ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

B.Sc. AGRICULTURE

AGR 121: AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

THEORY NOTES

Chapter
Chapter Name Page No.
No.
Part - I
1. Introduction to Agricultural Meteorology 2
2. Atmosphere 6
3. Weather and Climate 18
4. Solar Radiation and Light 39
5. Temperature 57
Part – II
6. Atmospheric Pressure 2
7. Wind 12
8. Atmospheric Humidity (Moisture) 27
9. Clouds and Precipitation 33
10. Evaporation and Transpiration 39
Part - III
11. Precipitation 2
12. Agroclimatic Zones 23
13. Agroclimatic normals for field crops 26
14. Weather Forecasting 30
15. Agricultural Seasons of India 35

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 Part – II

Chapter –6

Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force acting over any surface. Atmospheric pressure is the
weight of the air, which lies vertically above a unit area, centered at a point and
expressed by the height of mercury in ‘inches’ or ‘millimeters’. Pressure mainly affects
temperature and precipitation. The weight of the air presses down the earth with the
pressure of 1.034 g/cm2. The weight of air mass is over 56 trillion tons. (56x1014ton).

Weight of 1sq. Inch column of air from sea level to top of the atmosphere weighs nearly
15 1b. This weight is balanced by column of mercury 29.93 inches or 760 mm tall
having the same cross sectional area. This is the pressure at sea level at latitude 450.
Another unit of measurement millibar is widely adopted by national weather service of

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the world. (Millibar = 1000 dynes / cm2). Dyne is a unit of force approximately equal
to the weight of a milligram. Sea level pressure under this system is 1013.2 m.bars (mb).
One tenth of an inch of mercury is approximately equal to 3.4 mb.

Units of measurement:
Up to the year 1914 the unit of measurement of pressure was in inches or in m.m. At sea
level the atmospheric pressure is 30” or 76” cm or 760 mm. At a temperature of 2730A.
In the year 1914 a scientist by name Bjehkres derived a new unit called the “millibar”
(mb). Normal pressure at sea level is roughly 30 inches or 760 mm. which corresponds
to 1013 MB. The conversion from units of length to unit of pressure is as follows.
Suppose the Hg column at M.S.L. is 76cm it is then multiplied by the density of mercury
(13.595) and mass of Hg column is found out.

76 x 13.595 = 1033.22 gm.

The acceleration of gravity (normal) in CGS units is 980.665. Multiplying the mass by
gravitational force i.e. 1033.22 x 980.665 we obtain the pressure in CGS units (centimeter
gram second) is 10, 13,250 dynes/sq.cm. For convenient sake it is taken as 10, 00,000
dynes called a ‘bar”.

One thousandth of a bar is called a “millibar”.

A millibar = 1000 dynes/cm2
Approximately 760 mm = 1000 m.b.
or 1 mb = 0.76 mm.
33 m.b. = 0,76 x 33
= 25.08 mm or
= 1”.
The observed pressure is reduced to 320F or 00C at M.S.L. at 450 Latitude as the
standard to facilitate the comparison of pressure of different stations.

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Factors affecting the Atmospheric Air Pressure:

1. Altitude
It is the relative height of place above M.S.L. The pressure decreases for every increases
of the altitude. At sea level the air column exerts its full pressure, but we when we go
up, pressure is reduced at high altitude. For every 900 ft of altitude 25 mm or 33 mb
pressure is decreased by 1 mb for every 10 meters.

2. Latitude
When the latitude increases the pressure will increase.

Temperature
When the temperature increases the pressure will decrease. The density of given
volume of air vary with temperature. Thus when air is heated, it expands and becomes
less dense, so that column of warm, light air weight less than a column of cold, heavy
air both having the same height and cross sectional area. Changes in temperature
produces changes in air density which setup vertical and horizontal movement
resulting in differences in air pressure. Over a warm region when air is heated it
expands and overflows aloft to adjacent region when air is heated it expands and
overflows aloft to adjacent region when temperature is lower. As a result of this
horizontal transfer, the weight of the air is reduced in the warm region with and
increased the adjacent cooler regions. Hence region with high temperature are likely to
have lower air pressure than other regions where temperature is not so high. In other
words, high temperature tends to produce low sea level pressure while low
temperature is conducive to high sea level pressure.

There is a rapid decrease in air weight or pressure with increasing altitude. The lower
layers of atmosphere are densest because the weight of all layers above which rests up
on them. For the first few thousand feet above the sea level the rate of pressure
decrease, is in neighborhood of 1” or 34 mb of pressure for each 900 to 1000’.

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Nearness to the sea
Places near to the sea are often subjected to cyclones due to low pressure.

Water Vapour
Moist air of high temperature exerts less pressure. When compared to moist air of low
temperature, because water vapour content is lighter in cold area than air, which is dry.

Rotation of the earth

Due to rotation of earth the pressure at 60 - 650N and S becomes low for the air to

escape from these belts that move towards the horse latitude (30 – 350 N&S) and these

belts absorb air from the sub-polar belts making the pressure high.

Seasonal variation

Pressure system changes according to the season. Season changes according to the

position of the sun. When the sun moves to the tropic of cancer, pressure belts move to

the North by 50 away from their normal. When sun moves to tropic of Capricorn, the

pressure belt also moves south and sight by 50 away from their original position. This is

known as “Swing of pressure belts”.

Significance of pressure
The pressure are forms the cyclones. Whenever the atmospheric pressure of a place
drops from the normal conditions, depression occurs and cyclone may be formed.
The barometer reading is the best indication of the possible occurrence of cyclone or
storm as well as rain in area.

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Sea breeze and land breeze due to seasons
During summer horse latitudes receive the direct sunrays and an area of low pressure
increases over the continent masses and they enlarge a small high-pressure center over
the continents. But surrounding seas have a vast high-pressure area in summer the
wind blows from sea (high pressure) towards the lands. (Low pressure) In winter
season, a major area of high pressure covers the landmasses. The sea areas are
comparatively at low pressure. So winds start moving from the land towards the sea.

