals and non-metals 1.2%
as either a nugget or a vein of the metal trapped in another rock such as quartz. They just need a little cleaning or the surrounding rock removed. Native elements are so stable and unreactive that they have survived without reacting with the chemicals of the air, dirt or water.
A vein of pure gold trapped in quartz
Fig 2.2.2
silicon 27.8%
oxygen 46.7%
Fig 2.2.1
The percentage abundance of elements in the Earths crust. Oxygen is by far the most abundant, being combined with metals as oxides or with silicon as silicon dioxide in sand or silicates.
29
Mining and metals Metals that need work: minerals and ores
All other metals are found combined with other elements as compounds. Minerals are rocks containing large amounts of a particular metal. If there is sufficient metal to make it worth mining, it is called an ore.
>>>
Ore
Bauxite Chalcopyrite Galena Haematite Pitchblende Rutile
Chemical composition
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 Copper iron sulfide, CuFeS2 Lead sulfide, PbS Iron oxide, Fe2O3 Uranium oxide, U3O8 Titanium oxide, TiO2 Zinc sulfide, ZnS
Metal extracted
Aluminium, Al Copper, Cu Lead, Pb Iron, Fe Uranium, U Titanium, Ti Zinc, Zn
Is it worth mining?
Mining produces valuable metals and creates jobs. Sometimes, however, mining is not worth its expense or the negative effects on society and the environment.
Sphalerite
Fig 2.2.3
Palmer River
Admiral Bay
Westmoreland Cairns Red Dome Constance Range NORTHERN TERRITORY Century Kidston Balcooma Tanami Gecko Lady Loretta Orlando Ben Lomond Gunpowder White Devil Woolgar Callie Charters Towers Area Peko Hilton Thalanga The Granites Mt Isa Wirralie Selwyn Bigrlyi Tick Hill Mt Coolon Plenty River Cannington Lucky Break Osborne Angela Arltunga Gladstone QUEENSLAND Cracow Mt Rawdon Dawson Valley Pandanus Creek
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Gympie Brisbane
Tarcoola
Olympic Dam
Elura Comet Valley Mt Gunson CSA Hillgrove Menninnie Dam Nillinghoo Radium Hill Mt Grainger Mineral Hill Whyalla Tomago Port Pirie Broken Hill Northparkes Lake Cowal Burra Kurri Kurri Newcastle West Wyalong Temora Adelaide Sydney VICTORIA Woodlawn Port Kembla Wedderburn Kangaroo Island Canberra Bendigo Stawell Benambra Ballarat Woods Point Portland Geelong Melbourne
Drake
NEW SOUTH WALES
Bingara
400
800
1200
1600
2000
Kilometres
Hellyer
Hobart
Mt Lyell Risdon
30
Fig 2.2.4
Structure of an underground mine
Fig 2.2.5
Before mining begins, many important questions need to be asked: How much ore is there and how concentrated is it? How deep is the ore? What type of mine is needed? Is the site close to existing ports and rail lines? Is there a population centre nearby from which workers can be employed? Who owns or controls the land? If they live there, will they be happy to shift? What compensation is appropriate? What water and air pollution will it cause? What damage will be done to the environment and how can it be minimised? What will be the cost of building the mine and the processing plants, and repairing the environmental damage? What is the current and expected future price of the metal? What profit is expected?
head frame
two-compartment shaft ladder No. 1 level pump line compressor No. 2 level
cage or skip
31
UNIT
2.2
>>>
The activity series
When metals react, they lose electrons to form positive ions. Some metals lose their electrons more easily than others. These metals are reactive and are harder to extract. Different extraction techniques are required, depending on the metals position in the activity series. As we move up the activity series: the chance of metals reacting with chemicals becomes greater the metals become less stable there is less chance of finding the metals in their natural state the compounds of the metals become more stable and more difficult to break down the extraction process becomes more difficult and more expensive.
Extraction by electrolysis
Electrolysis is such a powerful method that it could be used to extract any metal from its ore. It uses a huge amount of electricity, however, and is used only when there is no cheaper method available. A voltage is applied to a molten sample or solution of the ore and the positive metal ions move to the negative electrode. When it gets there, the ion is forced to take back its outer-shell electrons to form metal atoms that then plate the electrode.
Extraction method
Electrolysis
Electronegativity increases
32
Fig 2.2.7
CleNa+ e-
Molten Na+Cl-
molten slag
Sodium is made by electrolysis of sea water or, more commonly, rock salt. The salt is melted to break the salt crystals into its ions, then converted into pure elements by electrolysis. At the negative electrode:
Na+ + e
molten steel
Na Cl2 +
2e
Prac 1 p. 37
water-cooled mould
Overall,
2NaCl(l)
metal solidifies as it is drawn out by the rollers continuous sheet is cut into slabs water sprayed on hot metal
2Na(l) + Cl2(g)
Extraction by heat
Heat is sometimes sufficient to extract the pure metal. Aluminium, more This is called smelting. The valuable than gold more reactive metals such is Aluminium cookware as lead, iron and zinc need d ate reported to have origin or per Em carbon or carbon monoxide nch when the Fre the ved ser III n leo po Na (CO) to help the conversion -day King of Siam (modern along. et qu Thailand) at a state ban and To extract iron, coke (a tes pla e in 1867. Th de ma re we d use y source of carbon), limestone ler cut s of aluminium, with les (CaCO3) and iron ore important guests eating (Fe2O3) are heated in a ld. go re pu of from plates d to har so s wa blast furnace. m niu mi Alu
y, very extract that it was ver expensive at the time.
Fig 2.2.8
Smelting of iron occurs as a series of chemical reactions. First the coke reacts to form carbon dioxide:
C(s) + O2(g)
Limestone then decomposes, forming calcium oxide and more carbon dioxide:
CaCO3(s)
UNIT
2.2
>>>
2CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) CaSiO3(l)
Luckily, iron is relatively common, since iron consumption is currently nine times that of all the other metals put together. Metals are non-renewable resources and all will eventually run out.
This reacts with the iron ore to form molten iron, which then runs to the bottom of the furnace:
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)
Waste calcium oxide reacts with sand in the iron ore, forming calcium silicate:
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)
Fig 2.2.9
Fig 2.2.10
More than 50% of all aluminium cans in Australia are collected and reprocessed.
Metal
Element symbol
More stable metals only need roasting in air. Most copper is extracted by roasting copper(I) sulfide, found in an ore called copper pyrites:
Cu2S(s) + O2(g)
Estimated year at which known reserves of the metal will run out
2110 2350 2040 2060 2020 2015
Fe Al Cu Zn Pb Sn
2Cu(l) + SO2(g)
Recycling of aluminium is common, because the production cost of new aluminium is twenty times more than the cost of recycling it. Recycling of many metals is often too expensive to make it worthwhile. The difficulty of separating the iron from tin in food cans makes it far too expensive to recycle iron at the moment, despite millions of cans being thrown out every year.
Worksheet 2.3 Extraction of metals
34
UNIT
2.2
[ Questions ]
16 State a disadvantage of using electrolysis for extraction of metals.
Checkpoint
Metals ready to go: native elements
1 Clarify what is meant by a native element. 2 List four examples of native elements. 3 State two forms in which native elements may be found.
Extraction by heat
17 List three metals that can be extracted by heat. 18 Construct a diagram of a blast furnace and label the important parts. 19 State the chemical formula for slag. 20 Construct the chemical equations for the smelting of iron ore.
Is it worth mining?
6 A mining company decides not to mine a particular metal. State three factors that might have led to this decision. 7 State two features of a commercially successful mine.
Think
23 Explain why a reactive metal atom like sodium (Na) has a very stable metal ion, Na+. 24 State which metal(s): a are extracted by electrolysis b are extracted in a blast furnace c are extracted by roasting in air d are native 25 Contrast the following: a slag and gangue b mineral and ore c overburden and ore d electrolysis and smelting e stable and reactive 26 Explain why metals higher up the activity series are more likely to be found as ores than as native elements. 27 Platinum is a native element. Explain where it should appear in the activity series. 28 Mining companies regularly take out mining leases on any land that may contain valuable mineral ores. This may even include the land on which you live. If the mining company holds the lease, it has the legal right to buy the land. Do you consider this acceptable? Justify your answer. 29 Contrast a shaft, a drive and a stope.
