An Approch To Facilitate Knolwedge Streams of Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients at The Pre-Project Stage

The University of Reading
An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams of

Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients
at the Pre-project Stage
Volume I
Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
School of Construction Management and Engineering
Ju Hyung Kim
January 2003
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement
Most of all, I would like to give thanks to Professor Norman Fisher, my supervisor, for his
patient and kind mentorship. He has planted seeds of confidence, braveness and scholarship
in the soil of my mind. In addition, his efforts to save me from financial struggles have
brought me to complete the doctoral course.
I also wish to thank the members of the doctoral committee and scholars of the department.
Professor Ranko Bon made me think again about the strategy of the research project,
concise critiques of Dr Stuart Green opened the new world of information systems and
encouragements from Dr Geoffrey Cook propelled me to consider the future, as well as the
present. Dr David Shipworth always opened his door to listen to my unsorted ideas. He is
also a perfect coordinator and colleague in lecturing at the department. Special thanks to
Mrs Ceinwen Jones for her time to proof read this thesis.
The solid foundation of my thesis was formed through invaluable advice from pundits in
the Department of Applied Statistics, University of Reading. Dr Derek Pike, the head of
school, advised a breathtaking strategy for sampling individual clients. Dr Mike Denham
guided the statistical analysis methods. Many thanks to these magicians of probability.
I would also like to thank the Bracknell Forest Council, the West Berkshire Council and the
Wokingham District Council. If they had not provided electronic database files of planning
application cases, I might still be writing down application cases by hand, even now.
Hundreds of individual clients who responded to my questionnaires also deserve
appreciation.
I am grateful to the Department for Education and Skills of the UK government for the
Overseas Research Students Awards Scheme and the University of Reading for the South
East Asian Studentship.
My parents, sisters, brother-in-law, brother and new sister-in-law in Korea have supported
this study, despite their difficulties due to the economic turmoil in the late 1990s. My aunt,
who is also my godmother and brother-in-law in heaven must be happy for the completion
of my PhD course. My mother’s sacrifice cannot be expressed in words.
An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams of Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients at the Pre-Project Stage i
ABSTRACT
Abstract
The normative models guiding the purposeful activities of the building industry client have
been presented. However, it is unknown if individual clients follow the normative pattern
of activities although they comprise eighty percent of building industry clients. In particular,
more attention needs to be paid to occasional individual clients at the pre-project stage
because in general, occasional clients show a lack of knowledge at this stage. To counteract
the lack of knowledge, theories and practices of knowledge management (KM) can provide
a logical means to support them.
The reviews of knowledge theory and KM suggest that knowledge should be approached as
streams (or flows), rather than assets to manage; people-bound aspects, such as attitude and
behaviour, should be considered with system-bound aspects and knowledge ‘Ba’ (or
context) should be focussed to facilitate knowledge streams. Given that necessary
knowledge for occasional individual clients also flows at the societal level, in order to
sustain the knowledge streams for them, two approaches to cultivate Ba are suggested:
Market-approached Ba, where the service providers maintain knowledge for marketing and
network-approached Ba, where the clients provide knowledge for maintaining reference
power. Information system (IS) can provide the infostructure, the ontological base of
knowledge streams and support epistemological knowledge streams.
In order to examine the conceptual model stated above, enquiry themes are investigated: Do
individual clients have proper attitude on their role and behaviour in seeking information to
take on their role? Can the market- and network-approached Ba be implemented? Through
real world investigation of individual clients who were selected through rigorous strata
random sampling, the feasibility of implementing the approach is validated. Analysis
results also contribute to the specification of a web-based system, the ontological part of
application. Although testing its prototype is beyond the scope of this research, when tested,
it would evaluate further the ideas developed in this thesis.
Keywords: Occasional individual building industry clients, knowledge streams, attitude

and behaviour, context
An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams of Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients at the Pre-Project Stage ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT AND THESIS 1
1.1. Background 1
1.2. Motivation of the Research Project 2
1.3. Aims and Objectives of the Research 6
1.3.1. Aims 6
1.3.2. Objectives 6
1.4. Structure of the Thesis 9
1.5. Guidance for Terms and Cross-references from Appendices 12
CHAPTER 2. PARADIGMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH 14
2.1. Introduction to the Chapter 14
2.2. Review of the Evolution of Research Paradigms and Perspectives 14
2.2.1. Introduction to the section 14
2.2.2. Definition of paradigm, perspective, approach and method 15
2.2.3. Nature of real world situations 16

2.2.4. Positivism and phenomenology: Ontology and epistemology 17
2.2.5. Positivism, post-positivism and constructivism 18
2.3. Paradigms Adopted in the Research 19
2.3.2. Constructivist approached epistemology and post-positivists

approached ontology 19
2.3.3. The meso approach 20
2.3.4. The systems approach 21
2.3.5. Balance between general theory and specific situations 22
2.3.6. From deductive to inductive approach 23
2.4. Summary of the Chapter 23
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CHAPTER 3. THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 25
3.2. Definitions and Classifications of Knowledge 25
3.2.2. Definition from epistemological views 26
3.2.3. Definitions from ontological views 27
3.2.4. Classifications of knowledge 28
3.3. Main Elements in the Theory of Knowledge and Its Applied Science Fields 29
3.3.2. Rhetoric in the theory of knowledge 29
3.3.3. Structure and representation of knowledge: Mental model 30
3.3.4. Belief, attitude and behaviour 31

3.3.5. Context 33
3.4. Units of Analysis and a Perspective to Overview Knowledge Streams 34
3.4.2. At the individual level 34

3.4.3. At the group, organisation and inter-organisation level 36
3.4.4. At the society level 37
3.4.5. Knowledge: Socially embedded act 38
3.5. Knowledge Management (KM): A managerial implication at the organisational

level 40
3.5.2. The origin of KM 40
3.5.3. The fundamentals of KM 41
3.5.4. Various perspectives on KM 41

3.5.5. KM and Information system (IS) 43
3.5.6. KM in the context of construction management 46
3.5.7. Discussion 47
3.6. Adoptable Theories and Practices from the Field of KM 48
3.6.2. Knowledge as flows 48
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3.6.3. Enabling knowledge creation: Knowledge spiral 49
3.6.4. Organisational learning 50
3.6.5. Summary of the section 52
3.7. Summary of the Chapter and Discussion 52
CHAPTER 4. BUILDING INDUSTRY CLIENTS AND KNOWLEDGE 54
4.2. The Client: Definition, classification and their performance 55
4.2.2. Various definitions of the client 55
4.2.3. Individual and institutional clients 57
4.2.4. Project performance and client performance 58
4.2.5. Discussion: Who are occasional individual clients? 60
4.3. Client’s Purposeful Activities at the Pre-Project Stage 61
4.3.2. Role and responsibilities of the client 61
4.3.3. Generic project process models and an activity library for the client 63
4.3.4. Process-based classification of clients’ activities 67
4.3.5. Supplement activities to conduct process-based activities 73
4.4. The Clients and Knowledge 76
4.4.2. Knowledge that the client is likely to have 76
4.4.3. Knowledge that the client is not likely to have 78
4.4.4. Knowledge that the client should have 79
4.5. Previous Research Dealing with the Client 81
4.5.2. Of the client 82
4.5.3. From the client 84
4.5.4. By the client 89
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CHAPTER 5. A CONCEPTUAL MODEL TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE STREAMS OF BUILDING

INDUSTRY CLIENT 96
5.2. Knowledge Streams and Relevant Elements in the Context of the Research 97
5.2.2. Definition of facilitating knowledge streams in the context of the

research 97
5.2.3. Mental model 99
5.2.4. Attitude and behaviour 100
5.2.5. Ba 102
5.3. Various Perspectives to the Ba for Knowledge Streams of the Client 104
5.3.2. Culturalists’ perspective: Community 105
5.3.3. Structuralist’s perspective: Market 108
5.3.4. Summary of the section and discussion 111
5.4. Challenging Aspects to Facilitate Knowledge Streams 112
5.4.2. Aspects derived from the nature of knowledge 112
5.4.3. Aspects derived from the characteristics of the building industry 113
5.4.4. Aspects derived from the unique status of occasional individual clients 116
5.5. An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams 117
5.5.2. Schematic model of approach to facilitate knowledge streams 118
5.5.3. Objectives of ontological parts 119
5.5.4. Procedure to facilitate knowledge streams 121

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CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH SCOPE AND METHOD 125
6.2. Research Scope and Design 126
6.2.2. Reminiscence of research aims and consideration of intervention 126
6.2.3. Subjects (unit of analysis): individual clients 130
6.2.4. Pre-intervention enquiry themes 131
6.2.5. Intervention method 134
6.2.6. Post-intervention enquiry themes 137
6.2.7. Enquiry objects 137
6.2.8. Enquiry themes and purposes 142
6.3. Enquiry Strategy and Data Collection Programme 144
6.3.2. Review of potential enquiry strategies and data collection methods 145
6.3.3. Preliminary survey 146
6.3.4. Main postal questionnaire survey 149
6.3.5. Post-intervention enquiry: Evaluation of the prototype application 150

6.4. Population and Sampling 152
6.4.2. Population and sampling for preliminary survey 152
6.4.3. Population and sampling for main survey 154
6.4.4. Population and sampling for post-intervention (evaluation) enquiry 159
CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF THE PRE-INTERVENTION ENQUIRY 160
7.2. Analysis of the Preliminary Survey 160
7.2.2. Structured interviews with individual clients and their agents 161
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7.2.3. Preliminary postal questionnaire survey 166
7.3. Main Postal Questionnaire Survey and Statistical Analysis Strategy 173
7.3.2. Modification of the questionnaire 173
7.3.3. Internal and external validity 177
7.3.4. Analysis of responses and sample 180
7.3.5. Aspects to establish a statistical analysis strategy 185
7.3.6. Statistical analysis strategy 188
7.4. Results of the Main Postal Questionnaire Survey Analysis 190
7.4.2. Generalised clients’ satisfaction level 190
7.4.3. Generalised opinions of individual clients on the importance and

difficulty of activities (attitude objects) 194
7.4.4. Generalised knowledge gap 199
7.4.5. Generalised sources to obtain information 204

7.4.6. Influences of clients’ experience and expected budget on opinions 209
7.4.7. Influences of clients’ experience and expected budget on selecting

sources to obtain information 216
7.4.8. Influences of clients’ region upon opinions and information sources 224
7.4.9. Generalised opinions of individual clients on expectation and usefulness

against sharing information with other clients 225
7.5. Interpretation of Statistical Analysis Results and Summary 226
7.5.1. Interpretation of pre-intervention enquiry in conjunction to the enquiry

themes 226

7.5.3. Limitations of the pre-intervention enquiry and analysis results 230
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE APPLICATION 233
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8.2. Ontological Part of the Application to Facilitate Knowledge Streams 233
8.2.2. From real world investigation towards specification of the application 234
8.2.3. Domain model describing the ontological part of application 235
8.3. Systems Modelling and Engineering 237
8.3.2. Deployment diagram 238
8.3.3. Use-case view 239
8.3.4. Class diagram 239
8.3.5. Systems engineering 240
8.3.6. Limitations of systems engineering 242
CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 244
9.2. Summary of the Thesis and Conclusion 245
9.2.2. Literature review: The theory of knowledge and its application (Chapter
3) and building Industry clients and knowledge (Chapter 4) 245
9.2.3. Conceptual model construction (Chapter 5) 247
9.2.4. Real world investigation (Chapter 7) 248
9.2.5. Systems Specification and Engineering (Chapter 8) 250
9.3. Main Achievements 250
9.3.1. Reminiscence of the research aims 250
9.3.2. Contribution to the general body of knowledge 251
9.4. Recommendations: Questions to consider for further research 253
REFERENCES 255
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Thesis structure 9
Figure 3.1 Three components structure of attitude (Rosenberg and Houland, 1960:
cited by Semin and Fiedler, 1996) 32
Figure 3.2 The socially embedded unit act (Lichbach and Seligman, 2000) 39
Figure 3.3 The essence of “the learning organisation” (Senge, 1990) 51
Figure 4.1 An example of process model: Project flow (HM Treasury, 1999) 64
Figure 4.2 The role of clients’ objectives (Ward et al., 1991) 71
Figure 4.3 Briefing as knowledge interaction (Partly adopted from Blyth and
Worhtington, 2001) 78
Figure 4.4 Classification of elements to implement proper IS in construction 86
Figure 5.1 Knowledge spirals and the scope of an approach to facilitate knowledge
streams 98
Figure 5.2 A schematic model of an approach to facilitate knowledge streams 118
Figure 6.1 Flow of the research 130
Figure 6.2 The relationship between case studies and studies involving representative
samples of larger populations (Black, 1999) 145
Figure 6.3 An example of the Likert scale used for the preliminary questionnaire survey
148
Figure 6.4 An example of table to investigate information or knowledge source 149
Figure 7.1 An example of Likert scale to measure opinions on importance and

difficulty against attitude object (client’s activity) 175
Figure 7.2 The framework of the statistical analysis 188
Figure 7.3 Individual clients’ satisfaction level with the project duration 191
Figure 7.4 Level of satisfaction with project duration according to the clients’
experience 193
Figure 7.5 Level of satisfaction with project cost according to the clients’ experience
193
Figure 7.6 Level of satisfaction with product quality according to the clients’
experience 193
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Figure 7.7 Level of satisfaction with project duration according to the clients’
expected budget 193
Figure 7.8 Level of satisfaction with project cost according to the clients’ expected
budget 193
Figure 7.9 Level of satisfaction with product quality according to the clients’ expected
budget 193
Figure 7.10 Radar graph illustrating the proportion of information sources to define
project 206
Figure 7.11 Radar graph illustrating the proportion of information sources for
understanding the process 207
procurement path and staffing 208
Figure 7.13 Correspondence analysis of clients’ experience-budget and combined

opinions for the attitude object ‘to clarify needs’ 213
Figure 7.14 An example representing the limitation of multiple correspondence analysis

(for information sources for ‘evaluation points’) 217
Figure 7.15 Correspondence analysis of clients’ experience-budget and sources for

information to ‘prepare evaluation points’ 221
Figure 7.16 Expected and real benefits from sharing information with other clients 225
Figure 8.1 The combination of HS and SS approach to facilitate knowledge streams

235
Figure 8.2 Domain model describing ontological part of the application 236
Figure 8.3 A deployment diagram describing hardware connection to implement

ontological parts of the application 238
Figure 8.4 Use case of the ontological part of application to facilitate knowledge
streams 239
Figure 8.5 A class diagram of the application 240
Figure 8.6 Rapid prototype serving as specification (Schach, 1993) 241
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 A comparison of mental models 31
Table 3.2 Experience and skills for problem solving (Waterhouse et al., 1995) 35
Table 3.3 Two contrasting views of the KM process (Scarbrough et al., 1999) 42
Table 3.4 KM perspectives (extracted from: Markus 2000) 42
Table 4.1 Classification of stakeholders (extracted from Body Shop, 1997: noted by
McIntosh et al., 1998) 57
Table 4.2 A comparison of the client’s responsibilities in literature 62
Table 4.3 Cultural difference: comparison of providers’ and users’ attitudes and
beliefs with respect to facilities (Kernohan et al., 1992) 77
Table 5.1 Dominant Ba for socialisation and combination defined from various
perspectives 104
Table 6.1 Available research design and sample 134
Table 6.2 Comparison of three enquiry purposes (Robson ,1993) 143
Table 6.3. Summary of enquiry themes, objects, purpose and available strategies 144
Table 6.4 Strategies and data collection programme of the research 151
Table 6.5 An example of application cases 153
Table 6.6 Criteria for stratifying 156
Table 6.7 An example of classified data field for strata random sampling 157
Table 6.8 Sub population for main postal questionnaire survey 157
Table 7.1 Initial attitude objects 165
Table 7.2 Comparison of means of opinions against attitude objects 167
Table 7.3 Sources to obtain information 169
Table 7.4 Modified information sources(s) 175
Table 7.5 Population and responses 181
Table 7.6 Analysis of responses after excluding unreliable and unrepresentative

responses 181
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Table 7.7 Frequencies of subjects in the clients’ region by experience matrix 182
Table 7.8 Frequencies of subjects in the clients’ region and expected budget matrix
183
Table 7.9 Unequal number of sub-groups classified by the combined independent

variables in accordance to their region 184
Table 7.10 Variables and their types 186
Table 7.11 Individual clients’ opinions on the importance against attitude objects 194
Table 7.12 Proportion of importance opinions states against attitude objects 196
Table 7.13 Individual clients’ opinions on the difficulty against attitude objects 197
Table 7.14 Proportion of opinion states on difficulty against attitude objects 198
Table 7.15 Classification of combined opinions its quantification 200
Table 7.16 Simplified categories of clients’ opinions 201
Table 7.17 Sums of ranks for positive and negative differences (based on 7 difference
categories) 203
Table 7.18 Observed frequency of sources to obtain information 204
Table 7.19 Grouping categories of combined clients experience-expected budget

and opinions 211
Table 7.20 Summary of findings from correspondence analysis on experience-

expected budget and opinions 215
Table 7.21 Examples of abbreviated keys for information source(s) 219
Table 7.22 The unique features found from correspondence analysis for experience-
expected budget and dominant information sources 223
Table 8.1 Files consisting the application 242
Table 9.1 Initial enquiry themes and findings 248
An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams of Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients at the Pre-Project Stage xiii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT AND THESIS
1.1. Background
Without doubt, the role of the client is crucial to the success of any construction project
(Bennett, 1985). The strategic choices made by clients, in terms of how they organise and
manage their projects, have a major impact upon the project sequence and results (Bresnen
and Haslam, 1991).
A series of reports (Latham, 1994; Egan, 1998) have increased emphasis on the
significance of the client’s role in improving productivity in the construction industry.
These reports suggest that client performance throughout the entire project process should
be enhanced, not neglecting the need for better performance from other parties in the
industry. However, this suggestion is not new and is also found in other literature (see
Higgin and Jessop, 1965; O’Reilly, 1987; Salisbury 1990). In common, they recommend
the active involvement of clients throughout the life cycle of a project, especially in the
earlier phase, in order to clarify their needs properly and identify the project towards
obtaining the best value for money.
Conducting various briefing processes has been recommended to identify project objectives
in line with the strategy and requirements of the client’s own organisation (Kelly and Male,
1995; Blyth and Worthington, 2002: see Appendix 9 for further explanations on brief and
briefing). The earlier briefs (i.e. Client brief and strategic briefs) that are made at the pre-
project phase are more significant for project success, if the project fulfils the client’s
requirements. Suggestions also recommend the following guidelines during the pre-project
phase: Establishment of their role in the project (Baden Hellard, 1992) and acquisition of
information on potential service providers (e.g. external project sponsors, architects,
quantity surveyors, builders, etc), prior to initial external contact (Goodacre et al., 1982).
As earlier decisions made by the client (i.e. Project owner) are important, advisors who are
independent of the further procurement path can be involved to support the lack of the
client’s knowledge (Walker, 1996; HM Treasury 1999). Given that the recommendations
pertain to all clients, irrespective of their experience and what their budget will allow,
An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams of Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients at the Pre-Project Stage 1
occasional clients are likely to feel difficulties in the earliest project phase, as they may not
even realise the availability of consulting.
A first challenge is that suggestions, based on the purposeful path of projects, assume that
clients may have knowledge to get into the proper sequences. However, this normative
model could be controversial in many cases, given the varying background of clients. In
other words, the initial level of clients’ knowledge varies and thus, the sequence of their
actions could deviate from the normative model from the beginning.
The relations between the possession of knowledge and the performance of the client have
been mentioned (CCF, 2000). In general, regular building industry clients are well
informed, know what they want and take decisive steps to achieve it. Furthermore, they
have launched a steering group to assert their interests in the construction industry (see
CCF, 2000) and possess the capacity to manage projects with in-house expertise (see HM
Treasury, 1999). In contrast, occasional clients are often at the mercy of the conservative
construction process (Higgin and Jessop, 1965; O’Reilly, 1987; Salisbury, 1990; Fisher et
al., 1997). CCF (2000) observed that: “Occasional clients rarely obtain independent advice,
find it difficult to formulate their requirements and need much more time to consider their
objectives/business case and commercial options before commitment.”
1.2. Motivation of the Research Project
Currently, the major occasional clients are the players in the spotlight, as projects launched
by this client group have been said to have more room to enhance productivity. In contrast,
occasional individual clients have attracted little attention. This could be because the value
of their projects is relatively smaller in the marketplace.
There are plentiful research results addressing clients’ needs, attitude and behaviour (see
Section 4.5.2). In addition, applications to support clients have been developed (see Section
4.5.4). However, their research subjects are mainly major regular institutional clients.
Woodhead (1999) presented an explanation for this trend:
In order to move towards best practice it was decided that only experienced clients of
the construction industry should be considered, as they were more likely to have
developed methods to manage the decision to build process, rather than to be
learning from mistakes, as they are developing systematic approaches.
It is certainly true that the research approach adopted by Woodhead (1999) has contributed
to extracting the best practices from experienced clients and has generated a normative
model for the client. Nevertheless, several questions arise: How can these results be applied
to other client groups who have different background in terms of experience? Is this
approach (focusing on a specific group of clients from the outset) suitable to generalise the
current situation for other client groups? More aspects remain to be considered further
throughout this research project.
According to a second data analysis of planning application cases filed to two councils in
southern England (see Appendix 14.2), individual clients comprise around eighty percent of
clients in the building industry, in number. Whatever the reasons are, this client group has
been largely ignored in related research (see Section 4.5). As mentioned, this neglect might
be derived from having relatively smaller expenditures in the marketplace.
However, it has also been caused from the convenience of researchers. Simply put, it is not
easy to access ‘individual’ clients. Given that this client group is the main customer of
small- and medium-sized service providers in the building industry (it is believed that
ninety-five percent of business in the industry, in number, belongs to this range: see Frank,
1990), there is sufficient reason to focus on this client group. Thus far, only a few aspects
(in reality, almost nothing) relevant to occasional individual clients have been known,
although they may have suffered most severely from lack of knowledge. Once more, one of
the reasons for neglecting this client sub-group might be inaccessibility to the research
subject. Sampling ‘occasional individual’ clients seems to be more difficult than sampling
individual clients.
Although the current situation in which this client group has obtained knowledge has not
been investigated by means of a scientific method (see Appendix 2 for the explanation of
scientific methods), their behaviour on acquiring knowledge has been revealed sporadically
as the by-product of relevant research. For instance, it has been observed that the occasional
clients depend on acquaintances (e.g. relatives, friends and people in the same business
field) to obtain necessary information (Barrett and Stanely, 1999).
This thesis is the result of a research project, inspired by a blossoming field relevant to
knowledge, called knowledge management (KM). Theories and practices of KM seem to
provide a logical means for supporting occasional individual clients in acquiring knowledge
to conduct purposeful activities in the pre-project phase, during which the most significant
decisions are made. However, in order to introduce these theories into developing an
application to support the specific client group, some aspects of applicability should be
considered. Here, some arguments are given briefly.
Firstly, KM is rooted in managerial strategic thinking at the organisational level. KM is

about the management of intellectual capital controlled by a company (Mårtensson, 2000)
and it can be broadly defined as “encompassing any processes and practices concerned with
the creation, acquisition, capture, sharing and use of knowledge, skills and expertise”
(Quintas et al., 1997). It is widely agreed that intellectual capital is a critical resource,
enabling organisations to yield competent performance in the marketplace (Quintas et al.,
1997). Is the context, relevant to occasional individual clients, similar to that in the field of
management?
Secondly, even within the field of KM, various perspectives on the nature of knowledge
exist. For instance, Takeuchi and Nonaka (1995) argued that knowledge cannot be managed,
but created. From their perspective, KM is an alternative term (or a disguise term) for
information systems (IS, see Appendix 4 for further explanation). More arguments in the
field are given in the latter part of this section. For this reason, cautious reviews are
required on more fundamental theory of knowledge that has been developed in mature
fields of science (e.g. Philosophy of science, psychology, etc.), as well as applied theories
and practices in the young practical field (e.g. IS, KM, etc.).
Until recently, knowledge has been treated as resources to support professional

practitioners in the field of construction management. Most of all, knowledge-based
engineering aims to capture and reuse knowledge, focusing on the product, and to design
and build it from a professional practitioner’s perspective. However, a new approach has
been introduced to manage knowledge in a professional service provider’s organisation (e.g.
HQ or inter-project organisations). The main concern of this research trend is to show how
knowledge can be allocated to enhance the competency of professional firms. In this
research, KM is addressed as a method to bring the innovation of professional organisations
to the construction industry (e.g. Winch and Schneider, 1993; Egbu et al., 1999). This trend
can be distinguished from conventional knowledge-based engineering, which mainly treats
products and technical processes, rather than organisational (or managerial) aspects.
Given that this new trend has not been applied to support clients, a greater need arises for
research to deal with the client from the perspective of knowledge theory. KM itself is a
young field, which was initially introduced into construction management (in both
academia and the building industry at the organisational level). Research treating the client
from KM perspectives has not yet been presented. For instance, among a dozen of papers
dealing with KM presented in ARCOM 2001, only one paper by Kim and Fisher (2001)
offered KM as a means for supporting the client. The main argument raised in the paper is
that KM itself is not a suitable term in the context of occasional clients, as theories and
methods for supporting this client group should be able to cope with its unique context;
system-bound aspects cannot be cultivated, as in an organisation.
Knowledge should be approached as streams (or flows) and it is not verified that theories
and practices in the field of KM are suitable in the context of this research project. For this
reason, the term ‘to facilitate knowledge streams’ is used hereafter. This alternative term
can also help to avoid limiting adoptable theories and methods to those of KM.
Two main components of research, the subject and theoretical background, are clarified
briefly thus far. The next step is to identify the research object. Almost all research dealing
with the client (see Section 4.5 for reviews of these research) have focussed on needs of
clients from service provider’s perspective and thus, the client has mainly been regarded as
the customer in the marketplace. For this reason, researchers are keen on analysing what
they want from products. Recently, the background of decisions made by clients and
relevant processes have been investigated. The problems felt by the client in the real world
situation could be wider than the analysed needs or requirements identified by researchers.
As an attempt to dispute conventional research themes, research objects will be refined

from scratch, through reviewing literature and developing a conceptual model by which
current knowledge streams can be investigated and explained.
1.3. Aims and Objectives of the Research
1.3.1. Aims
In accordance to the discussion thus far, this research project has two aims:
To contribute theoretically towards a clarification of issues relevant to knowledge and

building industry clients – in general and specifically to occasional individual clients.
To present an approach to facilitate knowledge streams of occasional individual

clients, with the purpose of enabling them to acquire any necessary knowledge at the
pre-project stage, based on a rigorous investigation into the current situation.
1.3.2. Objectives
In order to achieve the aims, the research project has the following objectives:
1. To obtain insight into the theory of knowledge and its applications
This objective is engaged in the following order: (1) To understand the fundamentals of the
theory of knowledge with regard to practicability; and (2) To study theories and practices in
the field of KM and to identify those that can be introduced in developing an approach to
facilitate knowledge streams of building industry clients.
By only studying KM, the theoretical background of KM can be overlooked, as KM is the

result of applying the theory of knowledge into the field of administrative science (or
management science). Attempts to explore the roots of KM are outside the scope of this
research, as the focus is to develop applications and contribute to developing a unique
conceptual model suitable in a specific context.
2. To clarify the main issues concerning knowledge streams of building industry

clients
Given that the context of the building industry is unique, a process to filter adoptable
theories and practices from other fields (i.e. Theory of knowledge and KM) is necessary.
To this end, the unique characteristics of building projects, the building industry and
building industry clients should also be understood. Based on insights on knowledge

streams formed by achieving Objective 1 and understanding aspects of building projects,
any potential issues in the context of the research (e.g. Subjects, objects, interests, concerns,
challenges, etc.) are defined.
3. To construct a conceptual model to facilitate knowledge streams of building

industry clients at the pre-project stage
The conceptual model is a framework consisting of the main issues, clarified by achieving
Objective 2 and based on suggestions on the proper direction, relevant to the main issues
(i.e. The Ideal model). The conceptual model aims to give insights for future ideas, as well
as to present a framework to analyse current situations. The framework is subsequently
used to investigate current situations, from which gaps between the ideal and the real world
can be analysed.
By exploring the current situation as it is, needs for improving situations can be noticed.
Although the current situations should be analysed with an unbiased manner, it does not
mean that future viewpoints should be abandoned. Rather, it means that ideal situations can
be merged with developing research instruments to investigate the current situation, but the
influences of research preferences upon subjects, phenomena and analysis results should be
minimised.
4. To investigate aspects of current knowledge streams of individual clients
Since it is not known if the characteristics of knowledge streams for occasional individual
clients are different from those of individual clients, the report also investigates one higher
level of unit in the hierarchy, individual clients (including occasional individual clients).
However, this stage has several challenges due to the absence of research instruments and
findings that can be used as references. According to worldwide literature reviews, with
one exception (Kim and Fisher, 2001), no research has treated individual clients from the
perspective of knowledge streams. For this reason, at this stage, more time and effort are
given to develop research instruments through sampling subjects of the research (i.e.
Individual clients and occasional individual clients) and investigation methods (e.g.
questionnaires), considering the unique status of individual clients.
5. To specify an ontological system to facilitate knowledge streams
Knowledge is created. However, facilitators can only aid clients in creating knowledge, not
create knowledge for them. Whatever attempts are made by facilitators, it is just an external
stimulus from the clients’ viewpoint. For this reason, facilitation is the ontological part of
knowledge streams.
The domain model of the ontological system is like a master plan for tangible and planned
parts of knowledge streams. This is designed by reflecting findings from the investigation
into the current situation.
6. To develop and evaluate a prototype ontological system to facilitate knowledge

streams
The domain model of an ontological system can be validated internally: If the investigation
process of the current situation has scientific robustness and the findings are reflected in
developing the domain model, the validity of the domain model can be obtained logically.
Note that scientific proof, needed to validate the conceptual model and verify technical
aspects of the ontological system through empirical study, can enhance the rigorousness of
the research result.
One method of testing the conceptual model is to develop a prototype system and collect
reviews from people who use it. Evaluations can be performed two-fold by measuring: (1)
If the domain model reflects the real world situation properly (i.e. Validation of the
conceptual model) and (2) If the ontological system is developed properly (i.e. Technical
practicability).
7. To present findings and recommendations for further research
The empirical study can only focus on a few aspects of all the concepts defined in the
research project. However, the strengths of the research approach are transferable and can
be introduced in other research and setbacks or limitations can be regarded and overcome in
further research.
1.4. Structure of the Thesis
Chapter 1 Introduction to
the research
Theoretical Framework Design
Research General review of philosophy Adopted research paradigms

Chapter 2 paradigms and affecting research paradigms and perspectives into the
perspectives and perspectives (p.14) research (p.19)
Chapter 3 Knowledge theory Definition of Main elements of knowledge Applied theory

knowledge theory of knowledge
and implications (p.25) (p.29) (p.40)
Client types, Applying knowledge

Clients and Review of research
Chapter 4 roles and theory to clients at the dealing with the client
knowledge responsibilities pre-project stage
(p.81)
(p.55) (p.76)
Conceptual Model Construction
Synthesizing reviews of Perspectives to Approach to

Chapter 5 Conceptual theory of knowledge and analyse facilitate
models the client knowledge knowledge
(p.96) streams (p.103) streams (p.116)
Research Framework Design
Research scope Data collection Population and

Chapter 6 Research method and design programme Sampling
(p.125) (p.143) (p.151)
Empirical Study and Analysis Results
Pre-intervention Findings from Results for analysing

Chapter 7 Development of pre-intervention
enquiry and preliminary survey enquiry instruments enquiry data
analysis (p.159) (p.172) (p.189)
Development
Application system
Chapter 8 and preliminary specification
Models for systems engineering
evaluation of an (p.233)
(p.237)
prototype system
Findings and Legend