Diurnal variations
To find out the mean daily change in air pressure, the average of hourly-observed
pressure for a long period of time is calculated. The mean value of the daily pressure is
free from the temporary effect of atmospheric disturbances. There is a definite rhythm
in the rise and fall of mercury. Insolational heating and radiational cooling are the
principal reasons for diurnal variations of air pressure. In other words, pressure
changes are mainly due to the expansion and contraction of the air.

Seasonal or annual variation

This is clearly the effect of annual variation in the amount of insolation received in a
particular region. Annual pressure variation in the tropical region is larger than other
regions of the world. The equatorial regions record the smallest amount of variation in
their seasonal pressures, because there is practically no variation in the amount of
insolation received at the equator throughout the year
High pressure - cold season
Low pressure - warm season

Pressure systems of the world

Pressure system differs greatly in both size and duration. Pressure System is of two
types
i. High pressure system
ii. Low pressure system

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Centers of low pressure are called as depression, cyclones or lows. Prolonged low
pressure, centers are called troughs. The equatorial belt of low pressure is called
doldrums (50 N & 50 S of Equator) and it is because of the following factors viz of sun
falling vertically all round the year, water vaporization being high and rising of air.

The doldrums belt is spread over Amazon, Congo, Passion and Guinea belt etc. The
centers of high pressures are called anticyclones or highs. An elongated high pressure is
called as Ridge. Near 300N and 300S the pressure is always high because intensive hot
air from the equator descends down in this belt and polar air from the sub-polar belts
also descents here.

Storm
A marked atmospheric disturbance characterized by a strong wind, usually
accompanied by rain, snow, sleet (rain that freezes as it falls-mixture of rain with snow
or hail) or hail and often thunder and lighting.

Thunder Strom
A storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and always accompanied by
thunder, usually accompanied by strong wind, gusts, heavy rain and sometimes hails. It
is usually of short duration, seldom over 2 hour.

- Vertical motion is having many weather modifications.

- Upward motion results due to expansion that it gets cooled and eventual
condensation.
- Cumulonimbus cloud types are closely related to the strength of the vertical
motion.
- A thunderstorm is as the name implies a storm accompanied by thunder and
therefore lightning. As Benjamin Franklin demonstrated in 1750 lightning
discharges giant electrical sparks.

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 - Cumulonimbus clouds therefore are great electrical generators. The cloud
produce ‘+’ and ‘-‘value charges by charged poles.
- The lower part of the cloud is negatively charged and upper part is positively
charged.

Hail
Precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice is referred as hail.

Hail Strom
Small round pieces of ice hail that sometimes fall during thunder storms (frozen rain
drops, hail storms) is referred as hail storm and its features are
- Hails may be sometimes greater in size than a large marble.
- It falls from cumulonimbus clouds.
- Hails are destructive to crops to crops that cause mechanical damage, structures.

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 Hurricane
A violent tropical cyclone with wind speed of 73 or more miles per hour or 134 and
more km/h usually accompanied by torrential (very heavy fall) rain, originating
usually in West Indian regions.

Tornado
Tornado is coined from a Spanish word – Torn as means, “to turn” and its
characteristics are as follows.
- The smallest vortex (whirlpool, whirl or powerful eddy of air, whirl wind - a
whirling mass of water forming a vacuum at its center, into which anything
caught in the motion are drawn).
- Eddy - current of air, water, etc., moving against the main current and worth
circular motion.
- But most powerful one.
- The intense rotation is confined normally to diameter of kilometer or less.
- But its wind speed can reach even 300 km/h

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Water spouts
The tornado occasionally forms over water and because of high moisture content of the
air, the funnels are heavily laddened with water drops, so they look somewhat like a
stream of water pouring from the base of the cloud. For this reason they are called
waterspouts.

Dust Devil
A whirlwind that frequently forms on very hot days especially over desert is the dust
devil. Normally there are no clouds associated with it.

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Cyclone
It is a system of winds blowing around the center of low barometric pressure i.e., means
closed circulation about a low-pressure center, which is anti clockwise in the Northern
hemisphere the characteristics are

- Cyclonic whirls are the “Storms” of middle latitude.

- In the temperate latitude they produce much of the winter precipitation.
- Around the low-pressure centers.
- Air circulates anti clockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere.
- The air is heterogeneous in relation to temperature and moisture.

Anticyclone
It is a condition in which the atmospheric pressure distribution where central pressure
is high relative to the surroundings. Circulation is a clockwise in northern hemisphere
and anti clockwise in Southern hemisphere.

- The whirling speed reduces @ 10-15 cm/sec. and fair weather generally
prevail.
- The air masses are homogenous with respect to temperature and moisture.

Typhoon
Any violent tropical cyclone originating in the western Pacific especially in the South
China Sea

Plant growth
It is the resultant of all the environmental factors-climatic, physiographic, edaphic and
biotic factors. For a particular field it is primarily a function of climate with temperature
and height being the most important factors. A very close relationship exists between
plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

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 Chapter –7

Wind

Wind is defined as the moving air of atmosphere parallel to earth’s surface air in
horizontal motion. All other masses of air in motion (vertical) should be called as Air
Currents. Wind is an invisible weather element but the effect of wind can be seen from
the movement of tree branches, dust particles and by feeling. The pattern and intensity
of wind is affected by various factors.

Advantages of wind:
1. Fresh wind is useful for renewing the environment.
2. Wind is useful for effecting pollination in the crops.
3. It is useful for cleaning for agricultural produces.

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 4. It is used as a force in certain machines such as windmills, winnowing machines
etc.