Extraction by electrolysis
14 List three metals that can only be extracted by electrolysis. 15 Use a diagram to explain how sodium is extracted from sodium chloride by electrolysis.
>>
35
UNIT
2.2
>>>
32 Use the activity series to predict whether these metal ions and metal atoms would swap electrons: a Na and Au+ b Na+ and Au c Mg and Cu2+ d Pb2+ and Al e Ca2+ and Cu
Analyse
30 List three sites where each of the major ores listed in the table on page 30 are mined. 31 Use the words below to complete the flow chart in Figure 2.2.11 summarising the process of mining an ore and extracting the metal it contains. exploration, electrolysis, gangue, froth flotation, crushing, native-metal, roasting slag, blast furnace, open-cut, underground Fig 2.2.11
Skills
33 Construct a bar graph showing the elemental composition of the Earths crust. 34 The years for the first successful extraction of different metals are shown in the table.
Aluminium Zinc Iron Lead Copper 1890 AD 1500 AD 1400 BC 2000 BC 8000 BC
overburden
a Construct a time line showing these discoveries. b Use the activity series to explain why different metals were discovered at different times in history.
extraction
b Use a map to summarise where it is processed and extracted. c Describe the transport facilities that probably had to be built to mine and shift the ore, giving consideration to whether it is near a large town.
Al Fe Cu Au
4 Underground miners used to carry canaries with them. Research why and use a cartoon to summarise your research. 5 The mobile phone revolution has brought with it a problem of recycling unwanted phones and batteries. Research what metals are used in making mobile phone batteries and the difficulties they produce if not recycled responsibly. Construct a brochure that could be used to inform the public.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research how car bodies can be recycled for their metals. Construct a poster aimed at convincing the public that recycling car bodies is a useful idea. 2 Research how to pan for gold and design an instruction sheet. 3 Locate a current mining town in Australia. a Describe the ore mined there.
Action
6 a Record the number of cans and types of cans your household throws out in a week. b Estimate how many cans are thrown out per year. 7 a Construct a bar chart of current prices of metals listed in the commodity prices of the newspapers.
36
b Compare the current buy-back price of aluminium cans with the price for new aluminium from commodity prices in newspapers.
Creative writing
Gold rush!
A rich gold deposit has been discovered 100 metres under Richville, a very wealthy suburb in your area. A multinational mining company is deciding whether it should mine there. Prepare two letters to a newspaper, one supporting a mine and one against. Imagine that the gold had been discovered instead in a remote area of the outback inhabited by its traditional indigenous owners. What will you do now? Are your reasons for and against the same as before? Prepare another two new letters, one in favour of a mine and one against.
Surf
8 Complete the activity called Start a Mine by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations button. Construct a poster showing how your mine progressed from start to finish.
UNIT
2.2
Prac 1 Unit 2.2
[ Practical activity ]
Electrolysis of copper
Aim To extract solid copper from a solution Equipment
1 M sulfuric acid, black copper oxide, spatula, 50 mL beaker, glass stirring rod, Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze mat, bench mat and matches, 12 V power pack, globe, electrodes and connecting leads, filter paper/paper towel 2 Add a small spatula of black copper oxide. 3 Carefully warm over a yellow Bunsen burner flame. Stir with the glass rod until all the copper oxide is dissolved and the solution is blue. Do not boil. 4 Remove the beaker from the tripod and place on the bench mat. 5 Connect up the circuit as shown in Figure 2.2.12. Set the power pack on 6 V DC and allow it to run for a couple of minutes. 6 Draw a diagram of the set-up. Mark the electrode being copper plated. What is happening at the other electrode and to the colour of the solution? 7 Turn off the power and remove the electrodes. Carefully remove any pure copper onto filter paper/paper towel.
Method
1 Pour approximately 20 mL of 1M sulfuric acid into the beaker. Fig 2.2.12
Questions
1 Explain whether copper formed at the positive or negative electrode. 2 Explain what happened to the blue colour of the solution. 3 In this experiment, copper ions in the solution are taking back electrons to form copper atoms. Describe the evidence for this. 4 Construct a balanced chemical equation for what is happening to the copper ions. 5 Propose a reason why electrolysis is never used commercially to produce copper. 6 Aluminium can only be extracted by electrolysis. Propose a reason why copper and not aluminium was used in this experiment.
37
UNIT
2.2
2. 3
context
The steel body of a car eventually bubbles and rusts away, but aluminium cans and gold jewellery stay good forever. Why? They are all metals arent they? Some metals are more reactive than others. Reactive metals corrode when exposed to water, air or other chemicals, usually forming metallic oxides. Pure sodium and potassium react with just about anythingtheir corrosion is very quick and often explosive! In contrast, iron corrodes very slowly, while gold is extremely stable and corrosion is rare.
Rust is flaky and allows the rest of the iron to rust away too.
UNIT
>>>
Fig 2.3.2
Breaks between the rust flakes allow water and oxygen to enter into deeper layers. Rusting causes iron(III) oxide (rust) iron to thin.
For rusting of iron to take place, both oxygen and water must be present as either liquid or vapour. The rusting process can be accelerated by salts or heat.
Corrosion protection
Stainless steel is an alloy that resists rusting and is used for surgical apparatus, body piercings and equipment in conditions of high heat and salt, such as in kitchens and on boats. Other types of steel can
Fig 2.3.3
2Fe2O3(s)
Fig 2.3.1
38
Method of protection
Painting Layer of grease or oil Plastic coating Tin plating Chromium plating
Uses
Car bodies, cast iron lace Tools, machine parts Dishracks, outdoor furniture Food cans Car parts
Advantages
Cheap, easy, attractive Cheap, easy, lubricates parts Cheap, attractive Does not react with food, non-toxic, less reactive than iron/steel Attractive
Disadvantages
Chips and scratches easily Messy, needs to be reapplied regularly Cracks allow water to enter, plastic deteriorates with age Needs electrolysis to plate steel, expensive, scratches will rust Needs electrolysis to plate steel, expensive, scratches will rust
be protected by coatings that stop air and water from reaching the surface. A scratch or crack in the coating, however, allows rusting to start again. Another method is to coat the surface or attach another more reactive metal. Galvanised iron is iron dipped in molten zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron and will react instead of it. This is called sacrificial protection. Scratches and chips will not rust, as long as some zinc is close by. Nails and roofing materials are commonly made from galvanised iron. Reactive magnesium blocks are often bolted onto steel structures such as piers and deepwater gas rigs and oil rigs at sea. Prac 1 The magnesium sacrifices itself to protect p. 41 the structure.
Fig 2.3.4
Zinc sacrifices itself to protect the iron it plates.
protective treatment. Anodising is a technique where the layer of aluminium oxide is deliberately built up using electrolysis. Colours may be added as the layers are deposited. Saucepans and window frames are often made from anodised aluminium. Prac 2
p. 42
oxygen
Fig 2.3.5
Zn Fe Fe scratch Zn Fe
Aluminium oxide acts like the perfect paint layerhard to scratch and non-flaky.
UNIT
2.3
[ Questions ]
Checkpoint
Corrosion of iron and steel
1 List three substances required for iron to rust. 2 State two things that speed up the rate at which iron rusts. 3 Construct the equation for the conversion of iron into rust.
>>
39
UNIT
2.3
Corrosion of metals
>>>
15 Explain why iron rusts and crumbles, but aluminium just dulls. 16 Describe how you can tell whether an aluminium window frame has been anodised. 17 The magnesium blocks attached to piers dissolve away over time. Outline what needs to happen when they dissolve.
Corrosion protection
4 List three ways in which iron and steel can be protected from corrosion. 5 Describe what is meant by sacrificial protection.
Analyse
18 You need to protect a zinc structure from corrosion. Predict which metals you could bolt onto the zinc to protect it. 19 Iron is the most valuable metal on Earth. Justify this statement. 20 Three sheets of iron are each coated in a different metal: copper, magnesium and tin. Predict what will happen to each sheet if the coating is scratched. 21 Steel window frames would be a silly choice near the sea. Explain why. 22 The jewellery used in body piercing is surgical-grade stainless steel, platinum or gold. Explain why these metals, and not cheaper ones, are used.