Chapter 9 areas of future
research Thesis Main
Chapter contents of Key factors
or output
the chapter
Figure 1.1 Thesis structure
The thesis consists of nine chapters, which can be grouped into six parts in accordance with
their role in the scientific research framework (see Appendix 2 for explanations of science
and scientific research). The parts are as follows:
Part 1: Introduction (Chapter 1)
Part 2: Theoretical framework (Chapters 2, 3 and 4)
Part 3: Conceptual model (Chapter 5)
Part 4: Research framework (Chapter 6)
Part 5: Empirical study and analysis (Chapters 7 and 8)
Part 6: Conclusion (Chapter 9)
Figure 1.1 illustrates the structure of the chapters, their objectives and their main contents
in accordance to the parts categorised above.
Chapter One: Introduction to the research project and thesis

This chapter discusses intuitively why occasional individual clients should be dealt with
and introduces a means for supporting them to overcome problem situations, based on
knowledge streams, rather than KM. Aims and objectives of the research project are
extracted from discussions. As an introduction to the thesis, the structure of the thesis and
summarised contents of each chapter are given.
Chapter Two: Paradigms and perspectives of the research

This chapter presents a simplified overview of general paradigms and perspectives
influencing the evolution of scientific research trends. It stresses that paradigms and
perspectives would influence not only research strategies, but also data collection methods.
Based on the review, paradigms are selected for this research project
Chapter Three: Theory of knowledge and its applications

This chapter gives the fundamentals of knowledge itself: Definitions from various
perspectives and its classifications. The reviews on the theory of knowledge follow. As a
result, essential elements of knowledge creation are defined, which will then be used to
review any applied fields from the theory of knowledge. Various theories and practices in
the field of KM, which are adoptable in this research project, are overviewed.
Chapter Four: Building industry clients and knowledge

This chapter summarises the general status of clients, consisting of their role, responsibility
and key activities that they are recommended to take. In order to refine key activities,
various generic process models are compared and synthesised to present an activity library
for the client side. In line with purposeful activities, what the client should know is clarified.
By reviewing previous research dealing with the client, some aspects that should be
considered in this research project are extracted.
Chapter Five: A conceptual model to facilitate knowledge streams

This chapter shows the construction of the conceptual model by synthesising the results
given in Chapter 3 (Domain of knowledge theory and its applications) and Chapter 4
(Studied natures of the building industry clients from knowledge theory). The conceptual
model has three uses in this research project to present: (1) Themes that would be revealed
through empirical study; (2) Descriptions of ideal situations corresponding to defined
themes; and (3) A strategy to implement it.
Chapter Six: Research method

This chapter outlines the research method. In fact, the term ‘enquiry methods’ is more
appropriate, since the research project had already commenced from initial literature
reviews. For this reason, the research methodology, which aims to compare various
research methods, is presented in Appendices 10 and 11. It also helps to give a clear,
comprehensible presentation of the enquiry process: Enquiry themes (i.e. Questions that
would be answered), the unit of analysis (i.e. Subject), the targets that would be
investigated (i.e. Objects or aspects that would be revealed in detail), research design (i.e.
Framework) and data collection programme, including sampling method, are established.
Chapter Seven: Analysis of the pre-intervention enquiry

This chapter presents the results of analysed current situations in terms of themes that are
defined, refined and unknown, throughout reviewing literature and developing the
conceptual model. The term ‘pre-intervention’ indicates the direction of the enquiry. An
attempt is made to investigate a situation as close to the real world as possible, while
minimising the influence of the researcher on subjects and objects of the research.
Chapter Eight: Development and evaluation of an ontological prototype

application
This chapter explains the background and process to develop an application. The domain
model of the application is specified, based on the conceptual model that is refined and
modified by reflecting findings from the pre-intervention enquiry. A part of the application
is implemented as the prototype and its evaluation would be conducted to validate the
conceptual model. The main concept is to facilitate knowledge streams by connecting
clients, rather than providing information. The evaluation focuses on whether network-
approached knowledge streams can be implemented technically in a client-friendly way.
Chapter Nine: Conclusion and recommendation

This chapter summarises the findings uncovered throughout the research project.
Suggestions are made for future work on this research project and for researchers who wish
to investigate building industry clients. Main achievements and limitations are discussed in
regards to the theoretical framework, conceptual model, research methods and
implementation of the concept.
1.5. Guidance for Terms and Cross-references from Appendices
The term ‘occasional’

There is no authorised definition for ‘occasional’ clients. Occasional clients could be those
who are not in the business of generating profits from building projects or whose
expenditure is sporadic in the marketplace. Although the classification of clients requires
cautious criteria (see Appendix 6), this research project temporarily defines the term
‘occasional’ clients as those who have not ordered a building project in the last five years.
This definition could be modified, if the analysis of the empirical study reveals
controversial aspects about the definition.
The term ‘building industry’

The use of the terms, ‘building’ and ‘construction’ can cause confusion. The building
industry client is likely to inherit several characteristics from the construction industry
client. However, given that potential types of projects, which can be ordered by individual
clients, are limited to building projects (in general), the term ‘building’ seems appropriate.
In some cases, the term construction is used, if it is used in referenced literature.
The term ‘client’

One of the difficulties in writing this thesis is to select appropriate terms to denote the client.
This thesis mainly uses the term, ‘a client’, ‘the client’, ‘the clients’, ‘individual clients’ and
‘occasional individual clients’. However, in the literature review, which aims to study the
general theory, the term ‘the client’ is mainly used. In this section, ‘the client’ refers to their
general role in building projects. Once specific situations are considered, the term
‘individual clients’ is used until the unique characteristics are revealed of ‘occasional
individual clients’, to distinguish them from other sub-groups of individual clients.
The term ‘knowledge streams’

The term ‘knowledge streams’ may be unfamiliar to many readers. This term is already
introduced in Section 1.2 as an alternative to KM. However, this term encompasses deeper
concepts that can only be appreciated after an understanding of the theory of knowledge is
reached. It will be explained in Sections 3.6.2 and 5.2.2.
Cross-references from appendices

In order to maintain a clear flow of main explanations and discussions, supplementary
discussions, complicated equations, tables and graphs are presented in appendices (see
Volume II). When needs arise, these are referred. The character, ‘A’ indicates cross-
references from appendices. For instance, ‘Table A.’ means a table from the appendices.
Page numbers follow the same rule, e.g. p A-1 means page 1 in Volume II (Appendices).
CHAPTER 2. PARADIGMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
2.1. Introduction to the Chapter
The challenge of the research project is to tackle the reasonably well-defined problem, that
some clients show a lack of knowledge, with a new paradigm based on the theory of
knowledge and one of its applications – KM. This challenge requires a solid theoretical
framework because the subject (i.e. Occasional individual clients) has never been explored
from the perspective that KM can be introduced to support this client group. In a research
project that does not have similar processors, the researcher can easily rush into theories or
practices that s/he wishes to adopt. This problem may continue in selecting research
strategies, as the researcher may select the research methods for convenience, rather than
based on scientific rationale.
What can prevent researchers from being misled and trapped into convenient behaviour? It
seems a matter of paradigms and perspectives of the researchers in the way real world
situations can be approached and analysed. Denzin and Lincoln (2000) suggested that
general research paradigms and perspectives should be reviewed before establishing
enquiry (or inquiry or research) strategies.
In this chapter, general paradigms and perspectives from the field of research methodology
are reviewed in accordance with trends in the philosophy of science. After this review,
adopted paradigms and established perspectives for the research project will be explained.
2.2. Review of the Evolution of Research Paradigms and Perspectives
2.2.1. Introduction to the section
This section briefly outlines philosophical notions that have generated the evolution of
research paradigms. Definitions for relevant terms used in the field of research
methodology are given in Section 2.2.2. General paradigms and perspectives in science and
scientific research are reviewed in Section 2.2.3.
2.2.2. Definition of paradigm, perspective, approach and method
A paradigm is a set of basic beliefs. It presents a view within which the nature of the
‘world’ is defined (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). Hence, a paradigm develops a further means
of ‘how’ the world can be understood. Perspectives are a way of thinking about something.
Unlike paradigms, it can be formulated temporarily and can thus, be changed over time
(Guba and Lincoln, 1994).
It is not easy to extract paradigms and perspectives from other researchers’ work. Although
it may be unnecessary to try to detach them from the context of other research,
understanding them can present various benefits. For instance, they can be used as the
highest level of criteria to classify research trends in the field. Thoroughly comprehended
research trends can prevent researchers from repeating previous work, which are identical
at the fundamental level. In addition, they can indicate where research is headed in the field.
Paradigms and perspectives are ‘insights’ that may rarely be abstracted externally, whereas
an approach is “a way of going about tackling a problem” (Checkland, 1981) and is thus,
more tangible than paradigms and perspectives. Checkland (1981) also offered definitions
of methodology and technique, by comparing the two:
A methodology will lack the precision of a technique (that tells you ‘how’) but will be a
firmer guide to action than a philosophy (that tells you ‘what’)… A technique is a
precise specific programme of action, which will produce a standard result.
He later addressed the term ‘method’ (Checkland and Holwell, 1998), conveying that it:
Originally meant the path of a person pursuing another, then came to mean generally
a path, then a way of doing something, and later expert behaviour in formulating
one’s thoughts
In short, an approach is a strategy employed to tackle a problem situation, but it is not as

precise as exercising a technique. A method is a specific way (or path) to do something and
can include various techniques.
Why is it important to clarify the definition for paradigms, perspectives, approach, methods
and techniques? Given that all of them have a common role in the research – to tackle
problem situations – a properly constructed framework, according to hierarchy, can make
it easier to analyse problem situations. What, then, are problem situations and why is a
complicated hierarchy required to deal with them? To answer these questions, the nature of
real world situations needs to be discussed.
2.2.3. Nature of real world situations
A fundamental characteristic of real world situations is ‘complexity’ (Bertalanffy, 1968).

Hence, it should be regarded as part of the real world, rather than noise causing problems
for researchers (Morin, 1992). Morin (1992) argued that since complexity is the very
essence of the real world, it should not be eliminated by explanations in scientific research.
A working definition of complexity can be drawn from a comparison with other aspects of
real world situations. A potential disguise of complexity to observers (or researchers) is
variety. Variety and complexity, at a certain point, are related (i.e. Variety can add the
extent of complexity) but the former can be tackled more sassily than the latter. Variety
means that, at least, the whole situation can be grasped by a (hierarchical) structure, while
individual sub-situations have various orders.
An essential point that can be found here is that one can cope with variety when enough
information is given for the situation. On the contrary, complexity can scarcely be tackled
even with enough information and it is difficult to formulate its overall behaviour
(Edmonds, 1995). It is also important to mention that uncertainty (or indeterminism),
instability (or randomness), uniqueness and value conflicts (or contradictions) are also
discussed as characteristics of real world situations (Schön, 1983; Morin, 1992).
The complexity of real world situations is the first subject of consideration for researchers,
who aim to study real world situations. Wheatley (1992) offered an approach to tackle
complexity. He insists that complex real world situations should be understood as a whole,
rather than in detail, to develop a method to analyse and manage real world situations.
Then, what is the fundamental part of various approaches to deal with complexity? To
address this question, a brief review of philosophy, particularly pragmatism and its branch
notions, is required because pragmatism assumes that real world situations can be tackled,
despite complexity.
2.2.4. Positivism and phenomenology: Ontology and epistemology
In this section, two perspectives dominant in the philosophy of science, ontology and
epistemology, are briefly reviewed. Both philosophical perspectives are based on pragmatic
views against real world situations and they share a common belief that real world
situations can be explained.
From the ontological perspective, it is believed that real world situations can be expressed
as a theory, concept, etc., which can be verified by means of empirical experiments
(Hassard, 1993: see Appendix 2.4 for further explanations).
Regarding the observation and expression of real world situations, positivism imparts two
meaningful classifications of real world objects or phenomena: Observational and theory-
laden contents. According to Schön (1983), despite positivists’ efforts to explain and justify
sophisticated scientific knowledge, there are certain objects that require sensory experience
(called theory-laden statements) to deal with irreducible elements existing inside them.
However, theory-laden statements cannot be free from the effects of human perspectives.
For this reason, Bertalanffy (1968) called theory-laden statements the ‘epistemology of
logical positivism’.
Since it was established that human perspective could affect both the observation process
and the analysis of the observed situation, it has been agreed that there is no absolute
concept or theory that is free from human perspectives (Anshen, 1959). According to him,
using the absoluteness of ontology as a notion to postulate scientific theory has been
challenged. Since then, there have been attempts to find out the relationship between
observers (or knower) and objects (or phenomena). This philosophical perspective is called
‘phenomenology’. Silverman (1997) explained that:
Phenomenology offers a full-scale attempt to understand the self-world relation. To the

extent that language is inserted within this self-world relation, it is almost as an
afterthought. The fundamental relation is epistemological: How the world can be
experienced, known, consciousness, interpretation, and perception are the principal
modes according to which the self-world relation is elaborated.
The main concern of phenomenology is the ‘self-world’ relation and the real world enquiry
process into which it is embraced is called ‘epistemology’. Ontology and epistemology are
not contradictable perspectives, but form an essential part of scientific theories and methods
through interaction. Even though ontologists accept that absolute realities do not exist, they
can probably be true in specific situations (Guba and Lincoln, 1994: see Appendix 2.4 for
further explanations).
2.2.5. Positivism, post-positivism and constructivism
Earlier positivists believed that absolute reality is assumed to exist and therefore immutable
natural laws and mechanisms could be observed and expressed from ontological
perspectives. Although epistemologists recognised the influence of ‘self-world’ relations on
observations, they regarded the investigator and the investigated ‘object’ as independent
entities, by reducing or eliminating the interaction between them (Guba and Lincoln, 1994).
However, this early positivist approach was challenged. Scientifically acquired and tested
knowledge, regardless of how sophisticated methods and techniques are used, is the best
contemporary description of reality that we possess (Checkland, 1981). For this reason,
there are several arguments about whether the expression of knowledge could contribute to
fulfil the interests of real world situations (Bertalanffy, 1968).
Although the objective of science is to present the general body of knowledge, it does not
mean that knowledge can be applied to all situations. It is important that both the
speculation of ‘specific situations’ and the establishment of knowledge (e.g. ‘Generalised’
principle, theory, statements, etc.) can withstand serious tests (Rigby, 1965). However,
generalisation should not be thought of as true of false, but it is important whether it can be
applied or not to various circumstances (Rigby, 1965). Morin (1992) supported this idea
and further suggested that scientists attempting to deal with the interface between specific,
unique facts and general, abstract statements must integrate the use of measurement,
description and interpretation.
Due to the uniqueness of each context and considering that observers are influenced in their
understanding of real world situations by their human perspective, the constructivist
believes that one must interpret it to understand this world of meaning. The inquirer must
elucidate the construing meaning and clarify what and how meanings are embodied in the
language and actions of social actors (Schwandt, 1994). Simply opposing the traditional
positivists’ approach, what is real is the construction in the minds of the individuals, not the
verified results through experimentation. Schwandt (1994) explained that:
The findings or outcomes of an inquiry are themselves a literal creation or construction

of the inquiry process. Constructions, in turn, are resident in the minds of individuals:
They do not exist outside of the persons who create and hold them; they are not part
of some ‘objective’ world that exists apart from their constructors.
As constructivism has evolved, researchers have tried to synchronise the construction of

perception with subjects. Eagerness of researchers to involve in real world situations gave
birth to participatory research (see Appendix 2.4 for further explanations of participatory
paradigms and Section 6.2.5 for discussions on participatory research strategy).
2.3. Paradigms Adopted in the Research
This section discusses the paradigms adopted in the research. Given that problem situations
in the context of this research are not investigated, selecting paradigms seems unreasonable.
However, the paradigms can be transferable, inter-disciplines can reduce trial-and-error in
developing the theoretical framework. Furthermore, perspectives formed properly
according to well-understood paradigms can contribute to establish an approach to analyse
complex real world situations. In this section, paradigms adopted for the research are given
at the general level.
2.3.2. Constructivist approached epistemology and post-positivists

approached ontology
The early part of the research project will be conducted from principles of constructivist-
approached epistemology. Although clients may have their own perspectives to
commission building projects, as literature reviews are undertaken, the author’s
perspectives would be fixed into the normative model describing what the client ought to
do. However, clients in real world situations may think and act differently from this
normative model for whatever reason. Hence, problem situations can vary as much as the
clients’ perspectives. The clients’ perspectives may form their rationale, whereas the
author’s perspectives would influence the interpretation of their rationale. Hence, in order
to describe real world situations (including the clients’ insights) in as real a way as possible,
the conceptual model should be constructed by considering clients’ perspectives and
employed methods should extract them as true as possible (see Appendix 2.4 for further
explanations of constructivists approached epistemology).
A later part of the research will be conducted from principles of post-positivists approached
ontology. If it is possible to practically develop a solution to tackle identified problem
situations, applying this solution into the situation cannot be avoided. This intervention can
be a kind of experiment against subjects in a real world situation or in a laboratory. Here,
the aim of the experiment is to non-falsify the presented conceptual model, rather than
verify or test it like laboratory experiments in the field of natural science. However, this
research does not attempt to non-falsify the conceptual model in general. Instead, it will
attempt to reveal the truth in a specific situation (in a certain time, region and for specific
clients). The perspective behind this process is post-positivists approached ontology (see
Appendix 2.4 for further explanations of post-positivists approached ontology).
2.3.3. The meso approach
Lichbach and Seligman (2000) provided a paradigm from which socially embedded acts
could be analysed. Socially embedded acts result from impacts made by the social
environment around the actors. Simultaneously, they shape beliefs, feelings and desires;
actions are based on these. This complex situation cannot be analysed by simply focusing
on a single unit of analysis (e.g. individuals or groups). For this reason, broad approaches to
overview all levels of units are required. Lichbach and Seligman (2000) explained social
order, as:
The interrelationship of three aspects of micro-individual, meso- (group and

institutional), and macro-(societal) levels of analysis. [Lichbach and Seligman, 2000]
Rousseau and House (1994) emphasised the meso approach. The meso approach, used in
this context, integrates the micro- and macro- theories in the study of processes specific to a
group or institute. Its framework involves simultaneous consideration of the main subjects
and the effects of interactions on several levels.
For the client, interactions can occur with other clients or service providers in the industry.
Any potential interactions would not be ignored in the research. Given that individual
clients are more likely to interact with other local-based clients, the group within a certain
area can be a reasonable research unit.
2.3.4. The systems approach
Whereas the meso approach is used to determine the boundary of the unit of analysis, the
systems approach employs methodology to analyse the units. The systems approach
attempts to tackle the problem of irreducible complexity based on scientific methods and it
does so while considering phenomena and properties as a whole, complementing scientific
reductionism (Checkland and Holwell, 1998: see Appendix 3.1 for further explanations of
systems). Morin (1992) argued that the systems approach can be misunderstood as holism,
as a counterpart of reductionism, if there is no attempt to scrutinise its own foundation and
to clarify the concept of systems.
Systems thinking as a fundamental paradigm of the research

Most of all, systems thinking will provide a fundamental paradigm for conducting the
research project. Systems thinking is an attempt, within the broad sweep of science, to
retain much of that tradition, but also to supplement it by tackling the problem of
irreducible complexity. There are several aspects, which are relevant to clients. Any single
aspect could have a noticeable characteristic, but it should be thought in line with other
aspects as a whole.
Systems analysis to create the conceptual model

The aim of systems analysis is to acquire a deep understanding of the problems and to use it
to help bring about improvements. In practice, analysis aims to clarify and define objects;
search out alternative courses of action that are both feasible and promising; gather data
relevant to – and project the nature of – the environments for which the actions are
proposed; and generate information about the benefits and other consequences that might
ensue from their adoption and implementation (Miser and Quade, 1988).
The first activity of systems analysis is to explore the situation with a view of formulating a
problem likely to be helpful and sufficiently well defined for systematic analysis. From this
work, the analysts gain an appreciation of the objectives that should be sought in
investigating the problem, together with a notion of the constraints that must bind any
potential solution. Hence, although it is not necessary for it to be detailed, at least

preliminary views of some alternatives to the current situation should be considered, as well
as establishing a criteria that can be used to judge their value (Miser and Quade, 1988). The
systems analysis is exercised to develop a conceptual model in this research project. The
conceptual model is used to investigate the problems and indicate the potential solutions.
Systems methodology: Various uses in the empirical study

Systems analysis serves as the basis for the empirical study, as it contributes to developing
the theoretical framework, whereas systems methodology can provide practical tools for the
empirical study.
Firstly, systems methodology can be used to elicit information from the subject of analysis.
In particular, soft systems methodology is useful in forming problem situations that are
merely recognised by the actors in the situation (see Appendix 4.2).
Secondly, the solutions to tackle the problem situation can be developed on the basis of
systems methodology. This is not to be confused with systems engineering: Systems
engineering focuses on technical aspects to develop a solution, whereas systems
methodology can provide a strategy to tackle problem situations (see Appendix 4.2.2). The
two systems methodology, hard and soft, can be used to tackle the problem situations
according to unique defined characteristics. Both could be introduced individually or
together (see Appendix 4.2).
2.3.5. Balance between general theory and specific situations
In order to present a general model that could be applied to various situations, the
relationship between general theory and specific situations should be understood. Morin
(1992) mentioned that a balanced consideration between a general model and a specific
situation is important but difficult at the same time. In scientific research, what is important
is not only the speculation of specific situations, but also the establishment of knowledge
and general theory, which can withstand rigorous tests. Rigby (1965) regarded the process
and result of examining and assessing, whether a principle can be applied to any specific
situation, as the highest level of academic achievement. Checkland (1981) concurred and
further presented methods to test general theories, while withstanding specific situations, as
follows:
The outcome of the research is not a method but a set of principles of method, which
in any particular situation have to be reduced to a method uniquely suitable to that
particular situation [Checkland, 1981].
The background of individual clients must vary. For this reason, the principles of the
solution, to tackle their unique problem situations, would vary. The key point of this
research is to cope with the diversity and to present a set of principles of method to address
diverse situations.
2.3.6. From deductive to inductive approach
In this research project, a conceptual model (which can be regarded as an assumption in the
research framework: see Appendix 2.3.) is developed first. There are plenty of theories that
can explain various aspects relevant to clients in general. However, few theories for
individual clients have been presented. For this reason, the conceptual model cannot be
developed from a general one. In addition, the theory of knowledge and its applications into
practical fields (i.e. Management science) need to be verified in the specific context of this
research project. Hence, this part of research project can be called ‘deductive approach’
because it is attempts to extract relevant aspects of specific situations from general theory
(see Appendix 2.3).
Any opportunity to reflect the findings from the investigation into the specific situation
towards the modification of the conceptual model should be allowed. The conceptual model
can be rebuffed in a specific situation, wholly or partly. In some cases, the conceptual
model can be expanded or divided into a set of theories suitable to explain various specific
situations. The results would contribute to establish a new body of knowledge on subjects
and objects of the research. In this case, the process can be called ‘inductive approach’, as
general theory (in reality, a set of principles of methods) is constructed from specific
situations.
2.4. Summary of the Chapter
Through the review of the general evolution of paradigms and perspectives in the
philosophy of science, two benefits were gained. Firstly, any field of science can be
reviewed with these because there is no field appearing suddenly without any philosophical
background. The theory of knowledge and KM may have a certain trend of evolution and it
can be analysed in line with general paradigms and perspectives. Secondly, solid paradigms
and perspectives were established that would become fundamental of the research project.
Two main perspectives in pragmatism were reviewed: Ontology and epistemology. From
the ontological perspective, it is believed that real world situations can be expressed as a
theory, concept, etc., which can be verified by means of empirical experiments. On the
contrary, epistemology focuses on ‘self-world’ relations. These perspectives have
influenced the evolution of paradigms: Positivism, post-positivism, constructivism and
participatory. The evolution of paradigms is the result of interactions between ontology and
epistemology while overcoming the limits presented by each other.
The process of generating the conceptual model itself should meet a rigorous scientific
standard. However, the reality of specific situations should not be lost due to the scientific
rigorousness. As a compromise, although the conceptual model would be constructed from
general theories temporarily, it would be developed as a set of principles enabling one to
investigate specific situations. Then, the conceptual model would be reconstructed based on
findings from the empirical study, investigating specific situations. This process is based on
the constructivist-approach.
The domain model of the application (to facilitate knowledge streams for occasional
individual clients) will be developed by reflecting these findings. By developing and
evaluating a prototype system that partly implements the conceptual model, the conceptual
model is validated towards a general theory. This process follows post-positivistic
ontological principles.
The entire research process, involving the analysis of real world situations, the development
of a conceptual model and testing of this model will be conducted in line with a systems
approach. Based on the meso approach, various units in the context of the research would
be considered.
CHAPTER 3. THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Although KM has the potential to support individual building industry clients, it has not yet
been verified if theories and practices of KM are suitable in this unique context. There
could be other theories, more fundamental than KM, which is an implementation of the
knowledge theories in the field of management (at an organisational level). For this reason,
theories that can explain knowledge itself need to be reviewed. However, a comprehensive
review on the theories of knowledge is not intended, as they are too rhetorical to present a
practical solution in the field of construction management. In this section, these theories are
reviewed at the basic level to maintain an unbiased manner to conduct further research.
Given that the main concern of the research project is to support individual building
industry clients towards creating and sharing knowledge, the practices that have already
presented fruitful results, will also be overviewed. As mentioned, the field of KM might
have various examples on this matter.
Hence, as the main objective of this chapter is to supply some background information on
theories of knowledge for further research, this chapter is divided into five sections,
discussing:
Definition and classification of knowledge (see Section 3.2)

Main elements in the theory of knowledge and its applied fields (see Section 3.3)
Units of analysis and a perspective to overview knowledge streams (see Section 3.4)
Knowledge Management (KM): A managerial implication at the organisational level
(see Section 3.5)
Adoptable theories and practices from the field of kM (see Section 3.6)
3.2. Definitions and Classifications of Knowledge
Knowledge is neither data nor information, although it is related to both of them and the
differences between them are often a matter of degree (Davenport and Prusak, 2000). For
this reason, knowledge can be understood with references to both.
Knowledge can take on two definitive forms: The epistemological definition and the
ontological definition. In brief, knowledge is ‘belief’ from an epistemological perspective,
whereas the ontological viewpoint asserts knowledge can be defined as verifiable ‘facts’.
The former focuses on the ‘internal’ interpretation of information, while the latter
emphasises the ‘external’ representation of information.
3.2.2. Definition from epistemological views
Bertalanffy (1968) explained knowledge in the preface of his book, as follows:
Perception is not a reflection of ‘real things’ (whatever their metaphysical status), and
knowledge is not a simple approximation to ‘truth’ or ‘reality’. It is an interaction
between the knower and known
From the epistemological viewpoint, knowledge is not absolute truth or fact, but conceived
beliefs against a certain phenomenon or object. Krogh et al., (2000) defined knowledge as a
“justified true belief” and based on this definition, they described knowledge as “a
construction of reality, rather than something that is true in any abstract or universal way”.
Sharan and Sharan (1992) emphasised the construction of knowledge, as follows:
What people construct out of elements of information, feelings, and experience with
the requisite amount of repetition.
Milner (2000) set wisdom on a level higher than knowledge, but it should be noted that
wisdom is also regarded as commonly ‘justified’ belief.
Contemporary interest in the nature of knowledge pertains not only to the branch of
philosophy called ‘theory of knowledge’ or ‘epistemology,’ but also to the fields of
information theory, artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive science. The latter disciplines
are not alternatives to the traditional theory of knowledge because they are branches of
empirical science, rather than those of philosophy. For the most part, the facts with which
they are concerned are not relevant to traditional philosophical questions, which have been
asked in the field of philosophy of science: “How can I distinguish between things I am
justified in believing from those that I am not justified in believing?” (Chisholm, 1989).
3.2.3. Definitions from ontological views
Barton (1985) defines knowledge as ‘facts’, ‘data’ or ‘information’ stored for future
reference. As noted from his definition, the school with this perspective regards knowledge
as a continuum of data and information. This definition embraces an ontological
perspective, as their fundamental principles assume that knowledge is expanded from data
and information. For this reason, the review of the relationship between data, information
and knowledge can be useful to define (ontological) knowledge.
The origin of the term ‘data’ is a Latin word ‘dare’, meaning ‘to give’ (Checkland and
Holwell, 1998). They described data as:
The sub-set of a great mass of facts, which we select for attention.
Barton (1985) addressed that:
Data refers to numeric or alphanumeric strings that, by themselves, do not have

meaning. They can be facts or figures to be processed. Data are facts obtained
through empirical research or observation.
McFadden et al. (1999) added that data is comprised of:
Facts, text, graphics, images, sound, and video segments that have meaning in the
user’s environment ... that has been processed in such a way as to increase the
knowledge of the person who uses the data.
A need to distinguish data from raw material arises and Checkland and Holwell (1998) used
the term ‘capta’ to express objects between raw materials and data that is already
categorised. What, then, is information? Barton (1985) contributed to the description of
information and knowledge:
Information is data organised so that it is meaningful to the person receiving it.

Information represents data or knowledge evaluated for specific use. Consequently,
facts or data are processed to provide meaningful information.
Checkland and Holwell (1998) presented a similar definition for information as follows:
Data is the factual raw material, which becomes information, defined as ‘structured
data, which have contextual meaning’, while knowledge is ‘high level structured
information’ whose density gives a ‘presentation of previous experience’.
Vergison (1999) also described the transformation process from data to knowledge:
Validated and reconciled data become information whilst processed and

conceptualised information become knowledge. So far, knowledge can be looked at
as value-added information.
In practice, data, information and knowledge could be distinguished in terms of value: Data
does not have value; information has value but the receiver determines whether it has value,
rather than the sender; knowledge includes unique beliefs and value of knower in context.
It is important to note that ontologists still consider some epistemological aspects, such as
belief and value to distinguish knowledge from information, although their version of
definitions and explanations of knowledge are fundamentally based on ontological
perspectives.
3.2.4. Classifications of knowledge
Turban (1992) classified knowledge in five categories and described each type of
knowledge, as given below:
Declarative knowledge is fact
Procedural knowledge is the manner in which things work under different sets of
circumstances; how to use declarative knowledge and how to make inferences
Semantic knowledge reflects a cognitive structure that involves the use of the long-term
memory. It is about words and other symbols, word/symbol meanings and usage rules,
word/symbol referents and interrelationships and algorithms for manipulating symbols,
concepts and relations
Episodic knowledge is experimental information organised as a case or an episode
Meta-knowledge is knowledge about knowledge
Vergison (1999) classified knowledge in terms of its hierarchy for use:

Deep knowledge is one with a high degree of certainty
Operative knowledge is widely used or commonly accepted
Routine knowledge: made of observations or answers to common questions
Meta-knowledge is classification of the type and format of knowledge
A couple of classifications of knowledge have been presented, but the most common
classification is the categorisation of knowledge as either explicit or tacit knowledge

(Mårtensson, 2000).
Explicit knowledge is documented and public, structured with a fixed context, externalised
and conscious (Duffy, 2000). From an ontological perspective, explicit knowledge is
usually formalised within databases, procedures, lists of specifications, plans, recipes,
drawings, reports, flowcharts, etc. (Vergison, 1999). In short, it is what can be captured and
shared through information technology (Mårtensson, 2000). On the other hand, tacit
knowledge resides in the human mind, behaviour and perception (Duffy, 2000). Tacit
knowledge evolves from people’s interactions and requires skill and (repeated) practice.
3.3. Main Elements in the Theory of Knowledge and Its Applied Science Fields
Theory of knowledge is a branch of philosophy. In the field, some questions seem to

attempt to answer orthodox philosophical questions. For instance, the question – ‘what can
we say that we know and is this really known to us?’ seems quite perplexing at a glance.
On the contrary, there are other fields in which, the theory of knowledge has been applied
to dealing with real world problems. Cognitive and behavioural sciences are examples of
this applied field.
In this section, we look briefly at the elements that are mainly studied in the theory of
knowledge and its applied science fields.
3.3.2. Rhetoric in the theory of knowledge
It is not the intention of this section to confuse the discussion by introducing the orthodox
theory of knowledge. However, it is also difficult to explain the fundamental questions
about ‘knowledge and knowing’ without addressing somewhat baffling, but dominant
discussions in the field.
In brief, the questions raised in the field seem to be attempts to clarify the philosophical
meaning of ‘knowing’. For instance, if p knows q, it can mean p believes that s/he knows q
or p is justified in believing q (Chisholm, 1989). The former happens internally and the
latter can be recognisable by others. Whether q is justified is a different matter. According

to Chisholm (1989), the purpose of these questions is to improve a set of ‘beliefs’ – to
replace those that are unjustified, with those that are justified. Given that there is no
absolute truth, this purpose can be rephrased as, ‘to replace those that have a lesser degree
of justification with others that have a greater degree of justification’.
Justification refers to thoughts or beliefs. A belief is described as any human-perceived link

between an attitude object and an attribute (Jonas et al.,1995). Another angle is provided by
Williamson (2000), who defined belief as a ‘mind-to-world direction of fit’, i.e. The belief
is true if it fits the world or false, if otherwise. However, Williamson (2000) argued that
knowledge, in some cases, cannot be related to belief, truth or justification, and that
knowledge is merely a peculiar kind of belief. Keeping these various views in mind, belief
is thought to be a necessary, but an insufficient condition of knowledge, as knowledge can
be created without belief.
What, then, can be gained from this rhetoric for the research? A need arises for more
tangible elements, which can explain knowledge and knowing. The other finding is that it
may be less practical from a pragmatic perspective of this research, to determine whether
the beliefs of the clients are synchronised internally and externally. According to
Williamson (2000), reasons are, most of all, that belief may not be related to knowledge
and in some cases, internal belief is not likely to determine external behaviour of the client.
3.3.3. Structure and representation of knowledge: Mental model
Structure and representation of knowledge are topics in the more applied fields, especially
in cognitive science. In cognitive science, knowledge is considered as logic and
metaphysics is adopted to express the logic existing in the mind (as a mental model).
However, it appears that we cannot know the contents of our mental states simply by
introspection, for those contents are determined by our environment (Ludlow and Martin,
1998).
Carruthers and Chamberlain (2000) depicted the individual mind as a cognitive model.
According to them, cognitive scientists are almost invariably referring to ‘mental
structures’ that can be invoked to explain various cognitive capacities. Williamson (2000)
used the term, ‘a state of mind’, whereas others (Gentner and Stevens, 1983; Sterman,
1994) used the term, ‘mental models’. Their descriptions of each model are compared in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 A comparison of mental models
Gentner and Stevens (1983) Sterman (1994)
Contents of Knowledge structure, cognitive Collections of routines, scripts, or

mental model maps or patterns and task schemata for selecting possible
schemata actions, cognitive maps of a domain,
typologies for categorising experience,
pointers from instances of a
phenomenon to analogous instances,
logical structures for the interpretation
of language, or attributions about
individuals we encounter in daily life
Representation of The objects and properties of a Implicit casual maps of a system we
mental model knowledge domain; hold, our beliefs about the network of
The functional or casual causes and effects that describe how
relationships among those a system operates, the boundary of the
components model (the exogenous variables) and
the time horizon we consider relevant –
our framing or articulation of a problem
The descriptions presented above have one thing in common – the mental model includes a
cognitive map. The cognitive map plays the role the guide of how to solve the problem,
determines the skills and is formed by interaction or being influenced by social aspects,
such as culture or environment (Sterman, 1994).
Knowledge representation (KR) refers to the general topic of how information can be
appropriately encoded and utilised in computational models of cognition. It is a catholic
field with links to logic, computer science, cognitive and perceptual psychology, linguistics
and other parts of cognitive science.
3.3.4. Belief, attitude and behaviour
Belief is the main object in philosophy, especially from an epistemological perspective.

