AQA Chem1 Foundation Chemistry Revision

By Bryony Tomlinson

1.1 Atomic Structure

Structure of the Atom
Relative atomic mass (Ar) The weighted average mass of an atom of an element, taking into account its naturally occurring isotopes, relative to one twelfth of an atom of carbon 12 Relative molecular mass (Mr) The mass of a molecule compared to one twelfth of an atom of carbon 12 Isotopes Atoms of an element which have identical proton numbers but have a different number of electrons Isotopes dont affect the chemistry of an element, because all thats different is the number of neutrons; the number and configuration of electrons is still the same Mass (kg) 1.673 x 10-27 /1u 1.675 x 10-27 /1u 0.911 x 10-30 / 1/1836 u Charge (C) +1.6 x 10-19 /+1 0 -1.6 x 10-19 /-1

Proton Neutron Electron

Arrangement of electrons
Orbitals Space where there is a 90% probability of finding an electron Shell number Shell 1 Shell 2 Shell 3 Orbitals 1s orbital 1s orbital, 3p orbitals 1s orbital, 3p orbitals, 5d orbitals Number of electrons 2 2 + (3 x 2) 2 + (3 x 2) + (5 x 2)

S (sharp) orbital is spherical P (principal) orbital is dumbbell shaped, but there are 3 of them D (diffuse) orbital is also dumbbell shaped, but there are 5 of them

Mass Spectrometer

The mass spectrometer is used to obtain the mass and percentage abundance of the isotope of an element 1. The sample is ionised by bombarding it with high-energy electrons fired from an electron gun 2. The ions are accelerated by attracting them towards a negatively charged plate, which has a small gap through which they can pass 3. The beam of positively-charged ions are deflected by a magnetic field from an electromagnet, which can be adjusted 4. Light ions are deflected more than heavy ions, so they are separated out and arrive at the detector When ions hit the detector, they accept electrons, losing their charge and create a current which is proportional to the abundance of each ion The sample is in the gas phase There is also a vacuum pump that clears out the mass spectrometer so that nothing can interfere with the sample being tested

Ionisation Energy
Ionisation energy is the energy required to completely remove one electron from each atom in a mole of atoms in the gaseous state Factors affecting ionisation energy: Size of positive charge: - the ionic radius decreases - the force of attraction from the nucleus increases distance from the nucleus - the closer the distance, the stronger the force of attraction the number of shells - the more shells there are, the further the outermost electrons are from the nucleus - electrons in the inner shells repel electrons in the outer shells and reduce the effect of the positive nucleus - the more shells, the greater the shielding is so the easier it is to remove the electron

Trends in ionisation energy Elements H He

He Ne

He Li Li Be

Li Ne

NO

PS

Be B

Explanation 1st ionisation energy increases because the atomic radius of He is smaller than H so the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons is greater 1st ionisation energy decreases because Ne is losing an electron from its 2nd shell, which is shielded by the 1st shell it is similar from Ne Ar and Ar Kr 1st ionisation energy decreases because you are removing an electron from the next shell, which is shielded by an inner shell 1st ionisation energy increases because there is one more proton in the nucleus. Removing an electron from the same shell causes the atomic radius to decrease 1st ionisation energy increases because you are adding protons to the nucleus and electrons to the same shell. The atomic radius decreases, so the force of attraction increases 1st ionisation energy decreases because you are removing an electron from an orbital that contains 2 electrons. These electrons mutually repel each other, so it is easier to remove one 1st ionisation energy decreases, because you are removing an electron from an orbital which contains 2 electrons due to mutual repulsion, so this requires less energy 1st ionisation energy decreases, because Be loses an electron from an s orbital, whereas B loses an electron from a p orbital. This requires less energy

1.2 Amount of substance

Mole The mass of a substance that has the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12g of carbon 12 The number of atoms or molecules in one mole is a constant known as Avogadros Constant; 6.022 x 1o23 Molar mass The mass of one mole of a substance is called the molar mass. The units of molar mass are gmol-1

mol = mass/Mr

Concentration Amount of substance per unit of volume Concentration (moldm-3) = moles/volume (dm3)

Moles & gases PV = nRT

P = Pa, T = K, R = 8.31, V = m3

% yield mass of product (g) % yield = theoretical yield

Very unlikely to actually get your theoretical yield in reality: Measuring errors Some may just not react Residue on equipment lose product Impurities

x 100

% atom economy

molar mass of useful product % atom economy = total molar masses of reactants x 100

Empirical formula
Empirical formula The simplest whole number ratio of the number of atoms of each element in one molecule the simplest mole ratio Molecular formula The actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule Calculating molecular formula 1. Calculate the % of each element (mass/total mass) 2. Divide each % by the Ar of each element 3. Divide each answer by the smallest answer 4. Determine the empirical formula 5. Compare the Mr of each compound to mass of empirical formula 6. Determine molecular formula

