Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623

DOI 10.1007/s11104-013-1661-9

REGULAR ARTICLE

Occluded C in rice phytoliths: implications to biogeochemical

carbon sequestration
Zimin Li & Zhaoliang Song & Jeffrey F. Parr &
Hailong Wang

Received: 17 October 2012 / Accepted: 25 February 2013 / Published online: 8 March 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract (leaf, stem, sheath and grains) on a dry weight basis in 5

Aims Carbon (C) bio-sequestration within the phytoliths
of plants, a mechanism of long-term biogeochemical C
sequestration, may play a major role in the global C cycle
and climate change. In this study, we explored the poten-
tial of C bio-sequestration within phytoliths produced in
cultivated rice (Oryza sativa), a well known silicon
accumulator.
Methods The rice phytolith extraction was undertaken
with microwave digestion procedures and the determi-
nation of occluded C in phytoliths was based on
dissolution methods of phytolith-Si.
Results Chemical analysis indicates that the phytolith-
occluded C (PhytOC) contents of the different organs
rice cultivars range from 0.4 mgg−1 to 2.8 mgg−1, and the
C content of phytoliths from grains is much lower than
that of leaf, stem and sheath. The data also show that the
PhytOC content of rice depends on both the content of
phytoliths and the efficiency of C occlusion within
phytoliths during rice growth. The biogeochemical C
sequestration flux of phytoliths in 5 rice cultivars is ap-
proximately 0.03–0.13 Mg of carbon dioxide (CO2)
equivalents (Mg-e-CO2) ha−1 year−1. From 1950 to 2010,
about 2.37×108 Mg of CO2 equivalents might have been
sequestrated within the rice phytoliths in China. Assuming
a maximum phytoliths C bio-sequestration flux of
0.13 Mg-e-CO2 ha−1 year−1, the global annual potential

Responsible Editor: Hans Lambers.

Z. Li : Z. Song (*) : H. Wang Z. Song

School of Environmental and Resource Sciences, College of Urban and Environmental
Zhejiang A & F University, No. 88 North Huancheng Road, Sciences, Peking University,
Lin’an, Zhejiang 311300, China Peking 100871, China
e-mail: songzhaoliang78@163.com