Effect of Wind on crops

1. Increases transpiration under normal condition with increasing wind velocity.
Layers of humid air adjacent to plant leaf surfaces are removed by wind and
become mixed with dry air above. This keeps RH low and increases transpiration
rate. There is a greater increase in cuticular transpiration than stomatal
transpiration witch cause moisture stress in plants.
2. Wind increases the rate if Photosynthesis. Wind increases turbulence in
atmosphere thus raising the supply of Co2 to the plants and thereby increasing
the rate of photosynthesis. However, the increase is only up to a certain wind
speed.
3. When the wind is hot it accelerates the drying of the plants by replacing humid
air by dry air in the intercellular spaces. At the time of cell expansion, the hot dry
wind affects the maturing cell and that result in dwarfing of plants.
4. Much damage is caused by hot dry winds at or near the time of flowering. The
internal water balance is upset, resulting in poor seed setting. Another form of
injury is “blossom injury” caused by evaporation of secretions in the stigma.
5. Interfere pollination by insects. But mild wind will favour pollination by wind.
6. Deplete soil moisture.
7. Due to mechanical effect of wind the growth pattern and shape of trees ate
changed lopsidal growth.
8. Uprooting of plants is common where as crops and trees with shallow roots are
uprooted.
9. Cause fruit drops in plants. Example. Citrus fruit drop. Fruits and nuts are
stripped off from trees.

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 10. Soil erosion occurs when the plant cover is not thick, strong winds remove the
dry soil exposing their roots and killing them. The eroded material from one
place is deposited in another place causing hazard to small plants in that place.
The deposited materials reduce the aeration around the roots and plants.
11. Salt deposition by wind is another phenomenon where wind from sea carries
salts as spray on coastal area and makes it impossible to grow crops which are
sensitive to excess salts.

Disadvantages of wind
1. High-speed wind accelerates the drying of moisture from the soil and also it
increases the rate of transpiration in plants thereby necessitating frequent irrigation.
2. High-speed wind results in lodjing of many crops such as Banana, Sugarcane and
other fruit trees.
3. Heavy wind will affect the fruit set and also the available fruits to fall or to be
withered.
4. Heavy wind also results in soil erosion.
Effect of high wind can be prevented to some extent by means of the following
practices.
1. Properly oriented and designed shelterbelts.
2. In temperature conditions wind breaks save plants from freezing and mechanical
damage caused by cold winds.
3. Windbreaks also reduce soil erosion caused by wind.
4. Tall crops such as Corn, Sorghum, Sunflower etc are used as temporary wind
barriers to protect crop viz., Sugar beat, Soy bean, Tomato, Brinjal etc.,

Causes for the formation of the wind:

The principal cause for wind is difference in pressure. Air always moves from areas of
high pressure to those of low pressure.
1. Due to variation in the atmospheric temperature, pressure etc., i.e. when the
atmospheric temperature is very high the pressure will decrease correspondingly.

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 Due to fall of the atmospheric pressure the air moves from high-pressure area to
low-pressure area and this gradient decides the direction of wind.
2. Due to deflection of atmosphere air over the earth surface while it revolves and this
deflectional force is called as “Coriolis force”

Types of movement of air

5. Horizontal movement called wind
6. Vertical movement called Eddies, Convection currents, Convergent accents and
Subsidence.

Wind force
The following are the wind forces and they are the factors affecting the wind motion.

1. Pressure force
The forces that move the air depend primarily at the distribution of pressure. Let us
consider a vertical cross section through a cube of air with horizontal and vertical faces.

Since the atmospheric pressure decreases with elevation the pressure “P1” on the lower
face of the cube is greater a force that of ‘P2’ on the top face. This force is counteracted
by the weight of air with in the cube or the gravity force. Usually there is balance
between the two forces so that no vertical motion results. Rarely there will be in balance
and vertical acceleration results and convective currents are created.

Large wind systems are mainly horizontal currents. The pressure also varies in the
horizontal direction and the pressure on the vertical force will exceed the other force
and the difference in pressure is equivalent to a force to drive the cube horizontally
from high to low pressure.

2. Pressure gradient force and Isobars

Suppose when we observe the atmospheric pressure in large number of places in a
horizontal surface and plot the pressures on a map and draw curves through the points

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that have identical pressure gradient which are called as isobars. The horizontal
pressure gradient may be defined as the decrease in pressure/unit distance in the
direction in which the pressure decreases most rapidly.

The isobars are the lines connecting different places of same pressure on chart or map of
country or world. The lines can be drawn after reducing the readings to M.S.L. Such
lines or curves are called ‘isobars’. These lines are drawn every 5th of a millibar.
Pressure distributive charts are constructed for sea level and for number of constant
pressure surfaces in the atmosphere.
700 mb – at 10,000 ft.
500 mb – at 18,000 ft.
In sea level pressure chart all pressures at different elevation are reduced to pressure
receiving to sea level.

There is rapid change in pressure in a direction at right angle to the isobars. The rate of
change in atmospheric pressure between two points at the same elevation is called the
pressure gradient of isobaric slope. It is proportional to the difference in pressure,
which causes the horizontal movement of air.

The change in atmospheric pressure during 3 hours preceding the observation is called
“barometric tendency”. When the tendencies have been plotted on the map the lines
connecting the points are called “isallobars”. They represent the pressure changes as
that of isobars but are drawn for each millibar. Usually the tropical regions are low-
pressure belt due to high temperature in and around the equatorial line. The
temperature regions are high-pressure belt (areas). Beyond temperate belt, the pressure
diminishes regularly in south but irregularly in North. (Alaska and ice lands have high
pressure).

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Two important factors that exist between pressure gradient and winds are:
The direction of airflows is from regions of greater to those of less density i.e. from high
to low pressure, which may be represented by a line drawn at night at night angles to
the isobars.

The pressure gradient is:

1. Everywhere perpendicular to the isobars
2. Points from high to low values of pressure
3. Inversely proportional to the distance between the isobars, the more crowed the
isobars the stronger is the pressure gradient.

