Module 1

Process instrumentation
Temperature measurement

Pressure measurement

Flow measurement

Level measurement

Temperature measurement

Importance
Most of chemical processes are temperature-
dependent.
All physical parameters are temperature-
dependent, making it
Instrumentation also can be temperature-
dependent,


Temperature definition and units

Temperature is a measure of the degree of
hotness or coldness of a material. It is expressed
in various units:
Fahrenheit (F);
Celsius (C);
Kelvin (K), and
Rankine (R).

Relationships between the various temperature units are
given below:


C = (F 32)x5/9 (1)

R = F + 459.6 (2)

K = C + 273.15 (3)

R = 9/5 K (4)

Temperature sensors
1. Thermocouples
Based on Seebecks effect

) 1 (
,
dT dE
B A
o =
Other thermoelectric effects

Peltier effect:
This effect involves the emitting or absorption of heat at the
junction of two different metals when a current flows through
the junction. It has also been found that if the direction of
current changes, the sign of the heat effect also changes. The
rate at which the heat is absorbed or emitted is proportional to
the current and the constant of proportionality depends on the
type of materials and the temperature. The rate of heat
transfer to and from the junction is given as PV, where P= the
Peltier effect in Watts per ampere and V=the Peltier emf in
volts.
Other thermoelectric effects
Thomson effect

This effect involves the absorption or liberating of heat when a
current flows through similar metals wherein a temperature
gradient exists.
The Thomson effect is reversible. This means that if the
direction of the current flow changes, the sign of the heat effect
will also change. The Thomson heat which develops in a small
portion of the conductor in a given time, is proportional to the
current flow and the temperature difference across the portion.
The constant of proportionality depends on the temperature
and the material of the conductor.
Thermoelectric laws

The law of intermediate metals
Law of intermediate temperatures
Types of thermocouples
Accuracy*** Range C
Class 2 (extension)
0.50% 50 to 1820
>800C (1 to 100)
1% 0 to 2315
>425C (0 to 870)
1% 0 to 2315
>425C (0 to 260)
-270 to 1000
E (0 to 200)
1% 0 to 2315
>425C (0 to 260)
-210 to 1200
(0 to 200)
Ni, 2%Al -270 to 1372
2%Mn (0 to 80)
1%Si
L** Fe Cu, 45%Ni 0.4% or 1.5C 0 to 900 Similar to J type. Obsolete - not for new designs
M** Ni Ni, 18%Mo 0.75% or 2.2C -50 to 1410 .
Ni, 14%Cr Ni, -270 to 1300
1.5%Si 4.5%Si (0 to 200)
0.1%Mg
P** Platinel II Platinel II 1.00% 0 to 1395
A more stable but expensive substitute for K & N
types
-50 to 1768
(0 to 50)
-50 to 1768
(0 to 50)
-270 to 400
(-60 to 100)
U** Cu Cu, 45%Ni 0.4% or 1.5C 0 to 600 Similar to T type. Obsolete - not for new designs
S Pt, 10%Rh Pt 0.25% or 1.5C Precision, high temperature
T* Cu Cu, 45%Ni 0.75% or 1.0C
Good general purpose, low temperature, tolerant
to moisture.
N* 0.75% or 2.2C
Relatively new type as a superior replacement for
K Type.
R Pt, 13%Rh Pt 0.25% or 1.5C Precision, high temperature
J Fe Cu, 45%Ni 0.75% or 2.2C High temperature, reducing environment
K* Ni, 10%Cr 0.75% or 2.2C
General purpose high temperature, oxidizing
environment
Ni, 10%Cr Cu, 45%Ni 0.5% or 1.7C General purpose, low and medium temperatures
G** W W, 26%Re Very high temperature use, brittle
C** W, 5%Re W, 26%Re Very high temperature use, brittle
D** W, 3%Re W, 25%Re Very high temperature use, brittle
Type Positive Material Negative Material Comments
B Pt, 30%Rh Pt, 6%Rh
Good at high temperatures, no reference junction
compensation required.
Thermocouple mounting

Thermocouple wire grades

There are different grades of thermocouple wire. The
principal divisions are between measurement grades and
extension grades. The measurement grade has the
highest purity and should be used where the
temperature gradient is significant. The standard
measurement grade (Class 2) is most commonly used.
Special measurement grades (Class 1) are available with
accuracy about twice the standard measurement grades.
The extension thermocouple wire grades are designed for
connecting the thermocouple to the measuring device.
Thermocouple wire gauge