Think
8 Use the equation from Question 3 to help you construct a balanced equation for the corrosion of aluminium (Al) in oxygen (O2) to form aluminium oxide (Al2O3). 9 Use the activity series to predict which metals would show little or no corrosion. 10 Zinc doesnt rust but it does corrode. Explain. 11 The paint around a scratch on a car door will eventually bubble. Use your knowledge of the flaky nature of rust to explain why. 12 a Explain why the insides of cans of food are coated in tin or a thin layer of plastic. b You should never buy cans of food that are dented or scratched. Explain why. 13 Use the activity series to identify metals that would provide sacrificial protection to iron. 14 Galvanising gives better protection than painting an iron surface. Explain why.
Project
Which metal is that?
Find which metals or alloys are used for these purposes:
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the following information and write a report, using illustrations where appropriate. a Explain why roof decking is corrugated or ribbed. b Outline what is meant by Colorbond roofing. c Outline the advantages and disadvantages of various metal roofing materials.
1 The filament in light bulbs 2 Hot and cold water pipes 3 Turns black when exposed to light and is used as film coating 4 Used in fireworks and single-use flash bulbs to give brilliant light 5 Part of haemoglobin, the part of our blood that carries oxygen 6 Added to super petrol to avoid knocking 7 Makes up the metal plates of a car battery 8 Is in the catalytic converters of car exhaust systems to remove pollutants 9 Used in smoke alarms as a radioactive source 10 A radioactive element used in atomic bombs 11 The metal that is used in many street lamps, giving an orange colouring
Action
2 Rust is red-orange. Red-orange rocks often have high iron content. Find photos of rocks or landscapes that are rusty. Construct a collage showing the pictures collected.
40
UNIT
2.3
Prac 1 Unit 2.3
[ Practical activities ]
Corrosion of iron
Aim To investigate factors affecting the corrosion of iron Equipment
5 iron nails (not galvanised), copper wire, magnesium ribbon, distilled water, salt (sodium chloride) solution, fine sandpaper or steel wool, 4 test tubes, test-tube rack, Bunsen burner, bench mat and matches, 250 mL beaker, peg or tongs, marking pen 5 Put both into test tubes containing salt water. 6 Put another two nails in the other two test tubes, marking which contains fresh water. 7 Leave for three or four days. 8 Draw each nail, showing the location of any reddish rust and any white corrosion on the magnesium or blue/green corrosion on the copper.
Questions
1 Deduce which factors encourage rusting. 2 Describe the effect of heat on the rate of rusting. 3 List all the metals used, in order from most to least reactive. 4 Which test demonstrated sacrificial protection? Justify your answer. 5 Explain why one metal sacrificed itself and not the other. Fig 2.3.6
Method
1 Polish each nail with sandpaper or steel wool. 2 Fill the 250 mL beaker with cold water. 3 Heat a nail in a blue Bunsen flame until red hot. Use the peg to drop it into the water. Record what happens. 4 Tightly wind the magnesium ribbon around a nail, and the copper wire around another nail.
copper 3
magnesium 4
250 ml beaker
41
UNIT
2.3
Corrosion of metals
>>>
4 Set on the lowest voltage, then gradually increase until it reaches 12 V. Leave for 15 minutes, then wash the piece of aluminium in water. 5 In the other beaker, heat the prepared solution of fabric dye, then place the aluminium piece in it. Leave for 10 minutes. 6 Rinse in fresh water and cool. 7 To seal the anodised surface, boil the piece in fresh water for a further 10 minutes.
Anodised aluminium
Aim To anodise a piece of aluminium
Prac 2 Unit 2.3
Equipment
Piece of aluminium, aluminium foil, 2 M sulfuric acid, detergent, fabric dye solution, safety glasses, 2 x 250 mL beakers, tongs, tissues, 12 V power pack with wires and alligator clips, retort stand, bosshead and clamp, Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze mat, bench mat and matches or hot plate
Method
1 Line one beaker with aluminium foil, then three-quarters fill it with sulfuric acid. 2 Scrub the piece of aluminium in warm water and detergent and dry well. Do not touch the aluminium with bare handsuse tongs. 3 Place as shown in the diagram and connect to the power pack.
Questions
1 Explain why the aluminium piece must be handled only with tongs after cleaning. 2 Aluminium is highly reactive but doesnt seem to corrode as badly as iron. Explain why. 3 Describe what anodising produced. 4 Explain why anodising would not work with iron.
power pack
aluminium foil
Fig 2.3.7
42
2.4
context
Nowadays we take plastics for granted, but before 1950 plastics were almost unheard of. Think of all the things that you wouldnt have if plastics had not been invented. Like metals before them, plastics changed technology and the way we build and use our world.
H H H C H H H C H H C H H C H H C H O C O H C H H methyl butanoate (artificial rum flavouring) O ethanol (the alcohol H in beer, wine, spirits, etc.) H methane H C C H C H benzene C C C H H
UNIT
H C H
Fig 2.4.2
Plastics are everywhere. Most packaging and many fibres are plastic.
Fig 2.4.1
The properties of plastics make them extremely useful for a wide variety of applications. Plastics: are good thermal and electrical insulators, having no free electrons to conduct electricity or heat are strong and light and can be moulded into different shapes do not react with water or oxygen, making them weather- and rot-resistant. This is both a good and a bad propertyoutdoor furniture will not rot, but plastic packaging wont decompose when thrown out; plastics are not biodegradable. become brittle over time if exposed to sunlight. Chemicals can be added, however, to make them more resistant. can have other chemicals added to colour and reinforce them (e.g. glass fibres are added to a plastic resin to make fibreglass) sometimes react with or dissolve in other organic substances (e.g. turpentine, methylated spirits, petrol) can sometimes burn very easily, producing noxious fumes when they doPVC produces hydrochloric acid fumes when it burns!
43
>>>
Other names
Polyethene
Plastic
Polythene Acrylic PVC Nylon Polystyrene Melamine Urea formaldehyde Phenol formaldehyde
Uses
Milk crates, rubbish bins, buckets, plastic bags, cling wrap, soft squeeze bottles Safety glasses, plastic screens
Waterproof clothing, guttering, pipes Brush bristles, fabrics, rope, carpets Without bubbles (unexpanded): yoghurt and margarine containers; with bubbles (expanded): insulation, Eskies, cups, packaging Unbreakable dishes Electric switches and plugs Door handles, saucepan handles
H C H C
H C C
H polymerisation
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
ethene monomers
H H H H polyethene polymer
Cl C H C
Cl C C
H polymerisation H
Cl C
H C
Cl C
H C
Cl C
chloroethene monomers
Fig 2.4.3
44
Fig 2.4.4
Resin has been added to the hooked end of this spear thrower and is being heated to make it sticky.
Thermoplastics are recyclable as they can be heated, individual strands cannot move re-melted and re-moulded many times. Recycling is an thermosetting plastics will char (burn at the important way of managing plastics as it keeps them edges) but will not soften. They therefore out of the environment. Plastics are not biodegradable need to be manufactured and moulded at Prac 2 p. 52 so they stay in tips and the environment for hundreds, the same time. Bakelite is an example of a even thousands, of years. Plastic bags are a major thermosetting plastic. concern for birds, animals and sea life since these creatures can become Thermosetting and thermoplastic Fig 2.4.5 tangled in them or try to feed on them, with the bag subsequently blocking Thermoplastic the animals digestive add heat tract. Because plastic bags do not decay, they are released once more into the environment when the long polymer chains animals carcass decays. Chains slip over each other and Thermosetting plastics the plastic melts. Thermosetting cannot be remoulded. The polymers have strong cross-linking bonds locking them into a giant molecular structure. Individual add heat strands cannot be shifted without breaking part of the structure. This makes thermosetting plastics hard (scratch resistant), Bonds break and the plastic brittle (will shatter if decomposes (chars). dropped) and rigid (not able to be bent). When
45
UNIT
2. 4
>>>
Injection moulding
This is the most common method of production. A knob of plastic where the plastic injection took place is left behind. Toys, bottle caps and outdoor furniture are commonly made by injection moulding.
Bugs inspire the first synthetic plastic!
Shellac is a common natural furniture varnish and wax, and is made from the excretions of tiny Tachardia lacca bugs. In 1907, Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland was working in the United States to make an artificial substitute for it. His equipment became clogged when he mixed phenol and formaldehyde. The new material could not be dissolved and was a superb thermal and electrical insulator. The plastic, bakelite, had been invented and found immediate and widespread use as electrical fittings and saucepan handles.