3. Horizontal deflection force due to earth rotation

Surface winds do not flow directly down the barometric slope (right angles to the
isobars) but instead are deflected into oblique courses. Thus a west wind in the northern
hemisphere becomes northwestern wind. The cause for the deviation of wind from the
gradient direction is the deflective force of the earth’s rotation plus friction. This causes
all winds to be turned to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern hemisphere (Farrel’s Law). This deflective force is called the “Coriolis” force.
It is a resultant effect of the two motions.
1. Rotational movement of the earth.
2. The movement of the body relative to the surface of the earth..

This deflective force of the earth is minimum near the equator and it increases with
latitude and is maximum near the equator and it increases with latitude and is
maximum at the poles. Therefore air moves rather directly across the isobars in low
latitudes and is greatly deflected in the Polar Regions. This deflective force also
increases with the wind velocity. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the
moving mass of air and its velocity. It acts at right angles to the direction of the motion
and has no influence on influence on the velocity of the wind. The broken arrow shows
the direction of the pressure gradient and the solid arrows shows the direction of wind

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due to ‘Corolis’ force. Friction it’s next factor, which affects the wind motion. It modifies
the effects of gravity and deflection.

Friction prevents the winds from attaining velocities and also from blowing parallel
with the isobars.

4. Centrifugal force
The amount of deflection due to this force is dependent on the velocity of the wind.
More the velocity greater will be the outward force and hence greater will be the
deflection produced. Therefore in the northern hemisphere the rotational deviation is to
the right and therefore the centrifugal force will enhance this deflection. This force is
negligible near the surface of the wind is low. If the path of the wind is curvilinear than
it will be subjected to centrifugal force.

Pressure belts
These are the regions of the high and low pressure formed on the earth as a result of
1. The differences in the rate of insolation

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 2. Differences in the rate of absorption of heat by water and the different types of
earths surfaces and
3. The rotation of the earth.
There are two types of pressure belts namely High and Low pressure belts.

Low pressure belts

Cyclones and anti-cyclones are two special pressure and wind systems. A cyclone is a
system of very low pressure in the center surrounded by increasing high pressure
outwards. In a cyclone, the wind blows in a circular manner in a clockwise direction in
the southern hemisphere and in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere.
It is believed that most cyclones in the temperate regions occur due to the coming close
and imperfect mixing of two masses of air of contrasting temperature and humidity
conditions. Cyclones of this types are also known as Wave cyclones. On the other
hand cyclones in tropical areas result from the intense heating up of air in some regins
causing great loss of life and property in coastal areas. These tropical depressions are
known as cyclones in the Indian ocean , Hurricanes in the west Indies, typhoons in the
China Sea and willy-willes in northwest Australia. The equatorial strip and the polar
zones are low-pressure belts. As a result of intense heat at the equator, the air rise to the
upper layers, producing a belt of low density and pressure of air and the lower layers
near the surface of the earth called the doldrums. The air in the Polar Regions is swung
to the temperate regions by the rotation of the earth. The atmosphere above the Polar
Regions is of low density and pressure and these are called “Polar calms”.
In the following chapter a detail study on cyclones is attempted.

Anticyclones, which are the centers of high pressure, are the opposite of cyclones in all
respect.

Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of a smaller size. They are specially feared
in some parts of southeastern United States. Sometimes, when they occur over sea, the

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funnel -shaped cloud formed by the whirling motion of the wind descends to the
surface and draws up the water forming a column of water known as a ‘waterspout’.

The jet Stream

The jet stream is a system of upper-air westerlies. It gives rise to slowly moving upper-
air waves. In the upper-air waves are some narrow zones in which wind velocities of up
to 250 knots are observed in some air streams. This phenomenon is called the jet stream
and is one of the systems affecting the distribution of pressure in the upper atmosphere.
The phenomenon of jet stream is believed to affect the onset and retreat of monsoons in
India. Jet streams develop over areas of steep pressure gradient.

High Pressure Belts:

The areas of high pressure relative to the surroundings are called high-pressure belts or
anticyclone. The wind circulation is clockwise around an anticyclone with a drift away
from the center. Air currents at the upper layers from both the equator and the poles
meet at latitudes 300 to 350 N and S called the horse latitudes and produces a belt of high
pressure. From these horse latitudes, winds blow towards the equator and the poles.
These should take northerly and southerly courses but are deflected by the rotation of
the earth. Thus in the northern hemisphere N.E. wind blows towards the equator and
S.W. winds towards the poles.

In the southern hemisphere S.E. blows towards the equator and N.W. winds towards
the poles.

A trough of low pressure is an elongated area of relatively low pressure, which extends
from the center of a cyclone. The trough may have ‘U’ shaped ‘V’ shaped isobars. The
wind circulation around a trough is essentially of the cyclone type. A wedge of high
pressure is an elongated area of high pressure that extends from the center of an
anticyclone, and the wind circulation is anticyclonic.

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Around the equator there is a region of almost uniform pressure in which the winds are
light and variable and this belt is called the “doldrums”. The winds converge from the
both the hemisphere into the doldrums. This convergence results in ascending air
currents, adiabatic cooling, condensation and precipitation. The doldrums are therefore
characterized by frequent showers, thunderstorms and heavy rainfall. Further away,
from the equator are belt of high pressure with easterly winds on their equatorial sides
and westerly winds on the pole ward side. These belts of high pressure are called the
subtropical anticyclones. The winds on this equatorial side are called the subtropical
anticyclones. The winds on this equatorial side are called Trade winds. They blow
mainly from the east and have a component towards the equator; on the pole ward side
the winds have a pole ward component. The subtropical anticyclones are regions of
descending air currents, low R.H. almost clear sky and deficit of rainfall. Most deserts
are found in the region.
In the central portion of the subtropical anticyclone the winds are light and referred to
by seamen as the “Horse Latitude”. The wind on the pole ward side of the high
pressure are called prevailing westerlies. They increase in strength as the latitude
increases.

