7.

1 The atom

7.1.1 Describe a model of the atom that features a small nucleus surrounded by electrons. Facts and figures about the atom. Diameter of a nucleus Diameter of an atom Mass of nucleus Mass of a proton Mass on an neutron Mass of an electron Charge on a proton Charge on an electron 10-15m 10-10m 10-27kg 1.6731027 kg 1.6751027 kg 9.1101031 kg -1.60x10-19C -1.60x10-19C

7.1.2 Outline the evidence that supports a nuclear model of the atom. The best evidence for the nuclear model of the atom is the Geiger-Marsden Gold leaf experiment. They fired a beam of charged particles at a single layer of gold molecules and observed what happened. According to the JJ Thomson Plum Pudding model they were expecting the charged particles to pass straight through.

They were very surprised that some of the alpha particles where deflected as they passed through the gold. From this they deduced that there the atom was made up of a small massive positively charged nucleus surrounded by space.

7.1.3 Outline one limitation of the simple model of the nuclear atom. The problem with this theory was that accelerating charges are known to lose energy. If the orbiting electrons were to lose energy they would spiral into the nucleus. The Rutherford model cannot explain to us how atoms are stable.

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7.1.4 Outline evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels. This model was developed further by Niels Bohr. He suggested that the electrons orbit the nucleus rather like a planet orbits the sun. The radius of Bohrs electrons depended on the energy they had. He also suggested that they could only move in certain orbits.

When the electrons moved from a high energy state to a lower energy state they emitted a photon of light. The frequency of the light depends on the difference between the energy levels.

hf = E1-E2 Where h f E1 E2 Planks constant (6.02 x 10-34 m2 kg s-2) Frequency of the emitted photon (Hz) Energy level before emitting photon (J) Energy level after photon has been emitted (J)

As there are a fixed number of energy levels only a few wavelengths of light are given out. This results in a line spectrum. Each individual element has distinct energy levels and therefore the emission spectra can be used to identify them.

Nuclear structure 7.1.5 Explain the terms nuclide, isotope and nucleon. Nuclide protons and neutrons that form a nucleus Isotope nuclei that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Nucleon The collective name for particles that are found in the nucleus (protons and Neutrons)
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7.1.6 Define nucleon number A, proton number Z and neutron number N. Nucleon Number, A The number of protons and neutrons that are in the nucleus. Proton Number, Z The number of protons that are in the nucleus. Neutron Number, N The number of neutrons that are in the nucleus.

7.1.7 Describe the interactions in a nucleus. According to our knowledge of electrostatics a nucleus should not be stable. Protons are positive charges so should repel each other. There must be another force in the nucleus that overcomes the electrostatic repulsion and hold the nucleus together. This force is called the strong nuclear force. Strong nuclear forces must be very strong to overcome the electrostatic forces. They must also have a very small range as they are not observed outside of the nucleus. Neutrons have some involvement in strong nuclear forces. Small nuclei have equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Larger nuclei, which are harder to hold together, have a greater ratio of neutrons to protons.

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7.2 Radioactive decay 7.2.1 Describe the phenomenon of natural radioactive decay. 7.2.2 Describe the properties of alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation. 7.2.3 Describe the ionizing properties of alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation. 7.2.4 Outline the biological effects of ionizing radiation. 7.2.5 Explain why some nuclei are stable while others are unstable. Half-life 7.2.6 State that radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and that the rate of decay decreases exponentially with time. 7.2.7 Define the term radioactive half-life. 7.2.8 Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a decay curve.

7.3 Nuclear reactions, fission and fusion Nuclear reactions 7.3.1 Describe and give an example of an artificial (induced) transmutation. 7.3.2 Construct and complete nuclear equations. 7.3.3 Define the term unified atomic mass unit. 7.3.4 Apply the Einstein massenergy equivalence relationship. 7.3.5 Define the concepts of mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon. 7.3.6 Draw and annotate a graph showing the variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per nucleon. 7.3.7 Solve problems involving mass defect and binding energy. Fission and fusion 7.3.8 Describe the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. 7.3.9 Apply the graph in 7.3.6 to account for the energy release in the processes of fission and fusion. 7.3.10 State that nuclear fusion is the main source of the Suns energy. 7.3.11 Solve problems involving fission and fusion reactions.
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