Ethernet ensures the position free data transfer over the network. It is the backbone of various types of networks.

Early Ethernet ware 10 base T which supports a max speed of 10 mbps. Which when replaced by a faster network can support up to 100mbps. The last are gigabit Ethernet which supports a transfer rate upto 1gbps. It supports a speed upto 5 gbps. OSI reference application layer Presentation layer Session reciever layer Transport layer Network layer Data-link layer Physical layer The same damn thing on this side Network layer Data-link layer Physical layer sender

Data communications standard The basic objective of standardization was to create easy user interface & allow the software to fulfill the technical requirements of transmitting the data effectively. The standardization made the communication process easy & simple which can handle in a plug and play manner. An organization could change its data communication hardware w/o changing its programs or retraining the users & the user might not even realize that there had been a change in the hardware. Biz must

be able to implement the new technologies needed to stay competitive & gain strategic advantage w/o changing the programs. 2 of the first data communication models were IBMs (SNA) system network architecture and DECCs network architecture. These and other models were designed primarily to link their own hardware in response to the numerous vendor models, the ISO. The ISO developed the 7 layered open system OSI model to standardize the communication industry. The 7 layers of OSI describes what happens when a computer communicates with another computer. The model provides a set of standards that define a common language that 2 computers can talk to each other over a network. Protocols describe how the data are to be transferred between different parts of the model. Protocol is a communication language that computer networks use to communicate with each other. The first layer (physical layer) enables the electrical connections and signalling to take place. This layer is made up of tables such are twisted pair cables, fibre optic cables. All communication signals from higher level travel through the physical layer which helps in physical connectivity. The 2 nd layer (data link layer) is responsible for controlling the data stream between the sending & receiving nodes. Its job is to put the characters together into messages, check them for errors & start the transmission. It also checks to see whether the message arrives at its destination & initiates any necessary retransmission. The 3 rd layer (network layer) determines the physical pathway the data will take when they are communicated. This decision is based on network conditions, priorities of service etc. IP protocol (TCPIP) is the network layer. the 4 th layer (transport layer) is used to look for alternate routes for saving transmitted data in the event the network fails. It is also responsible for quality control of data received. A popular protocol used in transport layer is TCP. The 5th layer (session layer) initiates, maintains & terminates each session. It allows 2 applications to communicate across the network & is responsible for functions such as security, logging in & out, administration & the name recognition. The 6th layer (presentation layer) formats data so that they can be used by the application program or communication devices. It controls screen features such as blinking characters, reverse video, special data entry formats & graphics. It may also control encryption and other special file formatting. All control codes, special graphics & character sets reside in this layer. The operation of printers, plotters & other peripheral devices is also controlled by the software in this layer. The 7 th & the aapplication layer as the network application system & application programs reside in this layer & are directly controlled by the user. Each layer in this model performs a service for the layer above it. (connect the entire receiver part from above) - aplication transport

connect these bitches into a hierarchy ------------ network Host to network TCPIP model: the 4 layers (the application layer, the presentation layer & The session layer) are combined into 1 layer that is application layer. The transport & network layers remain as they are functionally as well. The data-link & physical layer are combined into 1 layer known as host to network. Copy table from palak

The various devices used in the physical layer: HUBS/repeaters: are simple devices that pass all traffic in both directions between the LAN sections. They are the connection components for different devices on the network (printer, fax machine etc). they link & operate at the physical layer of the OSI or TCIP reference model. The main function of the HUB is to amplify (adjust the timng signals) before transmitting them to other parts of the network. They forward every msg they receive to other sections of the LAN even though if it is not required by the nodes. There are 3 types of HUBS: passive, intelligent & switching. Bridges connect 2 LANs or 2 segments of the same LAN. They operate at the datalink layer of the OSI/TCPIP model. Bridges dont perform protocol conversion. In a large network, thye forward only those msgs which need to go to other segments of the network based on the IP address. Bridges are a combination of hardware & Software. Switches connect 2 or more LAN segments that uses the same data link& network protocol. They work at the data link layer of OSI/TCIP model. They connect several low speed LAN segments into backbone networks. They typically provide codes in multiples of 4. Reuters connect 2 or more LANs that use the same or different data link protocols but the same network protocol. The router operates at the network layer of the OSI/tCPIP model. One of the major features of the router is its capability of selecting the optimal network path to transmit the packets. to accomplish this task the router uses a routing table. It also possesses software which identifies the best rule to transmit the packet. They allow the logical separation of an internet work into many networks by using an addressing schemethat distinguishes between devices addresses at the data link layer & internet work addresses at the network layer. Routing systems use the internet work addresses to specify the network protocol packet & the routing tables for routing decisions. The difference between a

router & a bridge: a router processes only those messages that are specifically addressed to it. They also act as a firewall if implemented properly. Gateways are more complex than bridges or routers as they are the interfaces between 2 or more dissimilar networks. As shown in the diagram, gateway connects 2 different networks working on 2 different protocols, namely TCPIP for LAN & SNA for IBM mainframe computer. Gateway operates right through the network layer up to the application layer. They forward only those msgs that need to go to another network. They translate 1 network protocol into another, translates data formats & Opens sessions between application progs, thus overcoming both hardware & software incompatibilities.

Types of communication Simplex: in 1 direction (car radio, tv, keyboard) Half duplex: in 1 direction at a time (2 way radio) full duplex: in both directions (telephone)

internet, intranet, extranet internet is a universal network. It is a network of networks. It has universal ownership, available & accessible all the time from any part of the world. TCPIP protocol is the backbone of the internet. It is a public network. Intranet is a corporate internet meant for defined users of an organization. It is a pvt network created for the community of the organization which allow them to access organizations data & databases using the browser from anywhere at any time. It is a pvt computer network that uses internet technologies to securely share any part of an organizations info or operational info w/ its employees & users. It can be LAN based or WAN based depending upon how big the organizations network is. Well known internet protocols are used in the intranet such as HTTP, SMTP, FTP. Following are the characteristics of the intranet: 1. It allows users to share the data & work space which helps users to locate & view info faster as per authorization level. 2. It serves as a powerful communication tool within an org across various locations and across various projects. Extranet: it is an extended intranet. It is a pvt-to-pvt network between defined users & the stakeholders & organizations. Between 2 or more intranets using internet technologies.

Virtual pvt network wherein the public telecommunications infrastructure is used so that the organizations will not have to use leased lines.