Extrusion moulding
Extrusion moulding is used to make many common items such as pipes, hoses, plastic straws, curtain tracks, rods and fibres.
Blow moulding
Bottles are commonly made by blow moulding. A sign of blow moulding is the seam where the two halves of the mould met.
Fig 2.4.6
The nozzle creates the shape in extrusion moulding.
heaters
motor
screw
molten plastic
softened thermoplastic
Mould is closed.
Mould opens.
Fig 2.4.7
Molten plastic is expanded by compressed air to fill the mould in blow moulding.
46
heating cylinder
molten plastic
Fig 2.4.8
Fibres were not just used as serious tools in Aboriginal life, they were used for fun! String games are common in indigenous cultures both in Australia and around the world. In these games, string figure designs were made that resembled objects used in everyday life, such as dilly bags and baskets. Designs also showed animals and people, or ideas such as the forces of nature. String games were used for learning and to help tell stories.
Natural fibres
Wool, mohair, silk, cotton, linen (flax), hair, fur and coir (the hairy covering of a coconut) are all natural fibres. They have had many uses for thousands of years. In many Aboriginal societies, making objects from plant fibres was an important activity. Items needed for hunting as well as for carrying and collecting food were made along with ritual objects for use in religious ceremonies. The parts of many plants provide fibre to make string, bags, rope, baskets, fishing nets or baskets, clothing and mats. Fibres come from the following plant parts: underground stems (rhizomes) of plants such as the bulrush leaves and stems of grass-like plants such as the mat-rush bark of trees and shrubs such as some species of Acacia and native hibiscus. After the plant parts have been collected, the fibrous material is extracted and separated. Some materials are soaked in water until the nonfibrous tissue rots away. Chewing or scraping with a sharp rock or shell then flattens and softens the remaining fibres.
Fig 2.4.9
On some trees, such as the paperbark, little preparation is needed. The bark is simply peeled from the trees and used to make water containers, mats and liners for babies baskets.
Synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are made entirely from chemicals and are usually stronger than natural fibres. Nylon, Terylene, Lycra, Kevlar, Spandex, Elastane, polyesters and acrylics are all synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibres are produced by the extrusion of a polymer though a multi-holed head called a spinneret. Some use natural fibres as their building block. Wood and paper (a wood product) contain the natural
47
UNIT
2. 4
>>>
the greater its attraction to In 2000 an Air France others that lie next to it, and the Concorde took off from Charles De Gaulle Airport stronger it will be. The fibre can in Paris. A tyre burst, still tear, though, since the end of sending fragments into each molecule represents a weak the wing, puncturing the fuel tanks. The spilled fuel spot. ignited and spelt the end Monofilaments are made for the plane. Concordes from molecules that are the same once again took to the sky in 2001, this time length as the fibre. There are no fuel tanks lined with with ends and therefore no weak spots. Kevlar. However, they never Fishing lines are monofilaments regained the patronage of of nylon. Monofilament materials before the catastrophe and were finally removed from are extremely strong and flexible, service in 2003. making them ideal for uses where a tear or puncture would be catastrophic: Kevlar is a monofilament that is five times stronger than steel, but half the density of fibreglass. It is used in bulletproof vests, the sails of ocean-going yachts and the fuel tanks (actually fuel-bags) of Formula 1 racing cars. Ropes, fibre-optic cables, automotive hoses, belts and gaskets are often made of Kevlar. Goalie masks in hockey use a fibreglass/Kevlar mix.
New, improved Concorde
Softened thermoplastic is squeezed out of a multi-holed nozzle called a spinneret. A synthetic fibre is formed.
Fig 2.4.10
polymer cellulose. If wood pulp is soaked in solutions of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH), a sticky cellulose gum forms. When extruded, the gum forms a new fibreviscose, acetate, tri-acetate and rayon all come from wood pulp.
Other properties
Prac 4 p. 53
Prac 3 p. 53
The molecules in a synthetic fibre are aligned along the thread, making them stronger than the plastics they came from. The fibre will be particularly strong if its molecules are longthe longer the molecule,
Longer molecules produce stronger fibres than shorter ones. The strongest are monofilaments.
a pair of molecules
Fig 2.4.11
The rough surfaces of natural fibres give them a large surface area that can absorb and hold water and dirt. In contrast, the surfaces of synthetic fibres are smooth, making them stain-resistant, water-repellent and ideal for clothing. Drip-dry or wash-and-wear fabrics are synthetic. Synthetics are uncomfortable in hot weather, however, as they do not absorb sweat. Instead, it stays on our skin, making us wet and clammy. Natural fibres absorb sweat and keep our skin dry. Synthetic fibres a monofilament are thermoplastic and will melt if heated: ironing must be done with care and tumbledrying is usually not Each recommended.
Molecules separate at their ends. molecule is the same length as the monofilament.
Force
Length
DYO
Prac 5 p. 53
48
Other fibres
If synthetic fibres are heated strongly with no air present, they do not burn but char until all that is left is a fibre of pure carbon. Carbon fibre is extremely strong and when mixed with resins can be used for making lightweight and flexible structures ideal for bike frames and tennis racquets. Glass fibre is produced by running molten glass into a perforated steel bowl (like the barrel of a washing machine). When spun fast, glass threads fly out and then cool in the air. When mixed with resins, fibreglass is produced.
Worksheet 2.6 Recycling
Swimming in shoes!
Australians have always loved the beach but ht. until 1900 it was illegal to bathe in daylig ugh altho ed, allow was ng bathi 1902 From men and women had to swim separately and fully clothedmen wore neck-to-knee woollen bathers and women wore huge ! bathing dresses, caps, stockings and shoes g makin , heavy very Wool holds water and gets the In easy. ning drow and ult diffic ming swim 1930s Jantzens Topper swimwear allowed es, men to zip off their top at secluded beach ss tople go to ed allow and in 1938 men were on the beaches of Perth. The bikini was launched in 1952, but the newly developed ers lastex fabric needed bone or metal stiffen is wear swim rn Mode to prevent it slipping off! Lycra or ne Elasta , nylon from made only comm blends. Swimmers once again are wearing neck-to-knee bathers, to protect children from UV radiation and to allow competitive a swimmers to reduce drag. Adidas makes from made suit swim competitive full body suits Teflon-coated Lycra, while Speedo makes lled mode e textur a has from Fastskin, which on shark skin.
Shark skin has scales or dermal teeth that reduce drag as the shark swims.
Fig 2.4.12
UNIT
2. 4
[ Questions ]
Checkpoint
Plastic: carbon-based compounds
1 State what is meant by an organic compound. 2 List three examples of organic compounds. 3 List these facts about carbon (C): a its group number b its period c the number of electrons in its outer shell d the maximum number of bonds it can form e two continuous lattices that it forms
Speedos Fastskin material directs water flow in a similar way to that over a sharks skin.
Fig 2.4.13
>>
49
UNIT
2. 4
>>>
24 Explain how the length of a molecule affects the strength of a fibre. 25 Where do fibres tend to break? 26 Explain why care must be taken when drying and pressing synthetic fibres. 27 Explain how cross-links stop thermosetting plastics from melting. 28 Use Figure 2.4.3 to construct a general equation for the polymerisation reaction. 29 Evaluate the use of plastics in terms of their effect on society and the environment.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Materials such as polystyrene are called foams. Research how plastic foams are made. In your answer, include the chemical equations involved.
Other properties
16 Outline three desirable and three undesirable properties of plastics. 17 Explain why natural fibres are able to absorb and hold water.
Other fibres
18 List three examples each of natural fibres, synthetic fibres made from plastics and synthetic fibres made from wood products.
Action
2 Use a paperclip to represent a monomer. Link them together to construct models of a polymer, a thermoplastic and a thermosetting plastic. 3 Inspect ten plastic items around your home for seams or bumps. List the items as made by extrusion, blow or injection moulding. Present your findings in a table. 4 Inspect the washing/drying/ironing instructions on six different pieces of clothing. Present the information in a table showing the fibre composition of each. List any recommended washing instructions, noting whether no heat is stated. 5 Gather information by counting how many plastic bags are collected in one week in your home from shopping. Discuss your results and include comments on whether alternatives could have been used.