Wind Systems

There are three types of wind systems namely:

1. Primary wind system
2. Secondary wind system and
3. Special a type wind system.
The primary and secondary wind systems consist of Trade winds and monsoons
(discussed in later chapter )respectively and special type consists of land and sea
breezes(discussed in earlier chapter).

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1. Trade winds
Trade winds are the winds of primary wind systems that blow from subtropical centers
towards the equatorial side low between 30 and 350 and the winds on the equatorial
side are called “Trade winds”. They are the most regular winds. Their steadiness has
earned their name trade winds. They blow with greater strength and constantly in
winter than in summer. They are regular and steady over the oceans. They blow away
from the landmasses over continents. When the equatorial region gets heated, the air
sizes from the surface and passes to the upper layers. The pressure of the atmosphere
near the surface decreases in due coarse. Air moves towards this low-pressure area
from both north and south and this phenomenon continues right through the year.

The resulting wind takes the same course or track and is hence called “Trade winds or
Tropical Easserlies”. As the hot air arise to the upper layers over the equator, the
pressure is raised there in due coarse and the surplus air moves northwards and
southwards in the lower layer. The movement is towards the equator form the north
and south in the lower layers and from the equator towards north and south in the
upper layers. The latter are called “Antitrade” winds.

Relationship of wind and pressure

- Earth rotates from west to east along with atmosphere. Atmosphere is fixed to
earth by gravitational equilibrium.
- Wind therefore moves in addition to rotation.
- Horizontal motion is greater than vertical motion.
- Wind takes several days to cross the ocean but up and down movement is only in
few minutes.
Seasonal and Local winds
The monsoons are the most important among seasonal winds. In this system, the
direction of the winds changes seasonally. They are experienced over parts of North
America and much of South Asia, including the Indian subcontinent. These winds are
primarily a result of differential heating of land and sea. In summer, southern Asia

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develops a low pressure and airflows landwards from the Indian Ocean. This is known
as the summer monsoon. In winter, the pressure over land is higher than over the sea
and consequently the air starts flowing from land to sea. This is called the winter
monsoon. The modern theories consider theories the monsoon a result of the shift in the
pressure and wind belts.

According to the dynamic theory, monsoons are a result of the pole ward shift of the
Inter Tropical Convergence (ITC) under the influence of the vertical sun during the
summer season. During summer in the northern hemisphere, in the months of May
and June the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITC shifts north of
the equator. The ITC is the convergence zone of the trade winds bowing from northeast
in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere. As ITC

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Shifts northern of the equator, the southeast tread winds start blowing north of the
equator to reach the ITC, and as they cross the equator, their direction is altered due to
the influence of the coriollis force, i.e., they are deflected towards their right and thus it
gives rise to the formation of a belt of equatorial westerilies blowing between the
equator and the ITC. These westerlies in the months of May and June blow from the
equator towards the ITC from the southwest to the northeast and they are called the
southwest monsoon.

During the winter season the ITC again moves southwards and the areas north of the
equator, which experienced the equatorial westerlies during the summer season, now
come under the influence of the northeast trade winds. These northeasterly winds are
called the northeast monsoons.

During this very season the ITC shifts south of the equator and the northeast trades
blowing towards the ITC, get deflected upon crossing he equator southward. Here they
give rise to the equatorial westerlies blowing from the northwest to the southeast,
replacing the trade winds of the southern hemisphere between the ITC and the equator.
Thus the areas situated in the tropical zone come under the influence of the trade winds
during the respective winter and the equatorial westerlies during the respective
summer season. Thus the direction of the winds is reversed seasonally and it makes up
the monsoon system of the region.

In certain regions, local winds are generated as a result of the influence of the local
terrain. One example of this is the simple system of land and sea breeze experienced in
coastal areas. Due to differential heating, the air moves from sea to land during the day
and from land to sea at night. Mountain and valley winds also follow daily alternation
of direction. During the day air moves up along the valley slopes, as the slopes are very
hot. When the slopes cool at night air moves valley wards.

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Measurement of wind speed
The speed or velocity of wind is expressed in meters per second, kilometers per second,
kilometers per hour, and miles per hour or knots per hour. The relationship between
these units is

1 m/sec = 3.6 km/hr

= 2.24 mph
= 1.94 knots ph

Wind speed is measured by Robinson’s cup anemometer.

In 1805 Admiral Francis Beaufort introduced a wind force (speed) scale, which was
based upon the response of certain objects to the wind. In applying Beaufort scale the
extent to which smoke is carried horizontally or to which trees bend before the wind is
used as an index of speed. At sea, the condition of waves, swell and spray in addition to
the response of sails and masts is the basis for wind speed estimates.
In modern method wind vane and anemometers are used for measuring the direction
and wind speed respectively.
Table: The Beaufort scale of wind force with velocity equivalents

Beaufort
Beaufort Velocity,
Descriptive
Number Land Criteria miles/hour
Term
0 Calm Calm, smoke rises vertically Less than 1
1 Light air Direction shown by smoke drift, not by 1 to 3
wind vans
2 Light breeze Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary 4 to 7
vane moved by wind
3 Gentle breeze Leaves and small twigs in motion; wind 3 to 12
extend light flag.

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 4 Moderate breeze Raises dust and loose paper, small, 13 to 18
branches moved
5 Fresh breeze Small trees in leaf being to away. Created 19 to 24
wavelets form on inland waters
6 Strong breeze Large branches in motion; whistling in 25 to 31
telegraph wires; umbrellas used with
difficulty
7 Moderate gale Whole trees in motion; some difficulty 32 to 38
walking against wind
8 Fresh gale Breaks twigs off trees; progress generally 39 to 46
impeded
9 Strong gale Slight structural damage occurs (chimney 47 to 54
pots and slate removed)
10 Whole gale Trees uprooted; considerable structural 55 to63
damage occurs; seldom experienced
inland
11 Strom Very rarely experienced; accompanied by 63 to 75
widespread damage
12 Hurricane Above 75

From Trewartha. An introduction to Climate. McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1954.