However, in fields other than philosophy (e.g. psychology, social science, etc.), the belief
needs to be replaced by tangible elements (or objects) to study. Yet, attitude is still less
observable than others in the field; it is located in the middle layer between belief and
action or other objects in outward mode (e.g. behaviour) (Semin and Fiedler, 1996).
Desires and beliefs lie at the root of attitudes and these exist internally. However, they can
be externally expressed as opinions and behaviours. Jonas et al. (1995) defined attitude as
the “psychological tendency to evaluate a particular entity with some degree of favour or
disfavour”. The entity against which people hold an attitude is called an ‘attitude object’.
According to them, people can express their attitudes in various ways.
The actors are assumed to make a decision (or a choice) based on their beliefs and desires.
Desires are expressed as goals, purposes and ends, which are intended to satisfy. They have
beliefs about their situation and these beliefs are, in part, information and/or knowledge,
from which they make choices to act, do, or perform in order to achieve their desires
(Lichbach and Seligman, 2000).
Behaviour refers to a person’s overt actions, with respect to the attitude object, including
behavioural intentions, which are not necessarily expressed in action (Jonas et al., 1995).
Figure 3.1 illustrates the various outward modes of attitudes. From the observers’ or
researchers’ viewpoints, effect, cognition and behaviour are measurable elements. Thus, the
starting point in understanding human rationality should be behaviour.
Measurable Measurable
Intervening
independent dependent
variables
variables variables
Sympathetic nervous responses

Effect
Verbal statement of attitude
Stimuli
(e.g. persons,
Perceptual responses
situations, Attitude Cognition
Verbal statements of beliefs
social issues,
social groups
Overt actions
Behaviour Verbal statements
concerning behaviour
Figure 3.1 Three components structure of attitude (Rosenberg and Houland, 1960:
cited by Semin and Fiedler, 1996)
Behaviour incorporates (1) a specific action, (2) directed at a target, (3) in a context, (4) at a
time or occasion (Jonas et al., 1995). In contrast, many of the most commonly studied
attitudes indicate only the ‘target’ of an attitude. Such general attitudes can be expressed by
a variety of specific actions performed in a variety of contexts and times (Jonas et al., 1995).
Williamson (2000) defined action as “a systematic way to satisfy desire”, but argued that
chance can play a role in satisfying desires as well.
Actions performed at the individual level can have their own pattern that does not need to
be explained or formulated. However, according to Simon (1997), as soon as a task grows
to the point where the efforts of several persons are required to accomplish it, necessities
arise for developing a process to apply organised efforts to the group task.
Most people tend to ‘rationalise’ their behaviour when they are asked to explain it, in terms
of alternatives and the consequences of those alternatives (March, 1994). However, it is not
easy to predict the results and behaviour of complex social phenomena, as if they were
simple machines. Information can remove uncertainties to some extent, but its accuracy
will mainly depend on how much information we have in our possession (Probst et al.,
1992). Another difficulty is that attitudes often fail to predict behaviour well, as behaviour
is also influenced by social pressures (Argyle and Colman, 1995).
The successful performance of several social behaviours depends on some level of skill or
ability on the part of individual, on having the opportunity to carry out the behaviour and/or
on some degree of cooperation on the part of others (Semin and Fiedler, 1996). For this
reason, research devoted to predicting behaviour by only focusing on the attitude of
individuals, is limited and the context should be considered simultaneously.
3.3.5. Context
According to March (1994), individuals define and solve problems posed by their
environments, develop shared rules for behaviour and shared attitudes towards experience.
Interactions between the individual and the environment cannot simply be expressed as a
single term. A closer word that can explain this relationship is ‘context’. Context can be
physical space and also, the atmosphere or a relationship in the space. It can determine the
atmosphere and relationships between human beings in that space, but it can also be
affected by them.
The routine of this interaction can be used to explain some phenomena but is less useful to
manage phenomena. For this reason, in the field of KM, the context is interpreted narrowly,
as a space in which knowledge is created and shared. A Japanese word, ‘Ba’, has been used
to explain the foundation that is more abstract than a three dimensional space in the western
philosophy, but is more tangible than the term, ‘context’ (see Krogh et al., 2000). Further
explanation about Ba can be found in Section 3.4.3.
3.4. Units of Analysis and a Perspective to Overview Knowledge Streams
The unit of analysis of pure philosophical theory is the individual, although even the
individual’s knowledge is created by through interactions with his/her surroundings,
including relations with other actors. On the contrary, needs arise in the field of
management or social science to overview the knowledge at a broad level (i.e. At the
group-, organisational- or societal level). In this section, how knowledge has been studied
at various levels will be reviewed.
3.4.2. At the individual level
The cognitive module consists of two parts: A mental representation and computational
mechanisms (Carruthers and Chamberlain, 2000). A mental representation is a system of
representations. In a sense, they are inert and very difficult to express or abstract. They only
result in behaviour when manipulated by various cognitive mechanisms. By contrast,
computational modules are processing devices – mechanisms that ‘manipulate’
representations.
Cognitive scientists view the human mind as a complex system that receives, stores,
retrieves, transforms and transmits information. These operations on information are called
computations or information processes, and the view of the mind is called the
computational or information-processing view (Stillings et al., 1995).
Information processing or computation is assumed to be dedicated to solving problems in a

specific domain. In order to solve the problem, two modes of the mental process are
required: The inward mode (i.e. Reasoning) and the outward mode (i.e. Decision-making).
Reasoning and decision-making are topics of central importance in the study of human
intelligence (Evans et al., 1996). According to Evans et al., (1996), reasoning is the process
by which we can apply stored ‘knowledge’ to the problem at hand, deducing specific
consequences from our general ‘beliefs’. This is supported by constructivist-cognitive
psychologists, who argue that individuals actively build or construct their own notion of
reality from experience (Sharan and Sharan, 1992).
Research into decision-making has mainly adopted the rationalist’s approach (March, 1994).
The pure rationalist assumes that: All decision-makers share a common set of preferences;
alternatives and their consequences are defined by the environment; decision-makers have
‘perfect’ knowledge of the alternatives and their consequences. In other words, all
alternatives are known, all consequences of all alternatives are known with certainty and all
preferences relevant to the choices are known to be precise, consistent and stable.
However, due to the constant uncertainty of consequence, this rationalistic notion has been
modified (March, 1994). He called this modified rationality ‘limited (or bounded)
rationality’, as not all alternatives for decision-making can be known, not all consequences
can be considered and not all preferences can be evoked at the same time. Furthermore,
much research shows that individuals do not seek relevant information about consequences
at all and do not even use available information.
Table 3.2 Experience and skills for problem solving (Waterhouse et al., 1995)
Experience factors Mental skills
Age Memory
Previous professional/technical background Analytical ability logic and reasoning
Familiarity with solution-finding strategies Synthesising ability
Familiarity with problem content and context Valuing ability;
Holistic thinking;
Imagination;
Intuition, flair;
Numeric, literacy
Problem solving and decision-making involve integrating previous experience and

knowledge, together with natural mental skills, in an attempt to resolve a situation whose
outcome is unknown. Table 3.2 presents a comparison between experience factors and
mental skills. Note that mental skills can be developed over time, whereas experience
merely requires time.
Knowledge is obtained through the process of cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is

defined as processes through which people form associations among concepts, learn
sequences of concepts (e.g. memorise a list), solve problems and gain insights. Such
learning involves an intuitive hypothesis-generating process in which people adapt their
beliefs to make sense of new data. Thus, cognitive learning is an active process in which
people seek to control the information they obtain (Mowen and Minor, 2001).
3.4.3. At the group, organisation and inter-organisation level
How has the theory of knowledge been applied at the group or organisational level? Before
answering this question, let us first examine what an organisation is and the act of
organising something. The term organisation can represent a ‘natural living’ community or
‘contract’ based institutes, in that it is comprised of people who join in some ‘contractual
sense’. In the simplest form, Beijerse (2000) described the act of organising as:
The achievement of certain – mostly pre-determined – goals, using certain means
Therefore, according to Beijerse (2000), an organisation is:
Nothing more than a collection of people who have come together to mutually
achieve these goals
At the organisational level, organisational knowledge is defined as the shared set of beliefs
about casual relationships held by individuals within a group (Sanchez and Heene, 1997).
Therefore, in a given situation, beliefs and desires can be affected by or affect other factors,
which can be other individuals, restraints in the specific situation, etc.
There are four crucial means, through which one can organise: strategy, structure, culture
and system (Beijerse. 2000). Myers (1996) restricts the knowledge of an organisation as
merely that which has been captured by an organisation’s system, processes, products, rules
and culture.
Organisational learning, on the other hand, is an application that most closely follows the
basics of the knowledge theory at the organisational level (Sanchez and Heene, 1997),
which is a process that increases knowledge over time (Seemann, 1999). For example, in
the context of a business institution, learning is the process by which people acquire new
skills or knowledge for enhancing their performance (Rosenberg and Houland, 1960).
Therefore, successful organisational learning is that in which leaders seek to align both
individual and collective learning with the strategic intent of the firm (Seemann, 1999).
At the organisational level, the context can be limited to that which can be artificially
implemented and ontologically expressed for managerial purpose. In the field of KM, the
context is also called ‘Ba’. Ba describes the existential contexts of human physical being. It
can be thought of as a shared mental place for emerging relationships. This place can be
physical (for example, an office, or a dispersed business place), virtual (such as e-mail,
teleconferencing, web chat rooms) or mental (shared experiences, ideas, etc.) (Nonaka et al.,
2000).
Given that, the theory of knowledge has flourished at the organisational level under KM, it
will be reviewed in detail in 3.5.
3.4.4. At the society level
Note that although research in applied knowledge theory, for groups or organisations,
mentions a ‘societal approach’, the term ‘societal’, in this context, refers to the societal
aspects (e.g. interactions between individuals within the group) and are not relevant to the
unit of analysis.
Recently, knowledge has been focussed on a broader level – the society. Knowledge is
produced and collected in a society. On the other hand, knowledge can also change the
society. Although there is generally no need to distinguish the community or society from a
general organisation, by regarding methods and context for facilitating knowledge streams,
the organisation should be distinguished from the society.
The main difference between organisation and society is their orientation. The former is
more task-oriented and the latter is more behaviour-oriented (Miser and Quade, 1998). The
approach to analyse these two units is therefore, different.
Methods to cultivate the context of knowledge streams are also different in both. At the
managerial level in an organisation, it is possible to facilitate knowledge streams by means
of a designed strategy, structure and system. On the contrary, in the latter, knowledge flows
naturally. At the societal level, ‘management’ may not occur, if there is no party to propel
knowledge streams through maintaining a structure or system.
The difference between knowledge streams at the individual and organisational level is
mainly the extent to which the theory of knowledge is applied: Knowledge streams in the
organisation can be understood as an extended version of that at the individual level. By
contrast, the difference between organisation and society determines the characteristic of
the context in which knowledge flows.
3.4.5. Knowledge: Socially embedded act
The main difference between knowledge and information is that knowledge is context-
specific. Information can be transferred between actors in situations. However, evaluating
and valuing it is up to actors who receive the information. Hence, evaluation and valuation
are more affected by the context rather than the contents of information. In short,
knowledge is a unique creature that is generated from interactions between facts and beliefs
of the individual or group in context.
It is difficult to distinguish environment from context. Simplistically, however, the context

includes all situations or environments that affect the actor’s attitude, belief, desire and
consequent action; the environment is the arena, in which actors take action (Luthans,
1995).
All individual minds are deployed in richly structured contexts, typically organised into
communities, regions, ethnicities, cultures, nation-states and so forth. Thus, understanding
human thought also entails a description of the contexts, in which individual minds operate
(University of Michigan, 2001).
The context gives meaning and value to the simple stimuli, objects, events, situations and
other persons in the environment (Luthans, 1995). Luthans (1995) also described
knowledge as that which is transformed information, flowing in the ‘context’ that forms the
individual’s beliefs and norms. Organisational context, on the other hand, can be physical,
virtual, mental, or more likely, all three (Krog et al., 2000)
The socially embedded unit act consists of subjective and objective components: Ends and
norms can be described in a subjective way; conditions and means can be described in an
objective manner (Lichbach and Seligman, 2000). Understanding the socially embedded act
is affected by perspective. Three schools, whose perspectives are most mentioned, are
placed on each vertex of the triangle in Figure 3.2. Culturalists specialise in desires at the
individual level and cultural norms at the group, organisational or societal level; beliefs and
conditions for structuralists; choice and social action for rationalists.
Approach
Culturalist Structuralist
Collective
Norms Conditions
Desires Beliefs
Individual
Choice
Social
action
Rationalist
Figure 3.2 The socially embedded unit act (Lichbach and Seligman, 2000)
The connections between these three layers in Figure 3.2 exhibit important themes in the
theories of social order and guide the observation of objects or phenomenon. For example,
a research undertaking a structuralist’s perspective will have subject matters, such as choice,
culture and context, as the domains of study.
3.5. Knowledge Management (KM): A managerial implication at the

organisational level
What is the main difference between the meaning of knowledge in the field of KM and
theory of knowledge? Given that management has a close relationship to organisation
theory, the term ‘managerial application’ includes units at the group and organisational
level as well. In brief, KM can be understood as an application in which the subject who is
creating, using, transferring the knowledge is replaced from ‘I’ or ‘being’ to ‘group’ or
‘organisation’ that has a certain goal and consider knowledge as the means to achieve it.
KM is defined broadly and has presented a big umbrella available to embrace almost all
theories and practices in the field of management (Markus, 2000). However, the term
‘management’ has caused debates between scholars on whether or not it is possible to
manage knowledge. In this section, KM is introduced as an application of knowledge
theory at the managerial level in an organisation.
3.5.2. The origin of KM
The new global competitiveness and increasingly sophisticated consumers have led firms to
seek a sustainable advantage that distinguishes them in business environments. Knowledge
can tell firms how to do things and how they might do them better (Davenport and Prusak,
2000).
It has been widely agreed that intellectual capital is a critical resource of any organisation
to give it competency (Mårtensson, 2000). According to her, KM has its theoretical origin
in the concept of managing intellectual capital. Beijerse (2000) presented a definition of
KM based on this view, as follows: “KM is the management of information within an
organisation by steering the strategy, structure, culture and systems and the capacities and
attitudes of people with regard to their knowledge.”
Empirically, the loss of intellectual capital experienced by companies through downsizing

in 1990’s, gives birth a need to undertake KM (Mårtensson, 2000). The downsizing strategy
results in a loss of knowledge, as employees leave with what they accumulated over years.
To prevent this unwanted situation, organisations are now trying to use technology and
systems to capture the knowledge residing in the minds of their employees.
3.5.3. The fundamentals of KM
Checkland (1998) divided the domains of managerial activity in four development

directions: Intellectual skills, technology, strategy and the social system of the organisation.
Directions to facilitate KM can be developed in line with these domains.
Beijerse (2000) classified two factors of KM as people-bound factors and system-bound

factors. People-bound factors are capacity and attitude: Capacity is that which transforms
data into useful and meaningful information; and attitude is what makes people want to
think, interpret and act. System-bound factors are comprised of strategy, structure, culture
and systems:
The strategy serves to determine the goals with regard to knowledge, on a short and
medium term
The structure is there to facilitate people making their knowledge – their information,
their capacities and their attitude – productive
The culture is primarily targeted at the motivation of people to make their knowledge
productive and to actually use the systems offered
The systems are targeted at the management of the operational instruments aimed at
making information, capacities and attitudes, within the organisation, productive
Hence, it can be seen that features of knowledge theory correspond to factors of KM:
attitude and behaviour can be compared with people-bound factors; system-bound factors
are highly relevant to the environment.
It should be noted that although information and communication technology can be

deployed to implement a proper structure and system, a biased technology-oriented
approach may neglect people-bound factors.
3.5.4. Various perspectives on KM
In order to avoid neglecting the people-bound factors while maximise the benefits of
technology-oriented approach, approaches that embrace both technology and people, have
been mentioned while distinguishing differences between them.
Scabrough et al., (1999) reviewed research and practices in the KM field and classify the
trends as fitting a cognitive model and a community model. The cognitive model is mainly
based on the cognitive perspective, in which individuals or organisations are assumed to
process information. The community model focuses on proper contexts, in which
knowledge can be created and shared. Integrating the features of knowledge theory,
classified in Section 3.3, it can be seen that the cognitive model emphasises the contents,
whereas the community model emphasises attitudes, behaviours and the environment.
Comparisons between the two models are presented in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Two contrasting views of the KM process (Scarbrough et al., 1999)
Cognitive model Community model
Knowledge is equated to objectively defined Knowledge is socially constructed and based

concepts and facts on experience
Knowledge is transferred through text and Knowledge is transferred though participation
information systems have a crucial role in social networks including occupational
groups and teams
Gains from KM include the recycling of Gains from KM include greater awareness of
knowledge and the standardization of internal and external source of knowledge
systems
The primary function of KM is to codify and The primary function of KM is to encourage
capture knowledge knowledge-sharing amongst and between
groups and individuals
The dominant metaphor is human memory The dominant metaphor is the human
community
The critical success factor is technology The critical success factor is trust
Markus (2000) also compared two trends of KM, based on the similar criteria, used by
Scabrough et al. (1999). She used the term ‘engineering’ for the cognitive model and
‘cultivation’ for the community model. Her comparisons between engineering and
cultivation is summarised in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 KM perspectives (extracted from: Markus 2000)
Engineering Cultivation
Codified and stored knowledge Knowledge in people’s heads

Managing “pieces of intellectual capital” – Managing people and communication
knowledge objects
Reusing existing knowledge Creating new knowledge
Stocks of knowledge The process of improving
The solution: technology as essential enabler Technology as clearly secondary, if needed
Krogh et al., (2000) supported the community model. They argued that tacit knowledge
could not be captured or regained in documents, not even through multimedia means, such
as videos. They argued further that the only way to regain such organisational capital is to
recreate the unique conditions of that micro-community, in which tacit knowledge was
created.
Various subjects or owners of knowledge also cause different perspectives. Scabrough et al.,
(1999) distinguished between initiatives, which adopt either ‘supply-driven’ or ‘demand-
driven’ approaches. According to them, supply-side initiatives assume that the fundamental
problem of KM concerns the flow of knowledge and information within the organisation.
They aim to increase the flow of knowledge by capturing, codifying and transmitting. Not
surprisingly, they tend to have a strong technological component. Demand-side initiatives,
on the other hand, are more concerned with the user’s point of view. The motivation and
attitudes of knowledge-users are seen as important and there are consequent concerns with
reward systems and ways of encouraging knowledge-sharing. This is not to say that supply-
side approaches neglect these factors, but the concern is primary to encourage employees to
release knowledge. A demand-side perspective is also concerned with employee
willingness to search for and apply knowledge recognition; perhaps, that it is crucial to
knowledge exchange (Scabrough et al., 1999).
3.5.5. KM and Information system (IS)
Background to IS
Papazoglou et al., (1991) depicted IS as “a conglomerate of applications that implement
required functions, over a collection of shared persistent data and (possibly) knowledge,
which represents a cross-fertilisation of concepts from AI, knowledge-based expert system
and data management systems”. They proceeded to describe the function of IS as fulfilling
“the demands of human client”. Their perspective is mainly based on cognitive science and
another notion, stemming from this perspective, is to regard the basic organisation process
as a rational decision-making process. From this idea, one can deduce a clear definition of
the role of IS: To provide information, which supports the decision-making process at
various levels, from the strategic to the operational level (Checkland and Holwell, 1998).
Given that the knowledge has close relations to information, IS may play a certain role in
KM: It could be all of KM or only a part of KM or more than KM. It is literally impossible
to explain all background of IS in a few words. In order to provide a deeper understanding
of IS, Appendix 4 explains it in detail.
The role of IS in KM
From a managerial perspective, IS is developed to enhance coordination among the
activities of people in the organisation. Lawler et al. (1976) emphasised the role of
information as a means for controlling an organisation and coordinating its activities.
At the operational level, data and information provide a means to transfer knowledge.
Technology enhances the ‘speed’ and ‘accuracy’ of knowledge transfer. Regardless of
whether or not IS is developed while information technology (IT) is introduced, IS provides
an infostructure to enhance information flow in the organisation to support human
limitations in processing data, both repetitively and precisely (Paterson, 1977). Thus, IS/IT
provides: A means to control and coordinate (Lawler et al., 1976); a means to process and
store data (Paterson, 1977); a tool for communication (Oxman, 1995); support for the
decision-making process (Checkland and Holwell, 1998), etc. Scarbrough et al., (1999)
support Oxman (1995) by recommending that technology should be viewed more as a
means of ‘communication’ and less as a means of storing knowledge. They emphasised the
role of IT as a tool for communication.
The knowledge flows can also occur in electronic network however it may not over the
human relationship. In other words, if actors do not share knowledge through human
contact, they still do not share knowledge in electronic infostructure, even if the
infostructure is efficiently designed. However, in some cases, IT can change the
relationship between actors in the situation and stimulate knowledge flows based on the
new relationship (Checkland and Holwell, 1998).
A misconception of IS: Confusion to the technology-oriented approach

Technology has expanded its influences on other factors; technology is not just a new tool,
but serves and supports people taking purposeful action in their situation. However, it
simultaneously introduces uncertainties because technology offers people a new
perspective on their world (Checkland and Holwell, 1998).
According to Checkland and Holwell (1998), to develop or introduce a new mode of

technology, it is not about merely sticking on engineering anymore. According to them,
“networked computing provides new ways for individuals to exchange information and
knowledge within and outside their organizations.” They presented several examples for
technologies that have changed the way people work (e.g. World Wide Web).
As mentioned in the previous section, KM should be supported by technical aspects in

order to implement proper systems and structures. Based on the definitions of knowledge
from an ontological perspective, knowledge is regarded as a continuum of data and/or
information in the organisation, meaning that IS will play a key role in managing
knowledge in the organisation. Hence, the ‘information system stream’ is that which is
concerned with fundamental ideas of data, information and knowledge.
The final destiny of IS is to facilitate knowledge and the sharing of experience between
members in an organisation (Oxman, 1995). Both actions can be analysed at different levels,
but they possess a close relationship (Stillings et al., 1995). Hence, control and
communication, based on information or information flow, could be facilitated in IS.
On the contrary, Milner (2000) addressed the concerns over the efficiency of information
systems: “Without good access to appropriate information in the right format, availability at
the right time and accessible to the right people, the knowledge generation and sharing
processes are likely to be considerably diminished in value.”
Although IT can support the flow of knowledge, particularly by increasing the speed of
knowledge transfer, there is severe opposition to this approach. The critics who are against
the KM facilitated approach, by deploying IT/IS, base their conclusions on the limitations
of the hard systems approach, in which it is assumed that all options are exhausted and that
system analysts and developers should have the ability to reveal these variables and analyse
behaviour of users, i.e. Decision-makers know all the variables and how they will behave
under a given set of circumstances.
Scarbrough et al., (1999) criticise that most KM practices focus on tools and methodologies
– mostly IT – and people management and development are neglected, when many
advantages of KM could be realised through people management and development. Thus,
the need for an approach that enables members in an organisation to continuously obtain
knowledge has been discussed (e.g. SSM; see Checkland and Holwell, 1998). Note that this
notion relates to social informatics, as its central focus is the same as that for KM, the
human being.
IS as an ontological part of KM
The context of KM uses the term ontology to mean a specification of a conceptualisation of
any phenomenon (Checkland and Holwell, 1998). That is, ontology is a description (like a
formal specification of a program) of concepts and relationships that can exist for an agent
or a community of agents. This definition is more general, but consistent with the usage of
ontology as set-of-concept definitions.
The objects of an ontological model can be anything that can be expressed externally. They
can be the environment, system, structure, relationship between actors in the situation, data
flow, information flow, mental structure and its representation, etc. However, models that
depict them are based on the interpretation of the modeller and thus, there is a limitation in
reflecting the perspectives of actors in the situation yet the modeller’s ability to analyse and
represent them are excellent.
Whether KM is implemented through hard or soft systems methodology, an ontological

model is needed for analysts and users to share the approach. Given that the hard systems
approach generally aims to treat ontological aspects of the situation, without doubt, the
systems specification and engineering are conducted from an ontological perspective.
Although soft systems approach aims to aid epistemological knowledge creation for actors,
the ideal situation are expressed as an ontological model, so that the actors can share it (see
Appendix 4.2.2).
3.5.6. KM in the context of construction management
Although KM is not a complete and validated concept for supporting the client, even
literature that mention KM and clients together have rarely been found. In the 2001
ARCOM conference, only one paper (Kim and Fisher, 2001) presented KM from the
client’s perspective, among a dozen of papers covering KM. KM itself, is a young field and
it has started being introduced in the field of construction management. Researchers who
have introduced KM into their research have focussed on the competent strength of service
provider organisations from professionals’ perspectives. With this perspective, the client is
less considered in the framework.
In a recent research project called C-SanD (Creating, sustaining and disseminating

knowledge for sustainable construction), tools, methods and architecture, has been
conducted by Loughborough University, University of Salford and London School of
Economics, to implement inter-organisation knowledge sharing (Loughborough University
2001). However, this research project still focuses on knowledge streams at the
organisational level. Given that knowledge streams of clients occur at the societal level as
well, a refreshed approach seems necessary.
3.5.7. Discussion
A concern in the KM field is that knowledge is barely regarded as an asset in the

organisational-centred approach. Although the definition of knowledge is agreed between
pundits, there are severe disputes about the characteristics or the value of knowledge.
Krogh et al., (2000) argue that the term “asset” should be used cautiously. It could lead the
actors, especially knowledge officers or knowledge activists, towards a bureaucratic
administration, isolated in a separate staff function. However, the term ‘knowledge assets’
can be accepted, although it infers that knowledge, itself, has value and that it can be used
to add value to the activity of individuals or organisations.
When knowledge assets can be shared or transferred within or across organisations, this
resource is termed ‘social capital’ or ‘assets’ (Gittell and Vidal, 1998). However, Lichbach
and Seligman (2000) pointed out that every individual or organisation will attempt to
maximise the value of activities in a given context and therefore, conflicts will arise when
knowledge assets need to be transferred. Miser and Quade (1998) also mentioned the
conflicts that may occur from different beliefs of members. According to them, it is very
difficult to anticipate which changes will prove beneficial to some members and harm
others; some members may invent a variety of devices and behaviour for turning changes to
their advantage. Hence, it is difficult to measure and impossible to balance off these
benefits and disadvantages in a sensible way.
Social capital does not mean that knowledge is transferred for free, i.e. There must be
‘mutual’ economic benefits for the actors who transfer knowledge (Gittell and Vidal, 1998).
However, note that from a structuralist’s perspective, knowledge assets can only be traded
like goods or services in accordance with the terms of the ‘contract’ between sellers and
buyers in the marketplace.
Another major debate in the KM field is over the limitations associated with the
technology-oriented approach in facilitating KM. A dilemma concerning the technology-
oriented approach is that organisations attempt to manage explicit knowledge, rather than
tacit knowledge, as the former is more easily coded and structured (Scarbrough et al., 1999)
and acquired and transferred, (Sanchez and Heene, 1997) than the latter.
3.6. Adoptable Theories and Practices from the Field of KM
The featured implications of knowledge theory mainly concern the creation and flow of
knowledge at the organisational level. Nevertheless, some theories seem useful in
developing a conceptual model for facilitating knowledge streams of building industry
clients. In this section, three theories are reviewed: Knowledge as flows, knowledge spirals
and organisational learning.
3.6.2. Knowledge as flows
Macintosh (1999) and Beijerse (2000) focussed on the flow of knowledge. They also
addressed how this flow is managed in an organisational context. Macintosh (1999) advised
that the organisation not only manages knowledge assets, but the processes that act on the
assets, through developing, preserving, using and sharing knowledge. Hence, knowledge
flows can be classified by the following: Knowledge creation, knowledge capture,
knowledge distribution and knowledge sharing.
Knowledge creation enables the organisation to survive in the marketplace and requires
technological sophistication and creative ideas. Once the knowledge is created, it must be
successfully secured, as knowledge that is recorded by individuals is often not traceable or
accessible to the rest of the organisation. It is then necessary to distribute secured
knowledge, allowing it to be accessible to the entire organisation. However, distribution
does not guarantee that there is actual sharing of knowledge, as individual learning
processes are not usually transferred to a collective learning process. Since the organisation
can only survive through combining and sharing their scattered wealth of knowledge,
knowledge sharing is, therefore, most emphasised.
The flow of knowledge described by Infield (1997) best summarised this Section. He
described the flow of knowledge within an organisation, in which individuals play the main
role in its creation. Facts and data are organised in the system and these are filtered and
structured, as information. Next, individuals assimilate the contextual information and
transform it into knowledge. This transformation process is affected by the individual’s
experiences, attitudes and the context in which they work. The final state of the continuum
is behaviour on treating knowledge (Mårtensson, 2000).
3.6.3. Enabling knowledge creation: Knowledge spiral
Takeuchi and Nonaka (1995) emphasised the importance of knowledge creation in the
organisation and they presented an approach to cultivate the proper context suitable for
enabling knowledge creation.
They suggested that organisational knowledge is created through a continuous interaction