Z. Song : H. Wang
Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Carbon
Cycling in Forest Ecosystems and Carbon
Sequestration, Zhejiang A & F University,
Lin’an, Zhejiang 311300, China
J. F. Parr
Z. Song Southern Cross GeoScience,
Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Southern Cross University, Lismore,
Ministry of Education, Peking 100871, China NSW 2480, Australia
616
rate of CO2 sequestrated in rice phytoliths would approx-
imately be 1.94×107 Mg.
Conclusions Therefore rice crops may play a signifi-
cant role in long-term C sequestration through the
formation of PhytOC.
Keywords Carbon sequestration . PhytOC .
Phytolith . Rice
Introduction
Climate change is one of the major global environ-
mental issues (Schlesinger 1997). Increased green-
house gas (GHG) emissions are now widely accepted
as the main cause of climate change since the
Industrial Revolution (Schimel 1995; Falkowski et
al. 2000; IPCC 2007; Kosten et al. 2010). Recent
research indicates that the global CO2 emission rate
had increased to 3.11× 1011 Mg per year by 2010
(DOE 2008). With this in mind all mechanisms of
carbon (C) sequestration should be explored in order
to identify relevant practical measures that may be
taken to reduce the concentration of CO2 in atmo-
sphere (Parr et al. 2010). Existing forestry, grasslands,
shrub lands and wetland plants play a key role in the
sequestration of atmospheric CO2. A large part of the
C sequestrated by plants is returned into the soil as
plant residues (Harrison et al. 1993; Parr and Sullivan
2005; Fang et al. 2007; Field 2001). It is estimated that
soils contain about 1550 Pg inorganic C and 950 Pg
organic C (Zuo and Lü 2011). A minor variation in
such big C pool in terrestrial ecosystems may have a
significant effect on the C flux (Harrison et al. 1993).
However, due to environmental complexities, it is
difficult to quantify soil C changes (McKenzie et al.
2000; Skjemstad et al. 2000; Clark 2002).
Phytoliths, the opaline amorphous silica formed in
plant tissues (e.g., cell walls, cell lumina, and intercellular
spaces typically near evaporating surfaces), are present in
most plants (Perry et al. 1987; Piperno 1988; Song et al.
2012a, b). When plants die and undergo decomposition,
large amounts of these phytoliths are released directly
into the soil. When phytoliths encounter some
unpredictable situations, such as earthquake, dust storms,
flood (Baker et al. 1961), forest/grassland fire, erosion,
etc., they are often preserved in the environment (Baker
1961; Jones and Milne 1963; Wilding et al. 1967; Jones
and Handreck 1967; Wilding and Drees 1974; Sangster
Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623
and Parry 1981; Pearsall 1989; Hart and Humphreys
1997; Parr 2006; Bowdery 2007). For example, it has
been reported that phytoliths in volcanic soils and
peatland sediments range in age from 0 to 8,000 year
BP (Parr and Sullivan 2005). Wilding (1967) reported a
radiocarbon date of 13300±450 year BP for phytoliths.
During the formation of phytoliths, some organic C
can be occluded (Jones and Milne 1963). Compared
with other organic C fractions, phytolith occluded C
(PhytOC) is relatively stable and can persist in the soil
for millennia due to its strong resistance to decompo-
sition (Wilding et al. 1967; Wilding and Drees 1974;
Mulholland and Prior 1993; Strömberg 2004; Parr and
Sullivan 2005; Prasad et al. 2005). PhytOC plays a
major role in soil C cycle (Parr and Sullivan 2005;
Oldenburg et al. 2008) and the importance of the soil
C cycle in relation to climate change has been empha-
sized by many researchers (Gifford 1994; Falkowski
et al. 2000; Kosten et al. 2010). As an important part
of terrestrial C, it can represent up to 82 % of total C in
some soil and sediments after 2,000 years of litter leaf
decomposition (Parr and Sullivan 2005). Recent re-
search also indicates that plant phytoliths have great
potential to sequester CO2 from the atmosphere (Parr
et al. 2009; Parr et al. 2010; Parr and Sullivan 2011;
Zuo and Lü 2011). For example, the phytolith C bio-
sequestration fluxes from millet, wheat and sugarcane
range up to 0.04, 0.25 and 0.36 Mg-e-CO2 ha−1 year−1,
respectively (Parr et al. 2009; Parr and Sullivan 2011;
Zuo and Lü 2011). Moreover, the flux of C occluded
within the phytoliths of bamboo species examined to
date ranges up to 0.71 Mg-e-CO2 ha−1 year−1, and,
with current global bamboo forests covering an area
of around 22 million ha could potentially be securely
sequestering~1.56×107 Mg of atmospheric CO2 per
year. Parr et al. (2010), have suggested that if all
potentially arable land (4.1 billion ha) is exploited to
grow bamboo or other similar grass crops, the global
potential of phytolith C bio-sequestration is approxi-
mately 1.5×109 Mg CO2 per year. This would result in
effectively reducing global CO2 emissions by a rate
equivalent to 11 % of the current increased CO2 in
atmosphere (Parr et al. 2010).
Cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) is a main food source for