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 Chapter –8

Atmospheric Humidity (Moisture)

Moisture present in the atmosphere plays a significant role in weather and climate of a
region. There are three major components in the atmospheric moisture.
i. Humidity
ii. Precipitation
iii. Evaporation

Humidity
The terminology related to humidity and concerned with gaseous form of water i.e.,
water vapour, several expressions of the amount of water vapour in the air is used.

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Absolute humidity: It denotes the actual mass of water vapour in given volume of air.
It may be expressed as the number of grams of water vapour in cubic meter of moist air
or mass of water vapour per unit volume of air.

Specific humidity: It is defined as the moisture content of moist air as determined by

the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of moist air in which the mass of
water vapour id contained.

Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a common parameter for expressing water

vapour content of the air. It is the percentage of water vapour present in the air in
comparison with saturated condition at a given temperature and pressure. The R.H.
can be expressed as

100r
RH = ----------
rw

Where “r” is the mixing ratio of moist air at pressure (p) and temperature and “rw” is
the saturation-mixing ratio at same temperature and pressure.

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Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air is a convenient
parameter to express the relative composition of the mixture. It is defined as the ratio of
the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air with which the water vapour is
associated.

Dew point: The temperature at which saturation occurs in given mass of air. The dew
point temperature is often compared with the temperature of free air and also used to
predict the occurrence of fog, dew, frost or precipitation.

Vapour pressure: This is the amount of partial pressure created by water vapour in the
air expressed in the units of millibar (or) inches of mercury.

Vapour pressure deficit (VPD): It is the difference between saturated vapour pressures
and actual vapour pressure express as bar /Pascal. When the VPD is up to 1.5 Kpa the
air is said to be humid and over and above 2.5 Kpa it is drier. It gives the rough estimate
of drying power of air similar to RH. Rate of evaporation and transpiration are
indicated by the magnitude of VPD.

Saturation point: When air contains all the vapour it can hold at that temperature air
said to be saturated at the temperature reached saturation point.

Factors affecting humidity of the air:

1. Temperature
If the temperature of the atmospheric air is more, the water vapour present will be less.
But at the same time the high temperature will increase the capacity of the atmospheric
air to absorb more water from the earth surface.

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2. Nearness of the place to the seacoast
The places near the seacoast are supposed to be cooler due to high deposition of water
in vapour form in the atmospheric air from sea.

3. Climate
Based on the various climatological a factor such as temperature rainfall etc., a
particular place is divided into various climatic periods like summer winter etc.
Summer period is marked by high temperature, low rainfall and low humidity. Rainy
period is marked winter season is also marked by low temperature, but not with
frequent rain and high humidity.

Importance of humidity
It decides the dampness or dryness of the atmospheric air. Humidity has got the same
effect as that of rain in deciding the water needs of the crops. The high humidity has
also got some adverse effect on the crop growth. There will be high incidence of pest
and diseased under high humidity. The rate of evaporation and transportations entirely
depends upon the saturated condition of the atmospheric air with water vapour.

Measurement of humidity
The amount of vapour (water) in the atmospheric air is measured by gravimetric
method, and also by using wet and dry bulb thermometers, Assman Psyschrometer
Hygrograph etc.

Effect of Relative Humidity on crops

RH directly influences the water relation of the plant and indirectly affects 1) Leaf
growth, 2) Photosynthesis 3) Pollination 4) Uptake and translocation of nutrients
5) Occurrence of pest and diseases 6) Economic yield of crop.

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Water relation:
RH affects the transpiration by modifying the vapor pressure gradient. In dry region
RH will be low which causes severe water deficit in plants and reduce the leaf water
potential, plants become dry and wilt. High RH lowers the ET.

1. Leaf growth: It is not only depends on photosynthesis and biochemical process but
also depend on physical process of cell enlargement. Cell enlargement occurs as a
result of turgor pressure developed within the cell. Turgor pressure is high under
high RH due to less transpiration. Thus, leaf enlargement is high in humid region.
E.g., cotton 40% RH recorded increased growth rate compared to 25 or 65% RH.

2. Photosynthesis: RH indirectly affects photosynthesis. When RH is reduced

transpiration increases causes water deficit in plants. Water deficit causes partial or
full closure of stomata and increases mesophyll resistant blocking the entry of CO2
thereby photosynthesis is affected.

3. Pollination: Moderately low air humidity is favorable for seed set in many crops
provided in soil moisture supply is adequate. For example, Seed set was higher in
wheat at 60% RH compared to 80 % RH. When water availability in soil is not
limiting, due to increase pollen germination. When RH is increased pollen may not
disturbed from the anther. Low RH causes pollen sterility.

4. Uptake and translocation of nutrient: High RH decreases the transpiration, which

affects uptake of nutrients and causes deficiency. Uptake of P, K and Ca was higher
at high RH the 60%. Increased the RH increases P uptake. RH 60% is effective for
most of the crop growth by better nutrient uptake.

5. Pest and disease incidence: It increases with increased RH. Higher RH favors easy
germination of fungus spores. For example, Blight disease of Potato and Tea. Jassid
and aphid infestation will be more under high RH.

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6. Crop Yield: Very high or low RH is not ideal. In maize low yield was obtained due
to high RH. Pest and disease incidence was observed at maturity stage and hence
low RH is beneficial. 60-80% RH is ideal for most of the crops.

Diurnal variation in RH: The mean maximum RH occurs in the early morning hours
and minimum in the early afternoon. The RH has its maximum at equator and
decreases towards the poles up to 300 N and S due to subsiding and diver sing air
masses. From about 300 to poles the RH increase the result of decreasing temperature.
This trend is known as Diurnal variation in RH.

Effect of relative humidity on Plant Growth

Increase in RH-decreases the temp. This phenomenon increases heat load of the leaves.
Since transpiration is reduced not much heat energy used. Excessive heat due to closure
of stomata entry of CO2 is reduced. Reduction in transpiration reduces the rate of food
translocation and uptake of nutrients.