Think
19 Contrast: a the surface of a natural fibre with that of a synthetic fibre b a monomer with a polymer c thermoplastic with thermosetting plastics d injection moulding with blow moulding 20 List examples of: a five synthetic polymers b three natural polymers c one inorganic polymer d three thermoplastic polymers e one thermosetting polymer f one monofilament 21 A train could be considered a polymer. State what the monomer would be. 22 Explain how thermoplastics can melt and then reset on cooling.
Surf
6 Find out more about how plastics are recycled by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com. au/schools, selecting chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations button. a Construct a graph showing the amount of plastic used in Australia in each State. b Produce a report which outlines how plastics are recycled. c Justify the need to recycle plastics.
Analyse
23 Would the production of thermosetting plastic powder be a good idea? Justify your answer.
50
UNIT
2. 4
Prac 1 Unit 2.4
[ Practical activities ]
Identifying plastics
Aim To identify properties of some common
plastics 2 Describe the appearanceis it transparent, translucent or opaque? 3 Describe its flexibilitydoes it bend or is it stiff? 4 Does it feel waxy? 5 Does your fingernail or the scissors scratch it? 6 How hard is it to cut with scissors? 7 Are the cut edges smooth or jagged? Does the cut show bubbles or cells? 8 Add two drops of detergent to a 250 mL beaker of cold water. Add a plasticdoes it float or sink? 9 Place a drop each of turpentine, HCl and nail polish remover onto three small squares of each plastic. Leave for five minutes and record whether each piece dissolved, went soft or remained hard. 10 Break each plastic into smaller pieces and use tongs to hold a piece in a meths burner flame.
nail polish remover
Equipment
Labelled pieces (each about 2 x 1 cm) of polythene, polystyrene, PVC, perspex, nylon, mystery plastics, dissection board/bench mat, scissors, turpentine, nail polish remover, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl), detergent, 250 mL beaker, tongs, access to meths burner set-up in fume hood Fig 2.4.14
turpentine HCl
2 drops of detergent
WARNING: The meths burner must be in a fume hood. If no fume hood is available, do not do any burning tests. Do not smell any fumes or smoke.
This must be in a fume hood
250 mL beaker
11 Did the burning produce smoke? If so, what colour was the smoke? What colour was the flame? Did molten plastic drop from it? Did the drops burn as they fell? 12 Run tests to determine what each of the mystery plastics is.
meths burner
Questions
1 Identify each plastic as either thermoplastic or thermosetting.
Method
1 Copy the table below into your workbook. Your teacher may split you into groups to run all tests on one plastic only or to run one test on all the plastics.
Polythene
Appearance Flexibility Feel Ease of scratching Ease of cutting Description of cut Does it float? Effect of flame What dissolves it?
2 Identify the mystery plastics. 3 Explain why the burning must be done in the fume hood and not in the lab. 4 Explain what is produced from PVC when it is burnt. 5 Deduce whether any plastics sink in, or react with, water. 6 A sample of plastic kept burning once it was lit. Its flame was blue with a yellow tip. Identify the plastic.
Polystyrene foam
PVC
Perspex
Nylon
51
UNIT
2. 4
>>>
8 After a couple of days, remove the mould and polish with the sandpaper. 9 Use tongs to hold a small amount of the dry casein in a Bunsen flame. Does it melt, burn or char?
Aim To make a polymer called casein from milk. Casein was an early plastic that is still used for buttons and some wood glues. It is hardened industrially with formalin.
Equipment
Full cream milk, vinegar, Bunsen burner, bench mat, tripod, gauze mat and matches, 100 mL measuring cylinder, 2 x 250 mL beakers, thermometer, glass stirring rod, elastic band, coarse cloth for straining, paper towel/filter paper, assorted moulds (bottle caps, moulded chocolate trays etc.), fine sandpaper, tongs
Extension
10 Chip off a piece of casein and find its mass. 11 For every 50 g of casein you chip off, measure out 20 g of borax and 40 mL of water. 12 Add the borax and water to a conical flask and swirl until dissolved. 13 Crumble the casein into the borax solution and shake until creamy glue is formed. 14 Use it to glue two chips of wood together. Use the clamp or elastic bands to hold the pieces together. Leave it overnight to cure, then try to separate the pieces of wood.
Method
1 Set up the Bunsen burner and tripod. 2 Place 100 mL of milk in one of the 250 mL beakers. Warm gently until it reaches 50C. Do not overheat. 3 Add 10 mL vinegar and stir with the stirring rod. 4 The milk should curdle to form white lumps of curds (casein) and yellowish liquid called whey. 5 Use the elastic band to secure the piece of cloth tightly over the other 250 mL beaker. Strain through the curds and whey. 6 Carefully remove the cloth and squeeze to remove as much liquid as you can. 7 Empty onto the paper towel/filter paper. Pat dry, then firmly press into moulds. Leave the casein to dry in the sun. Fig 2.4.15
Questions
1 Deduce whether the casein plastic produced was thermosetting or thermoplastic. 2 State the purpose of the final test. 3 Identify a use of the casein. 4 Outline how casein is hardened industrially. 5 Little Miss Muffet ate her curds and whey. Explain whether you would.
100
110
thermometer
90
10 mL vinegar 50C
100 mL milk
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
250 mL beaker
80
curds
cloth whey
curds mould
filter paper
52
Use tweezers to lift part of the layer of nylon formed between the solutions. Drape it over the glass stirring rod and wind the fibre out.
Questions
Construct a three-frame cartoon or diagram to show how the nylon was made. Predict what would have formed if the two solutions had been allowed to mix. The nylon fibre formed is not very useful. Explain why.
Method
1 2 3 Dissolve 2.2 g of 1,6-diaminohexane and 5 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in 50 mL of water. In another beaker, mix 2 mL of sebacoyl chloride or adipoyl chloride in 50 mL of cyclohexane. Gently pour the 1,6-diaminohexane solution down the side of the beaker and onto the top of the cyclohexane solution. The two solutions must not mix but must form layers.
3 Explain why synthetic fibres have smoother surfaces than natural ones. 4 List the fabrics in order from the safest near a flame to the most dangerous. 5 Clothing fires are more common among children than adults and more common among girls than boys. Propose reasons why. 6 Recommend which fibres should be used for clothing for babies and young children.
wool
silk
Identifying fibres
Aim To compare and contrast natural and
Prac 4 Unit 2.4
cotton
synthetic fibres
Equipment
linen
Labelled samples of fabrics (wool, cotton, linen, rayon, nylon, polyester), microscope, microscope slide and coverslip, pins or tweezers, metal tongs, matches, bench mat
nylon
Method
1 Remove an individual thread, about 2 cm long, from each fabric sample. 2 Place it on the microscope slide and use the tweezers or pins to tease the fibres apart. 3 Place a coverslip on top and inspect the fibres under the microscope. 4 In your workbook, sketch and label each fibre, taking note of its surface. 5 Cut/tear a strip about 2 1 cm from each fabric. 6 Use tongs to hold a strip over the bench mat. Hold a lit match under the strip. Record your observations for each fabric. Did it catch fire, melt or char? What colour were the flame and smoke? What was left?
Fig 2.4.16
Plan and run an experiment to determine the amount of water different fabrics can hold.
Questions
DYO
1 Construct a flow chart showing how you conducted your experiment. 2 List the fibres tested in order from those that held the least water to those that held the most. 3 Identify which of the fibres were synthetic.
Questions
1 Match your samples with the diagrams in Figure 2.4.16. 2 Deduce which fibres were natural and which were synthetic.
53
UNIT
2. 4
A different approach
Multidisciplined
Working with incredibly small objects requires cooperation between scientists from various disciplines. Nanotechnology draws on chemistry, physics, electrical engineering, molecular biology, quantum physics and materials science. It offers a
Fig SF 2.1
The future?
How small is a nanometre? As you move from left to right across the diagram, each step is ten times smaller.
Domain of nanotechnology Limit of human vision Limit of light microscope Rhinovirus (common cold) ~30 nm
~0.05 to
Human hair
0.10 mm = 50 to 100 m
4 m = m 10 3 1. 00 m m = m
Carbon nanotubes ~1 nm
10 5 = = 0.0 m 10 1 m0 m m
10 9 1. 00 m nm =
10 6 m m =
10
10
10
00
10
.0
0.