between tacit and explicit knowledge. They also present a knowledge spiral, in which
individuals develop new knowledge and organisations articulate and amplify that
knowledge. Takeuchi and Nonaka (1995) classified four different conversions routes of
interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge:
From tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge
From tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge
From explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge
From explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge
In turn, these four types of knowledge conversion routes respectively facilitate four
different process modes, which are: Socialisation, externalisation, combination and
internalisation.
Socialisation is a process of sharing experience, thereby creating tacit knowledge,

stemming from the conversion of tacit to tacit knowledge. Note that this type of knowledge
conversion can occur without linguistic means. Through this process, individuals in an
organisation can share mental models and technical skills with others.
Externalisation is a process of articulating tacit knowledge with explicit concepts, enabled

by the conversion of tacit to explicit knowledge. The main concept of this type of
knowledge conversion is that tacit knowledge can be expressed in the shapes of metaphors,
analogies, concepts, hypotheses or models. A fundamental assumption of the facilitated
process is that tacit knowledge is expressible, if at all, metaphorically.
Combination is a process of systemising concepts into a knowledge system, facilitated

through the conversion of explicit to explicit knowledge. This process uses tangible means,
such as documents, meetings, telephone conversations, or computerised communication
networks to enable the sharing of explicit knowledge between individuals in an
organisation.
Internalisation is a process of embodying explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge, assisted

by the conversion of explicit to tacit knowledge. Hence, this process requires actions from
which one can learn by doing.
Note that the four processes, stemming from the different directions of knowledge
conversion, are linked dynamically, at both the organisational and individual level.
In short, enabling knowledge creation encompasses facilitating relationships and

conversations, as well as sharing local knowledge across an organisation or beyond
geographic and cultural borders (Krogh et al., 2000).
3.6.4. Organisational learning
Knowledge is obtained through the process of cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is

defined as the processes through which people from associations among concepts, learn
sequences of concepts (e.g. memorise a list), solve problems and gain insights (Mowen and
Minor, 2001). Such learning involves an intuitive hypothesis-generating process in which
people adapt their beliefs to make sense of new data. For this reason, cognitive learning is
an active process in which people seek to control the information they obtain.
A central point of theories associated with people development, is the expert and novice
scheme. The fundamental difference between the expert and the novice is that the novice is
generally not likely to have a well organised domain specific knowledge-base, which
includes the proceduralisation of knowledge and the development of automatised skills,
mental models, meta-cognition and self-regulation (Ford and Kraiger, 1995). Hence, an
over-simplified means of facilitating people development could be to code and distribute
the knowledge of the expert, within or between organisations.
Ford and Kraiger (1995) suggested an instructional systems model that describes systematic
development and interrelated components of training programmes: Assessment, design and
transfer. Training assessment identifies where training is needed in the organisation, what
the content of the training should be and who needs the training. Training design focuses on
determining instructional objectives, sequencing of training material, incorporating learning
principles into training content and reviewing training methods to maximise learning.
Training transfer focuses on evaluating whether anticipated gains in knowledge, whether
skills and expected effects of training were obtained and whether these changes were
applied to the job (Ford and Kraiger, 1995).
In short, the following aspects are determined when designing an instruction system model:
Who and where needs to be trained?
An appropriate training context
Instructional objectives
Training methods to maximise learning
Methods that measure the gain from training and the levels of applicability
Awareness
Attitudes and Domain of
and
beliefs enduring
sensibilities
change
Skills and
capabilities
Figure 3.3 The essence of “the learning organisation” (Senge, 1990)
As Ford and Kraiger (1995) emphasised the strategy and contents for organisational
learning, Senge (1990) addressed the orthodox elements of knowledge theory: Attitude and
beliefs. His main concern is how to continue learning in an organisation, suggesting that
changes in attitudes and beliefs of individuals serve as a trigger for this. According to him,
team members develop new skills and capabilities that alter what they can do. As new
capabilities develop, so too does new awareness and sensibility, new beliefs and
assumptions, which enables further development of skills and capabilities.
3.6.5. Summary of the section
In this section, it was found that the theoretical background of KM is also rooted in the
applied fields of the knowledge theory, although the need for KM flourished from the lack
of knowledge that organisations experienced after downsizing. Knowledge is belief and its
final destination is acting knowledgably. Without changes in actors’ attitude, which serves
as the intervening mode of belief, they are not likely to act knowledgably.
3.7. Summary of the Chapter and Discussion
Knowledge has been defined with respect to two perspectives discussed in Chapter 2.
Based on an ontological perspective, knowledge is defined as the extension of data and
information. In other words, knowledge is regarded as metaphysical elements and is thus,
manageable like other assets. In contrast, knowledge is regarded as justified true belief
from an epistemological perspective. These two strands affect the method with which to
treat knowledge: Engineering and cultivation. Engineering aims to manage knowledge as
assets and cultivation attempts to generate a proper context in which practitioners can
construct consensus and create knowledge.
Through reviews of theories and practices of knowledge theory and its applied science, the
base of the theoretical framework is established. Mainly, elements extracted from
reviewing of the knowledge theory are fundamental and they are belief, attitude, behaviour
and context.
Other elements that would be useful in developing a conceptual model include: Contents
and Ba (as a working definition of context). However, at the same time, biased emphasis on
the former can face aforementioned critics, who are against a technology – or an
engineering-oriented approach, which claims that people-bound factors can be ignored.
In brief, the conceptual model to support the client should be developed while considering
the attitude and behaviour of the client, not neglecting the ontological parts (i.e. Systems
and structure) that enables knowledge to flow.
Nevertheless, the questions about which attitude and behaviour of the client should be
considered are not yet clarified. In addition, ontological parts need to be clarified according
to the specific situation that occasional individual clients face. The review of the client in
general and occasional individual clients in particular (which will be presented in next
chapter) can add to the completeness of the theoretical framework and lead towards a
theory-based conceptual model.
The term, ‘knowledge stream’, at the societal level obtains a theoretical appropriateness in
this context, as the term KM is suitable to describe the managerial application to keep
knowledge at the organisational level. Further reviews on literature relevant to clients will
be conducted based on the following perspective: To focus on knowledge as streams, rather
than definable assets.
CHAPTER 4. BUILDING INDUSTRY CLIENTS AND KNOWLEDGE
Individual occasional clients are a specific group of building industry clients. Needless to
say, any means for supporting them (by enabling knowledge necessary for them to flow)
should be developed by considering the unique characteristics of this client group. How,
then, can their characteristics be distinguished from other client groups? Although many
theories and practices developed for other client groups (mainly regular institutional
clients) or the client in general (and thus, these can be applied for all client groups),
relevant to the client exist plentifully and reviews of these can aid to clarify unique
characteristics of this client group, as well as similarities between this and other client
groups.
Classifications of clients in accordance to status, general roles and responsibilities are given
in other literatures and these are synthesised in Appendix 6. In this chapter, the other
aspects for rethinking the client are discussed towards defining knowledge necessary for the
client. For instance, their roles related to their own business in conjunction with the project
and differences between project performance and client performance. Clarifying the unique
characteristics of individual clients by comparing them to other clients (especially
institutional clients) follows.
Knowledge is necessary to support acting properly and activities of the client at the pre-
project stage are most significant. In order to classify the activities that the clients ought to
take during the pre-project stage, various process models are compared. As a result,
activities defined for the client side are gathered and a library of them is developed.
However, only by considering the normative activities, the knowledge necessary for the
client cannot be fully characterised. What the clients ought to know, know actually, do not
need to know and do not know, are discussed based on relevant literatures.
The last part of this chapter presents reviews of previous research projects relevant to the
client. These are analysed from the paradigms and perspectives given in Chapter 2.
4.2. The Client: Definition, classification and their performance
There are various types of clients in the building industry. However, classifying these
clients as a heterogeneous group has limitations, as there is no authorised criterion (Walker,
1996). Consequently, a dilemma arises, such that if clients cannot be grouped, theories of
knowledge can hardly be applied at the level of the group, organisation or society, given
that a common belief, behaviour and environment are not likely to exist.
As part of attempt to lessen this dilemma, classification of clients is performed in

accordance to the criteria that are reconstructed from previous research. Through this
classification, characteristics of each client group can be partly studied, if at all. The results
of classification are given in Appendix 6. In this section, instead, the unique characteristics
of individual clients are given in comparison to other client groups.
The other objective of this section is to initiate an argument on the trends of academic
studies, in which the client seems over-influenced by professional service providers’
perspectives. In short, clients should undertake activities in addition to paying for the
project and providing timely information for the professional practitioners. By providing
alternative perspectives, an opportunity to rethink the client is presented.
4.2.2. Various definitions of the client
Various types of the client role

The client is generally defined as the project owner (Rowlinson, 1999) or purchaser
(Murdoch and Hughes, 1996). Nevertheless, the client can also be regarded as the
developer of the building project and/or the end user (CIOB, 1992). Legally, the client is an
individual or organisation, that have the authority to order, approve and pay for the building
project (CIOB, 1980).
Examining the organisation of the client, the organisation is also complex (Cherns and
Bryand, 1984) with regards to the various roles within it. HM Treasury (1999)
compartmentalised the role of the client as investment decision makers, project owners,
project sponsors (also called the client representatives) and project managers. Although
these divided roles are defined from investigations into large-scale public clients, the HM
Treasury (1999) believed that any client, irrelevant to sectors (i.e. Public or private), should
be able to take on all of these roles. For major regular institutional clients, this is a
reasonable presumption, given that they have a high frequency of building projects, where
the role as the project sponsor may be more emphasised.
However, the term, ‘sponsor’ can be interpreted in different ways. Assuming that the
‘sponsor’ is one who supports the project, one must consider the means for supporting this
role. If the sponsor supports the project through an active involvement in the project
process, the client is regarded as the ‘sponsor of the construction process’ (Rowlinson,
1999). The ‘sponsor of the construction’, on the other hand, is one whose support is merely
financial. Abbott (1988) defined an internal project sponsor as:
In-house professional expertise that has some grasp of the work of the professions
whose aid they (clients) seek.
Higgin and Jessop (1965) suggested that these internal sponsors should be architects or
surveyors, supporting the notion that the ‘sponsor’ is indeed the sponsor of the construction
process.
Stakeholder
Furthermore, in addiction to the internal complexity of the client organisation, end-users
and stakeholders have also been recently included into the client side (HM Treasury, 1999).
McIntosh et al. (1998) defined the stakeholder as “a group or individual who can affect or
is affected by an organisation’s impact or behaviour”. They mentioned the need to consider
the stakeholder, as:
There are expanding demands being placed on business organisations, which include
a wider variety of groups not traditionally defined to be a part of the organisations’
immediate self-interest. Businesses are society responsible when they consider and act
on the needs and demands of these different stakeholders.
Although the stakeholders of construction projects are different to those in other business, a
classification supplied by a consumer manufacturer is used to brief the concept of the
stakeholder, given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Classification of stakeholders (extracted from Body Shop, 1997: noted by
McIntosh et al., 1998)
Primary stakeholders Secondary stakeholders
Social Non-social Social Non-social
Shareholders and The natural Government and Environmental

investors, environment, regulators, pressure groups,
Employees and Future generations, Civic institutions, Animal-welfare
managers, Non-human species. Social pressure organisations.
Customers, groups,
Suppliers and other The media and
business partners, academia,
Local communities. Trade bodies,
Competitors.
As shown in Table 4.1, primary stakeholders affect or are affected directly by the client’s
business, whereas secondary stakeholders are those who influence it, when a need to
involve occurs. In regards to construction projects, primary and secondary stakeholders of
such a project can be divided into two sub-groups: Those relevant to the client’s own
business and those relevant to the construction project, commissioned by the client.
4.2.3. Individual and institutional clients
The main reason to distinguish the individual clients from institutional ones is that
institutional clients are likely to have managerial skills. Although they are not specialised in
building, they could overview the construction projects from the managerial perspective
that is obtained or existing in their own organisation. A good example is presented by
CIRIA (1996). It mentioned that the client organisations react against risks ‘instinctively’:
Mature organisations recruit in-house professional expertise, while, other organisations
appoint trusted professionals. On the contrary, individual clients may behave in accordance
to their own belief formed from experiences on purchasing other products or, at best,
personal managerial skills if they are involved in business.
For institutional clients, the complexity of their organisations can affect the formation,
development and subsequent performance of the temporary project organisation (Cherns
and Bryand, 1984). They recommended that the complexity of the client organisation
should not flow over into the projects. To this end, the client should define the role and
responsibility within the client organisation and these should be performed by consistent
and clear individuals.
Webb (1999) mentioned that individual and institutional consumers mainly follow general
psychological purchase patterns because even the group purchases are usually made by an
individual. This notion could be arguable because institutional buyers generally buy for
others and therefore, their behaviour can be different from that of individual buyers who
purchase for themselves or others with whom they have a personal relationship. In the field
of construction management, the latter is mentioned more often. Green (1996) argued that
the personalities of individuals differ from those of the groups or corporations to which
they belong and therefore, anyone dealing with a corporation (client) should seek to
understand its disposition.
4.2.4. Project performance and client performance
The enhancement of performance in construction projects would be a never-achieved aim,

as long as construction continues on the planet earth. Yesterday’s best practices become old
ones today, due to new requirements and higher expectations of the client and
revolutionised techniques introduced into the industry. Hence, it is not surprising that
concerns about poor productivity in the building industry are always mentioned.
If then, what is the meaning of the poor productivity for the client? Questions to ask,
include: What has made the client less satisfied? What are the important results for the
client – are they duration, cost and product quality or the effects of the project upon the
client’s business? The former can be called ‘project performance’. However, the latter can
hardly be called project performance. For instance, even though the project team delivers
the project on time, within budget and by meeting expected quality requirements, as
communicated by the client, the new facility may not add value to the clients. In this case,
can this project be said to be successful?
Certainly, there are more points that cannot be measured conventionally. In this thesis,
these aspects will be called ‘client performance’ consisting of the performance of client
business that is affected by the building project as well as the client’s influence upon the
project itself. The challenge is that client performance can be revealed only through
operating the facility over time to determine how the delivered building contributes to the
benefit of the client’s business (Goodacre et al., 1982). For this reason, client performance
is closely related to their involvement in the project, properly reflecting their needs into the
project process, especially in the various briefing stages (Blyth and Worthington, 2001).
CCF (2000) recommended that the performance of the client, as well as the professional
service providers, should be enhanced and distinguished from each other. The direct
influences of the client performance upon the project performance at the micro level (or at
the project level) have been defined comparatively well. Walker (1996) summarised the
lessons learned from reviewing client objectives:
Clients with a firm and detailed idea on what needs to be done and how this can be
achieved, in a well planned and appropriately controlled manner, can be viewed as
sophisticated and will probably assist in a successful project outcome;
Clients who are novices or unsure of how to inform principal consultants may be
successful if they know the limits of their expertise in this matter and know how and
when to ask for appropriate assistance;
Clients must be firm in the statement and direction of their objectives and they must
speak with one voice. This need has led to the rise of the role of the project manager;
Clients should remain involved in the whole design and construction process to ensure
that work is being undertaken effectively and that they can contribute positively
through the process.
Although the meaning of project success and the contribution of project results to the client
business should be differentiated in the project process, these two viewpoints should be
integrated. CIRIA (1996) conducted a survey of the relations between the project and
clients’ business and suggested that the both should be considered in an integrated manner.
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the ability of the clients to define business
cases and to define the project while reflecting soft managerial issues in the client’s own
organisation should be a main factor in the briefing stage to assure the success of both
project and client performance.
4.2.5. Discussion: Who are occasional individual clients?
In the Appendix 6, various criteria to classify clients are presented. Most of all, the term
‘occasional’ indicates the level of experience of this client group. For this reason, this client
group might inherit the characteristics of inexperienced clients.
In terms of project (or product) type, industrial buildings may be excluded because this type
of project is more likely to be commissioned by the institutional clients rather than
individuals. In addition, civil projects may not be ordered by this client group. New housing
may also be rare, as the main proportion (around 80%) of new housing is carried out by
developers. The rehabilitation of domestic buildings and small business facilities (e.g. face-
lifting, change of use for new businesses) are likely to be the main types of projects that can
be ordered by occasional individual clients. Thus, this client group does not need to engage
in the complex process of defining business case or requirements at the organisational level
as the institutional clients do.
The value of projects ordered by individual clients is likely to be lower than projects
commissioned by other client groups. The project budget determines the affordable types of
outsourcing (e.g. consultancy). This could be the main reason to limit the possible
procurement path they can select.
Individual clients are more likely to order the project for their own purposes. This tendency
can affect their attitude on involvement (they can be more active because it is their own
property or, on the contrary, they can be more passive because they do not need to take the
responsibility for wasting resources).
The dominant attitude and behaviour in this client group could be analysed more easily than
the institutional clients group. For institutional clients, as reviewed, the roles of the client
are allocated to individuals or teams to play decision maker, sponsor and representative. On
the contrary, individual clients may take all these roles unless they appoint relevant
consultants. However, this integrated role can also increase the complexity of analysing the
attitude and behaviour of individual clients. They are not likely to be a clear-cut about their
roles.
4.3. Client’s Purposeful Activities at the Pre-Project Stage
What ‘knowledge’ is necessary for the client? To answer this question, we need to clarify
why s/he requires the knowledge. Davenport and Prusak (2000) distinguished action from
knowledge as ‘things you do with knowledge’. In order to classify things the clients do with
knowledge, this section presents an overview of the role and responsibility of the client
because the client would place more value on knowledge that can support their purposeful
actions.
The procedure of activities is significant as well as the types of activities (Scaborough et al.,
1999). In order to define key procedures of activities at the pre-project stage, various
process models are compared and an activity library for the client side is generated. Among
activities in the library, the focus is on main client activities at the pre-project stage: To be
aware of requirements, to identify objectives, to generate and assess options, to produce a
strategic brief, to establish the procurement strategy and to obtain information for staffing
from potential service providers.
The activities stated above are defined in accordance with the project process. However,
other supplemental activities are needed to conduct those process-based activities. For
instance, for any activities stated above, there is a prerequisite activity such as information
search. These activities are named ‘supplement activities’ in this thesis. In the last of part of
this section, these supplement activities are defined and explained. They include:
Information search, decision-making and managerial activities.
Although the key activities should be undertaken by the clients irrespective of type, the
contents and significance of each activity may vary with their status. For this research
project, the content and significance of activities for individual clients are primarily
reviewed.
4.3.2. Role and responsibilities of the client
It has been acknowledged that clients should also accept some measure of responsibility for
the present level of dissatisfaction with buildings because they have not fully committed to
their role of providing essential information to service providers appointed to develop the
project (Goodacre et al., 1982). O’Reilly (1987) supported this argument as follows:
The client should not assume that the main technical consultant is willing to undertake,
or is best at, overall management (O’Reilly, 1987)
Bennett (1985) defined roles as that desired or required to achieve the organisation’s
objective for rewards and responsibilities as instructed actions. On the contrary,
responsibilities, in various contexts, define formal relationships between various project
parties (Walker, 1996). The main role of the client is to direct the project for which s/he is
ultimately responsible (CSSC, 1991). Note that the term ‘direct’ could be replaced by
‘manage’ or ‘control’ (Higgins and Jessop, 1965).
Table 4.2 A comparison of the client’s responsibilities in literature
Bennett (1985) Waterhouse and Walker (1996) CIB (1997 a)

Crook (1995)
To provide the primary Planning To set clear objectives To define needs and
objectives - goals time
- objectives, To clarify priorities
- strategies regarding time, cost
- polices, and quality
- procedures To understand the risks
- standards involved in their
Perception & analysis project, quantify the
of risk and make financial
- opportunities provision
- problems To take account of the
- alternative courses costs of the project
of action over its whole life
- programme To ensure that the
financial and other
resources necessary
for the project
To define the main Organising To consider objectives
outlines of the when choosing a
organisation procurement method
To establish the
project culture
To select role Staffing To build the project To appoint the right
occupants for the team people to represent
main roles and advise them
To exercise authority Directing To champion the
over the organisation - communication project in the political
- motivation and public arenas
To communicate
objectives clearly to
other involved parties
Controlling To monitor progress
and performance
Bennett (1985) described the responsibilities of the client to comprise the following: (1) To
provide the primary objectives, (2) To define the main outlines of the organisation, (3) To
select occupants for the main roles, (4) To establish the project culture and (5) To exercise
authority over the organisation.
Walker (1996) also addressed the client responsibilities as: (1) To set clear objectives, (2)
To consider objectives when choosing a procurement method (3) To build the project team,
championing the project in the political and public arenas and (4) To communicate
objectives clearly to other involved parties.
CSSC (1991), Waterhouse and Crook (1995) and CIB (1997a, 1997b) also offered that
clients’ responsibilities contain the same emphasis as that proposed by Bennett (1985) and
Walker (1996). A comparison of the defined responsibilities is presented in Table 4.2.
With the availability of IT in construction projects, new responsibilities for the client have
emerged. Accordingly, the client should cultivate project culture, in which the benefit of
deploying IT could be realised (Baxendale and Logan, 1995; Fisher, 1997; Walker, 1996;
Rowlinson, 1999). It is believed that IT would enhance communication among various
parties involved in the project. The first step towards utilising this process should be the
systematic approach to support the information flows from the client in the briefing stage.
HM Treasury (1999) classified the responsibility of the client according to the roles within
the public client organisation, i.e. Investment decision-maker and project owner. Although
the responsibilities defined in the literature is almost mandatory for public clients who
expend public monetary resources, some of the defined responsibilities raise issues that
private clients should consider as well.
4.3.3. Generic project process models and an activity library for the client
Generic project process model and the client

The nature of the designing and constructing processes is characterised by a series of ‘pinch
points’ through which it must pass if progress is to be made. As each pinch point represents
a decision that has to be made (Walker, 1996), the process model illustrates the activities
that must be performed, in a sequential order (e.g. RIBA, 1992; HM Treasury, 1999) or a
combination of sequential order and managerial functions (e.g. BAA, 1995; Cooper, 1998).
However, Blyth and Worthington (2001) argued that sticking to a process in itself, does not
guarantee success, although the sequence and necessary progress is important. In addition,
they emphasised that the use of process models should not be “following a sequential flow-
chart” as, in reality, the process will be “interactive, fuzzy and concurrent”. Winch and Carr
(2001) also addressed the restrictions on applying the generic process protocol to various
types of projects. Their research reported that even a retail client had difficulties with
applying the generic process protocol to one, after other construction projects with very
similar missions. They reasoned that the protocol was not designed to respond to the
change of the client’s mind and that the standard protocol was limited in providing
competency to practitioners, as the protocol is unable to offer ‘different’ processes to the
clients. This is a huge restriction for individual clients, despite that the protocol could
provide common grounds of communication between various parties of the construction
projects (Winch and Carr, 2001).
Public Private Partnership

(Private Finance Initiative)
1 2 3 4 5 6
possible need for identify user options to meet user needs prepare project
project raised needs - confirm project required business brief
case Approval
gateway 1
13 12 11 10 9 8 7
invite contract whole life procurement feasibility
expressions of preparation based strategy study
interests Approval design Approval options
gateway 3 gateway 2
14 15 16 17 18 19
tender process award contract works contract deliver project feedback
Approval
gateway 4
Figure 4.1 An example of process model: Project flow (HM Treasury, 1999)
At the pre-project stage, the client does not need to think of the entire and further project
process because the best solution could be to ‘do nothing’ (Blyth and Worthington, 2001).
Once the best solution is to commission a building project whether it is new building or
refurbishment, a defined protocol to cover the entire project process may, to a certain extent
be useful.
Figure 4.1 illustrates an example of a general process model, designed to guide public
clients. The process in which the clients should make decisions, is illustrated. In short, for
the clients, the process model can become a map to guide the general sequence of the
project and therefore, enhance their understanding of their own role, especially by
indicating key decision points in the process as well as process itself.
Comparison of various process models

The process model illustrated in Figure 4.1 is designed for public clients. As mentioned,
other process models have been published and these are for all parties (including the client)
involved in the project. By the existence of various process models, they raise a need to
compare them. Through comparison to significant level, the common activities that should
be taken by the client could be clarified. In order to reduce the complexity, some non-
sequential contents of models, such as interactions between activities are eliminated and
only sequential activities from each model are arranged in accordance with the main stage
and compared. The result of this comparison at the main stage level (called level 0 in this
thesis) is presented in Appendix 8.1 and a more detailed level (called Level 1 in this thesis)
in Appendix 8.2. The aims of the comparisons are: To find out controversial activities that
are placed in different order from model to model; to define key activities that clients
should take.
The initial stage is divided into two parts: The project definition stage and the feasibility
stage (HM Treasury, 1999). Upon comparing several process models, it has been found that
since the project definition stage is not always introduced, the sequential order of the
feasibility study differs between process models. For instance, in process models before
that presented by the BAA (1995), it is found that the evaluation of client options is
supposed to be carried out upon completion of the feasibility study stage.
Furthermore, it has been found that the project team organisation or staffing stage is
included in some process models. The aim of the generic project process model is to
present a map that can be applied to various types of project with fewer exceptions. For this
reason, activities that can be affected by the specific types of project or clients are not
included in the generic model. The project organisation structure and procedures for
staffing is closely related to the client’s objective and in-house resource. In other words, it
is difficult to formulate these tasks as a generic process, due to the diversity of the clients.
However, if the process model is designed to guide a specific group of clients who are
believed to have similar in-house resources and experience, it can include these tasks. For
instance, the process model presented by the British Property Federation includes them.
HM Treasury (1999) also includes this kind of activity (e.g. nominating the independent
advisors at the pre-project stage).
Another finding is that the post-project stage, such as obtaining feedback for the quality of
service and/or product, has recently been added to the process model (e.g. HM Treasury,
1999).
Activity library for the client

The process model is a map to guide the flow of the project and sometimes includes non-
sequential activity such as events that occur naturally and interim outputs that are produced
as the result of previous activities. In the process model of HM Treasury (1999) (see Figure
4.1), ‘possible need for project raised’ falls into the former and ‘procurement strategy’ is an
example of the latter. The professionals or regular (or experienced) clients may know who
should be involved at each stage in the process. However, clients who are not familiar with
the role and responsibilities of parties at a certain stages of the process may need clearer
descriptions of their own activities, as well as of the process.
As material to supplement the lack of practicability of the process model for clients who do
not know exactly what their own tasks are, a library of activities is developed from a
combination of selected constituents from the reviewed process models and arranged in
sequential order. As activities are selected and grouped in accordance with the main stages
(or phases) of the process model, their procedures are not broken. The library is given in
Appendix 8.3.
The purpose of this library is to present a fundamental resource for the client to recognise
their own potential tasks and design their own tailored process model. The classified
activities are of two types: Procedural and overall general activities. The former are simply
the activities arranged in order, whereas the latter are iterated activities over the process.
Procedural activities should be taken in order, whereas general activities need to be
performed during the relevant project phase.
4.3.4. Process-based classification of clients’ activities
Although briefing is an umbrella term for activities of all parties involved at the pre-project
stage (see Appendix 9 for the further explanations and discussions), many variations from
different perspectives of various professional participants exist, in terms of contents of
briefs and parties who are supposed to be involved and procedure to conduct activities.
Nevertheless, back to the purpose of this section: To define ‘things the clients do with
knowledge’, five essential activities that the client should conduct are chosen as follows:
Be aware of requirements and produce a statement
Identify objectives
Generate and evaluate options
Produce a strategic brief
Establish a procurement strategy and prepare information for staffing
In addition to these five activities, although it is not an activity taken at the pre-project
stage, an evaluation of project results and performance of building is included, as these can
feed back information for other projects at the organisational level (for the regular clients)
and society level (for occasional clients). In terms of knowledge streams, this feedback
seems to be the main way to transfer knowledge between clients.
Be aware of requirements and produce a statement

Requirements can rarely be distinguished from objectives. Chinyio (1999) distinguished
needs that are ‘a means to an end’ from ‘to being main objectives’. In this thesis, the former
is regarded as requirements because objectives are mentioned separately. More precisely,
the awareness of requirements can be understood as the recognition of needs that arise
naturally, rather than an intended activity.
To be aware of requirements is closely related to the status of the client. One exception is
that developers may initiate the project by recognising others’ needs (i.e. Potential users or
buyers of facilities), rather than their own needs. A main need that makes individual clients
think about building is the need for more space (Chinyio, 1999). On the contrary, the needs
of institutional clients vary (Kernohan, 1992). It could occur at an operational level or a
strategic level in the organisation (Blyth and Worthington, 2001). Chinyio (1999)
categorised needs into eight groups: Aesthetics, economy, functionally, quality, relations,
safety, commitment and time.
Blyth and Worthington (2001) emphasised the progress from identifying clients’ needs
before identifying the appropriate kind of projects and clear objectives and priorities before
the detailed design stage starts. It should be appropriate that the senior manager (Blyth and
Worthington 2001) or someone, who is in the position available to make a decision on
expenditure, produces a statement.
For individual clients, this stage can be better expressed by introducing theories in the field
of consumer behaviour research, as individual clients may regard ordering building works
as another purchasing activity (see Appendix 5.1).
How can owner/users be aware of requirements? They can discover a new need after
looking around other facilities and may keep that in mind. In addition, whether they intend
or not, information about their own facilities have accumulated and at a certain moment,
this will be expressed externally. By contrast, the client may start trying to obtain
information from other clients who ordered similar projects or own facilities in the same
business field (Blyth and Worthington, 2001). In the field of consumer behaviour research,
the former is called ‘internal information search’ and information obtained is believed to
keep in ‘long term memory’; and the latter is ‘external search’ (Mowen and Minor, 2001).
Identify objectives
As mentioned in Section 4.2.4, project performance can deviate from the client
performance. Traditional criteria employed to evaluate project performance (i.e. Time, cost
and quality) may be too micro to evaluate the client’s objectives that are supposed to be
achieved. At this stage, the clients need to identify objectives focusing on aspects of their
own side such as business objectives, corporate requirements and policies on property
(Blyth and Worthington, 2001)
Stockdale (1998) notes three business objectives described by Buchanan and Huczynski
(1985): Strategic, operative and control. Strategic objectives are those mainly derived from
the competitive aspects of business organisations. These would include: Increasing the
capacity to cope with new demands; improving the quality of products, delivery or service;
becoming leaders or innovators; attracting customers. These strategic objectives often are
closely linked with the operative objectives. Operative objectives are those that provide a
means of achieving strategic targets, but they may, to some extent, have a rationale of their
own. These would involve: Production and technical objectives, such as cost reduction and
control; improved output sequencing and production flow; more economic use of energy;
the replacement of outdated or inefficient plants; increasing the flexibility of operations.
Control objectives are those that relate to managers wanting to increase their control over
production processes through increasing levels of predictability, reliability and consistency
– often by reducing the reliance on human intervention and control.
Generate and assess options

Once the needs and objectives of the client are identified, the next step is to generate and
assess various options that can fulfil the needs and objectives of the client. In some cases,
‘do nothing’ can be the best solution and this should be included into various options
(Green, 1996). Gameson (1992) suggested that a process has to be implemented to
determine the ‘precise requirements of the client in relation to the creation of his solution’
before a final choice is made on how to proceed further with the building process.
The process of generating and assessing options is extremely complex internally and
externally. Woodhead (1999) identified and investigated what aspects influence the
decision towards an option that can be called a ‘project’. The subject of his research was
regular major clients. In some cases, main objectives need to be a traded-off and the client
is recommended to prioritise them (NEDO, 1998; Woodhead, 1999).
O’Reilly (1987) addressed the points relevant to the client that should be considered in
relation to solutions as:
Are there internal disagreements about what should be done?
Resources – is there enough time, money and skill?
Context – which external factors do constrain the project from inside or outside the
client organisation, such as competing client investment plans, statutory or legal matters,
technical problems or site?