more that 50 % of the global population and is currently
cultivated on around 1.55×108 ha (IRRI 2011). China is
the largest country involved in rice production, accounting
for up to 35 % of all world production, followed by India
(22 %), Indonesia (9 %) and Bangladesh (7 %) (IRRI
Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623
2011). There is a long history of rice production in
China (Cao et al. 2007) and its current area of produc-
tion is around 2.96×107 ha (NBSC 2011). Rice is able to
be cultivated twice per year under the high temperature
and abundant rainfall environment of south-eastern
China (Cao and Zhang 2004; Lin et al. 2004).
Recently the C sequestration potential of phytoliths
within crops of millet (Zuo and Lü 2011) and wheat
(Parr and Sullivan 2011) has been reported. However,
the variability of PhytOC in rice has not been investi-
gated yet, even though cultivated rice is a well known
silica accumulator (Epstein 1994, 1999). Therefore, the
objective of this study is to explore the potential of C
occluded within phytoliths in rice cultivars.
Materials and methods
Collection of rice plant materials
In this study, the rice plants used in experiment were
grown under the same conditions to eliminate factors
that might influence silica uptake and deposition. The
stem, leaf, sheath and grains from 5 commonly planted
rice cultivars (Table 1) were used to determine the
content of phytoliths and PhytOC in different organs,
and to analyze the relationship of two aspects in dif-
ferent rice cultivars and organs of the same rice plant.
The rice plant samples (three replicates) of different
cultivars were collected during the harvest season in
October, 2010, from the regional trials of new varieties
of crops grown at the demonstration base of Zhejiang
Soil and Fertilizer Station (30°56′06.3″N and 120°51′
52.9″E) in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, southeast China.
The Base is located in Hangjiahu Plain which experi-
ences a typical subtropical humid monsoon climate,
with an average annual precipitation of 1,200 mm. The
annual mean temperature is 16 °C and the number of
frost free days is 230. Soil is classified as the Earth-
cumuli-Orthic Anthrosols (CSSD 2012).
Phytoliths occluded C analysis
In the laboratory, the phytolith extraction of rice or-
gans (around 50 mg each test) was undertaken with
microwave digestion procedures (Parr et al. 2001).
This process was followed by a Walkley–Black type
digest (Walkley and Black 1934) to thoroughly re-
move extraneous organic materials in the samples
617
(Parr et al. 2010). Each phytolith extraction solution
was used 0.8 mol/l potassium dichromate to examine
the extraneous organic materials outside of the phytolith
cells. If the color of solution would not change within
5 min, it showed that the extraneous organic materials
outside of the phytoliths were thoroughly removed. The
phytoliths extracted were oven-dried at 75 °C for 24 h in
a centrifuge tube of known weight. The samples were
allowed to cool and then weighed to obtain the phytolith
quantities. Each sample was checked with an optical
microscope (Olympus CX31, Japan) to further ensure
that all extraneous organic materials outside of the
phytoliths were thoroughly removed (Murphy 2002).
Based on methods of Kroger et al. (2002), the dried
phytoliths samples were treated with 1 mol/L HF at 45 °
C for 60 min to dissolve phytolith-Si. The organic C
released from phytoliths after HF treatment was dried at
45 °C and determined for C content using the classical
potassium dichromate method (Lu 2000). The organic C
data was monitored with standard soil samples of
GBW07405. The precision is better than 7 %.
Results
Microscopy check show that all external organic mate-
rials were completely removed (Fig. 1). The contents of
phytoliths in different rice organs (leaf, stem, sheath,
grains) range from 15 mgg−1 to 144 mgg−1 and show a
similar trend (sheath>leaf>stem>grains) in 5 rice cul-
tivars (Table 1). There are substantial variations in the C
content (14 mgg−1–34 mgg−1) of phytoliths from organs
in rice cultivars (Table 1). Generally, the C content of
phytoliths from the stem is higher than that of sheath,
grains and leaf (Table 1). The PhytOC contents of
organs on a dry weight basis in the 5 rice cultivars vary
from 0.4 mgg−1 to 2.8 mgg−1 and have a consistent
trend (sheath>leaf>steam>grains) (Table 1).
A weak negative correlation exists between the con-
tent of phytoliths and the C content of phytoliths from
different organs in 5 rice cultivars (R2 =0.2236, p>0.05)
(Fig. 2). However, there are strong positive correlations
between the content of phytoliths and the PhytOC
content of different organs (R2 = 0.8651, p < 0.01)
(Fig. 3). The correlation (R2 =0.2733, p>0.05) between
the C content of phytoliths and the PhytOC content of
grains is weaker than that of leaf (R2 =0.8241, p<0.01),
stem (R2 =0.9214, p<0.01) and sheath (R2 =0.5168,
p<0.05) (Fig. 4).
618 Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623