1.3 Bonding
Metallic bonding
Metals are shiny elements made up of atoms which can easily lose up to 3 outer electrons, leaving positive ions In a metal element, the outer shells merge; the outer electrons are no longer associated with a particular atom Metals consist of a lattice of positive ions, surrounded by a sea of delocalised outer electrons The positive ions in the lattice tend to repel each other, and this is balanced by the electrostatic attraction of these positive ions for the negative sea The number of delocalised electrons depends on how many electrons have been lost by each metal atom Metallic bonding spreads throughout, so metals have giant structures Properties of metals Good conductors of electricity the delocalised electrons can move throughout the structure Good conductors of heat energy is spread by increasingly vigorous vibrations of the closelypacked ions Strength of any metallic bond depends on: The charge on the ion; the greater the charge on the ion, the greater the number of delocalised electrons and the stronger the attraction between the positive ions & the electrons The size of the ion; the smaller the ion, the closer the electrons are to the positive nucleus & the stronger the bond

Metals tend to be strong; the delocalised electrons extend throughout the solid so there are no individual bonds to break Malleable & ductile after a small distortion, each metal ion is still in exactly the same environment as before, so the new shape is retained High melting & boiling points metals have giant structures; the bonding extends throughout the structure Strong attraction between the metal ions and the delocalised electrons

Diamond Pure carbon with covalent bonding throughout Giant structure; bonding spread throughout the structure Each carbon atom forms 4 single covalent bonds with other carbon atoms The bonds point to the corners of a tetrahedron, as the bonds repel as far apart as possible Atoms form a giant 3D lattice of strong covalent bonds Very hard Very high melting point Does not conduct electricity there are no free charged particles to carry charge Graphite Pure carbon with two sorts of bonding; strong covalent & Van der Waals Each carbon atom forms 3 single covalent bonds to other carbon atoms This forms a flat, trigonal planar arrangement with bond angle 120 This leaves a spare electron in the p orbital of each atom The p orbitals with the spare electron merge above & below the plane of carbon atoms in each layer; these electrons are delocalised & can move anywhere within the layer This adds to the strength of the bonding & is a bit like the sea of delocalised electrons These delocalised electrons are what make graphite conduct electricity; they can travel freely through the material though graphite can only conduct along the hexagonal planes There is no covalent bonding between the layers, which are held together by Van der Waals Graphite is soft & flaky; the layers can slide across one another Soft material Very high melting point because of the strong network of covalent bonds, which makes it a giant structure

Ionic bonding
Bonds between two oppositely-charged ions Between groups 1&2 and groups 6&7 Electrostatic force of attraction Metals have low ionisation energies; can lose electrons easily to form positive ions Non-metals have high electron affinities; gain electrons easily to form negative ions Oppositely charged ions are attracted electrostatically and form giant ionic crystals Properties of ionic compounds Very strong giant structure with strong ionic bonds High melting point giant structure with strong ionic bonds Conduct electricity when molten or in solution ions are free to move Soluble in water oppositely-charged ions are attracted to polar water molecules Brittle form a lattice with alternating ions; a blow may move ions & create contact with similarly-charged ions

Covalent bonds
Two atoms share at least one pair of electrons If two atoms come together so that their orbitals overlap, the two atoms are held together by the strong attractions of the nuclei for the overlapping electrons Dative covalent (co-ordinate) bonds Covalent bond where both electrons come from the same atom Properties of ionic compounds Do not conduct electricity no free electrons or charged particles Do not dissolve easily in water no charges to attract to polar water Simple molecules low melting points bonds between molecules are weak Giant lattice structures high melting points giant lattice of strong covalent bonds Strong strong lattice of strong covalent bonds

Electronegativity The ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons towards itself in a covalent bond If either atom has electronegativity greater than 1.9 & the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms is similar (less than 0.5), the bonding is covalent If the difference is large (greater than 2.1), the bonding is ionic If either atom has electronegativity greater than 1.9 and the difference is between 0.5 and 2.1, the bonding is polar covalent or intermediate Shapes of molecules Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory Electron regions repel as far apart as possible Lone pairs repel the most Number of electron regions 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 Number of lone pairs 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 Number of bonding pairs 2 3 2 4 3 2 5 Shape & bond angle Linear, 180 Trigonal planar, 120 Bent/V shaped, 118 Tetrahedral, 109.5 Trigonal pyramidal, 107 Bent/V shaped, 105 Trigonal bipyramidal, 120/90 Octahedral, 90 Square planar, 90/180 Example BeCl2 BCl3 SO2 CH4 NH3 H2 O PCl5

6 6

0 2

6 4

SF6

Intermolecular bonding
Van der Waals The electrons around a molecule are in constant motion At any moment in time, there will be more electrons on one side of the molecule than the other We have induced a dipole Weakest intermolecular bond All molecules have Van der Waals forces between them

The size of the force depends on the number of electrons Permanent dipole-dipole interactions Polar molecules are ones in which the atoms have different electronegativities Methane is not a polar molecule, because it is symmetrical, so it does not have dipole-dipole interactions between molecules. The only force of attraction is Van der Waals forces Hydrogen bonding Special case of dipole-dipole interaction Occurs between hydrogen and very electronegative elements (FON) Fluorine is so electronegative that it attracts hydrogens single electron towards itself so strongly it exposes hydrogens proton Hydrogen is the strongest intermolecular bond all of them are very weak, but hydrogen bonding is the strongest of the lot