This activity is to formulate the chosen strategy (Blyth and Worthington, 2001). They
summarised the purpose of the strategic briefing, as follows:
To present the client organisation’s needs and objectives, and to outline the assessment
of construction requirements
To provide an inspirational statement of intent and sets out key objectives, client
expectations and methods of procurement
To review statement of requirement against original objectives
The strategic brief is for the project team and therefore, the standard of the service that the
client receives, is related to the amount of effort expended by him in establishing a good
brief at the start (NEDO, 1978). O’Reilly (1987) went on to suggest the attributes of a good
brief: Clarity, priorities, consistency, completeness, realism, relevance, logical structure and
presentation, flexibility and scope.
However, regarding the thinking process of the client who holds unsorted ideas
simultaneously, this kind of ‘clear’ briefing seems hardly achievable. For this reason,
Barret and Stanley (1999) argue that the perfect brief can often result in poor solutions and
vice versa. As supported by Blyth and Worthington (2001), success is less about the right
checklists and more about the ‘appropriate process’.
Establish a procurement strategy and obtain information for staffing

Procurement is a method of obtaining and organising external resources such as advisers,
designers and construction skills needed to complete a project (CIB, 1997). The explanation
of various procurement systems is presented in Appendix 7.5.
In this thesis, the main aspects that should be considered during the pre-project stage for
further procurement path are depicted in Figure 4.2. It shows the main linkages between
client objectives, evaluation of project performance and procurement. Based on the nature
of the project and clients’ experience, they identify a general set of value-for money criteria
at the inception stage and then formulate a view of target levels of attainment or objectives
for each criterion (Ward et al., 1991). From this stage, some procuring occurs in order to
supplement the lack of in-house resource, especially a party to assess the value for money
of various options. As illustrated in
Figure 4.2, clients’ objectives affect decisions in selecting a procurement method and
become criteria to evaluate the project performance. Gameson (1992) defined factors that
affect the procurement path as: Time, cost, quality, complexity, certainty and flexibility.
Client stock of experience

and advice received
Client expectations of the Clients'

procurement method concerns
Client perceptions of the

nature of the project
Client
objectives
Clients' choice of (targets for
procurement method attainment)
Roles and responsibilities of

parties as perceived by the
client
Client's evaluation of
ongoing and final project
performance
Figure 4.2 The role of clients’ objectives (Ward et al., 1991)
After establishing the procurement strategy, the client needs to initiate the project
organisation. CCF (2000) recommends that the clients take care in choosing the people to
represent, advise and work for them.
For the clients, the payment options may be important as this can be a means for sustaining
their power over the project. CCF (2000) summarised payment options as: Lump sum, re-
measurement, cost reimbursable and target cost (see Appendix 7.5 for further explanation).
In general, the first point of contact determines the procurement system. Gameson (1992)
investigated relationships between the status of the client, the first point of external contact
and further procurement paths. According to Franks (1998), if the client contacts the
architect first, the architect may be empowered and the procurement system could be the
designer-led tender (e.g. traditional contract) or designer-led construction managed for a fee
(e.g. management contracting or construction management). If the architect provides the
project management service properly, the project could bring a successful result.
Evaluate the project results and performance of building

By only considering the traditional project performance evaluation criteria (i.e. Time, cost
and quality), the client’s satisfaction depends upon results comparing to the anticipated
duration and cost, rather than the actual duration and cost outcomes (Winch et al., 2001).
As the objectives of the client are not simply to finish the project within budget, on time
and in response to expected quality, different criteria to evaluate the project results and
building performance are required. The client may evaluate the success of the project
according to issues defined during the strategic brief, mainly if the project is completed to
meet objectives. This evaluation may focus on physical and operational aspects of building.
On the contrary, the performance of building can only be evaluated over time through post-
occupancy evaluation. This post-occupancy evaluation can lead the other needs for a new
project. The clients may continuously compare the post-occupancy evaluation and their
own organisation performance criteria. Blyth and Worthington (2001) defined key
client/user interests to be considered in a post-occupancy study as the: Use of energy; use
of space; use of time; operating costs and image. Successful business performance often
comes down to the client’s recognising the gap between current and ideal situations. The
gap can be found through a structured evaluation programming that can be facilitated by
proper culture and aspirations of the organisation (Blyth and Worthington, 2001).
There is another source of feedback, in addition to that on product. Feedback on services

provided by professional practitioners can add to or diminish the satisfaction of the client.
The client can champion the project by means of reference power – the client can
recommend practitioners involved in the project to others, based on the evaluation of
service and service providers may be keen to maintain reputations (Bennett, 1985).
4.3.5. Supplement activities to conduct process-based activities
Some activities cannot be defined in process-based, but are still essential to overall project
process. These activities are strictly a necessary pre-requisite or result of process-based
activities. In this section, three key activities, which are not strictly necessary to the process,
are explained and they are: Information search, decision-making and managerial activities.
Information search
Almost all research dealing with the client have focussed on decision-making, but ignored a
fundamental aspect: How and where have the clients obtained the information necessary for
decision-making? If the clients have proper attitudes on their own role and are ready to
make decisions on the basis of rationale, the first problem they are likely to meet is not the
method or detail for decision-making, but whether they have the necessary information.
Needless to say, decision-making is the most important activity for the client. However,
decisions can only be successfully made when some pre-conditions are met: Various
options exits; information on each option is in hand and the decision maker has the ability
to evaluate each option.
Whenever the clients need to make decisions, they may seek information cautiously or
incautiously. At the pre-project stage, clients need to identify objectives, generate options
and establish a procurement strategy. They may try to retrieve relevant information in the
long-term memory of an external information source when they recognise that they do not
have sufficient intelligence.
Decision-making
The client is supposed to make a decision continuously. In certain cases, they make a
decision to judge if a single aspect is really fitted to the situation or not. For instance, the
client needs to judge whether the needs recognised are truly problematic in the current
situation. This decision can be called ‘judgemental decision’. On the contrary, the client is
also supposed to make a decision to select an option from various opinions and it is a
matter of ‘choice’.
The problem is that the client has constraints in making proper decisions at the pre-project
stage: Absence of full information; inability to analyse it; time and cost considerations. All
these constraints prevent the client from selecting the optimal solution (Chinyo, 1999). In
the project stage, decision-making is not an individual activity but an interactive process
with other parties involved in the project. Such decisions can be based on professional
advice, upon hiring external consultants. However, clients at the pre-project stage usually
make decisions based on irrationality, due to the constraints stated above.
The constraints are the very nature of the real world situation. Differences between
normative models and actual behaviour of the client are predictable in part because of what
Simon (1997) called ‘boundary rationality’. The capacity of the human mind for
formulating and solving complex problems is very similar to the size of the problem. More
concisely, the greater the problem the more attempts are made to solve it. In general, the
human minds attempts to solve the problem objectively with rational behaviour and if it is
not possible, reasonable approximations are made.
There are a couple of investigations into factors influencing the client’s decision-making
process. For instance, Woodhead (1999) classified paradigm and perspective that influence
making the decision to build. However, major areas of the decision-making process remains
untouched.
The decision made by the client based on experience can be rational, but may not be. Blyth
and Worthington (2001) argued that regular clients’ briefs can be largely prescriptive,
based on experience and may stifle innovation. Green (1996) also mentioned the hazards of
depending upon previous experience, as it can hamper continuous innovation and creative
thinking.
On the contrary, occasional clients tend to produce briefs with a higher proportion of
performance specification and this can be risky because of the absence of reference to
experience (Blyth and Worthington, 2001).
Overall managerial activities

O’Reilly (1987) described the root of good briefing as defining requirements and
facilitating the communication between the client and the project parties. Keeping a proper
communication channel with consultants should be a key overall managerial activity for the
client.
CIB (1997b) suggested general activities that should be taken by the client regularly and
systematically throughout the project:
Ensuring that relevant options are being evaluated and appropriate decisions are being
made
Ensuring there are sufficient resources of the right kind assigned for briefing throughout
the project
Managing and taking ownership of the developed series of briefs
CCF (2000) recommended that clients should monitor progress and performance and be
ready to deal with the unexpected situations.
4.3.6. Discussion
Normative activities and procedures for individual clients may not be significantly different
from those for institutional clients. Certainly, (rational) individual clients may follow the
purposeful procedures defined for institutional clients: To be aware of needs, to identify
objectives, to generate and evaluate options, to produce a strategic brief and to establish the
procurement strategy. On the contrary, the extent of complexity of each activity conducted
by individual and institutional clients may be different.
For instance, key activities for individual clients can be defined more easily than for
institutional clients. The conflicts between members within an organisation are not likely to
be severe for individual clients. Furthermore, the internal and external environmental
changes of individual clients may be less complex and rapid, compared with those of
institutional clients.
On the flip side, there could be unique difficulties that only individual clients may have.
Assessments of various options can be biased, as this is done on an individual basis, rather
than being team-based. It may be prejudiced but, in general, the projects ordered by
individual clients are smaller than those done by institutional clients. For this reason, the
needs for a structured process at the pre-project stage may appeal less to individual clients.
Moreover, the expenditure for building projects are relatively large, compared to costs for
purchasing other products for individual clients. For this reason, the importance of strategic
thinking should be recognised by individual clients as well.
Given that varied status (even among individual clients) can affect the contents of process-
based activities, it seems literally impossible to identify all issues relevant to these activities.
4.4. The Clients and Knowledge
It has been said that some clients show lack of knowledge. Probably, this has been said by
the professionals in the industry. In one way, it is quite natural that they show lack of
knowledge on building projects – this is the very reason for outsourcing (or procuring
professional services). However, recently, clients’ lack of knowledge has been reconsidered
as they do not need to know the detail of the project and they are in the best position to
know their own facility. For this reason, it cannot simply be said the clients do not have
knowledge.
What they ought to know, what they really know and what they do not need to know are
different. In this section, these (although they seem somewhat rhetorical) are classified.
4.4.2. Knowledge that the client is likely to have
The institutional clients have an in-depth knowledge about their own company (NEDO,
1988). In addition, the clients may generally be most knowledgeable on their own facilities.
The lack of knowledge is derived from unfamiliarity to the building process rather than the
facility itself.
Kernohan et al. (1992) argued that user’s knowledge is different to provider’s knowledge.
The former is gained from experience, using facilities over time and the latter is received
from education and practices in the field. In various aspects, both sides have different
perspectives and these are illustrated in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Cultural difference: Comparison of providers’ and users’ attitudes and
beliefs with respect to facilities (Kernohan et al., 1992)
Attribute Providers Users
Quality: What Formal and technical qualities and Relation between a facility and
makes a good properties of a facility as an artifact, activity, e.g. How it ‘works’ in relation
facility e.g. How it ‘looks’. Or how assured to intended activity and perceived
‘the idea’ needs
Finance: Who Receive money (directly or indirectly Pay money (directly or indirectly) for
pays and (as from users) for technical or using facility
perceived) for professional advice/services in
what provision and maintenance of facility
Market forces: Supply-side role. Increasing Demand-side role. Gradually
Roles, values competition with other suppliers, but increasing a critical outlook in a
still tendency to wait for demand to ‘buyer’s market, but still tend to take
make itself known what is offered’
Activity in relation Work on facility: work/career exists Work or live in or with facility: facility
to facility because of facilities exists because of work or other
activity
Reality: View of the View of reality acquired and View of reality based on direct
‘real world’ maintained through professional experience in operating in facilities;
training, associations and traditions, little or no formal training or
resulting in specific and predictable knowledge about facilities; see
way of thinking and acting facilities as ‘background’ to daily
operations
Language Technical: often jargon; narrow, Non-technical, loose, diverse,
precise vocabulary idiosyncratic
Knowledge base Received, formal, documented; Experiential, informal, not
combination of education and documented
professional experience
Perceived value of High value attached to own Low value attached to own
own and others’ knowledge and experience: ‘we knowledge and experience;
knowledge know best’; low value attached to moderate or high anticipated value
users’ knowledge attached to providers’ knowledge:
‘They must know best’
Self-image Confident of value and correctness Uncertainty of value or correctness of
of own views and knowledge; self- own views; defer to ‘experts’
image of ‘expert’
Power to decide Considerable, derived through direct Minimal, almost no participation in
what is provided, action, assigned or assumed design decision during the delivery
to what quality authority based on expertise stages of a facility; power limited to
‘take it or leave it’ points of decision
Blyth and Worthington (2001) also mentioned that knowledge of supply and demand sides
differs. Hence, they interpreted the briefing as the interaction of knowledge of both sides
and suggested the independent role of the design brief manager as the co-ordinator of both.
The relationship of the three parties and knowledge interaction between supply and demand
sides are presented in Figure 4.3.
Knowledge on their
Demand side own business Supply side
Users - Full time
- Visitors Designers
Client advisors Consultants
Client Contractors
Fenders Property agents
Legislators Facilities manager
Knowledge on design,
building and
maintenance
Accomation solution
Design Brief Manager

(Independent side)
Figure 4.3 Briefing as knowledge interaction (Partly adopted from Blyth and
Worhtington, 2001)
The difference between user/owner and professional service providers’ knowledge is well
explained in the field of consumer behaviour research. Mowen and Minor (1998) suggested
that the knowledge about the product (facility in this context) is gained through ‘actual
contact’ with products. According to them, the knowledge obtained by the user/owner
through using the facility is likely to be more vivid, concrete and salient than that obtained
by the professional service provider through education and practice.
4.4.3. Knowledge that the client is not likely to have
Goodacre et al. (1982) mentioned that clients have inadequate knowledge in following
areas:
Functional (determining requirements of a built form as a solution to the problem)
Financial (capital cost, maintenance/operating cost/taxation)
Legal (planning, employee legislation, building regulations, fire, etc.)
Building structure and construction
Building services/environmental performance
Project timing
Site factors (access/location/visual)
In some cases, the client may know internally what they need, but have limited ability to
express them in a way that can be understood by professional practitioners in the industry.
However, is this a reason for blaming the clients? Rather, one should blame the lack of
ability of service providers to extract and share the needs existing in the client’s mind.
An argument arises: Clients’ inadequate knowledge is not always the same as that which
the clients should know. Blyth and Worthington (2001) argued that, very often, the client is
expected to have far greater knowledge. The main issue in this argument is not the
knowledge itself, but perspectives on the client’s role: Which role of the client is
emphasised between owner/user of a facility, director of the project and customer of
service? In various publications, the knowledge that the client is supposed to have has been
defined for the client focusing on their role as the director of the project. The reason to hire
a project manager from the outset of the project is to supplement the lack of knowledge
necessary for directing the project. However, the knowledge that the client must have to
execute required responsibility is different from knowledge that is enough to be aware of or
understand relevant issues. HM Treasury (1999) called the former the client’s ‘ability to
execute’ and the latter ‘ability to understand’.
The lack of knowledge of the client as the director of the project can cause difficulty in
handling the various professionals in the industry. The Construction Client Forum (CCF,
1997) found that 60% of construction clients experienced problems when dealing with the
construction industry. However, it seems not a major problem to achieve the objectives of
the clients. According to CCF (1997), paradoxically, in 70% of cases stated above, the
completed building itself usually met client needs; but the problems during the procurement
process and during the ‘after sales’ period tended to tarnish the level of client satisfaction.
4.4.4. Knowledge that the client should have
If the statements of CCF (1997) are the case, the knowledge that is most necessary for the
client is about procuring external resources: Which consultants should the client contact in
order to obtain advice or consultancy to fulfil his/her lack of knowledge at the pre-project
stage? This aspect seems a most complex issue for the client due to the fragmented nature
of the building industry. However, it can also be solved unexpectedly easily, due to the
common nature of purchasing: Clients may apply their cognitive framework for purchasing
other products to procuring a building project, if they understand the unique nature of the
building project.
Unique nature of commissioning building compared with other purchasing
Unlike most products, the client cannot see the result until it is complete. Its design life
is considerable, so defects may emerge long after the building has been accepted
(CCF, 2000)
As CCF (2000) stated, a building project is a one-off process to produce a unique output by
a temporarily assembled organisation, according to the order-to-delivery sequence. This
characteristic of the building project inherits the limitation for the client to enhance the
knowledge before the project is delivered about the facility they would operate or use.
Furthermore, they could not compare the quality of potential products and service before
ordering the project.
Modern construction requires a wide range of professional skills in design, finance,

purchasing, management and supervision. Who is best in one skill is not necessary the
best in the others? So, the choice of who is going to work for you can be critical (CCF
2000).
For the client, in addition to the order-to-delivery building procurement, the way to order
has various options. Procurement systems vary, as do professionals and the scope of service
provided by them.
The other aspect the clients should appreciate is that the background of the professionals,
who are involved in the project, is diverse. Any professionals nominated have
interdependence in the project team, but still belong to their own organisation that has
different culture from others.
Essential knowledge of the clients: Knowledge necessary for the customer of

service
The client needs to know which services are necessary, which professions can provide the
service and who is most suitable even if they have the same professional background. For
instance, a design for a simple extension can be performed by a building surveyor as well
as an architect. It simply depends on the client’s choice of which professional they would
involve. However, assuming that the client prefers the architect to design the extension,
then which architect should the client hire and why?
Despite the lack of knowledge of the client at the pre-project stage, if they know the
available advisory service at this stage, the major problems that are derived from the lack of
knowledge can be solved to a great extent. The knowledge necessary for the client at this
stage can be categorised as that necessary for the client as the customer of service. However,
this does not mean that the role of the client as the customer of service is not relevant to the
other roles. Knowledge necessary as the customer of service can, in a sense, be a part of
that necessary as the director of project, as the former is relevant to organising and staffing
in the client role as the director of a project.
Although some literature mention knowledge necessary for the client (e.g. HM Treasury,
1999), their main concerns are explicit knowledge or, in some cases, lists of information.
One clear finding from this section is that the knowledge the client has, does not have and
should have, are different. What they have in common is that the client has deep knowledge
on their facility and needs knowledge on necessary and available service (consultancy) at
the pre-project stage.
4.5. Previous Research Dealing with the Client
In this section, research relevant to clients is classified in three categories: Of the client –
who is the client? What does s/he need? How does s/he think and act as the client; from the
client – mainly focusing on information flows from the client to professional practitioners
throughout the project; and by the client – client aid applications that assume the active
involvement of the client.
No clear-cut division exists between these trends as aims or findings of each trend interact.
Based on findings from investigating the fundamental nature ‘of the client’, the tool to
support decision-making ‘by the client’ can be developed. The project can be successfully
completed in the environment in which the information gained ‘from the client’ (through
the briefing process) is shared.
4.5.2. Of the client
Background: Nature of the client

Research that can be classified as ‘of the client’ are already mentioned throughout this
chapter. This research trend has objectives to find out the nature and status of the client and
his/her impact upon the project performance. The distinctive example of this research trend
is shown through the classification of the clients (see Appendix 6).
The status of the client

Research falling into this category are fundamental because they attempt to answer the
question: Who is the client? (see Section 4.2). Research on the status of various clients has
been presented (see Appendix 6), but the results seem less rigorous as the population is
based on private acquaintance or limited to the major clients that can be obtained from
contract journals. In particular, the proportion of individual clients in the entire client group
has rarely been estimated. The other point that should be considered is that the proportion
of client groups is shown in terms of the total amount of project value rather than the
number of clients belonging to each group. So, the main part of client group in terms of
numbers can be ignored when the total amount of the value ordered by that group in the
industry is not significant.
The needs of clients

Several researchers have investigated the needs of clients. Some researchers investigated
the client’s requirements, focusing on the product itself. Their preferences for room
numbers, outlook, required space, etc., are examples of objects treated in past research.
Chinyio (1999) investigated the needs and preferences of various types of clients and
grouped them.
The client’s needs have been redefined as having a broader meaning, including aspects that
are not directly related to the product itself (e.g. client’s business case). This new
perspective has intensively influenced the briefing process of the project launched by
institutional clients (see Appendix 9).
The attitudes and behaviour of the client

It is not easy to investigate the belief existing in the human mind. There is no exception,
when it comes to extracting the beliefs of the client. Nevertheless, Woodhead (1999)
investigated paradigms and perspectives that are considered by regular major clients when
making decisions to build.
The beliefs of the clients can be measured in various ways. Externally, their beliefs can be
measured by asking their opinions against certain attitude objects. The building industry
today is not able to follow past approaches, where clients are considered homogeneous and
characterised according to a few demographic variables. Instead, it must develop strategies
to appeal to numerous segments of the client group with varied demographic and
psychological characteristics in a marketplace with multiple constraints.
Investigating the behaviour of the client is easier (but still difficult), than investigating
internal beliefs. The actual behaviour is different from the normative model, which
describes what the client ought to do. Goodacre et al. (1982) attempted to investigate the
client behaviour. However, the units of analysis in their research are not the client, but the
service providers who are supposed to know the client’s behaviour. For this reason, their
research leaves a couple of questions unanswered: (1) Do the service providers consider the
unique characteristic of each client? (2) Can the service providers know the insights of the
client? In one way, they seem to be in a good position to compare various clients, but it is
different from what their clients actually feel. Nevertheless, their research has enormous
value, considering the trend at the moment, as they highlighted the role of the client as the
customer of service and decision maker, rather than the buyer of the product and/or service,
who simply pays for them. In addition, they attempted to investigate the situation the client
faces in general, before developing an application to support the clients.
The relations between the attitude and behaviour of the client and project
process (or performance)
The roles of the client and the impact on project performance have been investigated. The
main emphasis has been given to the role of the client that influences the construction
management process and environment. This influence can be direct (Cherns and Bryand,
1984; Bresnen and Haslam, 1991; Ward et al., 1991; Gameson, 1992) or be observable
through indirect managerial aspects, such as the power of the client (see Walker and
Newcombe, 2000).
4.5.3. From the client
Background: The client and information theory

O’Reilly (1987) emphasised using a common way of ordering information, making
decisions and recording them for effective preparation of a brief, so that everyone learns
rapidly by ‘collectively thinking through’ the project. As observed through his comments,
the perspective to understand briefing, based on information theory, still seems dominant.
The solutions to cope with the complexity and other fundamental natures of building (e.g.
fragmentation) have therefore, been developed by focusing on information and its flow.
In Section 4.3.2, several responsibilities of the client side seem relevant to the
establishment of the project organisation (e.g. to define the main outlines of the
organisation, to select occupants for the main roles, etc.). The emphasis by the client side
on project organisation, staffing, allocating the role of various parties, empowering the
appropriate party to champion the project, all seem to have its root in the fragmented nature
of the industry.
The fragmented features of construction are summarised as design-to-order, in terms of

delivery process and temporary multi-organisation (Fisher, 1987). Due to the fragmented
nature of construction, the need for good coordination has been emphasised (Bennett 1985;
Fisher 1987) and facilitation of good coordination, through properly organising the project
team, is one of the main responsibilities on the client side (particularly, the client
representative at the pre-project stage and project team leader in the project stage).
Information theory has been said to be a solution, advising the development of good
coordination to tackle fragmented features of construction. Coordination in construction
projects could be equivalent, in meaning, to control, planning or management (Higgin and
Jessop, 1969). Communication could facilitate good coordination and information or
information flow is a fundamental element in communication (Bertalanffy 1969, Mintzberg
1979). The background of information theory is to consider information or information
flow as a main resource to manage. In construction, the Department of Environment (DET:
former name of DETR, 1971) mentioned the need to enhance information flow to avoid
failure of communication. Bennett (1985) suggested the use of information systems (IS) as
a device to increase the communication capacity between fragmented project participants.
The application of information theory to construction can be exemplified through

supporting communication between project parties and activities of professional
practitioners. As computer hardware and software techniques have rapidly developed and
used in the industry since the late 1980s, the efficiency of information processing to
perform specific tasks in communication at the electronic data transfer level has been
enhanced dramatically. In construction, IT has been developed individually to support
specific tasks of specialised project practitioners (Fisher 1997, Alshawi and Underwood,
1999). This trend has caused interruptions of communication at the electronic data transfer
level (in addition to those which occur between practitioners who have different
professional backgrounds – the fundamental obstacles for communication).
In order to bridge the gap stated above, the notion of research, relevant to information
theory in construction, has moved toward information integration. In this environment,
fragmented project practitioners could share updated information and therefore, enhance
communication between them. Computer-integrated construction (Björk, 1989; Fenves et
al., 1990) is a general notion of this approach. Concurrent engineering (Fowler et al., 1996,
Anumba and Evbuomwan 1996), standard product data model (e.g. STEP, see Björk and
Wix 1991, Froese 1996), process model (Sanvido 1990), project model that combines
product and the process model (e.g. IFC, see IAI 1999) are applied fields to implement the
notion.
Figure 4.4 illustrates various elements and relevant fields to implement proper IS in
construction. In practice, computer applications to support professional practitioners tasks
may receive more attention. The applications have been developed while reflecting the
work procedures of professional practitioners and contents processed. These are located in
the bottom of the diagram. Through structured analysis, they are abstracted as models.
Various types of information models are presented in the middle of the diagram. In order to
reduce interruptions of data transfer between applications, these information models should
be developed while embracing the standard data storage format. The standard data format
has been evolved from basic format for electronic data expression (e.g. DXF) to product,
process and project model such as STEP, IFC. Networks in which electronic data can be
flowed while overcoming geometric fragmentation of the project teams – another nature of
construction – have became a new issue in the field. Without doubt, the Internet and
Intranet has contributed to connecting people. Finally, as shown at the top of the diagram,
the results of processed data in various computer applications are expressed graphically in
various formats. The aim of this expression is to present models as similar to the as-built
product as possible. A challenge is how to minimise processes to input relevant data for
graphical expression. In short, real information integration in construction should be
implemented to make the knowledge existing in professional practitioners explicit and to
present data for a human-machine interface.
Human-Machine Electronic documents/2D Drawings/3D as-built product model/3D animation/

Interface 3D simulation, Virtual Reality (VR), etc.
Application CAD, Project planning/monitoring package, engineering package, etc.
Electronic Internet/Intranet based data transfer environment,

Data Transfer Network: LAN, ISDN etc.
Database: DBMS
Data Storage
Standard graphic file format: DXF, Standard product data file: STEP, IFC, etc.
Information Model Project Model: IFC, Process Model, Product Data Model: ISO 10303: STEP etc,
Information Modelling Flow Chart, Object-oriented modelling method (OOMD): NIAM, Express-G,
Method Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)etc.
Data Analysis
Data Flow Diagram (DFD), etc.
Method
Product
Contents
Project procedure Data process
Practitioners' Recognition
Knowledge Reflective cognition: Problem solving, etc.
Figure 4.4 Classification of elements to implement proper IS in construction
As a result of the apparent failure to realise an integrated information system, a human-

centred systems approach has emerged. The limits of a large scale information system,
aiming to integrate information in the field, have been analysed in line with the perspective
of organisational and social informatics (Kling and Star, 1997). They concern how IT could
be deployed and managed efficiently, while balancing it with human beings’ activities such
as decision-making, flexible thinking in an organisation, as well as IT itself. Soft Systems
Methodology (SSM), a branch of IS presented by Checkland and Holwell (1998), is an
attempt to treat these soft issues in the organisation (see Appendix 4.2).
Given that the initial source to provide information in construction is the client, the first
step to facilitate an integrated information system is to manage the information flow from
the client briefing stage. In addition, elements of the information system stated in Figure
4.4 have been reconsidered from the client’s perspective.
In short, information theory and its applications have relevance to the client, which could
be summarised as follows:
The client can enhance the understanding of potential delivery by means of a visual
electronic model
The information from the user/client should be fed into the further project process
The client should cultivate a project culture in which the benefit of deploying IT could
be realised (Baxendale and Logan 1995, Fisher 1997, Walker and Rowlinson 1999).
One of benefits could be enhanced communication between project parties.
The challenge is that, at the pre-project stage, information is not generated in a standard
format that can fit various product or project models. As the objectives and needs of the
clients are unique, making them fit into the structured format should also be tailored. Once,
this is formalised as the brief and saved in electronic format, IT allows the brief to be
evaluated and added onto by all parties instantaneously, via internet or intranets (Blyth and
Worthington 2001).
Almost all research in the field has mentioned the need for processing data from the outset
of the project. However, in this research, the outset of a project is usually the detailed
design stage. In order to keep the clear stream of the research project, this research is not
reviewed in this thesis. Instead, other research that attempts to tackle the real pre-project
stage is reviewed. The research that will be reviewed hereinafter, provide distinctive
challenges to sort out information from the client at the pre-project stage and feed it into
later process as a structured format towards integrated information management.
CPDT
A project to develop Construction Project Definition Tool (CPDT) is conducted by a group
of researchers of Advance Construction Technology (ACT) at the University of Reading.
This project does not simply investigate the needs of the users. Its main aim is to develop a
tool that can systematically reflect the needs of users (of airport facilities) into the design
process (Fisher et al., 1999).
The CPDT seems to bridge post-occupancy evaluation and design briefing by capturing
users’ reactions to the facility (e.g. layout or interior design). To this end, Quality Function
Deployment (QFD) is introduced as a core method. QFD is useful to define common values
of users about the facility but less economic for one-off projects, as a lot of data should be
collected and analysed (Gray and Hughes 2001).
ClientPro
This application is also developed on the use of QFD by a research team of Loughborough
University (Kamara et al., 2000). As they mentioned, IT tools can be used to improve the
‘effectiveness’ of the briefing, rather than as an automatic tool for briefing.
The objectives of ClientPro are to process the client’s requirements, as prescribed in the
Client Requirements Processing Model (CRPM). According to Kamara et al. (2000) the
ClientPro was designed to enable the processing requirements for different clients and
project types and the entry, storage, viewing and editing of information. They also
mentioned that it was developed to support calculation of relative weights for client interest
groups, tertiary requirements and design attributes as well as the generation and printing of
reports, as required.
This tool seems certainly useful for professional practitioners clearly to share the client’s
requirements. Although practitioners in the industry evaluated this tool and this aspect is a
feature of this research, the evaluations of the clients were not included.
IFC 3.0
IFC cannot accurately be classified as an application because the objective of this project
model is to present a unified format for data and information flow between applications
used by various and fragmented project parties. Nevertheless, given that it has also started
including the client briefing process (e.g. IFC 3.0: see IAI 1999, IAI UK CM Domain
Committee 2000), this model is mentioned in this section.
As explained (see Figure 4.4), in order to present information model that can cover the
briefing process, the briefing process and contents treated during it, should be formalised.
The challenge of this attempt is similar to how other research treats the client briefing
process – Is it possible to formalise the ‘creative’ and ‘messy’ briefing process?
4.5.4. By the client
Background: The client and decision making

The main aspects considered in this research trend are that key decisions should be made
‘by the client’ at the right time and based on essential information. To support the rational
client’s decision-making, various approaches and methods have been introduced to develop
applications. For a decade since the late 80s, the expert system approach was dominant.
However, Hudson et al. (1991) argued that the suitability of briefing knowledge as a
domain for the application of knowledge-based systems is questionable, as the briefing
situation is not exactly same to that for modelling. The importance for considering the
context in knowledge flow was mentioned in Section 3.3.5. Nevertheless, developed
applications seem to have too simplified and positive perspective; that client and
professional practitioners are able to understand the unique context they are in. In fact, this
is ideal.
Various research, aiming to develop and realise them, will be reviewed in terms of scope,
approach, strength and weakness. Although the paper-based client guide can hardly be
called a type of application in the context of this thesis, it has some merits that should not
be ignored. For this reason, the position of them in the entire research domain will be
mentioned on next section and the list of them is presented in Appendix 7.1.
Paper based client guides

As an attempt to tackle the client’s lack of knowledge, the most direct and obvious solution
has been the paper-based client guide (Goodacre et al., 1982), which is literally, a general
body of knowledge necessary for the client. The main benefits of client guide are that it is
cheap to distribute it.
Due to the unique context each client face, the flexibility of the paper-based client could be
problematic. However, it should be a map of the project process and a reminder of issues
that should be considered. Spontaneous impressions created during looking at the checklist
will help set standards in a client’s mind and alert him to examine all sorts of aspects about
building, which in time, brings about a good awareness of what is really needed.
Several guides have been published (see Appendix 7.1) and therefore, a lack of guides can
no longer be blamed. Despite its potential, it has been said that the client guide has
limitations. Due to the diversity of clients’ needs, objectives, experience and in-house
resources, any single body of written advice will not always be very useful (Goodacre et al.,
1982). March and Simon (1993) argued the divergence of the pre-defined programme:
Although organised action is driven by matching appropriate behaviour to situations, the
action is not uniquely determined by such performance programmes, professional codes, or
expert intuitions. Furthermore, they argued that executing a rule may require skill and will
that are not always forthcoming. In short, any application that assumes that the client would
have enough skills and behave rationally can have a limitation to be used in the situation.
Client Aid Programme