Very high RH is beneficial to - Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, (C4Plants)

Harmful to - Sunflower, Tobacco.

Affect water requirement of crops: For almost all the crops it is always safe to have a
moderate R.H. of above 40%. 60-80 % conducive for growth and development of plants.

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 Chapter –9
Clouds and Precipitation

Clouds are condensed moistening of droplets of water and ice crystals. The nuclei of
those droplets are dust particles. Near the surface these drops forms as fogs and in the
free atmosphere, they form clouds. Clouds have been defined as a visible aggregation
or minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the general
ground level.

Air contains moisture and this is extremely important to the formation of clouds.
Clouds are formed around microscopic particles such as dust, smoke, salt crystals &
other materials that are present in the atmosphere. These materials are called “Cloud
condensation Nucleus” (CCN). Without these no cloud formation will take place.
Certain special types known as “ice nucleus” on which cloud depletes freeze or ice
crystals form directly for water vapour. Generally condensation nuclei are present in
plenty in air. But there is scarcity for special ice forming nuclei. Generally clouds are
made up of billion of these tiny water depletes of ice crystals or combination of both.

When a current of air rises upwards due to increased temperature it goes up, expands
and gets cooled. If the cooling continues till the saturation point is reached, the water
vapour condenses and forms clouds. The condensation takes place on an nucleus of
dust particles. The water particles individually are very small and suspended in the air.
Only when the droplets coalesce to from a drop of sufficient weight, to overcome the
resistance of air, they fall as rain. Clouds are considered essential and accurate tools for
weather forecasting. Every feature of air masses (discontinuity, subsidence, instability
and stability) is reflected by the shape, amount and structure of clouds.

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Classification of clouds
Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience
we list them in descending order as high clouds, middle clouds and low clouds. Since
for one do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular
characteristics make them easily, identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must
exercise some caution in relying on height data. There is some seasonal as well as
latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the
appearances of clouds are quite distinctive for each height category.

The main cloud genera are defined and described in the international cloud atlas of the
WMO genera1957. That can be listed according to their heights as under.

34
A. High Clouds (mean heights 5 to 13 km) (Mean lower level 20000 ft)
i) Cirrus (ci) men height 9900 m.
ii) Cirrocumulus (cc) 8300 m.
iii) Stratus (Cs) 6500 m.

B. Middle Clouds (Mean height 2 to 7 km) (6500 to 20,000’)

i) Altostratus (As) 4300 m.
ii) Altocumulus (Ac) 4300 m.

C. Low Clouds (mean heights 0 to 2 km) (Close to earth’s surface to 6500’)

i) Nimbostratus (Ns) 2000 m.
ii) Stratocumuls (Sc) 500m.
iii) Stratus (St) 900-1200 m.

D. Vertical clouds
i) Cumulus (Cu) 1500-2000 m.
ii) Cumulonimbus (Cn) 3000-5000 m.

Clouds with vertical development

1. Cirrus: Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments or white or mostly
white patches of narrow bands. Those clouds have a fibrous (hair like) appearance or a
delicate silky appearance or both. All the cirrus or cirro-type clouds are composed of ice
crystals. Cirrus clouds have brilliant colours of sunset sunrise. These clouds do not give
precipitation.

2. Cirro-Status: Transparent whitish cloud veil of fibrous (hair like) or smooth

appearance, totally or partly covering the sky and generally producing halo
phenomena. This type of cloud is so thin it gives the sky a mild appearance

35
3. Cirro-cumulus: Thin, white flakes, sheet or layer of cloud without shading.
Composed of very small elements in the form of grains, ripples etc. This type of cloud is
not common and is often connected with cirrus or cirrostratus. When arranged
uniformly, it forms a “Mackerel sky”. Mackerel – Fish has greenish blue stripped back
and silvery white belly.

4. Alto-stratus: A uniform sheet cloud of “Grayish or bluish cloud frequently showing a

fibrous appearance, totally or partly covering the sky, and having parts this enough to
reveal the sun at least wavely as through ground glass. Altostratus does not show halo
phenomena. This type of clouds a may cover all or large portions of the sky.
Precipitation may fall either as fine drizzle or snow.

5. Alto-Cumulus: “white or grey, or both white and grey, patch, sheet or layer of cloud.
They have devel shedding on their under surfaces. Sometimes referred to as “sheep
clouds” or “Woolpack clouds”.

36
6. Nimbo- Stratus: “Grey cloud layer, often dark, the appearances of which is rendered
diffuse by more or less continuously falling rain or snow, which in most cases reaches
the ground. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun. It is a rain, snow or sleet
cloud. It is never accompanied by lightening, thunder or hail. Streaks of water (rain) or
snow falling from these clouds but not reaching the ground are called “Virga”. Wisps or
streaks of water or ice particles falling from base of a cloud but evaporating completely
before reaching the ground. Wisps=bundle as of straw.

7. Strato-Cumulus: “Grey or whitish or both grey and whitish patch, sheet or layer of
cloud which almost always has dark parts, composed of tessellation’s, rounded masses,
rolls, etc.

8. Stratus: Generally grey cloud layer with a fairly uniform base, which may give
drizzle, ice prisms or snow grains, sky may be completely covered by this type of cloud.
Sun is visible through this cloud.

9. Cumulus: “Detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines, develop
vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes of towers, of which the bulging upper
parts often resembles a cauliflower. Cumulus is generally found in the dry time over
land areas. They dissipate at night. They produce only light precipitation.

10.Cumulonimubs: “Heavy and dense cloud, with a considerable vertical extent in the
form of a mountain or huge towers. This type of cloud is associated with heavy rainfall,
thunder, lightening, hail or tornadoes. The fall of a real shower and sudden darkening
of the sky easily recognize this type of clouds.

Formation of Clouds:
Clouds are formed by condensation of moisture in the air by cooling.
1. It is due to direct cooling as they come in contact with cold surface.
2. By mixing of hot and cold air.