Table 1 Rice cultivars and organs, the phytolith content as a equivalents (Mg-e-CO2) for rice (according to grains yields of
percentage of organs biomass, the PhytOC content of the rice single and double rice crops between 9.3 and 18.6 Mg-ha−1)
phytoliths, the content of PhytOC in organs on a dry weight (data offered by Zhejiang Soil and Fertilizer Station)
basis and the estimated fluxes of PhytOC per ha in Mg of CO2

Rice Rice Phytolith contents PhytOC of phytoliths PhytOC of organs Estimated PhytOC fluxes
cultivars organs Mean (s. d) mgg−1 Mean (s. d) mgg−1 Mean (s. d) mgg−1 (Mg-e-CO2 ha−1 year−1)

Xiushui 09 grains 20.56 (0.26) 20.16 (1.05) 0.41 (0.03) 0.04–0.10

stem 30.87 (3.36) 21.06 (1.16) 0.65 (0.11)
sheath 132.95 (5.67) 21.27 (1.46) 2.83 (0.30)
leaf 55.47 (8.16) 18.66 (3.05) 1.04 (0.32)
Ning 81 grains 26.57 (3.86) 18.47 (1.57) 0.49 (0.13) 0.03–0.12
stem 37.36 (11.56) 28.85 (8.36) 1.08 (0.65)
sheath 108.87 (3.76) 19.56 (1.14) 2.13 (0.20)
leaf 64.57 (9.18) 24.46 (1.36) 1.58 (0.32)
Xianghu 301 grains 27.23 (5.76) 23.47 (0.14) 0.63 (0.14) 0.05–0.13
stem 39.12 (2.44) 33.56 (0.36) 1.31 (0.09)
sheath 118.57 (5.76) 20.47 (0.13) 2.43 (0.14)
leaf 77.87 (2.03) 22.13 (0.37) 1.72 (0.07)
Zhejing 37 grains 15.47 (1.48) 23.16 (0.27) 0.36 (0.04) 0.04–0.08
stem 40.23 (2.27) 24.75 (0.46) 1.00 (0.08)
sheath 103.06 (2.37) 22.14 (1.14) 2.28 (0.16)
leaf 79.27 (5.24) 25.67 (1.47) 2.03 (0.25)
Jiahua 11 grains 21.57 (2.14) 26.16 (2.04) 0.56 (0.09) 0.04–0.11
stem 39.95 (5.04) 27.27 (1.47) 1.09 (0.20)
sheath 143.95 (6.96) 14.18 (1.68) 2.04 (0.34)
leaf 74.57 (1.14) 23.01 (0.37) 1.72 (0.03)

Discussion millet has no direct relationship with the actual content

The mechanism of C occlusion within rice phytoliths
and its application
A number of researchers (e.g., Parr et al. 2009, 2010;
Parr and Sullivan 2011; Zuo and Lü 2011) found that
the PhytOC content in bamboo, wheat, sugarcane and
of silica (phytoliths) taken up by the plant, and mainly
depends on the efficiency of the C occluded within
phytoliths during plant growth. However, our study
results on C occlusion within rice phytoliths are quite
different from the above studies. The strong positive
correlations between the phytolith content and the
PhytOC content of organs in 5 rice caltivars tested

Fig. 1 Rice phytoliths

extracted by the microwave
method followed by a
Walkley–Black digest using
standard light microscopy
(Walkley and Black 1934;
Parr et al. 2001)
Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623 619

36 3.0
leaf
y = 0.0494x + 1.304 stem
y = -0.051x + 26.09 2 sheath
2 R = 0.5168, P < 0.05 grains
R = 0.2241, P > 0.05
27

PhytOC content in organs

C content of phytolith

2.0
y = 0.0474x - 0.2274

( mg g )
-1
2
y = 0.1247x - 1.242 R = 0.9214, P < 0.01
(mg g )

18
-1

2
R = 0.8241, P< 0.01

1.0
9
y = 0.0174x + 0.1127
2
R = 0.2733, P > 0.05

0 0.0
0 40 80 120 160 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-1 C content of phytoliths (mg g-1)
Phytolith content (mg g )

Fig. 2 Correlation of the phytolith content of organs and the C Fig. 4 Correlation of PhytOC content of organs and the C
content of phytoliths in 5 rice cultivars content of phytoliths in 5 rice cultivars. (PhytOC content in
organs as a function of the C content of phytoliths)

(R2 =8651, P<0.01) (Fig. 3), and between the C con-

2001; Ding et al. 2005; Parr and Sullivan 2011; Zuo
tent of the phytoliths in each organ and the PhytOC
and Lü 2011). The different shape of phytoliths be-
content of organs in 5 rice caltivars (R2 =0.2733–
tween different organs (e.g., between rice stem and
0.9214) (Fig. 4) indicate that the PhytOC content in
rice sheath) may also cause differences in the C con-
rice plants might depend on both the content of
tent of phytoliths because of differences in specific
phytoliths and the nature of silica occluding C within
surface area (Table 1; Bartoli and Wilding 1980;
cells of the phytoliths during plant growth. Thus, all
Bartoli 1985). However, these indirect factors remain
factors influencing the content of phytoliths and the
to be examined in further studies.
content of silica occluding C within phytoliths could
It is possible to improve the sequestration rate of
result in significant variations of the PhytOC content
PhytOC simply by selecting cultivars of high-
in plants. For example, factors such as varieties, loca-
phytolith content and high-C content of phytoliths
tion, disease resistance, and fertilizer requirements can
for cropping (Parr et al. 2010; Parr and Sullivan
play a major role in accumulating phytoliths during
2011). However, as pointed out by Parr et al. (2009)
plant growth (Ma et al. 2002; Korndorfer and Lepsch
cultivars cannot be selected solely on the basis of their
PhytOC content but rather should be considered in
combination with other desirable traits such as bio-
3.0
mass and yield. In addition, other limiting factors,
y = 0.0166x + 0.315
2 such as differences in location and climatic conditions
R = 0.8651, P < 0.01
(Parr et al. 2009; Parr and Sullivan 2011), and taste
PhytOC content in organs