If the problem of paper based-client guide is the lack of flexibility to cope with the diversity
of the client, the direction to develop a solution is quite clear: A need for a tailored guide.
Goodacre et al., (1982) based on The University of Reading attempted to develop a
computer program to advise the client by considering their unique situations:
A high proportion of client’s decision will readily be seen as specific to the situation in
hand. General advice on such decisions can never be very helpful. Before a reader
can follow the advice he has to decide whether it is applicable to his circumstances.
The program was aimed at helping the client overcome his lack of knowledge on how best
to start his project moving, initially by helping him to consider the most significant issues
for his particular project at the very earliest stage possible.
The main objective of this program is to let the client be aware of issues that should be
considered at the pre-project stage. In addition, through using this program, the client is
supposed to recognise possible options available him/her before making the first contact.
The approach of this program is by two way interaction: The client answers the question
asked by the system and based on the answers, the program is supposed to inform the client
of issues on which he needs advice before going further. The program is designed to
present a suitable type of consultancy and first point of contact to the client.
The uniqueness of this research is that the necessity and possibility of developing a
computer basis application for client aid arise for the first time. In addition, they mentioned
a radical perspective: The first point of contact does not need to be an architect.
The weakness of this program is the lack of practical functions to keep up-to-date data for
the client, although they mentioned this is essential for the successful operation of this
program.
Client Aid Expert System

With almost a ten-year gap, in 1991, another piece of research to develop a computer
application to support the client was carried out by a research group at The University of
Reading.
The objective of this application is to guide clients and the design team in the briefing
phase. This application focuses especially on inexperienced clients as a pre-briefing
instruction tool. The client is expected to be aware of issues that should be considered after
using the system. In short, the system can contribute to establishing the conditions under
which a successful briefing can take place, rather than used as a brief-writing expert system.
The system consists of two main sections. The first section establishes a project profile, e.g.
building type, anticipated size, etc. The second section, which can only commence once the
profile has been established, contains topics for detailed investigation. These include cost,
timescale, function, environment and organisation. Another option called sensitivity
analysis allows information in the project profile to be altered systematically. At the end of
the section a report screen is displayed which gives advice and information based on the
responses given by the user.
The weakness of this system is derived from the fundamental limitation of the expert
system approach, rather than the concept. It has been said that the expert system has a
limitation to organise soft issues or a loosely-structured body of knowledge. In addition, the
expert system has difficulties coping with undefined situations in the system. These
weaknesses are mentioned by the research team as well (see Hudson et al., 1991).
BriefMaker
The system scheme of the BriefMaker was published in 1996 (Hansen et al., 1996). The
unique approach of this system is run on the World Wide Web (WWW). In other words, if
this system is fully developed, it can enjoy various strengths of Internet-based applications:
Clients can use this system if they can access the Internet; multimedia can be used;
information can be updated without space or time constraint, etc. (Hansen et al., 1996).
In terms of the briefing phase, it aims to assist the creation of design briefs. To this end, the
system model is designed to treat reference briefs that are produced in past projects,
checklists, statutory regulations, building codes, costs, etc. Users can create their own briefs
under the pre-defined format in a commercial word processing program. According to the
main author, in 2002, the system is still being developed.
A misconception of this kind of application is that the suspicious may complain about the
automated briefing process. This is not so. The system aims to aid ontological brief making.
Without doubt, the epistemological briefing process, i.e. Problem seeking and solving,
should be carried out by human actors.
The Internet-based applications to support the clients can only provide the network for data
flow for the client. The success of this kind of system depends on non-technical aspects
such as beliefs, reward for providing data or information, etc. (see Appendix 4).
Group decision-making support system

Until this research project, no attempt has been made to tackle the epistemological briefing
process. Green (1996) introduced Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) to develop a tool for
supporting decision-making at the pre-project stage in his University of Reading PhD
research project. SSM is appropriate to enable structured debate for problem finding and
solving at the pre-project stage (see Appendix 4). For this reason, collaborated decision
making by enabling various parties of the project to analyse clients’ needs and conclude the
best option that maximises (not optimises) the value for money is available.
Despite various strengths of this method, it has an affordability limitation for some clients.
This method assumes the involvement of a facilitator who guides the process and if the
client cannot hire this independent facilitator, this method can only be used if one of
member within the client organisation can do this and keep a neutral position among
members.
Web-sites to present information to the client

In short, Web-sites presenting information to the client can be used as an alternative to the
paper-based client guide. The distribution medium is transferred from paper to electronic
documents. However, its potential as the facilitator of virtual community has not been
realised. This potential will be mentioned in Section 5.5.2.
Constructionline, the UK based online database, was developed to present profiles of

contractors and consultants to public-sector clients’ agencies (Delargy, 2000). This
database was designed to support the public-sector agents’ decision-making to nominate
proper service providers. However, according to him, it was not popular for both agents and
service providers, due to its less-flexible database functions, lack of recognition of its
potential and lack of locality.
Recently, various professional bodies (e.g. RIBA, CIOB, Federation of Master Builders,
etc.) have provided a database search function in their Web-sites for helping the client to
find their members located in the client region. Web-sites could be a most powerful means
for wide up-to-date distribution of information. However, Web-sites could inherit the
limitation of other computer-based systems if it provides only pre-defined information. If
the real interactive communication between clients or between the client and potential
service providers is unavailable, these will become just another fast version of paper-based
member lists.
A need arises to investigate whether the client has used various Web-sties. If so, how useful
the information is for them.
4.5.5. Discussion
Research attempting to investigate real world situations in terms of elements of knowledge

theory (i.e. Attitude and behaviour) and context (or Ba) in which knowledge flows between
clients, has not yet been conducted.
Some aspects of social informatics are not considered seriously in developing client aid
application. For instance, it is not clear who is responsible for operating the system and
what benefits there are for information or knowledge providers.
In general, as the owner/user of the facility, the clients are likely to have knowledge of their
own facilities The knowledge that the client should have can be clarified according to the
purposeful activities for the client side. These activities can be common irrelevant to the
client type or specific according to the type of clients. An activity library was generated on
which any client can choose the activity that they should undertake.
In order to define activities that are specific for the occasional individual clients, it was
attempted to classify the client types. However, The client types are too diverse to classify.
Nevertheless, the general role, responsibilities and activities of the client have been defined
from normative perspectives of professional practitioners in the industry. The client is
supposed to play the role of the owner/user of the facility, customer of the professional
service and director of the project. Given that the project commissioned by the occasional
individual clients is small (in terms of size) and less complex, the success of project is
likely to depend on the knowledge on available procurement path and staffing i.e. Which
professional does which works and who will be hired.
Through previous research, the contents of knowledge streams (i.e. What they should
know) have been well clarified. In other words, normative models that the client ought to
follow are sufficiently developed.
However, applications to apply them to real world situations show some limitation. In short,
it seems to be derived from the less intensive attention to human-bound aspects: Attitude,
behaviour and capacity of clients. In particular, the attitude and behaviour of the client as
the customer of service have rarely been investigated. If the aim of any research is to
develop an application for the client (not from the client), the application should be flexible
to cope with the diversity of clients and the client’s capacity in handling the application
must be considered.
Given that the diversity of clients has not been tackled by previous trends of research, more
attention should be given to the context (or ‘Ba’) in which knowledge flows and filtered by
the clients, rather than to provide the information necessary.
CHAPTER 5. A CONCEPTUAL MODEL TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE STREAMS OF BUILDING INDUSTRY CLIENT
CHAPTER 5. A CONCEPTUAL MODEL TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE STREAMS OF

BUILDING INDUSTRY CLIENT
A conceptual model consists of a theoretical framework with which: The current situation
can be analysed; an ideal situation is described. As mentioned in Chapter 2, analysis of the
current situation and definition of the ideal situation are influenced by paradigms and
perspectives. Hoyningen-Huene (1993) addressed the dual stances of the conceptual model
in a scientific research that assumes to treat real world situations as “the meaning of an
empirical concept is fully realised only through the concept’s relationships with other
concepts and practical procedures and through its use in applying theories”.
In the context of the research, the relationships with other concepts would be presented by
synthesising domains of any paradigms, theories and practices with which any concern or
interest relevant to current knowledge streams of occasional individual clients can be
clarified and coped with. Many domains are already given in Chapter 3 and 4. Given that
the conceptual model should be realised by applying it to the real world situation, the
empirical study framework should also be considered.
One challenge is that, little attention has been paid to the occasional individual clients in the
majority of research. For this reason, some domains presented in the previous two chapters
may not be suitable for the unique context of the occasional individual clients. Given that
the unique characteristics of occasional individual clients have not yet investigated, the
analysis units of the conceptual model are logically divided into three: clients in general,
individual clients and occasional individual clients.
If no difference between occasional individual clients and individual clients exists, the unit
of the conceptual model can be developed further for individual clients. The multi-units of
the conceptual model will be explained, if the need arises. It can be complicated and
confusing to develop a conceptual model while considering multi-analysis units than for a
specific client group. But this attempt can retain the flexibility of the model so that it can be
modified for applying to other types of clients.
In this chapter, firstly, working definitions for ‘knowledge streams’ and ‘facilitating
knowledge streams’ suitable to the context of the research project are given. Then, the
content of the conceptual model are explained as follows:
Elements of knowledge streams
Ba for knowledge streams of the client (in general)
Challenging aspects to facilitate knowledge streams (in general and specific for
occasional individual clients)
An approach to facilitate knowledge streams
5.2. Knowledge Streams and Relevant Elements in the Context of the Research
In this section, the meaning of knowledge streams is defined by regarding knowledge

spirals presented by Takeuchi and Nonaka (1995). A knowledge spiral is a broader concept
than knowledge streams as the former includes the epistemological creation of knowledge.
As the knowledge spiral happen through interactions between cognition (of actors,
internally) and environment (actors face, externally), both should be considered
simultaneously. In this section, three elements of knowledge streams that can cover both
are defined: mental model, attitude and behaviour and knowledge Ba. Fundamental
explanations for these can be found in Chapter 3.
5.2.2. Definition of facilitating knowledge streams in the context of the

research
Knowledge spirals are classified as four types: socialisation (from tacit to tacit),
externalisation (from tacit to explicit), combination (from explicit to explicit) and
internalisation (from explicit to tacit) (see Section 3.6.3). For occasional individual clients,
it can be assumed that the first step in acquiring knowledge is to contact others who are
believed to have the necessary knowledge. In order to obtain knowledge, the receiver (who
seeks knowledge) stimulates the provider to externalise knowledge. The receiver then,
internalises the knowledge. These spirals – internalisation (of receiver) and externalisation
(of providers) – happen at the individual level. By contrast, the other two spirals,
socialisation and combination, occur through social interaction. In this thesis, the latter two
knowledge spirals mean knowledge streams. The former two knowledge spirals are more
relevant to mental models and the reasons for excluding these are mentioned in the next
section.
Facilitation is a process that takes place while organizing and mobilizing the competencies
of the community member. The process of facilitation begins where the community
members are and it normally leads to empowerment and mutual respect, ensuring
sustainable development programs (Kiiti and Nielsen, 1999). The role of the facilitator is
the catalyst – the communicator acts as a development facilitator, putting people together
in order to make things happen, to catalyse thinking, motivation, interaction, action,
reaction and reflection. A generalised knowledge and understanding of needs, aspirations,
goals and anticipated outcomes is assumed to present before these human linkages are
made (White and Nair, 1999).
As mentioned in Appendix 3.2, any attempts to model real world situations need to
consider different levels of participants in the situation. Different levels of units add to the
confusion. In the context of this research, the knowledge spirals are epistemological
activities from the clients’ perspective. However, from the facilitator’s (or analyst’s)
perspective, two knowledge spirals – socialisation and combinations – are ontological parts:
in other words, the contents of the knowledge spirals can be observed and expressed
externally. The facilitator can facilitate the ontological knowledge spirals (i.e. Knowledge
streams) directly and the other two epistemological knowledge spirals indirectly.
Ontological parts of knowledge spirals
Approach to facilitate
knowledge streams
Socialisation Combination
Internalisation Externalisation
Epistemological parts of knowledge spirals
Figure 5.1 Knowledge spirals and the scope of an approach to facilitate knowledge
streams
An approach to facilitate knowledge streams aims to cover the ontological knowledge

spirals. The scope of the approach in conjunction to knowledge spirals is illustrated in
Figure 5.1.
5.2.3. Mental model
Although the occasional individual clients do not have experience on commissioning

building project, they may approach solving problems based on their own mental model.
Gardner et al. (1998) explain how it can be possible as:
Individuals tend to use the same reasoning pattern when similarities are found
between the characteristics of an existing problem and one they solved in the past.
What can be a similar problem for occasional individual clients between commissioning a
building project and other experience? Previous experience on purchasing other products
such as cars or other high-price products could be a similar experience. As mentioned, this
experience exists in the long-term memory and is revised when similar patterns of problem
solving are found by the client (see Section 3.4.2). In the field of psychology and its applied
fields such as industrial psychology, methods to extract problem-solving frameworks have
been presented (see Appendix 3.3).
In addition to the problem-solving template (existing in long-term memory), once the need
for building works is recognised, the client may try to seek information and as a result, a
general body of knowledge would have formed. This information search behaviour is
explained in Appendix 5.1 (from the consumer behaviour paradigms) and in Section 4.3.5
(for building industry clients).
The problem-solving template and body of knowledge would form a rationale for decision-
making. The rationale may exist as a cognitive model internally in the client mind.
However, the investigation into the cognitive model covering all activities undertaken by
the client (even at the pre-project stage) should be extremely complicated. Furthermore, in
the real world situation, actors show the absence of the cognitive model so often
(Williamson, 2000).
Certainly, the mental model can present a clue to develop means for supporting the client.
However, it has less value as a practical means considering the nature of knowledge and
variety and capacity of clients. Most of all, the mental model itself can be expressed
externally only if the client has the ability to do so. Although some clients can express the
mental model externally, others should also have the knowledge to understand the model
presented by others. Given the one-off project commissioning of occasional individual
clients, they are not likely to bother to develop or understand mental models for a single
project. The last and most significant setback of the mental model as the means to support
the client is that the mental model is too context-specific to be generalised even for a
similar situation (if there is any for the client). Gameson (1992) mentioned this context-
specific cognition of the client: no two clients use the same approach to express their
objectives.
Despite the importance of the mental model in knowledge streams of the client, in this
research project, other elements of knowledge that are likely to present practical solutions
would be considered first. In part, some elements of mental models, especially the reason
and reasoning (that are core part of cognitive model) can be explained in conjunction with
attitude and behaviour of the client.
5.2.4. Attitude and behaviour
Attitude to initiate learning

There is no better way to acquire knowledge than creating it through experience. However,
occasional clients have fewer chances – or even no chances – to create knowledge from
experience as regular clients do. If this is the case, next best way for the occasional client to
acquire knowledge is to obtain information from other clients: at this stage, contents
transferred between clients cannot called knowledge until they add value. However, this is
also too optimistic: if the clients do not have experience they may not recognise the
necessities for knowledge either. For this reason, to form the attitude towards involving
occasional clients in information seeking is essential for developing a means of supporting
them.
There is another and more practical reason for emphasising the attitude – variety of
individual clients. For observers (or analysts) to define all information necessary for the
client may be impossible. If then, to form a proper attitude (e.g. the client should play a
certain role in the pre-project phase by acquiring necessary information) as the dominant
norm in the society (or community) should be a more practical approach.
Forrester (1968) supported this approach. He mentioned that to transfer attitudes is a long-
lasting and flexible way enabling learning to serve the future (see Section 3.6.4 for relations
between learning and knowledge). However, this approach has a prerequisite: the attitude
objects should be clarified properly (see Section 3.3.4 for explanations of attitude). There
are major attitude objects that stimulate the client perceptions: facilities (e.g. interior,
aesthetic aspects of outlook or envelope, etc.), their own roles in the project, favour or
disfavour against service providers, etc. A criterion to select the attitude object at the proper
level is: Which attitude object is most fundamental to initiate the learning cycle of the client.
Apparently, it should be the attitude towards their roles and responsibilities.
Be aware of the client role: The start of the journey towards knowledge
streams
This argument seems rhetorical like talking about the relation between eggs and chickens.
Which comes first between the negligence of the clients on their role and responsibility or
the lack of knowledge?
Given that the contents of knowledge necessary for the client to undertake activities
properly cannot be fully defined due to the variety of clients (see Section 4.4), a way to
facilitate knowledge streams for the client should focus on the approach to encourage their
involvement at the pre-project stage by enhancing their awareness of the role and
responsibility. This will become a start for active involvement of the clients in knowledge
streams.
Preferences for information and knowledge sources: Indicators of cognition

at the individual level and norm dominant in the society
If clients are aware of their role and recognise their lack of knowledge, the next step is to
search for information. Two scenarios can be assumed again for this case. Firstly, if the
clients have a cognitive model that can be used to solve problems, they may seek
information that fits the parts of any problem-solving framework they use. Secondly, if the
clients do not have the framework, they may try to seek information about the framework
itself (for instance, the entire procedure of the project). The client may simply behave
without any rationale. Active information seeking is assumed from the normative model
whereas irrational behaviour (from the observer’s perspective because the clients may have
reasons for behaving irrationally), can be analysed through the behaviour model.
The conceptual model cannot but be developed by assuming rational clients although the
investigation into the current situation should also include the irrational behaviour of the
client as it is also a part of the situation and very nature of the real world.
When rational clients try to seek information (whether it is contents for the their own
problem-solving framework or about the framework), their belief in its reliability will
determine the sources for information. For instance, if the client believe that the architect is
most reliable, then s/he would seek information from architects or if the client thinks that
the value of his or her property after the project is finished can be evaluated more precisely
by a property agency s/he will contact a property agency first. In short, the client’s main
concerns affect the attitude towards the information and knowledge sources and as
sequence, they would consult various sources (whether human beings or documented
information).
Behaviour of the client to acquire information: To find the gap between the
normative model and reality
Actual information sources may be different from their preference. This difference can
indicate the problem situation for the client to seek information. Although the client feels
the need to seek information, s/he does not actually try. On the contrary, the client cannot
find proper information despite their attempts. In order to analyse the reasons for this gap,
the attitude, behaviour and Ba for knowledge streams should be investigated as a whole.
5.2.5. Ba
The context forms the attitude of the client and at the same time, the client seeks
information that is available in the context. The context determines not only the norms and
belief in the society (or community) but also available types and the amount of information
in the situation. In order to avoid the confusion derived from the broad meaning of the term
‘context’, the term Ba has been used in this thesis.
It is the role of clients themselves to search out information, filter and judge its value at the
pre-project stage (unless independent advisors are involved). Filtered and value-added
information will finally become knowledge. In this respect, occasional individual clients
have a serious handicap compared with regular institutional clients. Blyth and Worthington
(2001) mentioned the advantages of the latter as:
Organisations construction buildings on a regular basis have a readily accessible pool

of experience to draw upon, and there is the opportunity to incorporate this feedback
into the established management systems.
Most of all, occasional clients do not have a pool of experience. Even though experience
can be externalised as information, occasional clients may not know the value of
information and therefore, cannot select the most valuable information for them.
In terms of system-bound factors, for occasional individual clients, the system and structure
that can capture the experience may not be implemented consistently under a strategy as
can be done by regular institutional clients. On the contrary, for the regular clients, a tool to
enhance the justification of their experience is important as well as to implement a structure
in which experience can be accumulated systematically.
Given the one-off project commissioning and limitation to apply an organisation-based

managerial concept, the implementation of systems and structures for knowledge streams to
support occasional individual clients needs a different approach from that for regular
institutional clients. The approach should be at the societal level rather than organisational
level. Due to its importance, the context-relevant parts of knowledge streams will be
discussed in detail in 5.3.
Knowledge streams in the context of this research project are ontological knowledge
spirals: socialisation (tacit to tacit) and combination (explicit to explicit). Only by
considering pure knowledge theory, explicating the mental model (cognitive pattern or
problem solving framework of the client) may be important. However, this attempt seems
less practical for facilitating knowledge streams as the mental model is context-specific and
is difficult to externalise and be understood by occasional individual clients. It is preferable
to cultivate the proper Ba in which information is transferred. However, regarding Ba as IS
and just focusing on the system-bound factors, knowledge streams would not occur and
probably, only information would be overflowed. It is the client who plays the main role to
seek, filter and add value to information. If this is the case, the proper attitude towards
information seeking is the starting point for facilitating knowledge streams and the attitude
objects should be clarified by examining the proper activities that the client should take.
As conjunction to the attitude towards role and responsibility, behaviour can be analysed
information-seeking and understanding their roles and responsibility because it is the
external mode of the attitude. The gap between normative and real world context can be
partly analysed by investigating information sources they consult.
5.3. Various Perspectives to the Ba for Knowledge Streams of the Client
Knowledge streams occur as the result of socially-embedded acts. After this external
interaction, internalisation would occur. Given that knowledge streams are phenomena in a
society (or community), these can be analysed differently according to the perspectives of
observers (or analysts). Without doubt, the directions for developing solutions would also
vary due to different perspectives.
In Section 3.4.5, three perspectives that can be introduced to analyse the socially-embedded
act are discussed from the culturalist’s, structuralist’s and rationalist’s perspective.
However, the rationalist’s perspective is more suitable to explain decision-making – the
results of knowledge spiral – rather than knowledge streams.
Table 5.1 Dominant Ba for socialisation and combination defined from various
perspectives
Ba for Socialisation and Combination
Culturalist’s perspective Community
Structuralist’s perspective Market
As shown in Table 5.1, knowledge streams can be analysed from two perspectives, each
interpreting the context differently. From a culturalist’s perspective, Ba is more likely to be
the community-base in which the norm is dominant factor to determine the relationships
between actors. By contrast, structuralists regard the relationship as formalised in terms of
conditions; hence the main Ba is market-base. However, the market in this context does not
mean the place in which the goods and services are traded. Rather, it means the
composition of formalised relationships based on beliefs (Lichbach and Seligman, 2000).
5.3.2. Culturalists’ perspective: Community
Community society and knowledge streams of the client

Mintzberg (1979) said that people could obtain more information through informal
communication. Gittel and Vidal (1998) explained this circumstance further by using a
term ‘social capital’. Social capital describes the resources embedded in social relations
among persons and organisations, and facilitates cooperation and collaboration in
communities. Precisely, it consists of networks and norms that enable participants to act
together effectively to pursue objectives.
The community theory that is represented by social capital can provide two directions to
understand the knowledge streams of the client: the client network that enables knowledge
to flow between clients and community-based interaction between professional
practitioners and the client.
Community can provide various benefits to the participants. White and Nair (1999)
addressed them as follows:
The outcome of participatory communication for the people is consciousness raising

through critical reflection about their own condition, which will lead to a significant
voice in social action. Additionally, people develop communication skills, acquire new
knowledge, contribute indigenous knowledge to development decision-making, and
learn how to assess risks and opportunities. Ultimately, the participation process can
lead to resource acquisition, which will enable them to reach common goals within
the community.
The client network
To find your advisor, talk to other clients – there may be networks you could reach
through the CBI, Business Links, trade and professional bodies (CCF, 2000).
As stated by CCF above, one of the best way to access proper service providers it to obtain
information about them from other clients. In addition to recommendations on service
providers, Blyth and Worthington (2001) mentioned that benchmarking other facilities can
provide fresh information to potential clients.
The client network mentioned above is not just an ideal situation. In the real world situation,
the client’s network has been observed (Barret and Stanley, 1999). Although the clients do
not have a common objective as it exists in an organisation, they have a shared norm: they
desire to gain value from commissioning a building project.
The other reason enabling the client to be networked is that the occasional clients do not
generate profits (directly) from commissioning building projects. After from some business
(e.g. semiconductors manufacturing industry in which the building itself is considered part
of manufacturing competence and the building process kept secret), the client can share
their experiences and feedback on facilities without severe resistance.
For major institution clients, the client network is not a new concept. From the British
Property Federation or Construction Round Table to Construction Client Forum, they have
been networked and share information and knowledge. However, the network for
individual clients has rarely been established.
Social responsibility of service providers
Corporate citizenship likewise suggests a two-way relationship between society and

corporations: some of a corporation’s needs will ultimately only be met by taking
actions which are oriented toward meeting communal needs [McIntosh et al., 1998]
Mcintosh et al. (1998) classified the level of social responsibility of corporation as three
steps: the minimalist step is to keep the legislation it is supposed to follow; at the
discretionary step, the corporation performs philanthropic actions such as charitable giving;
and at the strategic step, the highest level, the corporation attempts to integrate citizenship
into business. If the service providers are in the strategic step, a business becomes
community-base and has a social and economic role. One of the social roles of the business
at this stage is to fulfil the information needs. The information could vary: simply the status
of the business (e.g. annual report) or know-how that can be shared in public (e.g. expired
patents).
What, then, is the current position of business in the building industry in terms of social
responsibility? Only by considering the negligence of some service providers (e.g. cowboys
builders), it seems to struggling at the minimalist level. However, there are also some
positive examples. In the UK, the client can use public architectural consultancy services. If
the clients want to receive independent advice, they can contact a public consultancy in the
region for a reasonable fee. This system is an example of the social responsibility of a
professional body.
Although it is from overseas, there is a case of community-based knowledge transfer

between practitioners and the client. Students at the Design and Planning Assistance Center
(DPAC) at the University of New Mexico work on projects for clients who cannot afford
professional fees. Programming, planning and schematic design projects developed at
DPAC since its inception in 1969 have resulted in many clients securing funding for
professional services and construction costs (Cherry, 1999).
Setbacks and conditions for the community-approached Ba

Although the community (or network) approached facilitating knowledge Ba seems ideal,
this approach has limitations. In a community or network, the knowledge streams cannot be
facilitated under a unique goal or strategy, the way it can be done within an organisation. In
addition, structures and systems cannot be generated due to responsibilities for
implementing them: any parts of the industry cannot be obliged to do so. Furthermore, they
are also vague even within the client network or local community unless a facilitator is
involved.
Regarding the nature of knowledge, knowledge may not be transferred unless economic
benefits are given to the individuals within the communities or networks. For this reason,
Gittel and Vidal (1998) defined the social capital as: institutional network means
reciprocity, trust, adaptability and flexibility among individual parties where there are
mutual economic benefits for such behaviour.
In the field of community facilitation that aims to construct the community (especially, in
the third worlds), suggestions to overcome the limitations of the approach have been given.
Milner (2000) addressed the requirements for the community society as:
The role of public body (e.g. local government) to provide services to citizens;
Infostructure that can collect and disseminate opinions of citizens immediately;

Training for citizens enabling to them to choose their own issues
Mcintosh et al. (1998) also mentioned the conditions that are necessary for the community
society:
Interests in corporate citizenship and social responsibility of business
The role of government as referee to set standards, organize legislation and work as the
facilitator rather than a provider
Although conditions presented by Milner (2000) and Macintosh et al. (1998) are general
ones, some aspects should also be considered to implement a network for the client in the
building industry. If the community does not exist or there is room to fortify it, the public
body seems better to take responsibility to facilitate this. Goodacre et al.(1982) point out
the needs of the public body for maintenance of their client aid program (see Section 4.5.4
about their research).
The other issue is the legal aspect. The client who fails to obtain satisfactory results from
the project after acquiring information in the community is likely to blame the quality of
information flow in the network. If the network is naturally initiated, the blame would be
informal. However, if the network is facilitated by a person or institution, in serious cases,
the client may raise legal problems. These conflicts need to be resolved by means of
regulations or rules established by the public body.
5.3.3. Structuralist’s perspective: Market
Market and knowledge streams of the client

The knowledge streams of the client at the pre-project stage can also be understood in the
line of the market mechanism. Although it is not based on the contract or monetary reward,
the knowledge can be transferred from service providers (professional practitioners in the
industry) to the client for potential rewards. For instance, service providers can consult the
client at the pre-project stage to attract the client for the new contract. For the client,
especially individual clients who cannot afford to hire an independent advisor at the pre-
project stage, a certain amount of knowledge can be obtained through pre-contract contact
with service providers. For instance, the client can have ideas about the duration and cost
while making enquiries from potential builders.
So far, this pre-contract knowledge transfer does not seem dominant in the building
industry as marketing is just considered as attracting the new client. However, the service
providers cannot survive in the marketplace with this passive attitude in the near future due
to the rapidly changing business contexts. McIntosh et al. (1998) mentioned a main change
in business contexts as follows:
A proliferation of sources of information – from cable TV to the Internet, we have more

information about each other than at any other time in history; whether we are any
wiser is open to question … Consumers in affluent countries are able to choose their
purchases from an increasing range of products, and are increasingly demanding, in
terms of price and quality … New technologies mean that things can happen very
rapidly-information is spread; reputations are strengthened or damaged
This trend has changed the market of others sector from the bottom (see Appendix 5.2).
Service encounter
How, then, is the market mechanism enabling knowledge transfer initiated at the pre-
project stage? Gabbott and Hogg (1998) used the term ‘service encounter’:
The use of the term service encounter implies that there is some form of interpersonal
interaction between the employees of the service firm and the customer … The
service encounter is purposeful and non-altruistic.
The service encounter is purposeful and thus, non-goal oriented encounters, such as
interactions between friends or with family are excluded. In addition, interactions between
people who are not likely to present rewards (altruistic), whether it is monetary or other
economic benefits, are also excluded. This is the main criterion to distinguish market from
network.
According to Gabbott and Hogg (1998), the service encounter does not require prior
acquaintance, i.e. Strangers can interact within the boundary of the exchange. Through
contact with service providers, the customers would construct the behavioural boundaries.
These are bounded by information and actions associated with the product or services to be
delivered. Although occasional individual clients do not have any experience on building
projects, they can construct a domain model that leads their behaviour through any contact
with professionals in the building industry.
For this reason, if the service providers (professionals in the industry) give more attention
to the first contact with the client, the behaviour of the client can be properly initialised for
the project success. Without doubt, the way enabling this is to provide information that is
necessary to determine the boundary of the behaviour of the client.
Relationship marketing
The service encounter is a useful concept to explain the interaction between the client and
service providers at the pre-project stage, whereas the relationship marketing can refresh
the needs for post-project interaction.
The importance of feedback has been emphasized (see Section 4.3.4) but there has been
less mention of approach or method which enables the integrated feedback process into the
market context. Through maintaining the relationship with the client/user, it is certain that
the providers in the building industry can obtain feedback about their performance or
knowledge for their next projects.
Relationship marketing is a strategy to maintain relationships with customers. For this

reason, it focuses on post-sales decisions and action rather than pre-sales activity. It is
based on interacted relation and hence, is dynamic (Hennig-Thurau and Hansen, 2000).
A well-established and implemented relationship marketing strategy can increase the

loyalty of the customer. For occasional clients, the loyalty can have the reward of
distributing the reputation of service providers (word of mouth recommendation to other
clients) in the long term.
For facilitators, relationship marketing can present a way to facilitate the proper knowledge
Ba. If the feedback of the client can be distributed to potential clients in the context of
relationship marketing, they weigh the value of the feedback and are involved in providing
information, the Ba will become dynamic and self-maintained. The facilitators cannot seek,
filter, sort and maintain all information and knowledge created by the client.
Setbacks and conditions of market-approached Ba