1.
10
Note: There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in 1.0 metre (m). There are 1000 micrometres (m) in 1.0 millimetre (mm). There are 1000 nanometres (nm) in 1.0 micrometre (m).
54
0.
10
10 nm m =
huge range of possibilities, with applications already being explored in medicine, computing, electronics, engineering and lithography.
Top down
Until recently the manufacture of the smallest of objects was a top down approach. This means the substance would be engineered to reduce it down to the desired size, like sculpting a small statue from a large block of stone. This approach is suitable for micro-sized objects such as silicon chips and micro machines, which often use an etching process to make small components out of a larger piece of substance.
brick by brick. With STEM it is possible to manipulate single atoms on the surface of a material and to lay down incredibly thin surface layers on a substrate. Figure SF2.3 shows how a STEM operates. The STEM and sample are contained in a region which has had the air evacuated using a vacuum pump. The STEM piezotube probe is then moved over the surface of the sample, maintaining a fixed distance by ensuring the tunnelling current between the probe and sample does not change. Through computer analysis of the data collected, an image of the surface features of the sample can be produced. Using a STEM, individual atoms can be identified. With a secondary voltage applied between the tip of the probe and the surface, the chemical bonds holding a surface atom in position can be broken and the single surface atom moved. This ability to manipulate individual atoms has made bottom-up engineering of nanoscale objects a realityit is now becoming possible to assemble something by moving individual atoms into position. Figure SF2.4 shows a STEM image of a surface that uses single atoms to represent data. The individual atoms hold data just like pits on a CD. Such data can be written and read using a STEM. Data storage at this scale means that 300 copies of a 300-page book could be stored on the cross section of a human hair.
Fig SF 2.2
These micromechanics components were created using a top-down approach to etch them out of silicon. For scale, a flys leg can be seen.
Distance control for piezotube to sample and scanning unit
Fig SF 2.3
Bottom up
The development of the scanning tunnelling electron microscope (STM or STEM) finally made it possible to produce images of an atom. It was quickly realised that with some modifications the STEM would be the perfect tool to directly manipulate the surface of a material on the atomic scale. This provided the opportunity to try and create structures from the bottom up. This means assembling a structure atom by atom, like building a house
Sample being studied Tunnelling current amplifier Data processing and display of images Tunnelling electron current Tunnelling voltage
55
Red gold
With the nanoscale so incredibly small, objects do not behave in the way expected at larger scales. Quantum effects begin to act at the atomic level and this produces some very interesting results. For example, the metal gold is gold in colour when we look at a sample large enough to see with the human eye. But when gold atoms are arranged to produce tiny crystals of gold on the nanoscale, the gold appears red. These curious results show that we have a lot to learn about how substances behave at the nanoscale.
Fig SF 2.4
Individual silicon atoms (yellow) sit on this surface and represent data, like pits on a CD.
A scanning beam interference lithography machine creates nanoscale grids and grates for space technology.
Fig SF 2.5
Medical
An application of nanotechnology being explored is the creation of nanobots (nanoscale robots) to be placed in humans. Nanobots could monitor the internal conditions of the body, such as blood sugar levels, temperature, nervous activity or production of hormones by endocrine glands. Nanobots could be designed to seek out and destroy viruses and bacteria in the bloodstream. They could also be engineered
Surfaces
The ability to lay down incredibly thin layers of a substance onto the surface of other material can improve the properties of a substance and offers many advantages in chemistry and engineering. For example, laying down an incredibly thin protective coat on solar cells could improve transmission of light into the cells, and thereby improve their efficiency. Also, surfaces could be made self-cleaning by applying a coating that repels dirt. Manipulating the surface of materials can also make it possible to store vast amounts of information in very small spaces. A scanning beam interference lithography machine can be used to create gratings or grids with structures on the scale of a few nanometres. The structures created are used in astronomical devices such as space telescopes and satellites. A laser is used to create the pattern on the target surface. In the future this machine could be used to produce nanotechnology components for computers and machines.
Fig SF 2.6
This nanobot is injecting a drug to kill cancerous cells in a human body. Could this be how we treat disease in the future?
56
to target certain cells in the body, identifying the cell and delivering a product to it. For example, a nanobot could be designed to detect cancerous cells. Drugs could be packaged inside the nanobots to be injected directly into the cancer cells with no damage to the normal cells of the patient.
This image of carbon nanotubes was created using a STEM. Carbon nanotubes have the potential to be used in electrical devices and have unusual properties. Much research is being done with carbon nanotubes, and their applications are likely to be diverse.
Fig SF 2.7
Computing
Nanotechnology offers the potential to manufacture new, smaller, faster and more efficient integrated circuits for computing. It has made quantum computing possible, with incredible processing speeds far beyond the ability of present silicon-based microprocessors. Quantum computers would store and process information at an atomic level. A solid-state quantum computer element can be made by positioning phosphorus atoms 20 nanometres apart in very pure silicon. The phosphorus atoms behave as an incredibly tiny and extremely fast microprocessor. Promising research into quantum computing is being conducted at the University of New South Wales.
[ Student activities ]
1 Development of a quantum computer is being pursued energetically in a number of countries. The University of New South Wales (UNSW) has purchased a very expensive STEM to assist in its research. a Research the work being done on quantum computers at UNSW. b Summarise the work being done and any progress made to this point. c Compare this research with that being done in another location. 2 As a molecular biologist and nanoengineer, you have been given the task of designing a nanobot to help solve an important medical problem. a Identify a medical problem you would like to solve using nanobots, e.g. diabetes, cancer, HIV, haemophilia or another of your choice. b Construct a poster or model of a nanobot that could help solve this medical problem. Include labels or a key to show the features of your nanobot, and an explanation of how the nanobot will tackle the medical problem. 3 Tests on carbon nanotubes show that they have extraordinary, unexpected properties.
a Research carbon nanotubes to find out: i what they are ii what special properties they have iii their possible applications and uses iv why it would be important to conduct further research into carbon nanotubes b You are a research scientist and you want to work with carbon nanotubes but you need funding for your project. There is $1 000 000 in funding for nanotechnology available, but you have to appear to be at the forefront of research to get this. Using the information you have about carbon nanotubes, construct an application that will get the funding you need for your research. Include the possible outcomes and products you will create, and how they will benefit society. 4 Produce a poster, display or other presentation to teach the general public about nanotechnology, and what it may offer society in the future. You will need to conduct research to include information about: a examples of current and future research and products b public safety and any social issues c the importance of continuing to invest in this area of research
57
2.5
context
We always seem to be getting dirty or getting covered in oils and grease. Dirt, oils and grease are made from organic compounds that normally dissolve only in other organic substances. Although there are obvious problems in washing ourselves in turpentine, methylated spirits or nail-polish remover, dry-cleaners use similar organic solvents to dissolve and remove grease from clothes. At home you need to use soap and water to get clean, but how does this work?
UNIT
>>>
Surfactants are molecules that assist water in dissolving dirt and grease.
Australians are too clean!
Many babies suffer from eczema, or skin hypersensitivity. It seems that we are all using too much soap, bubble bath and shampoo, since all remove essential oils from the skin. This causes dryness and makes us susceptible to eczema. Dermatologists recommend using soap-free cleansers instead. For babies all that is generally needed is some bath oil or moisturiser.
Fig 2.5.2
Fig 2.5.1
a water molecule
+ +
+ H H +
O H +
H H + O
CD8
+ H O
+
O H +
H H
+ +
Soap, shampoos and detergents are surfactants and have both organic and ionic parts. Surfactant molecules are similar to those of plastics in that they are long and have an organic carbon backbone. This will dissolve grease nicely. Unlike most molecules, however, they have a charged or ionic end. This is then joined to a metal ion (usually the sodium ion, Na+). This end will dissolve in water nicely. We now have the perfect molecule for dissolving greaseone end dissolves the grease, while the other end dissolves in water. Once the grease is dislodged, surfactant molecules surround it and keep it from re-depositing back onto the surface. These tiny dissolved liquid
grease patches and the water form a mixture called an emulsion. The water can now wash away the grease. Hot water and agitation (vigorous movement) also help loosen the grease from the surface and keep it from re-depositing on it. Lather (bubbles) will also assist in keeping grease from dropping back and is particularly useful in situations where little water is used (e.g. shaving, washing cars, hair shampoo). Many fibres (including hair) take on a weak negative charge when wet. Once dissolved and carrying their load of grease, the soap or shampoo molecules also carry a negative charge and are thus less likely to re-deposit the grease back onto the fibre. Prac 1 Prac 2
p. CD11 p. CD11
and magnesium precipitates. These are left behind as a dirty grey substance called scum, which deposits as a dirty ring around basins and baths, or as scale in pipes and kettles. Soft water has less dissolved salts and soap produces less scum. Soap lathers better, feels smoother and more slippery in soft water, and less of it is required to get clean. Prac 3
p. CD12
water
grease
Fig 2.5.4
Lather (bubbles) keeps the dirt and grease from re-depositing on the hair.