2.0 preferences also need to be considered. As we have

shown in this study for rice there is a strong relation-
(mg g )
-1

ship between silica (phytolith) production and PhytOC

content (Figs. 3 and 4) thus even if rice crops with a
1.0 relatively weak ability for occluding C in their
phytoliths are planted, it may still be possible to
enhence the PhytOC content for the plants by regulat-
ing silicon supply during growing period. For exam-
0.0
0 40 80 120 160 ple, previous studies have demonstrated that the
Phytolith content (mg g-1) content of the silica (phytoliths) in crops may be
enhanced through adding manganese zinc silicon fer-
Fig. 3 Correlation of the phytolith content of organs and
PhytOC content of organs in 5 rice cultivars. (PhytOC content tilizer, straw (Bao et al. 1996), organic fertilizer,
in organs as a function of phytolith content) calcium-magnesium phosphate fertilizer (Chen et al.
620 Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623

Table 2 Comparison of PhytOC contents in plant tissues, estimated PhytOC fluxes per hat-CO2 equivalents and global total PhytOC
sequestration rate in different plants

Plants species PhytOC contents of dry PhytOC sequestration fluxes Global PhytOC sequestration References
material (mgg−1) (Mg-e-CO2 ha−1-year−1) rates (Mg -e-CO2 -year−1)

Rice 0.4–2.8 0.03–0.13 1.94×107 This study

Bamboo 2.4–5.2 0.01–0.71 1.56×107 Parr et al. 2010
Sugarcane 3.1–15.4 0.12–0.36 0.72×107 Parr et al. 2009
Wheat 0.6–6.0 0.01–0.25 5.3×107 Parr and Sullivan 2011
Millet 0.4–2.7 0.01–0.04 0.27×107 Zuo and Lü 2011

2008), slag mucks (Zhang et al. 2008), and silicon
fertilizers (Matichenkov et al. 1999; Alvarez and
Datnoff 2001; Ma and Takahashi 2002; Liang et al.
2006; Mecfel et al. 2007) during the plant growth. In
fact, silica (phytolith) accumulation also provides plants
with some competitive advantages during the crops
growth, such as enhancement of yield and growth, re-
sistance to disease and increased shoot rigidity, etc.
(Epstein 2001) through the regulation of silicon nutrient
supply for crops. It is likely to enhance PhytOC content
in crops through regulating silicon nutrient supply for
crop plants in agricultural production.
Carbon sequestration potential through C occlusion
within the phytoliths in rice plants
Using the PhytOC content of rice plant material on a dry
weight basis (leaf, stem, sheath, grains) (Wang et al. 2008)
and the mean annual production (9.3–18.6 Mg-ha−1) of
grains of the single and double rice cropping systems
(Anthoni et al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2010), we estimate that
the C flux of rice phytoliths is 0.03–0.13 Mg-e-CO2 ha−1-
year−1. Compared with the other studies (Table 2), the flux
of the phytolith C sequestration in this study is noticeably
lower than that of bamboo, wheat and sugarcane (Parr et
al. 2009; Parr et al. 2010; Parr and Sullivan 2011). The
main causes for this significant difference in PhytOC
content may be as follows: a) the C content of phytoliths
in the 5 rice cultivars tested is simply not as high as that for
bamboo, wheat and sugarcane; b) the rice produces less
biomass than other phytolith species, e.g., bamboo leaf
(Parr et al. 2010), perhaps rice cultivars with stronger
PhytOC traits are yet to be discovered or c) the method
of C quantification used in this study (Lu 2000) which
varied considerably from previous studies (Parr et al.
2009; Parr et al. 2010; Parr and Sullivan 2011) provides
a significantly different result; d) Genetic reasons and
different physiology/relationship to water may affect the

4.0
40
C occlusion rates (10 Mg-e-CO2)

35
3.0
Rice-planted area (10 ha)