The successfully managed relationship with the customer could be the invaluable capital for
service providers in the building industry. However, for the client, especially occasional
clients, the motives and wishes should be clear with regard to initiate and maintain
relationship.
For this reason, types of feedback (e.g. product, service providers, etc.) that the clients
regard as most valuable for their projects or available to strengthen their position as the
client should be defined. A structured way to feed these post-occupation evaluation back to
service providers can initiate relationship marketing.
5.3.4. Summary of the section and discussion
Applications that aim to support the client have generally been developed from the
rationalist’s perspective: The client can partly or entirely obtain necessary information and
make decisions based on rationale. However, these have been less mentioned if the client
has knowledge necessary and could obtain information for decision-making. The
assumption of this notion is that the client would seek for (from the rationalist’s
perspective) and can obtain information. Given that the real world situation is quite
different to the normative model, this assumption seem to cost too much of scrutiny of
scientific research.
Even though, the assumption can be accepted, yet the relevant real world situation is not
known at all. From which sources has the client obtained information? – from other clients?
or from potential service providers? To investigate the behaviour of the client on seeking
information can reveal the dominant Ba for knowledge streams. However, the client’s
behaviour is not likely to have a clear pattern as it can be classified either. For this reason,
any single paradigm cannot cover the Ba for knowledge streams.
As an attempt to analyse the Ba for knowledge streams, two perspectives are introduced:
culturalists and structuralists. The characteristics of the dominant Ba based on the former is
the community (or network) and the latter market. However, no clear boundary between
them is likely to exist. Both of them can be used by the client to obtain single piece of
information or some information sources may have the characteristics of both.
5.4. Challenging Aspects to Facilitate Knowledge Streams
This section is mainly written from the facilitator’s viewpoint: If a person or institution tries
to facilitate knowledge streams for the client, which aspects can be regarded as challenging
aspects and which one as obstacles? The client’s perspective cannot be ignored as the client
is the main actor in knowledge streams. The potential challenging aspects are threefold:
nature of knowledge, characteristics of the building project and industry and the unique
status of occasional individual clients.
5.4.2. Aspects derived from the nature of knowledge
Difficulty in defining valuable knowledge for all participants

In general, even within the homogeneous group, the value of members may vary. The
diverse values can be obviously observable due to the characteristics of the building project
and the building industry. This aspect will be discussed in detail in the next section. For
each occasional individual client, according to their demographic background, such as
education level, income and gender, etc., valuable knowledge may be different.
Difficulty in defining tacit knowledge

Explicit knowledge necessary for the client is already well defined in a large amount of
research (see Appendix 7). For instance, various client guides include knowledge of best
practice that is explicated from expert clients. However, unlike the explicit knowledge, tacit
knowledge can hardly externalised, even by regular experienced clients.
Difficulty in measuring the knowledge streams and their impacts

To transfer knowledge is not easy but to measure the success of the transfer and its impact
is one of most difficult challenges in the field of applied knowledge theory. Recently,
process or activity pattern has been investigated to measure the success of knowledge
transfer (Löwendahl and Haanes, 1997). By comparing the activity patterns of actors in
organisations with the generic model audited by experts, the success of knowledge transfer
could be assessed.
However, in order to measure knowledge transfer by observing activity patterns, certain
conditions should be met: the activity pattern exists, this can be observed and generalised.
Given that this measurement follows the experimental research strategy of groups with
different conditions, applications to facilitate knowledge streams should be implemented
practically and fully. This includes comparisons between before and after treatments,
comparisons between treated group and normal groups, etc. (see Appendix 10.2 for further
explanations of experimental research). At the organisation level, these can be available
because the development of systems to facilitate knowledge streams and measurement of
results can be integrated into the strategy of the organisation. However, this kind of
measurement is limited in an academic research due to the time, resources and risks. This
aspect will be discussed in Section 6.2.5.
Uncertain rewards of knowledge transfer

In general, once people recognise that they have knowledge valuable to others, they tend to
establish boundaries that limit the accessibility of outsiders to knowledge (Krogh, et al.,
2000). Unless there is a mutual benefits, people are not keen on voluntarily transferring
knowledge to others.
5.4.3. Aspects derived from the characteristics of the building industry
Diversity of the client: Limitation of generic problem solving framework

The diversity of the client is reviewed in Section 4.2 and Appendix 6. Although clients
belong to the same client group and classified based on various criteria, which have some
characteristics in common, it does not mean that they are homogeneous in every respect.
Clients’ objectives are various and this is compounded by the range of uncertainty (Walker,
1996). In addition, the way to express their objectives are also unique for each client
(Murrary et al., 1990). For this reason, the generic problem-solving framework is not likely
to be practical and the problem-solving framework is one of ontological models abstracting
mental model (see Section 3.3.3). As mentioned, the mental model, one of the key elements
in knowledge streams, is less practical as a means for knowledge streams in this context
due to the diversity of the clients (see Section 5.2.3).
Complexity
Attempts to enable knowledge streams for the client at the pre-project stage present the
challenge: Virtually all issues from inception to completion in building projects should be
considered. This is the problem not only for this research but also for any attempt to deal
with client (Murray et al., 1990)
Different cultures and controversial values of various project parties

The various cultures and controversial values are most of all derived from the separation of
design from building and fragmented organisations that conduct this process. Even within
the client organisation, depending on roles (decisional maker, project owner, etc.), the
interests of its members vary. The user’s values are also different from that of the client
(owner of the facility). For individual occasional clients, users are more likely to be owners
than any other client group.
Different backgrounds and values can be found between the client and service providers
(see Section 4.4.2). The value contradiction is not a unique characteristic of the building
industry but is common to any business. According to Cox (1999), service providers are
likely to be primarily concerned with their own business profits rather than customer. He
explained the behaviour of suppliers in the marketplace as follows:
Essentially business is about appropriating value for oneself: it is not about passing
value to customers unless circumstances decree that this is the only option available
to a company in order for it to sustain itself in business.
For this reason, service providers neglect in informing available options to achieve value
for money in the customer’s viewpoint could not be blamed. These kinds of service should
be regarded as additional services. The problem is, therefore, whether the customer is aware
of the various options or is ready to pay for the service to consult options.
The different values can also be observed even on the provider side. The different
perspectives derived from various professional specialties cause a different interpretation of
the facts. In order to overcome this, the Latham Report (1994) emphasised the culture in
which various parties work closely. Partnering was suggested as a solution to this end.
However, Cox and Townsend (1998) argued that the Latham Report does not reflect the
value contradiction – the nature of any business. For instance, they argued that partnering
could be just a rhetoric of the win-win strategy unless all parties would gain benefits by
means of partnering.
Given that the community-approached facilitation of knowledge Ba embraces not only

clients but also service providers, it is a great challenge to intermediate the various cultures
and controversial values.
Professionalism of service providers in the industry
Construction professionals will adopt broadly standard procedures modified where

necessary, whilst others approach each project on an individual basis (Murray, 1990).
The professions tend to adopt standard procedures if they have experienced success in
using them. This trend is also found in the briefing process. Kernohan et al., (1992) argued
that even the feedback from users of previous projects to providers (professions in the
industry) is interpreted for the next project from provider’s perspective, not that of the
client/user. The fallacy in this approach is that architects, engineers and other professionals
know best. Green (1996) also supported the potential hazards of professionalism. He
criticised the standard procedures as a ‘pre-determined set of assumptions or rules, and a
fixed course of action’.
Professionalism can reinforce the passive attitude of clients. If the clients believe that the
professionals know best, they are unlikely to be involved in knowledge streams. The
facilitators can also be doomed to limit their boundary of knowledge Ba focusing on
professionals’ standard procedures and rules defined from professionals’ viewpoints.
The other impact of professionalism on knowledge streams is resistance to introduction of

new systems and cultures. Walker (1996) criticised the professionalism, especially, the
dominance of professional body in the industry as follows:
The conventional pattern of organisation was achieved through codes of conduct and
fee scales of its professional institutions, which eliminated, to a large extent,
competition between firms, thus enabling the system to resist change and maintain
the status quo.
Limited feedback of information from the client to the service providers
Obviously it makes good sense to learn from experience and feed information
(obtained from the client) back to the people who make buildings, so that they can
do even better next time. Surely these ideas are just some of the basics of good
management. Yet, in our experience, they are rarely applied in the design, production,
operation and management of facilities (Kernohan et al., 1992).
What, then, are the reasons for problems mentioned by Kernohan et al. (1992)? As
mentioned in the previous section, most of all, the experience itself is barely expressed
externally. Furthermore, even if the experience can be externalised, the system that enables
it to flow from project to project does not exist at the industrial (or national) level. Finally,
the service providers equipped with professionalism may not be eager to reflect the
feedback from the client: this could be regarded as accepting their faults in previous
projects.
The other reason can be found within the industry in terms of marketing practice. The one-
off nature of projects, especially ordered by occasional clients, has affected the attitude and
behaviour of service providers to marketing in the building industry. Marketing in the
building industry is mainly regarded as attracting the client (Fisher, 1991). Even this naïve
marketing approach depends on word-of-mouth or a private relationship with the potential
clients. Relationship marketing that aims to maintain the loyalty of customers and obtain
information in the post-purchasing (or post-occupying) stage from them seems too
luxurious for the building industry. If this is the case in the building industry, ‘feedback
from users’ cannot systematically obtained unless service providers are keen on developing
instruments to capture them and maintain them systematically.
5.4.4. Aspects derived from the unique status of occasional individual clients
Affordability of independent consultancy at the pre-project stage

Recently, tools to facilitate the knowledge stream have been developed to enable users who
are receiving consultancy to join the modelling process (see Appendix 3.3). Value
Management (VM) is the closet concept to this approach in the building industry. However,
this kind of consultancy-oriented application can make the client hesitate to pay for
consulting.
This problem does not exist only for VM. The usefulness of independent advice at the pre-
project stage has been mentioned. Consultancy at the pre-project stage is outsourcing
knowledge that is necessary but not available from the client’s in-house resources.
Nevertheless, the client may not recognise the value of this consultancy until noticing that
process seems to be on the wrong track. Even though they recognise the need for this
consultancy, occasional individual clients may not be able to afford to hire this service.
This tendency limits potential methods to facilitate knowledge streams: the face-to-face
consultancy-oriented approach is less realistic.
Feedback system: nonsense for occasional clients?

The most distinctive feature of occasional clients is the lack of a logical sequence of project
commissioning. Regular clients can reflect the experience, guidance and lessons learned
from previous projects for new projects. Green (1996) called this ‘continuous improvement
by means of responsible innovation’. Occasional clients will rarely become the client again;
so their experience is not available to affect the performance of other projects – unless they
transfer their experience to others.
5.4.5. Discussion
More questions are produced by attempts to classify aspects that seem to be obstacles to the
client’s knowledge stream. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the real world situation is complex
and this is very a nature of the real world. Aspects discussed so far are not noisy noise that
should be removed but should be embedded in nature of the situations.
When researchers attempt to reduce these or ignore them, the real meaning of the situations
would be lost. The focus is on human aspects like attitude and behaviours rather than the
definition of the content of knowledge needed by the client.
5.5. An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams
Discussions presented so far focus on determining elements and factors with which the
current situation would be analysed and conceptual direction of ideal situations with
determined elements and factors. The term ‘to facilitate’ indicates an intervention into the
real world situation to change certain elements or factors. In this section, a schematic model,
objectives and domain model of the application are given.
5.5.2. Schematic model of approach to facilitate knowledge streams
Schematic model of knowledge streams for the client

The approach is presented at the strategic level (see Section 2.2.2) and the main part of it is
a concept describing the direction for tackling the problem situation rather than a detailed
plan. In order to implement the concepts, practical components are necessary and these are
tangible compared with concepts.
Specify the system
Compare
Ideal model
Real world Lead to Ideal model
Acknowledge
Understand and
pursuit
Ontological application
to facilitate knowledge Support Clients
streams
Introduce, if
necessary
IT
Client's Facilitation Information

action
Figure 5.2 A schematic model of an approach to facilitate knowledge streams
Figure 5.2 illustrates the schematic model of an approach to facilitate knowledge streams.
By being supported by (ontological) application, the occasional individual clients
acknowledge the ideal situation, analyse the real world situations and finally take actions to
improve the situation. According to needs they recognise, the clients seek information and
acquire knowledge to take purposeful actions. In short, the application aims to support the
people-bound aspect by cultivating the system-bound aspect. The application can be
developed by introducing IT, if necessary (see Section 2.2.4 for the explanation on
ontology and epistemology in general).
This ontological model and applications should be developed by reflecting the findings
from analysing real world investigation. Analysing the real world situation is a part of
systems specification and the objectives of the empirical study in the research project.
Assumptions: Homeostasis and learning clients

Every human being has his or her own goal and perspective to achieve it. If s/he finds the
values and needs for resources such as knowledge, skills, information, etc., s/he tries to
obtain them (Senge, 1990; Sharan and Sharan, 1992; Roberts, 1994; Krogh et al., 2000).
In order to make a decision based on the rationale, the world is at least partially under the
actor’s control; they manifest subjectivity, possess purpose and free will, use reason and act
(Lichbach and Seligman, 2000). However, the context of a building project is unfamiliar for
occasional clients. Hence, they should develop their own framework, the whole picture of
the project and problem-solving framework as a base on which the client can undertake
purposeful activities. The fundamental assumption is that the client is a ‘learning customer’.
Mowen and Minor (1998) describe the behaviour of a learning customer as: “They try to
obtain information from companies through advertising, sales personnel, and their own
directed efforts to seek data”.
5.5.3. Objectives of ontological parts
People-bound aspects: Stimulating the motivation and guiding for

information search
The first phase in activating people is engaging their interest, their thinking, their creativity
and their understanding of participation. The second phase is one of employing various
techniques or approaches to enable participation. The third phase is that of community-
building which we would consider an outcome of participation (White, 1999).
How, then, can the client be led into the track of learning customer through involvement?
There must be motivation for the client. In this respect, the approach has an advantage. To
commission a building project needs substantial expenditure for the client, hence there is
higher change for the success in stimulating their interest. The involvement generally
increases when the product or service under consideration is more expensive, socially
visible and risky to purchase (Mowen and Minor, 1998). Gabbott and Hogg (1998)
supported this theory.
The customer has to learn how to participate in order that they can gain the full benefits
associated with the service. For instance being able to describe symptoms to a doctor,
obtain a self-service meal or outline what is required to a builder, all mean that consumers
will have to learn these roles and scripts and companies may be concerned to ensure that
consumers are taught them. If this is the case, the means should be able to let the client
recognise the disadvantages of less active involvement. This can be achieved through
distributing the failures of other clients who were less actively involved as well as
providing best practices of involvement.
If the client is aware of the necessity for being involved in the project process, a map to
guide their involvement is necessary. The client guide (see Appendix 7) and activity lists
(see Appendix 8.3) are examples of this guide. Through reviewing these, the client can
grasp issues (spontaneous impressions) in the project although it is not necessary to follow
them. The next step could be seeking information relevant to issues.
System-bound aspect 1: Cultivating Ba for knowledge streams

The virtual organisation is a temporary network of companies which come together quickly
to exploit fact-changing opportunity (White and Nair, 1999). Virtual organisation, although,
is firmly originated in the commercial business areas; The virtual network is not a concept
that is limited only to the boundary of organisations.
The virtual network has been expanded into the societal level. Now, the people who have a
common norm have been networked virtually in the Internet as the community has in the
real world (Kiiti and Nielsen, 1999). As discussed in Section 5.3.2, the client is already
networked through a looser connection than that can be found within or inter organisations.
This network for the client can also be developed into the virtual community on the Internet.
The benefits for the client that can be gained from participating in the community (whether
it is real or virtual) can be realised even through an Internet-based community.
There are several examples of the Internet-based virtual community. One of most
successful examples presents valuable clues. The Wellington County (in US) FreeSpace
network (www2.freespace.net) serves twenty-one rural municipalities and one city
(Richardson, 1999). This kind of virtual network approach is now being applied in rural
communities around the world. The lessons from this case are:
To focus on existing records for participatory communication, openness and

information-sharing within the community
Do not depend on the public authority too much from the beginning: it can diminish the
voluntarily involvement of the members in the community
Although the community is ideal for the knowledge Ba due to the nature of knowledge (see
Section 3.4.5), to facilitate knowledge streams depending on only the community has a
limitation: there must be mutual benefits for all involved in knowledge streams (see Section
5.3.4 and 5.4.2.). As mentioned, the values of parties in the building project vary (see
Section 5.4.3), so the common benefits for knowledge transfer should be clarified. For
clients: they can maintain the reference power by which they can champion the project. For
the supply side: they can maintain relationships with the clients and to contribute to the
benefits in terms of marketing in long term (see Section 5.3.3).
System-bound aspect 2: Feedback warehouse

In addition, feedback on a facility that is delivered after the project is completed can be
used as reference-briefing for the supply side. Many firms are project-based in the building
industry and they are recognizing the need to capture learning from individual projects and
make it available throughout the organisation.
Individual clients can share their feedback as well. This can be implemented relatively
easily compared with other types of information and knowledge. It is said that the
occasional individual clients have a limitation on using of feedback from previous projects.
To present feedback of other clients should have a limited appeal new individual clients,
however if the feedback is flowed with other information in which the new clients are
interested, it can be captured and distributed through the system.
5.5.4. Procedure to facilitate knowledge streams
Considerations before developing the procedure
The emphasis on quantifying ever smaller pieces of information, an obsession with

measurement tools, it may limit the free flow of ideas, the rigid procedures established
– and the overarching assumption that knowledge can be controlled – all reinforce
many of the barriers discussed above instead of dismantling them [Krogh et al., 2000]
As Krogh et al. (2000) argued, rigid procedures, biased a positivist approach to focus on
information and to attempt controlling knowledge can diminish the active nature of
knowledge streams.
However, there are several challenging aspects to facilitate knowledge streams of

occasional individual clients (see Section 5.4). In short, this client group orders the project
inconsecutively and therefore, the clients might be less keen on initiating and maintaining
knowledge streams. The first cycle of facilitation, hence, needs to be performed by the
facilitator. Although the facilitation should be flexible for coping with the diversity of this
client group, it does not mean that facilitation is performed without any procedures. A
procedure to facilitate knowledge streams from the field of KM is introduced.
Generic process for facilitating knowledge streams

Beijerse (2000) classifies the flows of knowledge in an organisation as: (1) To determine
the knowledge necessary; (2) To determine knowledge available; (3) To determine the
knowledge gap; (4) To develop knowledge by practitioners; (5) To acquire knowledge
acquisition; (6) To lock knowledge; (7) To share knowledge; (8) To utilise knowledge; (9)
evaluate (utilised) knowledge. The process of knowledge steams presented by Beijerse
(2000) are reconstructed as two main steps suitable for the context of this project (see 5.4.4).
In short, to cope with the one-off commission by occasional individual clients, facilitators
or analysts should perform the initiation of knowledge streams on behalf of the client and
the knowledge streams would be sustained by the client themselves (and the IT can support
this). The former process is grouped as step 1 and the latter as step 2.
Step 1: Initiating knowledge streams

Knowledge necessary for the client is defined in Section 4.4.4. Although knowledge that
the clients do not have is clarified in Section 4.4.3, it does not mean the lack of knowledge
but the clients do not know naturally. The knowledge gap means that the clients do not
know what they ought to know. At a glance, the knowledge gap can simply be analysed by
comparing necessary and available knowledge. However, this simple approach presented
from the facilitator’s viewpoint has a severe setback. The most important aspect is that of
the attitude of the actor, the client, in knowledge streams. Hence, if the client does not agree
with the necessity for knowledge, further process to facilitate knowledge streams should
include the way to change the attitude of the clients. The knowledge necessary and
available should be refined by the client.
If reasons for the gap are derived from system-bound factors, facilitation of the knowledge
stream would aim to generate proper structure, system and culture. On the other hand, if the
gap is caused by people-bound factor, facilitation of the knowledge stream should concern
methods to cultivate a proper attitude and instruct skills to acquire knowledge.
Step 2: Sustaining knowledge streams

The latter stages such as knowledge development, knowledge acquisition, knowledge lock,
knowledge sharing and knowledge utilisation can be sustained by the client. However, a
structured way is necessary to maintain the later part of process for facilitating knowledge
streams. IT can support this process: the role of IT is to implement IS towards knowledge
streams. Further explanation on relations between IT, IS and knowledge is given in Section
3.5.5.
The approach to facilitate knowledge streams aims to occur relatively ontological

knowledge spirals. The fundamental assumption of this approach is that the client will
behave rationally. Although the current situation has not yet been analysed, two main
problem situations in terms of facilitating knowledge streams can be expected: people-
bound and system-bound aspects. If the clients do not have the motivation to be involved in
information seeking to take up their role and responsibility, to motivate them, instruct on
their role and responsibility and inform the benefits of active involvement should be the
solution. On the contrary, if the clients cannot obtain information due to the absence of
possible sources, the system should be developed to provide necessary information.
The initial cycle of facilitating knowledge streams would be performed by the facilitator on
behalf of the client based on the procedures given in the field of KM. Then knowledge
streams can be sustained by the clients themselves supported by IT.
Knowledge streams are relatively ontological knowledge spirals: socialisation and
combination. Apparently, the knowledge streams may have occurred in real world
situations in the knowledge Ba. The knowledge Ba can be more community approached
and thus, the informal relationship is dominant in the interaction for information sharing.
On the contrary, knowledge Ba can be more market-approached and the formal relationship
such as contract or potential rewards are prerequisites. The two can co-exist.
Many challenging aspects for knowledge streams can be expected. However, in this
research project, the current problem situations are analysed twofold: human-bound and
system-bound aspects. The approach to facilitate knowledge streams means coping with
these two problems while implementing the generic procedure. The detailed method and
technique for implementing the concept will be developed further after the current situation
is analysed. For this reason, the empirical study in the research framework would become
the earlier phase of the systems specification for developing applications.
CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH SCOPE AND METHOD
This chapter, in broad sense, presents a research framework, without detailing the methods.
In order to avoid confusion between questions that motivated the research project (in
Chapter 1) and specified ones (in this chapter), the term ‘enquiry’ is used to denote the
latter. In the field of social science, research means enquiry of real world situations
(Robson, 1993; Black, 1999). The main part of the empirical study of this research project
is to investigate real world situations focusing on people-bound aspects relevant to
knowledge streams in the social context.
Several aspects of the conceptual model to understand or facilitate knowledge streams in

the real world situation are unknown, so it undermines the completeness of the model.
Through the real world enquiry, these unknown aspects need to be revealed. In addition, the
real world enquiry is designed to present information for further research, mainly
development of a practical application. Hence, the goals of enquiry can be summarised:
firstly to explore and explain the real world situation with a new perspective (i.e.
Knowledge streams); secondly to obtain fundamental information for the systems
specification (for an ontological application) to implement the schematic model (approach
to facilitate knowledge streams).
The methods are detailed plans to achieve the goals. In this chapter, the methods are
presented rather than methodology. In other words, a clear enquiry programme is given
consisting of various enquiry methods. However, this does not mean that it is purely
invented. Through the reviews of various methods (methodology), the most suitable sets of
methods are selected. In particular, research methods to investigate attitude and behaviour
in psychology and social science have been intensively reviewed because the main enquiry
themes are relevant to the attitude and behaviour of occasional individual clients. The
reviews of various methods (methodology) is given in Appendix 10. If the need arises, a
brief description of this review is given in relevant sections.
In this chapter, firstly, the enquiry themes are refined by considering the theoretical
framework and conceptual model presented in previous chapters. Based on clarified

enquiry themes, the entire research framework, enquiry strategy and data collection
programme are designed.
6.2. Research Scope and Design
It is less scientific to design the research framework based on the generic strength and
weakness of various research strategies (e.g. experiment, case study, survey, participant
research, etc.) without considering what we would actually like to know. For instance,
although the purpose of the enquiry is to investigate the broadness of the certain
phenomena, if the participant research is selected due to its ability to investigate the
context-specific and deep inner-views of subjects, the enquiry themes cannot be answered:
we can know the specific perspectives of subjects but still do not know how this
perspective is spread among subjects. In short, research should be closely designed in
conjunction with subjects, enquiry themes and objects as well as the generic characteristics
of research strategies themselves.
6.2.2. Reminiscence of research aims and consideration of intervention
Research aims
Two research aims are presented in Chapter 1:
To contribute theoretically towards a clarification of issues relevant to the knowledge

and building industry clients – in general and specifically to occasional individual
clients.

pre-project stage based on a rigorous investigation into the current situation.
The first aim has partly been achieved through literature reviews and construction of a
conceptual model. With the second aim, essential questions remain unanswered although
the approach to facilitate knowledge streams presented in the previous chapter.
The approach to facilitate knowledge streams is, without doubt, the normative model
describing ideal situations. In order to test whether this approach works or not, three steps
of evaluation are necessary. Firstly, the approach itself is designed correctly while
reflecting the needs of the real world situation; secondly, the approach can properly be
implemented in the real world situation; and lastly, the results would be measured after
implementing the approach.
The first step of evaluation can be performed theoretically. If the approach (the scheme of
the solution against the problem situation) is presented based on the sound theoretical
framework, the approach cannot theoretically be falsified (Bertalanffy, 1968). According to
him, it can at least be expected that certain principles will qualitatively apply to the system
(this verification method is called ‘explanations in principle’). However, the good fit of the
approach in the real world situation can be tested only through rigorous investigation into
the current situation.
The second step of evaluation can be performed by implementing the approach partly or
wholly. Through the implementing the approach, the technical practicability can be proved
and the positive opinions against the pilot operation of implemented approach can prove the
usefulness of the approach into the real world situation. The challenge is that the last step of
evaluation requires a full-scale intervention into the real world situation. After introducing
the approach into the real world situation, the changes need to be investigated over time.
In academic research, in general, the main achievement is supposed to be the first step and
in some cases, the second step of evaluation. This research aims to reach the second step of
evaluation. However, only after understanding the real-world situation sufficiently, it will
be attempted. The reason for excluding the last step of evaluation is that the full-scale
intervention into the real world situation does not seem available in the context of this
research project. In natural science, changes can be measured in controlled environments
through treatment – even this has been challenged due to the impact of observers’
perspectives (see Appendix 2.4). However, in the field of construction management that is
partly based on social science and management science, most of all, to control the
environment fully is literally impossible. If this is the case, the reasons for changes which
have occurred can hardly be said to be caused by implementing the approach: there could
be other reasons that are not defined or beyond the control.
The dilemma is that intervention cannot be avoided whether it is intended or not. Even
though the intervention does not mean the controlled experiment (in the laboratory), the
subjects of the research who are exposed to the idea (about the approach) or a prototype
system that partly implements the approach (at the second step of evaluation) would be
affected by it.
Relations between intervention and implementation of the approach

If intervention is unavoidable, it should be managed as similar in a way to the possible
results for implementing the approach: in other words, the intervention must happen in the
real world situation a continuously and with predictable manner. For instance, consultancy-
based approach to support the occasional individual clients is not likely to occur in the real
world if the cost (for the consultancy) is higher than this client group can afford. This type
of method can present flamboyant result in an academic research project but will remain as
a tool just for research. For this reason, this method cannot be said to be a ‘practical’
approach. As discussed in Section 5.5.4, the last phase of facilitating knowledge streams is
to cultivate the Ba so it can be sustainable without an involvement of the facilitator.
Potential intervention methods, therefore, should be any application that can realise this
ideal situation either partially or fully. Partially-implemented application will be called a
prototype hereinafter. Given that the tangible objects in knowledge streams are information,
the prototype would have some form of IS and thus, it can be called prototype IS (see
Appendix 4.4 for the further explanations of the prototype system as a research tool).
Implementation of the approach and real world investigation

As mentioned in Section 5.6 and 6.1, one of the purposes for the real world investigation is
to contribute to the specification of the application in this research project.
It is important to realise that research can take many forms, and serve a variety of
purposes. It cannot be judged purely by the extent to which it solves practical
problems. Some projects will always need to be of a basic or fundamental nature,
and therefore strike the impatient practitioners as irrelevant to the ‘real world’. The
distinction between basic and applied research is far from clear cut; it is more useful
to see them as lying on a continuum [Herriot et al., 1973].
As mentioned by Herriot (1973), to keep a balance between investigating the fundamental

nature of real world situations (and thus, being able to present the ‘general body of
knowledge’) and contributing to developing practical solutions towards improving a
specific real world situation is difficult but essential for an academic research.
One of characteristics of science is to pursue creativity (see Appendix 2.1). Although it is

hard to present the solutions at the moment, still it is possible to interpret the necessity for
changes from new (creative) perspectives. The investigation will be conducted in the line of
the theoretical framework and there could be a limitation exceeding the boundary of
existing theory. In many cases, the results of analysing the real world situations can present
fresh ideas. This possibility for discovery is not ignored and it is mentioned as a paradigm
of the research (see Section 2.3.6).
Intervention as an integrated part of the research project

Research design is the outline (or blueprint) of the research. Hence, the research design is
in the higher level than the enquiry strategies as the former includes non-enquiry works (e.g.
experiment) (Robson, 1993; Black, 1999). Nevertheless, the changes occurring as the result
of non-enquiry works would be measured through enquiry in social science (Robson, 1993).
The research can be designed centred by intervention, i.e. Pre- and post-intervention. This
research process is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Whatever the intervention method, the situations investigated in the pre-intervention

enquiry will become the touchstone for measuring change or predicting potential changes
after implementing the application (developed from the conceptual model). Although the
terms describing the detail of research design assume the need for intervention (e.g.
experiment, action research, evaluation, etc.) the main stream of the research does not
deviate from this framework – before intervention, intervention and measurement of the
changes. The differences between these three methods will be reviewed in this section.
In the pre-intervention enquiry, the current situation should be investigated as it is. Hence,
the main focus of this research – the context (Ba) rather than content of knowledge
streams – the analysis of the current Ba can provide the guide to the direction for the
application development.
However, the current situation should be investigated in an unbiased manner. Although

difficult to achieve, it is possible to minimise the influence of enquiry or intention.
Research questions
part 1: Hypothesis:
Change is
necessity and required
feasibility for change
Literature review,
theoretical Enquiry Real
world
framework and themes enquiry
conceptual model
Fail
Test
No
The end of real

Yes world enquiry
Research questions Hypothesis:

part 2: possibility for Change is
change predicted
Methods
Systems Prototype of
and
specification application
techniques
Real
world
enquiry
Recommendation
on further research
relevant to solutions No Test Fail
Yes
The end of real

world enquiry
Figure 6.1 Flow of the research
6.2.3. Subjects (unit of analysis): Individual clients
Previous research has focussed on major institutional clients as the unit of analysis and
therefore, the unique characteristics of occasional individual clients in terms of knowledge
streams have rarely been reported. In fact, other clients groups’ characteristics have also not
been analysed from the perspective of knowledge streams. Nevertheless, the main reason
for selecting occasional individual clients as the subject is that they occupy the main
portion of clients in terms of number. This significance is recognised through second data
analysis in the sampling process for the preliminary survey (see section 6.4.2) and proved
quantitatively (see section 6.4.3). Approximately 80% of building planning application
cases (in southern England) have been filed by individual clients. Looking at proposal type
in these applications, a significant portion of individual clients are likely occasionally to
order building works.
However, estimating the accurate proportion of occasional clients in the individual group
can only be measured through real world investigation (by asking whether the clients have
ordered building works within the last 5 years). However, their distinctive characteristics
are not revealed through rigorous field study as the unit of analysis of the enquiry is
individual clients (not occasional individual clients). If unique characteristics of occasional
individual clients compared to other individual clients are found, the unit of analysis for
further research will be specified as ‘occasional’ individual clients.
In addition to individual clients, the regular institutional clients are also considered as the
supplement subject. This client group can present a normative model of knowledge streams
for the client in general. However, in order to focus on (occasional) individual clients, the
investigation of this client group will be performed as a preliminary survey.
For clients, the interaction with potential service providers (e.g. architect, quantity surveyor,
builder, etc.) at the pre-project stage is also a resource to acquire knowledge; this was
named ‘market-approached Ba for knowledge steams’ (see Section 5.3.3). Based on the
meso approach (see Section 2.3.3), the supply side (service providers in the industry) is
investigated partly in order to enhance the completeness of the survey and partly to prevent
biasing to the perspectives of the demand side (i.e. Client).
6.2.4. Pre-intervention enquiry themes
Definition of pre-intervention enquiry

Evaluation of the concept can be completed only through investigation of the current
situation without any impact of the intention that can cause biased results. The argument is
that there is no bias-free method to investigate in situations. Even the researcher does not
intend to intervene into situation or subjects, so often, the subjects present biased answers
in accordance with their perception of researcher’s goal.
In this research, intervention means the planned treatment or effects given into the situation.
An investigation that is cautiously designed to reduce effect of researchers and that aims to
explore the situation before intervention is called a ‘pre-intervention enquiry’. The
intervention will be discussed in detail in 6.2.5.
The pre-intervention enquiry themes are defined in conjunction with literature reviews and
the conceptual model.
Aspects remain unknown through literature reviews