1.4Periodicity
Melting & boiling points Giant structures (found on the left) tend to have higher melting points & boiling points Molecular or atomic structures (right) tend to have low melting & boiling points The melting and boiling points of the metals increase from Na to Al because of the strength of the metallic bond As we go from left to right, the charge on the ion increases so more electrons join the delocalised sea that holds the giant metallic lattice together The melting points of the non-metals with molecular structures depend on the sizes of the Van der Waals forces between the molecules This depends on the number of electrons in the molecule & how closely the molecules can pack together Silicon with its giant structure of an infinite lattice of strong covalent bonds has a much higher melting point Atomic radii As we move from Na to Cl, we are adding protons to the nucleus and electrons to the same shell This increased charge pulls the electrons in closer to the nucleus There are no additional shells to provide more shielding, so the size of the atom decreases across the period 1st ionisation energy Generally, 1st ionisation energy increases across a period The number of protons in the nucleus increases, but the electrons enter the same main level; the increased charge on the nucleus means it gets increasingly difficult to remove an electron 1st ionisation energy drops between groups 2 & 3; Mg loses an electron from a full s orbital, whereas Al loses one from a new p orbital; electrons in the p orbital already in a higher energy level than those in the s orbital, so it takes less energy to remove 1st ionisation energy also drops between groups 5 & 6; an electron in a pair will be easier to remove than one in an orbital alone because it is already being repelled by the other electron; sulphur has two of its p electrons paired up, so one of these will be easier to remove Property Atomic size 1st ionisation energy Electronegativity Pattern Decreases across the period Increases across the period (except between Mg & Al, & P & S) Increases across the period

Melting & boiling point Electrical conductivity

Increases Na Al, increases Al Si, decreases Si P, increases P S, decreases S Ar Increases from Na Al, is zero from Si Ar

1.5 Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Types of formula
Empirical smallest whole number ratio Molecular total number of atoms of each element present General used for a homologous series of compounds Structural shows how the atoms are joined Displayed (Graphical)/Structural shows all atoms & bonds

Alkanes
Part of a homologous series of compounds; compounds with the same functional group, but different chain lengths Members of a homologous series are all related by the general formula CnH2n+2 Saturated hydrocarbons

Homologous series
Similar chemical properties Physical properties that change as each successive molecule differs by CH2

Alkenes
Functional group is C=C Unsaturated hydrocarbons General formula CnH2n Structural isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula

Haloalkanes
CnH2n+1X

1.6Alkanes
Part of a homologous series Chemistry is near identical Structures differ by CH2 General formula CnH2n+2 Saturated hydrocarbons Alkanes are unreactive and of little use to chemists They are non-polar and so do not react with acids and alkalis Only have limited use in their chemistry: Combustion Cracking Free radical substitution

First example of structural isomerism occurs with C4H10 Physical properties Boiling point increases as chain length increases The more atoms, the more Van der Waals forces, and so the more energy needed to separate the molecules Straight chains have larger surface areas, giving greater molecular interaction; branched chains are more compact and have less intermolecular attraction Non-polar (and therefore immiscible in water)

Crude oil
Crude oil is a mixture of different alkanes of different chain lengths Industrially, it is separated using fractional distillation Fractional distillation Crude oil is vaporised at high temperature and is passed into a tower which is hot at the bottom & cold at the top As it rises up the tower, it condenses at different levels, and is collected at the height at which it condenses

Cracking
Petroleum fractions with shorter carbon chains are in greater demand than longer chain fractions To make use of longer chain hydrocarbons & supply demand for shorter ones, they are cracked

Thermal cracking High temperature - 700-1200K Very high pressure - 7000kPa No catalyst Homolytic fission Free radical mechanism Tends to produce a high proportion of alkenes Hydrogen may be produced To avoid too much decomposition, alkanes are kept in these conditions for a very short times, typically 1 second Catalytic cracking Lower temperature 700K Lower pressure than thermal cracking but higher than atmospheric pressure Carbocation mechanism Heterolytic fission Uses a zeolite catalyst, consisting of silicon dioxide & aluminium oxide Zeolites have a honeycomb structure with enormous surface area Products are mainly branched alkanes, cycloalkanes & aromatic compounds Motor fuels are a product

Pollution
Processes involving combustion give rise to a variety of pollutants, e.g. SO2 from power stations, which reacts with H2O and O2 in air to make acid rain, and CO & NOx from internal combustion engines Removal Remove SO2 by reacting with a suitable basic compound, e.g. CaO, which can then be used as plaster flue gas desulphurisation Remove CO and NOx through a catalytic converter Catalytic converter 2CO + 2NO N2 + CO2 Catalytic converters have a honeycomb structure (large surface area) and are coated with Rh/Pt/Pd/Ir