6
6

30

2.0

25

1.0
20
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Fig. 6 Estimated the lowest and highest potential rate of CO2
Fig. 5 The variation trend of rice planted-areas from 1950 to sequestration through PhytOC accumulation in rice plants between
2010 in China (NBSC 2011 and CSDN 2011) 1950 and 2010 in China
Plant Soil (2013) 370:615–623
C content of phytoliths in different plants. These are areas,
which, while beyond the scope of the current study,
necessarily require further investigation.
According to the records for the area of rice planted
from 1950 to 2010 in China (NBSC 2011 and CSDN
2011) (Fig. 5), we have estimated the trend of the lowest
and highest potential rates of CO2 occluded within rice
phytoliths from 1950 to 2010 (Fig. 6). Our results estimate
that between 0.81×106 and 3.88×106 Mg-e-CO2 per year
is occluded within the rice phytoliths in China. Applying
the largest flux (0.13 Mg-e-CO2 ha−1 year−1) of the largest
PhytOC sequestration flux in this study, our results indi-
cate that rice phytoliths have potentially occluded around
2.37×108 Mg-e- CO2 during the past 60 years. In 2010,
the rice planting-area of the world was around 1.55×108
ha (IRRI 2011). Taking the largest flux (0.13 Mg-e-CO2
ha−1 year−1) of rice phytoliths, about 1.94×107 Mg-e-CO2
per year would have been sequestrated in rice phytoliths
globally. Although the annual CO2 occlusion within the
rice phytoliths of unit area is likely to be lower than that of
other plants such as bamboo, wheat and sugarcane
(Table 2), based on the total area of rice production the
global CO2 sequestration (1.94×107 Mg-e-CO2 year−1) in
rice phytoliths is greater than those of reported, for exam-
ple, bamboo leaf litter (1.56×107 Mg-e-CO2 year−1) (Parr
et al. 2010) and sugarcane leaf (0.72×106 Mg-e-CO2
year−1) (Parr et al. 2009). When rice straw is returned to
the paddy fields, phytoliths are released into the soil after
straw decomposition. The PhytOC from rice is very stable
and can be preserved in soils for more than 6,000 years
(Cao et al. 2006, 2007; Zheng et al. 2003). For example,
fan type (bulliform cell) rice phytoliths could be found
intact in ancient paddy soil (6,280 a BP) at the Chuodun
site (Cao et al. 2007). Thus, the PhytOC can be considered
as an important part of soil stable organic C and plays an
important role in long-term C sequestration (Parr and
Sullivan 2005) and mitigation of global climate change
(Parr et al. 2010; Parr and Sullivan 2011; Zuo and Lü
2011). It is especially important to further quantify and
enhance the potential of PhytOC of cultivated plants such
as rice and other arable crops under different soil and
climate conditions.
Conclusions
Our study reveals that the PhytOC content of the differ-
ent organs (leaf, stem, sheath and grains) in 5 rice
cultivars ranged from 0.4 mgg−1 to 2.8 mgg−1. The C
621
content of phytoliths in grains is much lower than that of
other organs, such as leaf, stem and sheath. The data also
show that the PhytOC content in rice mainly depends on
both the content of silica (phytoliths) and the efficiency
of the C occluded within phytoliths during rice growth.
Based on our results, it is estimated that the flux of C
occluded within rice phytoliths is between 0.03 and
0.13 t-e-ha−1-year−1. Rice may sequester between
0.81×106 and 3.88×106 Mg-e-CO2 annually and up to
2.37×108 Mg-e-CO2 within phytoliths of cultivated rice
during a 60-year period in China. According to the
global rice planting area (1.55×108 ha), we estimate that
1.94×107 Mg-e-CO2 from the atmosphere could have
been sequestered in rice phytoliths annually, which
could play an important role in mitigation of global
greenhouse gas emission. However, more studies on
the capacity of the PhytOC accumulation in arable crops
are needed to quantify potential of phytoliths in global C
sequestration and to reduce greenhouse gas concentra-
tion in the atmosphere.
Acknowledgments We are grateful for support from National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41103042), Zhe-
jiang Province Key Science and Technology Innovation Team
(NO.2010R50030), Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Founda-
tion Program (Grant No. Y5080110 and Z5080203), Opening Pro-
ject of State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry
(SKLEG9011), Opening Project of Ministry of Education Labora-
tory for Earth Surface Processes, Peking University. We thank Pr.
Dr. Zhihong Cao and Miss Fang Huang for their help in sampling.
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