8 Gauge 16 Gauge 20 Gauge 24 Gauge 28 Gauge 30 Gauge
4.06mm 1.63mm 0.91mm 0.56mm 0.38mm 0.32mm
B 1820 - - 1700 1700 -
C 2315 2315 2315 2315 2315 -
D 2315 2315 2315 2315 2000 -
E 870 620 540 430 400 370
G 2315 2315 2315 2315 2315 -
J 760 560 480 370 370 320
K 1260* 1000* 980 870 820 760
M 1260* 1200* - - - -
N 1260* 1000* 980 870 820 760
P 1395 - 1250 1250 1250 -
R 1760 - - 1480 1480 -
S 1760 - - 1480 1480 -
T 400 370 260 200 200 150
Type
Potentiometer circuit

2. Resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs)

R
t
= R
0
(1 + at + bt
2
+ ct
3
+ )
R
t
= R
0
(1 + at)
Connection of RTD to measuring instruments
(Wheatstone bridge)

Practical RTD connections
Construction of RTDs

RTD application range

Platinum Platinum Platinum Platinum Platinum Nickel
Temperature 200 to 200C 50 to 200C 100 to 260C 65 to 200C 200 to 650C 130 to 315C
Configuration 316 SS sheath 316 SS sheath Surface mount Surface mount 316 SS sheath Stainless steel;
200C, 17.2 MPa 200C, 15.2 MPa 480C - 650C other metals
Repeatability 0.05% max ice- 0.025% max ice- 0.04% max ice- 0.08% max ice- 0.26C up to Limit of error from
point resistance point resistance point resistance point resistance 480C; 0.5% (reading) 0.3C to 1.7C at
0.13C up to 650C cryogenic temperatures
Stability 0.08% max ice- 0.035% max ice- 0.05% max ice- 0.15% max ice- - -
point resistance point resistance point resistance point resistance
Time constant 8 seconds 7 seconds 1.25 seconds 2.5 seconds - -
(to reach 63.2%
of sensor response)
Immersion length 0.6 to 6 m 31, 61, 91, 122 cm - - 89 to 914 mm 89 to 914 mm
Leadwire Teflon-insulated, Teflon-insulated, 0.25-mm- Teflon-insulated, - -
nickel-coated nickel-coated diameter platinum 24 AWG standard
22-gauge standard 22-gauge standard wire copper wire
copper wire copper wire
3. Thermistors

Thermistors consist of an element of semi conductor materials
with negative temperature coefficient.
The temperature coefficient of thermistors is very high compared
to that of pure copper and platinum,
approximately 10 times. This causes thermistors to be much
more sensitive than RTDs.
The approximate relationship between resistance and
temperature applied to most thermistors is

(8)
4. Integrated circuitry (IC) sensors

The main advantages of IC sensors are their
low cost (below $10.00) along with their
linear and high output signals.
As these sensors are formed from integrated
silicon chips, their range is limited to 55 to
+150 C but easily has calibrated accuracies
to 0.050.1C.

5. Radiation pyrometers

Total radiation pyrometers:
measure the total amount of energy radiated by
a hot body in a temperature range of 03890
C
IR pyrometers:
measure the dominant wavelength radiated by
a hot body. The wavelength-temperature
relationship is that as temperature increases
the dominant wavelength of hot body radiation
gets shorter.


Exercise 1
A platinum R.T.D. transducer has resistance of 100 at 0
o
C and 138 at 100
o
C.

a. What would be its resistance 50
o
C?
b. What temperature would be represented by a resistance
of 115.2 ?
Exercise 2

The resistance of an N.T.C. thermistor is 5 k at 20
o
C and
1 k at 100
o
C. When its temperature is 60
o
C, state with
reasons whether you would expect its resistance to be:
a. 4 k
b. 3 k
c. 1.8 k
Exercise 3

A thermocouple gives an output of 40 V for each
o
C
difference in temperature between the hot and cold
junctions. State the output voltages expected for the
junction temperatures given below:

Cold Hot
a. 0
o
C 50
o
C
b. 20
o
C 70
o
C
c. 50
o
C 50
o
C
d. -20
o
C 60
o
C

Pressure measurement
MANOMETERS

Used for direct measurement. They largely serve as
standards for calibrating other pressure-measuring
instruments.

U-Tube Manometer
gh P P =
1 2
Well Manometer
gh
A
A
P P
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
1 2
1
Inclined-Tube Manometer
Reads small pressure
differentials more accurately
o sin L h =
Bell-Type Manometer
Liquid barometer
atm
P to al proportion is h
Absolute pressure manometer
McLeod Gauge (liquid manometer)
Designed for vacuum
measurement
ELASTIC-ELEMENT MECHANICAL PRESSURE
GAGES
Belows
Thin-wall metal tube with deeply
convoluted sidewalls that permit
axial expansion and contraction
Bourdon Tube
Curved or twisted tube whose transfer section differs from a
circular form
Diaphragm
Flexible disk, usually with concentric corrugations, that is used
to convert pressure to deflection
Capsule
Two diaphragms joined together on their peripheries by
soldering or welding
FORCE OR PRESSURE SENSORS,
TRANSDUCERS AND TRANSMITTERS
Strain-Gage transducers (for example resistance-type
strain gage):
A
L
p R =
L L
R R
S
/
/
A
A
=
changes ce sis R R tan Re / = A
strain L L = A /
The gage factor or strain
sensitivity is defined as:

Vibrating wire or resonant wire transducers
A thin wire is kept in tension inside the sensor. One end
of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached to a
diaphragm. As we saw earlier, the diagram moves under
the action of the pressure. As the diaphragm moves, the
tension on the wire changes and causes its resonant
vibration frequency to change.
These frequency changes are a direct consequence of
pressure changes and as such are detected and shown as
pressure.
The frequency can be sensed as digital pulses from an
electromagnetic pickup or sensing coil. An electronic
transmitter would then convert this into an electrical
signal suitable for transmission.
Capacitive transducer
The diaphragm is mounted between two capacitor plates. The
action of pressures will move the diaphragm and cause the
capacitance to change. The relative capacitance is measured
by a bridge circuit.
Optical sensors
The movement of a diaphragm due to pressure is
measured by an opaque vane mounted onto a diaphragm.
As the diaphragm moves, the opaque vane also moves in
front of an infrared light beam.
As the light is disturbed, the received light on the
measuring diode indicates the position of the diaphragm
which gives an indication of the pressure.
Flow measurement
Restriction Flow Measurement with Primary
Devices
and Differential Pressure Transmitters
Orifice plate
k
x
k
x
P
P
Q
Q
A
A
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
where
Q
X
= unknown flow
rate, that generates
pressure drop P
x
Q
K
=known flow rate
that generates a
known pressure
drop P
K

Today the orifice/differential pressure meter is still the most
widely used flowmeter technology
Venturi tube
The high-pressure
tap is installed just
at the entrance of
the venturi and the
low-pressure tap is
installed in the
center of the throat
of the venturi
Flow tube
Pitot tube and the averaging pitot tube
Some question for flowmeter selection
Do you require a meter for rate of flow or total flow?
Is local indication or a remote signal required?
If remote output is required, is it to be a proportional signal
such as 420 mA or is it to be a contact closure to stop or
start another device such as a pump or solenoid valve or even
a contact to warn of a potential hazard?
Is it a gas or a liquid at the point of measurement?
Is it a clean liquid, or is it a slurry?
Is it electrically conductive?
What is the operating temperature and the operating
pressure?
What flow rate and range of flow rates are the meter to
measure and expected to be able to withstand without
failure?;
Etc
Magnetic flow measurement
A conventional magnetic flowmeter comprises a sensor
that receives a signal from the flowing liquid and a
transmitter that converts this signal into a normalized
current or pulse per unit of volume or time.
Based on Faradays law of induction: When a
conductor moves in a magnetic field, then a voltage is
generated in this conductor

U
e
= B L v

where B = the strength of the magnetic field (induction)
L = the length of the conductor (distance of electrodes)
v = velocity of the conductor (average flow velocity)
Turbine flowmeters
Turbine flowmeters consist of a rotating device, called rotor,
that is positioned in the fluid path of a known cross-sectional
area, the body or pipe, in such a manner that the rotational
velocity of the rotor is proportional to the fluid velocity. Since
the cross-sectional area of the pipe is known, fluid velocity
can be converted directly to volumetric flow rate by counting
the number of turbine-wheel revolutions per unit of time. The
following equation relates the conversion from fluid velocity
(feet per second) to volumetric flow rate (gallons per
minute):
Q = v A C
where Q = volumetric flow rate
v = fluid velocity
A = cross-sectional area
C = constant
Oscillatory flowmeters
Vortex meters
When an object is mounted in the line of the flowing stream,
it causes eddies or whirls in the liquid and it is on this principle
that the vortex flowmeter operates
By measuring the frequency or number of whirls created, the
flow rate can be determined since the number of whirls created
increases in proportion to the rate of flow.
Several methods may be used to measure the number of whirls.
Thermal methods, ultrasonic methods or capacitive methods
may be used.
Ultrasonic flowmeters
Dopplers flowmeters
Doppler effect:
When sound waves are reflected by moving reflector, their
frequency changes. The new, resultant frequency of the sound
waves is a function of the velocity of which the reflector moves.
In order to operate the liquid must contain some small solid
particles or bubbles.
The sound waves are transmitted so as to impinge on the fluid
at a specific angle and they are then reflected by the solid
particles or bubbles in the fluid. They are then picked up by a
receiver. The new frequency, which is a function of the velocity
of the fluid and the velocity is given by the equation:
Transmissivity flowmeters
Positive displacement flowmeters
Reciprocating piston flowmeter
Sliding vane flowmeter
Rotating-vane flowmeter