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 3. By expansion.
There are two rain forming process viz,

1. Warm rain process:

 Rains occur when the temp is above 00C never colder than 00C.
 When larger droplets collide and absorb smaller cloud droplets.
 They grow larger and larger & become raindrops.
 This process is known as “Coalescence”

2. Cold rain process

 Occurs when the cloud temperature is colder than 00C.
 Clouds are usually with ice crystals and liquid water droplets.
 These crystals grow rapidly drawing moisture from the surrounding cloud
droplets until their weight causes them to fall.
 Falling ice crystals may melt and join with smaller liquid cloud droplets
resulting in raindrops. If ice crystals do not melt, they may grow into large
snowflakes and reach the ground as snow.
Conditions favorable for the occurrence of precipitation
 The cloud dimension (vertical –7 km horizontal 60-70km)
 The lifetime of the cloud (at least 2-3 hrs.)
 The size and concentration of cloud droplets & ice particles.
 RH should be 75%
 Wind velocity 20km.
 Cloud seeding

Cloud Seeding:
It is the process by which the conditions of the cloud (dimension, life time and size) are
modified by supplying with suitable nuclei us at proper time and place. For
accelerating the warm rain process seeding with very large nuclei such as salt crystals
can be used. In the case of cold rain process, seeding with ice nuclei such as silver
iodide are used to make good the deficiency in the clouds.

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 Chapter –10
Evaporation and Transpiration

Hydrologic cycle

Hydrologic cycle involves four major steps viz, evaporation, transpiration,

condensation and precipitation. Though the cycle has neither a beginning nor and end,
the concept of cycle begins with the water of the oceans, since it covers nearly ¾ of the
earth’s surface. Radiation from the sun evaporates the water vapor from the oceans into
the atmosphere. The water vapour rises and collects to form clouds. Under certain
conditions, the cloud moisture condenses and falls back to the earth as rain, snow, hail
etc., precipitation reaching the earth’s surface may be intercepted by vegetation, or enter

39
into the soil, may flow as run off or may evaporate. Evaporation may be from the
surface of the ground of from free water surface. Transpiration may be from plants.

Evaporation: The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour and its
diffusion into the atmosphere is referred to as evaporation. In agricultural Meteorology,
evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture form a wet,
horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather parameters, which exist in the vicinity of
plants.

Factors affecting Evaporation

1. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating surface. i.e., soil and plants
including soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation.
2. Those affecting energy supply to the evaporation surface like solar radiation.

40
Transpiration: Most of the water absorbed by plants is lost to the atmosphere. This loss
of water from living plants is called transpiration. It can be stomatal, cuticular or
lenticular.

Factors affecting Transpiration:

1. Light,
2. Humidity,
3. Temperature,
4. Wind,
5. Root/shoot ratio,
6. Availability of water to plants,
7. Leaf characteristics.

Evapotranspiration (ET): As noted earlier, it is a combined loss of water through

evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the plants.

41
Potential Evapotranspiration (ET):
It is defined as the amount of water which will be lost from an extensive water surface
or soil completely covered with vegetation where there is abundant moisture in the soil
at all times.
Evapotranspiration is also called water use (WU) or consumptive use (CU). The
factors influencing evapotranspiration (ET) are climate and management practices.

Evaporation
 One of the four components of the endless hydrological cycle (Evaporation-
Transpiration-Condensation-Precipitation).
 Most of the water vapor comes from ocean.
 It is also important in agriculture as it affects.
 Soil Conditions.
 Plant growth crops.
 Water storage dams.

Evaporation depends upon the

 Temperature of the water surface
 Vapour pressure of the air

The pressure exerted by the water vapour in the air is known as “vapour pressure”.
Evaporation is more when there in greater pressure difference between vapour pressure
and saturation vapour pressure.

 Wind movement (Removes moisture) – Evaporation increases with wind

velocity.
 Salinity – presence of dissolved minerals salts reduce evaporation from sea by
5% less than pure water.

42
Factors, which affect ET from plant & Soils, are
i) Those affecting water supply
 Soil storage capacity.
 Rainfall.
 Irrigation.

ii) Those affecting energy supply

 Light: Stomata open in light and close in the dark.
 Temperature: Humidity/ vapour pressure is function of temperature
 Relative Humidity: Less humidity higher temperature. Increases difference –
incurred. Decrease temperature increase vapour pressure – reducing the
saturation deficit.
Wind
Saturated air is replaced by dry air around the plant and hence increased temperature
was noticed. The cooling effect on leaves results in decreased in vapour pressure
different.

Plant characters
1. Root: shoot
2. Leaf characteristics
3. More LAI results in higher transpiration high
4. Thick cuticle and presence of epidermal hair will lead to less transpiration.

When Root shoot is more or equal then transpiration will be more.

PET (Potential Evaporation) - denotes evaporation forms a free water surface.
AE (Achal Evaporation) - Actual Evaporation.
AE is always less than PET

43
Factors affecting Evaporation
Climatic Factors
1. Solar radiation
2. Relative Humidity
3. Temperature
4. Wind

Soil Factors:
1. Soil texture – a. Sandy soil, b. Clay soil.
2. Available soil moisture
3. Soil salinity
4. Hydraulic conductivity

Plant characters:
1. Plant morphology
a. Leaf size
b. Thickness of the cuticle
c. Stomata
2. Type of plant

Other factors
1. Ploughed / unploughed field
2. Plant population and row pattern
3. Plant cover

Eavapotranspiration and Crop production:

1. Working out ET or PET will be useful in scheduling the irrigation. (IW/CPE ratio
method)
2. ET can also help in demarcating the drought prone areas. These will form the
base for developing suitable soil and crop management practices, crop varieties,
water conservation techniques, cropping pattern and ways to improve
productivity of rain fed crops.
3. Water Use Efficiency (WUE) can be worked out.

Condensation
The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid and it is a process
opposite of evaporation.

44