Surfactant (soap, detergent) molecules have a hydrophobic end that hates water but loves grease. The other end is hydrophilicit loves water.
Fig 2.5.3
Soap is made when natural fatty acids found in materials like vegetable oils and animal fats react with an alkaline (basic) solution such as sodium hydroxide. The process is called saponification and is summarised by the reaction:
fat + alkaline solution
soap + glycerol
soda Bases such as caustic and ) ide rox (sodium hyd s are their alkaline solution they if s ou extremely danger The n. ski h wit t tac con in come its as y per slip skin becomes ation ific on sap go der un fats and form soap!
Skin soap
CD9
UNIT
2.5
Soaps
Detergents are produced from chemicals in crude oil. The big advantage of detergents is that they dont produce scum.
>>>
Whale soap?
In the past, whale blubber was commonly the fat from which soap was made. Whales are now prote cted, however, and the fat used in soap manufactur e comes mostly from cows slaughtered for their meat. Just about any fat or oil can be used and many soaps are now made with vegetable or plant oils. Palmolive soap is named because it is made with palm oil and olive oil.
UNIT
2 .5
Water
[ Questions ]
Think
Checkpoint
1 Modify the following statements to make them correct: a Water is a non-polar molecule. b Sodium chloride is a polar molecule. c Water is able to dissolve grease. 2 State the types of substances that normally dissolve in water.
10 Explain how soap is able to dissolve both in water and in grease. 11 Identify as many factors as you can that will affect the cleaning of a piece of fabric. 12 If lather doesnt help to dissolve grease, explain how it helps to remove grease from a fabric. 13 If shaving cream did not lather, state where the cut whiskers would end up. 14 Identify three vegetable oils that could be used for the production of soap. 15 If animal fat is needed to produce soap, propose some sources of the fat.
Skills
16 Contrast detergent with soap. 17 Compare soap molecules with: a plastics b ionic compounds 18 Construct a word equation for the production of soap. 19 Construct a diagram showing how soap helps grease to dissolve in water.
Create
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 a Use a dictionary to define the term phobia and include some examples. b One end of a surfactant molecule is hydrophobic and the other end is hydrophilic. Clarify the meaning of these terms and identify which end is which. 2 Conduct research on the Internet to answer the following questions: a List what is in a soap-free cleanser like Dove. b Scotch, 3M and ENJO all make cloths that clean without the use of chemicals. Describe how they do this.
c Research the dry-cleaning process. Describe how it cleans clothes, making reference to the chemistry involved. If necessary, use diagrams to assist your explanation. d Explain why soap films are often coloured. e Describe the machine that can make three-storeyhigh soap bubbles.
Action
3 Design a survey of soaps. Record your results in a table showing the first six ingredients of at least three different brands of soap, hair shampoos and shower gels. Identify and discuss any trends you find.
CD10
UNIT
2 .5
Prac 1 Unit 2.5
[ Practical activities ]
Fig 2.5.5
Make soap!
WARNING: The soap made here uses and contains very corrosive sodium hydroxide. Do not get any sodium hydroxide on your skin or in your eyes. Do not use the soap produced.
250 mL beaker test tube 5 mL oil water 10 mL sodium hydroxide solution
Method
1 Pour about 5 mL of oil into a test tube. 2 Carefully add 10 mL of sodium hydroxide solution. 3 Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for 30 minutes. Shake the tube every few minutes to mix the contents. 4 Place 50 mL of the sodium chloride solution in the 100 mL beaker, then pour the hot oil mix in. The soap formed should float to the top. 5 Scoop up the soap and place it in the 250 mL beaker. Rinse a few times with a little water. 6 Let the soap dry on filter paper/paper towel. 7 Two-thirds fill the other test tube with water and add a little soap. 8 Stopper and shake. Does it lather?
bench mat
9 Fill a fresh test tube with water, then add 3 or 4 drops of kerosene. This will be our grease. Stopper and shake. 10 Add some soap, then shake again. Compare with what you saw before.
Questions
1 Draw a cartoon explaining how soap was made here. 2 Describe what happens to the kerosene in water alone. 3 Describe the effect that the soap had on it. 4 Construct a word equation for the reaction.
Aim To design and run an experiment that compares liquid and powder laundry detergents Equipment
Powder and liquid laundry detergents
3 Design and run an experiment that would test it. 4 Write a report on the effect of the variable you chose and why you think you obtained the result you did.
Questions
1 Draw a conclusion about the variable you tested. 2 Gather conclusions from other groups who tested different variables. Assess which variables had an effect and which didnt.
Method
DYO
1 Identify all the variables or factors that would influence the effectiveness of laundry detergent in removing grease.
2 Choose one factor that you think would have a big effect.
CD11
UNIT
2.5
Soaps
>>>
How hard is it?
Aim To test water hardness
Prac 2 Unit 5.2
Equipment
Distilled water, dilute magnesium sulfate solution, solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate, suspension of calcium carbonate in water, small chips of bath soap, shampoo, detergent, 5 test tubes, rubber stoppers to fit test tubes
5 Record your results in order from the solution that produced the most lather (the softest) to the one that produced the least lather (the hardest). 6 Repeat the experiment but use a few drops of shampoo. 7 Repeat again with a few drops of detergent.
Questions
1 Describe what soap does in hard water. 2 Identify the solution that was the hardest. Justify your answer. 3 Deduce whether the water showed any hardness when it contained shampoo or detergent. 4 Outline the advantage of detergent over soap. 5 Design a test to see if temperature has an effect on water hardness.
Method
1 Put about 2 cm of distilled water and 2 cm of tap water into two separate test tubes. 2 Put about 2 cm of each solution into the other test tubes. 3 Add a small chip of soap to all five tubes and stopper lightly. 4 Shake the tubes vigorously and watch for any lather that forms.
Fig 2.5.6
CD12
>>>
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 State an example of an alloy and its base metal. 2 State whether the additives in alloys are usually metals or non-metals. 3 List the carbon content of: a cast iron b tool steel 4 State how many carats are in pure gold. 5 If gold is 18-carat, state the percentage of gold present. 6 State a use for each of these materials: a aluminium d Duralumin b zinc e bronze c cast iron f haematite 7 State one example each of: a an alloy of copper b an alloy of iron c an impurity commonly added to iron d a commonly used pure metal e a non-metal abundant in the Earths crust f a scarce metal g a metal that is cheaper to recycle than to produce h i j k g bauxite h celluloid i Kevlar c mild steel 17 Explain why stainless steel is ideal for use as replacement bone (hips, tooth implants, knees). 18 Corrugated iron (steel) is galvanised and is commonly used for roofing. a Explain what will happen after all the zinc coating has corroded away. b Explain whether the zinc can be replaced. 19 If car bodies are galvanised, propose reasons why they are also painted. 20 Identify problems associated with using plastic shopping bags. 21 An optic fibre is transparent fibre that carries light unbroken from one end to the other. Explain whether an optic fibre needs to be a monofilament. 22 Explain why natural fibres cannot drip-dry.
an ore a native metal a natural fibre a synthetic fibre made from wood products l a monofilament fibre m a surfactant n an organic solvent
[ Interpreting questions ]
23 Use a diagram to describe the bonding in metals that allows: a conduction of electricity b conduction of heat 24 Use the data in the table on page 34 to construct the following graphs: a a pie chart showing the amount of metals used each year b a bar graph showing when each metal is estimated to run out 25 Construct a diagram showing what happens in the electrolysis of copper chloride. Label the diagram and use chemical equations to show the chemical reactions at each electrode. 26 Aluminium metal is high on the activity series, yet is a commonly used metal. Use Figure 2.3.5 to explain why it does not rust. 27 Phenylethene is an ethene molecule with one hydrogen replaced by benzene, C6H6. a Construct a diagram of a phenylethene molecule. b Polystyrene foam uses phenylethene as its monomer. Construct a diagram showing ten phenylethene monomers joined to form the polymer polystyrene.
Worksheet 2.7 Materials crossword Worksheet 2.8 Sci-words
8 Identify a metal that is extracted by: a electrolysis b smelting 9 List the ingredients for a blast furnace.
c roasting
10 State the special name given to the corrosion of iron. 11 Outline what is meant by anodised aluminium. 12 List four properties of a thermosetting plastic.
[ Thinking questions ]
13 Rose-gold is a pink-gold colour. Propose a metal that could be added to the base metal to create this colour. 14 It is thought that iron simply oozed out of the rocks used to surround the cooking pits of ancient hunters. Compare these conditions with those of a blast furnace. 15 Primitive prospectors found gold and silver before any other metal. Explain why. 16 Salt is often used in Europe and North America to help melt ice on roads. Their cars also rust more quickly than ours. Explain why.
58
>>>
1 What do AM and FM on the radio dial stand for? 2 What are the voltage and frequency of the AC
electricity that comes from our power points?
3 How do mobile phones find each other? 4 Describe an appliance that uses
electromagnetism.
UNIT
>>>
3.1
We live in an electrical society. Every day you use a wide variety of appliances that need electrical energy to run. Discmans, iPods, toasters, televisions, microwave ovens, computers and even the family car all need electricity. You might not appreciate how much you rely on electricity until you have A major blackout to go without.
context
A simple circuit
A circuit is a path from one side of a power source (e.g. a cell, battery or power pack) to the other. The four basic parts of a simple circuit are: an energy source, such as a cell or battery. A cell or battery can be thought of as a charge pump. a conducting path (wires) for the electricity to flow through
Fig 3.1.1
On 14 August 2003 an electrical failure suddenly hit the United States and Canada. About 50 million people in cities from New York to Toronto had no power. People were trapped in subway trains and elevators for hours. The loss related to the blackout was estimated at $6 billion. One month later, Italys 57 million people also were affected by a blackout. Luckily it occurred on a weekend so its initial impact was less dramatic and caused less economic damage. Some developing countries have regular brownouts because their need for electricity exceeds their ability to generate it. Electricity supply must be rationed, and so suburbs and towns have times each day when no electricity is available.
Fig 3.1.2
an energy user or load, such as a globe, motor, buzzer, heating element or resistor a switch to turn the current on and off.
circuit diagram
switch
connecting wire
globe
60
Fig 3.1.4
resistance
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Leads crossing
Fig 3.1.3
low pressure
pump
Inside a circuit
There are three very important values in circuits that we can measure and calculate. Whenever charge moves, we have a current. In most circuits the moving charges are electrons and current is defined as the rate of flow of those electrons. Current is measured in amperes (A) or amps for short. Sometimes in a circuit there will be more than one path that the current can take. More current will flow down the easier path and less down the harder one. In mathematical formulas, current is given the symbol I. Depending on what part of the circuit we are talking about, voltage is a measure of how much energy: is available from the battery or power pack to push current through the circuit. It may be thought of as the size of the push. is used when current passes through a load. Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is sometimes referred to as potential difference. Voltage is given the symbol V in mathematical formulas. Resistance is a measure of how much a load (e.g. globe, motor, resistor) restricts and reduces the flow of current. Resistance is measured in ohms, or for short. In mathematical formulas, resistance is given the symbol R. To help you understand these terms we will use the analogy of a water pump circuit. In a water circuit, the pressure supplied by the pump (P) drives the water around the closed loop of a pipe at a certain flow rate (F). The waterwheel (W)
water reservoir
restricts the flow, slowing down the water, using up its energy. The valve turns the flow of water on and off. In an electrical circuit, the energy or voltage (V) supplied by the battery drives the electrons around the circuit, causing an electric current (I). The resistance (R) slows the electrons, using up their energy. A switch turns the flow of electricity on and off.
Water in pipe
Pressure (P) Flow rate (F)
Units
Pascals Litres/second Newtons
Electricity in wire
Voltage (V) Current (I) Resistance (R)
Units
Volts Amps Ohms
Voltage
A battery or power pack is the pump of an electrical circuit. A water pump takes in water at low pressure, supplies energy to it and ejects it at high pressure. A battery or power pack takes in charge at low voltage, adds energy to it and ejects it at a higher voltage.
61
Unit
3.1
Electricity
>>>
Resistance
high voltage + low voltage high pressure
low pressure
valve
A waterwheel restricts the flow of water, slowing the water down and taking away its energy. Light globes, buzzers, motors, heating elements and resistors are loads that restrict the flow of current and remove energy from the electrons. These loads change the electrical energy into other forms such as sound, light, heat and kinetic (moving) energy. The filament of a light globe is a very thin wire. As the current tries to squeeze through, it encounters resistance and uses up some of its energy. In a thick wire, electrons move more freely and with little resistance. Little energy is lost. Increasing the resistance of the circuit will cause a decrease in the current, and results in more energy being used up by the load.
Resistance in a circuit can be compared to a water wheel.
A switch has voltage behind it, but no current if not switched on.
Fig 3.1.7
Fig 3.1.5
Current
When current flows through a wire it moves freely, losing almost no Fatal currents energy. This is just like water in a A current as small as 0.1 to pipe where there is little resistance 0.2 amps can kill! Most deaths to slow the water down. A higher associated with electric shock icity electr the current means more electrons flow happen because interrupts the heartbeat, which past a point in a circuit every is controlled by small electrical second. currents in your body. High erous A current of 1 ampere means dang voltages are more than low ones because they can that 1 coulomb of charge passes drive a higher current through by a point in the circuit each your body. The 240 volts in our second. A coulomb is an amazing easily is lies home power supp 6 250 000 000 000 000 000 electronenough to drive a deadly current through your body. sized charges!
Current can be compared to the rate of flow of water through a pipe.
A water wheel is like a load in the circuit. It converts kinetic energy of water to movement of the wheel.
Fig 3.1.6
Fig 3.1.8
62
Types of circuits
There are two basic types of circuitsseries and parallel.
Ohms law
Ohms law describes the relationship between the current, voltage and resistance in a circuit. Typical results from this experiment may be:
Voltage, V (volts) A B C D E
0 3 6 9 12
Series circuits
If you arrange two globes one after the other in a line with the battery, the globes are said to be in series. The voltage supplied is split between the two globes, but the current passing through each is the same. The two globes glow more dimly than a circuit with only one globe. If a globe in this circuit is removed or blows, the circuit is broken, so the other globe will not work either.
A series circuit with two globes
Current, I (amps)
0 1 2 3 4 A
Fig 3.1.9
Ohms law can be found using a circuit where the resistance is changed.
Fig 3.1.11
1A
6V
6V
no current
Graphing these results shows that the electric current is directly proportional to the voltage (V I). This means if the voltage is doubled, so is the current. A graph of Ohms law is therefore a straight line passing through the origin. The slope or gradient of the graph gives us the resistance. It can also be calculated by dividing the voltage by the current, R = V/I.
Parallel circuits
If you arrange the globes next to each other but on separate branches you have built a parallel circuit. The voltage used by each globe is the same, but the current is split between each branch. Each globe glows with equal brightness. If a globe in this circuit is removed or blows, the other globe will remain lit as there is still a circuit through which current Prac 1 Prac 2 p. 66 p. 66 may flow.
Ohms law R = Slope = V = slope I vertical rise horizontal run
=6 2 =3 12 10 8 Voltage (V) 6 2 4 6
4A 2A 2A current divides
6V 6V 6V 4A
2A 2A
6V 6V 2A
2 3 Current (A)
no current
Fig 3.1.12
63
UNIT
3 .1
Electricity
>>>
Using Ohms law
Fig 3.1.13
6OLTAGE
&IND THE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT OF A 6 BATTERY THAT DRAWS A CURRENT OF !
6 ) 2
6 ) 2 s VOLTS
6 )
6 ) 2 !
6 2 )
2
2