Despite the intensive literature reviews, two aspects that are essential to support the needs
of the research project and the completeness of the conceptual model remain unknown:
The status of occasional individual clients: the proportion of individual (occasional)

clients of the entire number of clients.
The project type mainly commissioned by occasional individual clients: i.e. Type of
project in terms of product type and expected budget.
Aspects defined from the conceptual model

Attitude of the client towards role and responsibility (see Sections 5.2.4 and 5.5.3)
Behaviour on information search (see Sections 5.2.4 and 5.5.3)
Current Ba in which individual clients have acquired information (see Sections 5.3 and
5.5.3)
Knowledge gap (see Section 5.5.4)
Through synthesizing all aspects to be investigated through real world enquiry, the reality
of current knowledge streams can be analysed. If the current situations show significant
difference from the normative model, the reasons will be interpreted and applications will
be developed to initiate knowledge streams. If on the contrary, the knowledge streams have
already occurred but are just specific phenomena limited to a few clients, the application
will be developed to expand and sustain this trend.
Aspects relevant to implementing the approach to facilitate knowledge

streams
If the objective of the research is only to explore whether the conceptual model fits the
current situation, the research scope would be limited to investigation into the current
situations given above. However, one of aims of the research is to present an approach to
facilitate knowledge streams; hence, the scope of the research will broaden into
investigating room for change. For this reason, future aspects will also be investigated as
follows:
Feasibility of cultivating the network-approached Ba
Feasibility of cultivating the market-approached Ba
Potential users (specific clients group) of the application
The feasibility of cultivating network-approached Ba can be interpreted from the opinions

of the client on expected benefits from the network. The feasibility of implementing the
market-approached Ba can be interpreted through investigating pre-contract interaction
between the client and potential service providers and the current relationship marketing of
providers to get feedback from the client (see 5.3.3).
Even among individual clients group, some clients’ situations do not fit the application of
the conceptual model. For this reason, clients are grouped in according to their attitude and
behaviour, whether they can use the application and gain benefits from it.
Other aspects
Factors affecting attitude and behaviour
The satisfaction level of clients in terms of duration, cost and quality
Although not directly contributing to achieving the aims of the research, some aspects
arouse intellectual curiosity, for instance, factors that are likely to influence the attitude and
behaviour of the clients. The diversity of the clients is well known and therefore, there are
very many potential factors that can influence their attitude and behaviour. Defining all
influential factors is too onerous, a couple of main factors that are essential can be defined
and regarded in further research.
The other aspect is the satisfaction level. The dissatisfaction of the client with the project
performance has been reported continuously. Have (occasional) individual clients been
dissatisfied with the project results? Satisfaction levels will be analysed to explore the
relations between attitude and behaviour of the client and satisfaction level. This is not the
main goal of the enquiry as there are other factors that influence the satisfaction of the
client. However, it can be expected if the client is involved more actively, there could be
more chance to succeed for the project and therefore, the satisfaction level would be raised.
6.2.5. Intervention method
Intervene what?
It is, in some aspects, nonsense to mention the intervention method because what
intervention should take place is not clarified through rigorous investigation into the real
world situation. It could be human factors such as the attitude of the individual clients. On
the contrary, it could be system-bound factors that hinder knowledge streams. Nevertheless,
due to the unique characteristics of (occasional) individual clients, the choice of
intervention methods is limited.
Potential intervention methods and research designs
Table 6.1 Available research design and sample
Research Design Pre-intervention Post-intervention
Experimental methodology - One group post-

test/observation only
One group pre- and post-test/observations

Two available groups pre- and post-test/observations
Quasi-experimental and ex post facto designs
Survey methodology Probability sampling Probability sampling

Non-probability sampling
Case study methodology Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling (purposive sampling)
(purposive sampling)
Evaluation - Probability sampling

Non-probability sampling
The research design, most of all, should be selected by considering enquiry themes (what
we want to know), available samples (subjects that can be accessed) and how much the
subjects will be exposed to treatment or control (i.e. Intervention). The intervention method
could be developed in conjunction with research design (i.e. Experiment) or independently
(i.e. Evaluation). The main concern of any intervention is the sample: Which person or
group will be exposed to treatment or control, and when (Black, 1999). Available sampling
methods with conjunction to experimental methods are summarised in Table 6.1.
In this research, three intervention methods are considered: experiment, action research and
test-operation of the prototype application. The most important aspect to selecting the
intervention method is if the intervention can be implemented as a practical application in
the real world situation. Thus, the benefits of implementing it would be realised.
Consideration of laboratory experiment as the intervention method

The chief strength of laboratory experiments lies in their ability to get at casual relationship
(or internal validity) – concerned with the extent to which a study establishes that a factor
or variable has actually caused the effect that is found (Robson, 1993). However, this
strength causes a severe weakness simultaneously – how could we know the result is only
affected by controlled factors? In other words, if we cannot define all factors and cannot
control them, the results cannot indicate scrutiny.
The main intervention in this research project is supposed to be conducted in the real
context (or Ba of knowledge streams). Intuitively, the Ba is important for (occasional)
clients to obtain information and acquire knowledge. However, it can hardly be said that
only Ba affects knowledge streams.
Even if it can be assumed that the Ba is the main factor for knowledge streams, the Ba
prepared in the experiment is not likely to be implemented in a similar manner in the world
situation. In other words, even though the purposeful action of the clients can be observed
as the result of laboratory experiment, this cannot be sustained in the real world situation
(this is called mundane realism, Robson, 1993).
Due to the limitations discussed so far, the laboratory experiment is ruled out.
Consideration of action research as the intervention method

Action research is a method sprung from the participatory research paradigm (see Appendix
10.3 for further explanation of participatory paradigm). The participatory research process
is a methodology that promotes the production of collective knowledge, collective critical
analysis, making connections between personal and structural problems, and linking
reflection and evaluation to action. The action process involves thinking through courses of
action, pursuing action, evaluating and accounting for action projects implemented, and
reflecting on the outcomes (White and Nair, 1999). In this respect, action research can be
understood as the combined methods of research and application.
Unless the researcher observes the situation that is led by the specialised facilitator who
fully understands the conceptual model, the facilitator is likely to be the researcher
her/himself who presents the conceptual model. This is the main difference between
laboratory experiment and action research. In action research, the researcher can be
involved as the facilitator, based on constructivists paradigms, whereas in the laboratory
experiment the researcher can prepare different conditions but cannot be involved in the
situation.
One of characteristics of occasional individual clients is the limited budget that hinders
hiring an independent advisor in the pre-project phase (see 4.2.5) and thus, the results of
action research are not likely to be sustained in the real world situation. Nevertheless, as it
has not been investigated if (occasional) individual clients can afford to hire independent
consultancy in the pre-project phase, the action research remains an option.
Consideration of pilot operation of the prototype IS as the intervention

method
This intervention method seems suitable due to the nature of this research. IS is the
ontological part to implement the approach to facilitate knowledge streams. For this reason,
only by considering the mundane realism, the intervention using the prototype application
can be produced more realistic results as this kind of application can be deployed in the real
world situation (without involvement of the human facilitator). In addition, this intervention
method has another strength. Rapid prototyping has a function to extract users’ needs (see
Section 8.3.5 from page 240 for more detail on rapid prototyping). In short, the prototype of
the application can predict the potential change after intervention and capture needs of
users that are not specified.
Prototype application can be developed in line with two IS methodologies: Hard and soft
systems methodology (see Appendix 4 for IS methodology). Although, systems
specification can be conducted by means of soft systems method, the prototype itself cannot
be developed by using this method. If the application is developed based on soft systems
method, the facilitator should be involved whenever the need arises, probably with a group
of occasional individual clients. In this case, the prototype system would play the role of
the tool for action research. For this reason, the prototype IS system developed introducing
soft system method would inherit the weaknesses of the action research. In this context, the
hard systems approach seems more suitable to develop the prototype system. However,
hard systems method has limitation in coping with the epistemological features of
knowledge. There remains the need for more discussions to be continues after analysing the
pre-intervention real world enquiry.
6.2.6. Post-intervention enquiry themes
At this stage, the benefits that are likely to be realized by implementing the approach are
measured. To this end, as mentioned, intervention is necessary. The intervention method
will be selected in accordance with the analysed results of the pre-intervention enquiry.
Although post-intervention enquiry themes will be defined after pre-intervention enquiry,
their outline can be given as the main objective of this stage is to measure the changes in
conjunction with the pre-intervention enquiry (see Figure 6.1).
To (occasional) individual clients, especially a specific group available to apply the

approach, the following aspects can be asked:
Opinions on the prototype of application itself
Opinions on the prototype of application as the potential facilitator of Ba
Opinions on the usefulness of application as a tool to cope with problem situations
(defined though pre-intervention enquiry)
To service providers (the client’s agents) the following can be asked:

Opinions on the usefulness of the prototype of application to implement the approach as
a tool for marketing to attract new clients
Opinions on the usefulness of the prototype of application to implement the approach as
a relationship marketing tool to obtain feedback
Opinions on the usefulness of application as a tool to cope with problem situations
(defined though pre-intervention enquiry)
6.2.7. Enquiry objects
Main parts of pre-intervention enquiry themes are relevant to the attitudes and behaviour. In
order to interpret the attitude, attitude objects (see Section 3.3.4) should be clarified first.
Attitude objects
The client would express their opinions on the attitude objects and these will be interpreted
as the attitude of the client. For clients, several aspects can stimulate their perception.
Among them, client’s activities are most fundamental to explain the clients’ role in
knowledge streams (see Section 5.2.4).
The challenge is that the purposeful activities of the client have been clarified for the client
in general and regular institutional clients. For this reason, purposeful activities for
individual clients need to be identified. Initial attitude objects are defined from the client’s
activity at the pre-project stage (process-based activities: see Section 4.3.4) and activities
library (see Appendix 8.3).
Be aware of requirements
Identify objectives
Generate and assess options
Establish a procurement strategy
As mentioned, the activities are defined for the client in general. Although the most suitable
activities are selected logically, it is not known if these activities are regarded essential and
performed by individual clients. For this reason, as these attitude objects should first be
appraised by individual clients and this is one of objectives of the preliminary enquiry (it
will be mentioned in Section 6.3.3)
Opinions of clients on the importance of client’s activities: To interpret

attitude on their role and responsibility and eagerness to be involved
As mentioned in Section 3.3.4, internal mode of attitude is belief and desire. Belief exists
inside human mind and can be investigated by asking their opinions. Investigation into
people’s opinions reflects strength of attitudes, perceptions and views. This involves trying
to measure and quantify how intensively people feel about issues, as opposed to what they
know or can do (Black, 1999). Research into attitudes, opinions and beliefs can help us to
understand tendencies: How do these tend to influence decisions and actions in groups of
people who have some characteristics in common? (Black, 1999). The investigation of
opinions of client activities can contribute to reveal the attitude and behaviour on
information seeking and it can contribute to unlock the myth of knowledge streams.
In a building project, the client may iterate searching information and making decisions as
the owner/user of the facility, director of the project and customer of the service (see
Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.5). Despite the importance, the attitude and behaviour of the
individual client as customer of the service has rarely been investigated. Given that
information search is a main activity prerequisite to decision making in the general theory
of consumer behaviour (Kotler et al., 1999: see Appendix 5.1), investigating individual
client’s attitude and behaviour on searching for information can provide interim findings
for further research.
Opinions of clients on difficulty to undertake clients activity: To interpret

knowledge gap
What do (occasional) individual clients most need to know? As mentioned, the difference
between what they ought to know and really know can be defined as ‘knowledge gap’ (see
Section 5.5.4).
The challenge is that, in general, people do not try to classify or define what kind of
knowledge they ought to have, have actually and use it to take actions. In order to measure
the level of knowledge they possess, indirect questions should be asked. Scarbrough et al.
(1999) defined knowledge as a process of “acting knowledgeably” and a challenge is how
to measure the client has acted knowledgeably. The knowledge gap can be analysed by
investigating what the individual occasional clients want to do but cannot. In order to
develop a practical application, the client’s own needs for knowledge as well as knowledge
defined from the normative model should be counted in systems specification.
Sources to obtain information: to interpret the dominant Ba

The clients may try to seek information and acquire knowledge to undertake activities
(defined in attitude objects). The potential sources are presented by considering their status
at the pre-project stage: Client guides, web-sites and acquaintances (i.e. Friends. neighbours
and colleagues).
In the conceptual model, the client network is presented as one of potential Ba. If a kind of
client network exists currently, the implementation of the conceptual model can easily be
achieved. The existence of the client network can also explain the local-oriented behaviour
of the (occasional) individual clients. As mentioned, some applications for the client
showed the lack of locality and it was one of reasons why the client did not prefer to use the
system (see Section 4.5.4). If this is the case, the system can be more successful by
providing regional-based tailored contents. To this end, the characteristics of the current Ba
should be investigated.
The local-oriented behaviour of the client can partly be interpreted from secondary data
analysis. In planning application cases that are filed with the local council, the region of
client’s agents can be compared to that of the client. However, these can only show the
outward pattern of the client behaviour in choosing service providers. It needs further
investigation to discover if individual clients really depend on these agents to search
information and acquire knowledge. In addition to network-approached Ba, the information
search behaviour of the clients through interaction with potential service providers can
indicate the feasibility of facilitating market-approached Ba.
The main problem is that to include the service providers as information source (in the
questionnaire or during interviews) can mislead client’s memory. For instance, although
they obtain information form service providers during the project process (not at the pre-
project stage), if the clients (respondents) see the service providers given as information
sources, they may say the service providers are information sources at the pre-project stage.
In order to ovoid this, the service providers are excluded at first. After analysing the
responses from the preliminary survey, the information sources will also be altered as result
of preliminary investigation.
In general, the respondents tend to say what they ought to do instead of what they actually
did. By asking from which source they tried to obtain information or acquire knowledge,
the consistency between their attitude and behaviour can be tested.
The investigation into information sources that the clients use or contact can, in part, lead
the interpretation of this behaviour. If clients wish to be involved in the project process,
presumably, they may try to seek more information and thus, contact more information
sources. The number selected by the client can be a barometer of the extent of his/her
eagerness for involvement.
Opinions of the clients on the benefits of information sharing between

clients: Feasibility for cultivating network-approached Ba
What benefits do individual clients expect to gain from sharing information with other
clients? The types of information that can be shared between clients are side-ranging and
need to be summarised as a simple term that can represent information in detail. Two
categorical terms are ‘reference briefing’ and ‘programme’. These can be transferred
directly from clients to clients. There are other less abstract benefits from sharing
information. For instance, the potential to share the evaluation of service quality after the
project ends can maintain the reference power. Opinions on the potential benefits from
sharing information are asked and it can present information for current utilisation of
network-approached Ba.
Marketing and relationship marketing tools used by client’s agents:

Feasibility for cultivating market-approached Ba
Although it seems that marketing and relationship marketing in the building industry are
less flourish than other sectors, the current situation will be briefly investigated. The service
providers who have played the role of the client’s agent have been investigated into the use
of marketing and relationship marketing. This can indicate the possibility for facilitating
market-approached Ba in part and the direction of the application to implement this concept
(see Section 5.3.3)
Factors affecting attitude and behaviour

The attitude and behaviour of individual clients on knowledge acquisition may be diverse.
However, if they do exist, it can be invaluable to find general factors that affect their
attitude and behaviour to develop an approach to facilitate knowledge streams. There could
be a large number of factors affecting these, such as their personality, education level,
occupation, experience of building projects, the budget of the project they expected, etc.
Among them, the demographic factors seem interesting to investigate but are likely to be
less practical to develop an application. For instance, it may be less practical to develop
applications separately for individual clients with differing levels of education or whose
annual income is above or below a certain level. The main concern is to select factors from
investigating their influence on attitude and behaviour which are useful to refine the
conceptual model and contribute to developing a practical application.
In this research, three main factors are selected: The client region, experience of building
projects and expected budget of the project.
The first factor is the client regions. It is assumed that the client may have tried to seek
information or acquire information on a regional basis. The institutional clients whose
project requires specialized service providers rather than the local ones can find them
nation-wide or world-wide. Individual clients may show more local-oriented behaviour on
information search. Then what is the boundary of this local region? Do individual clients
who are from different regions in terms of official boundary (e.g. a named Borough
Council) show different attitude and behaviour? The answer to this question can reveal the
possible boundary that the client network can cover.
The second factor is the experience level of the client. The significance of this factor has
been emphasised in a large number of literatures. It is without doubt the experience of the
client which affects the performance of project. However, it is not clear whether the
experience also affects attitude and behaviour in the individual clients group as well.
Furthermore, if the majority of individual clients are owners and users of the facility and
their main business area is not developing, it can be arguable that the experience of the
individual clients will really make significant differences to their attitude and behaviour.
Lastly, the project budget that is guesstimated by the individual clients is likely to affect
their attitude and behaviour. The main background to select this as a main factor is
consumer behaviour (see Appendix 5.1).
6.2.8. Enquiry themes and purposes
Robson (1993) classified enquiry purposes as three types as exploratory, descriptive and
explanatory, and these are summarized in Table 6.2. However, Rigby (1965) argued that
the description could be unsuitable to perform a scientific research unless it could present
the generalization of phenomena because the description itself is not the same as building a
systematic explanation of phenomena. However, if the enquiry strategy is designed to
generalise phenomena through ‘comparison’ of various described situations, it could also
be regarded as a scientific method.
Table 6.2 Comparison of three enquiry purposes (Robson ,1993)
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory

Objective To find out what is To portray an accurate To seek an explanation of
happening profile of persons, events a situation or problem
To assess phenomena in a or situations.
new light
Methods To see new insights To know appropriate To form casual

To ask questions aspects on which to relationships
gather information
Data type Usually, but not necessary, May be qualitative and/or May be qualitative and/or
qualitative quantitative quantitative
In short, descriptive enquiry aims to present the picture of real world situations as close to
the reality as possible; explorative enquiry aims to find new aspects from fresh perspectives
and; explanatory enquiry to contribute to finding relations between objects.
Among enquiry themes defined in section 6.2.4, to investigate unknown aspects in other
literatures is falling into descriptive enquiry. The facts in the situation should be found as
they are. Unknown aspects in the conceptual model, however, are mainly explorative. The
knowledge streams may have occurred in the real world situation. However, this
phenomenon has not been interpreted in terms of elements or factors defined in Chapter 5
(i.e. Attitude, behaviour and dominant Ba).
In this section, the relationship between intervention and research design is intensively
discussed. Centring on the intervention, research design consists of pre- and post-
intervention enquiry. Intervention method should be integrated into the research framework
by considering the mundane reality: The intervention method in the research project can be
realised in the real world situation as well. Although the real world situation is not
investigated, theoretically the pilot operation of the prototype IS seems most suitable in the
context of this research.
Enquiry objects are targets that would be described and explored through empirical study
and these will contribute to interpret the enquiry themes. Table 6.3 summarises enquiry
themes, their purposes and enquiry objects that will actually be sought through
investigation. Enquiry purposes denote the direction of analysis and are: Descriptive,
explorative and explanatory. Enquiry purposes are clarified according to enquiry themes.
Table 6.3. Summary of enquiry themes, objects, purpose and available strategies
Enquiry Themes Enquiry Enquiry Objects

Purposes
The status of (occasional) individual Descriptive Percentage of (occasional) individual clients

clients
The project type that occasional Descriptive Product type

individual clients have mainly Expected budget
commissioned
The satisfaction level Descriptive Opinions on the satisfaction against the

project performance (i.e. Duration, cost and
quality)
Attitude of the client on involvement Explorative Opinions of clients on clients activity
Knowledge gap Explanatory Opinions of clients on importance and

difficulty of undertaking clients activity
Dominant knowledge Ba Explorative Sources to obtain information
Behaviour on information search Explorative Types of information the client tries to seek
and its sources
Feasibility for cultivating the network Explorative Opinions of the clients against on benefits
approached Ba (i.e. Reference briefing, programme and
reference power)
Feasibility for cultivating the market Explorative The current marketing approach used by
approached Ba service providers (i.e. Architect, builder)
Factors affecting attitude and Explanatory Relationship between factors (i.e. Region,
behaviour experience and budget) upon opinion
6.3. Enquiry Strategy and Data Collection Programme
The most important criterion to select enquiry strategy and to design a data collection
programme is whether these can contribute to answering enquiry themes while tackling the
main concerns of the enquiry process. This section presents selected enquiry strategies (e.g.
survey, case study, etc.) and data collection methods (e.g. interview, questionnaire survey,
document analysis, etc.) of the research project.
6.3.2. Review of potential enquiry strategies and data collection methods
Enquiry phase and main concern

Each enquiry phase has unique concerns. For instance, the enquiry themes in the pre-
intervention enquiry stage should be answered based on the reliable data that can represent
the generality of this specific client group. In other words, the key issue in the pre-
intervention enquiry process is to investigate ‘how broad’ the patterns in terms of enquiry
objects are observed. On the contrary, the post-intervention enquiry can sacrifice the
generality into some extent because the main objective of this phase is not to explore the
generality but to evaluate the prototype system.
Case study vs. survey
Single or a few Representative

selected groups sample(s)
(case study): What is happening?
Why? How? How widespread?
Figure 6.2 The relationship between case studies and studies involving
representative samples of larger populations (Black, 1999)
As illustrated in Figure 6.2, case study is suitable to investigate the reasons for the
phenomenon (i.e. Why and how) whereas survey against representative samples aims to
describe the phenomenon (i.e. What) and generalise it. However, case study is the term
focusing on the analysis approach rather than data collection methods. One of key methods
to collect data for case study is interview and it is a data collection method used in survey.
For this reason, Dyer (1995) recommended reconstructing data obtained from interviews of
a few samples as a case study before conducting a survey against representative samples.
According to him, through case study, the sound framework for a further survey can be
developed. Further reviews of generic strength and weakness of case study and survey are
presented in Appendix 10.1.
Although the results of interviews are not reconstructed as case studies, in the preliminary
survey of the pre-intervention enquiry they would be performed adopting the case study
approach. In the main pre-intervention enquiry stage, the survey strategy is used. The
matter here is not the data collection methods but the sample. Case studies can be
undertaken against a sample selected through a less rigid sampling process. In other words,
the sample could be selected with a purpose and the sample selected that is likely to be
most suitable to the present information relevant to the enquiry themes. On the contrary,
survey should be conducted against a sample that can represent the population and are
selected through rigorous sampling. It means that if the sample is not selected randomly,
the reliability of the analysis results would be challenged and thus, it cannot be said that the
results are generalised characteristics of population.
Data collection methods

Data collection methods should be selected in conjunction with the enquiry strategy. For
the pre-intervention enquiry, interviews and questionnaire survey are selected as data
collection methods. Further reviews on data collection methods are presented in Appendix
11.
6.3.3. Preliminary survey
The preliminary survey is to obtain the broad picture of the current situation and develop
the questionnaire for the main enquiry. It consists of structured interviews of (occasional)
individual clients and their agents (i.e. Service providers) in the building industry. At the
beginning of the research project, one regular institutional client is interviewed. This
interview is to audit the activity library for the client side (see Appendix 8.3). However, the
analysis of this interview is not included in the thesis because it was not performed as a part
of research design.
Structured interview of (occasional) individual client’s agents

The objectives of the interview in this stage are to understand the relationship between the
individual clients and their agents and predict the feasibility for cultivating the market
approached Ba for knowledge streams. The contents of interviews aims to explore:
The general attitude and behaviour of individual clients
Marketing and relationship marketing tools used by client’s agents: Feasibility for
cultivating market-approached Ba
Assess the activity library for the client side
By investigating aspects stated above, the questions – how the (occasional) individual
clients depend on their agents at the pre-project stage and how the agents can play role in
the Ba for knowledge streams – can be answered. However, in this research, the findings
cannot be generalised, as the samples are not representative of all the entire agents in the
building industry. In order to save research resources, in the pre-intervention stage, the
main subjects are limited to individual clients.
Structured interview of (occasional) individual clients

Through interviews of (occasional) individual clients, the attitude objects and information
sources are redefined. In addition, the terms used by the respondents (individual clients)
during the interviews are monitored to develop the questionnaire for the main survey. They
are mainly asked the following:
Assess the activity library for the client side
General procedures of their activity as the client
Any difficulty they felt during project commissioning
Preliminary questionnaire survey of individual clients

The challenge is that, for (occasional) individual clients, even the same attitude objects can
be understood differently. This does not mean that they have different opinions on the
attitude objects, as they may interpret the attitude objects differently from person to person.
The individual clients can be anyone and the meanings of the same word may be different,
based on their interpretation. Even the attitude objects and information sources can be
redefined through interviews, yet these are for just a few selected clients. In order to cull
terms that can be misunderstood or multi-interpreted, a preliminary postal questionnaire
survey is conducted. The questionnaire for the main survey is re-designed by analysing the
responses of the preliminary questionnaire survey.
Through preliminary questionnaire survey the following aspects can be cleared for the main
survey (Black, 1999):
How long did it take the respond to complete?
Were the instructions clear?
Were any of the questions unclear or ambiguous?
Did they object to answering any of the questions?
Has any major topic been omitted?
Was the layout of the questionnaire clear/attractive?

Are there any comments from the clients?
In addition to various objectives of the preliminary questionnaire survey presented above,

in this research project, two more benefits were gained:
To predict the response rate of the main postal questionnaire survey to determine the
proper number of questionnaires that will be sent
To redefine attitude objects and information sources from (occasional) individual
clients viewpoints based on the analysis of the responses
Questionnaire design for preliminary postal questionnaire survey

At this stage, the following aspects are asked:
Opinions of clients on the importance of client’s activities to interpret attitude against
their role and responsibility
Opinions of clients on difficulty to undertake client’s activity to interpret knowledge
gap
Sources to obtain information to interpret the dominant Ba in which the client obtains
information and knowledge
Types of information the client tries to seek and its sources to interpret the behaviour of
the client on information and knowledge acquisition.
Due to the small number of the sample, the results of the survey cannot represent the
general characteristics of the population. Instead, the main objective of the preliminary
questionnaire survey is to refine the questionnaire for the main survey. Especially, the
Likert scale and attitude objects are validated in this stage.
IMPORTANCE DIFFICULTY
Not important Very Very Very
At All Important Difficult Easy
Neutral Neutral
I do not know 1 2 3 4 5 I did not try to 1 2 3 4 5

Attitude
objects
Figure 6.3 An example of the Likert scale used for the preliminary questionnaire
survey
In order to measure the opinions, the 5 states Likert scale and columns indicating
irrelevance (i.e. ‘I do not know’ and ‘I did not try’) are used as shown in Figure 6.3. In the
figure, the higher value in the important scale means that the client thinks the attitude object
is important. The higher value in the difficulty scale means that the client thinks the attitude
object is easy to do.
This research attempts to measure the behaviour on searching for information. If the clients
are asked directly if they were seeking for information or trying to acquire knowledge, they
may answer positively because the respondents answer what they ought to do rather than
what they really did. In order to prevent this, the questionnaire is designed to ask sources
they contacted or consulted to obtain information relevant to attitude objects. Figure 6.4
illustrate the instrument to ask information sources.
Advice
I did not I could Client Internet from Others
try to seek not find guide web site friends/
neighbours
Information
objects
Figure 6.4 An example of table to investigate information or knowledge source
6.3.4. Main postal questionnaire survey
Pilot postal questionnaire survey

In accordance with findings and suggestions presented by analysing the results of
preliminary survey, the questionnaire is modified. The analysis result of preliminary survey
and modification of questionnaire for main postal questionnaire survey will be given in the
next chapter, Section 7.2.
After modifying the questionnaire by reflecting findings from the preliminary questionnaire
survey, a pilot questionnaire survey was conducted against 50 randomly selected samples
from sub-groups classified for the main survey. The population and sampling will be
discussed in the next section. The responses were reviewed based on points considered in
the preliminary survey (see Section 6.3.3) and this was reflected in the final modification of
the questionnaire.
In addition, new questions to investigate the background of the project and the clients are
included. The last part of the questionnaire is to measure the expectation of the client
against the benefits for implementing network-approach Ba for knowledge streams. The
questionnaire used for the main postal questionnaire survey is presented in Appendix 12.
Main postal questionnaire survey including alternative online-responding

The questionnaires are sent to sub-groups of samples that are assumed to represent the
general individual clients. The background of this will be explained in 6.4.3. A covering
letter explaining the background and aims of the questionnaire and guide to returning the
questionnaire are included. In addition, a pre-paid return envelope and a ballpoint pen are
inserted for the convenience of respondents.
The questionnaire is also uploaded on to an Internet website. Based on the respondent’s

preferences, they select a respond method – postal or online.
Follow up letters
To raise the response rates, follow-up letters are sent three weeks after receiving the first
responses. Each questionnaire has a number, which is used to identify who has not
responded. The follow-up letter is sent to those who have not replied and a questionnaire is
sent again for the convenience of respondents.
6.3.5. Post-intervention enquiry: Evaluation of the prototype application
The developed prototype application will be evaluated by voluntary (occasional) individual

clients and their agents. The questionnaire will be designed using themes defined for the
pre-intervention enquiry (see Section 6.2.6). Although this part is not included into the
scope of this research, it can be conducted further by other researcher based on the results
of this research.
In summary, the enquiry strategies and data collection methods are illustrated in Table 6.4
according to three main phases in the research framework. The intervention method is not
an enquiry strategy but it is included in order to enhance the understanding of the entire
research flow.
The pre-intervention enquiry is mainly conducted by survey. The purpose of the enquiry is
to investigate the current situation as in a real manner as possible. Interviews and
questionnaire surveys are selected as data collection methods. The questionnaire survey is
not suitable for finding out deep reasons for the phenomenon due to its structured approach,
but it can partly be supplemented by interviews. The main concern in this enquiry phase is
to investigate ‘how broad’ is the phenomenon and therefore, probability (or random)
sampling is the most significant prerequisite for success.
Table 6.4 Strategies and data collection programme of the research
Phases Objectives Strategies Data collection

programme
Pre-intervention Investigation into the Survey (Preliminary) Structured interview
current situation Postal questionnaire
survey
Survey (Main) Postal questionnaire

survey
Intervention Implementation of Operation of the -

the approach (partly) prototype application
Post-intervention Evaluation of Survey Questionnaire survey

potential effects of Structured interview
implementation of
the approach
The limitation of the real world investigation through survey is that the respondents can
present answers that are different from the real situations. Misunderstanding of questions or
some other intention (e.g. to find out the intention of the questionnaire) can present answers
different from their real situation. In particular, in this research, the attitude objects and
terms are defined through review of literatures that mainly deal with the client in general.
For this reason, several questions could be multi-interpreted or misunderstood by individual
clients as they are not regular clients. To cope with this problem, a preliminary survey will
be conducted, but it remains as a main challenge to the validity of survey.
The purpose of the post-intervention enquiry is to evaluate the prototype application. The
individual clients and their agents who have volunteered will evaluate the prototype
application. It means that the sample will be selected through non-probability sampling.
This sampling method can be arguable and diminish the validity of the evaluation results.
However, by full-scale consideration of the limitation of interventions (see Section 6.2.2)
and the purpose of evaluation (i.e. The practicability of the approach and technical
feasibility of application), this non-probability sampling seems acceptable.
As noted, the validity of survey results significantly depends on sampling method (in fact,
many textbooks argue that the survey of subjects selected through poor sampling has no
value at all as a research). The next section is about population and sampling.
6.4. Population and Sampling
The fundamental assumption of many statistical analysis methods is that data is obtained
from “randomly chosen samples”. Given the significance of random sampling and the
difficulty of doing this in the context of this research project, the subjects for pre-
intervention enquiry will be selected by means of probability (or random) sampling.
The challenge is that no list of (occasional) individual clients is likely to exist so simple
random sampling cannot be used in this research. This could be overcome in two ways: To
screen the samples from population until the specific group that is assumed to be
(occasional) individual clients remain and/or used of purposive sampling to access
(occasional) individual clients directly. In this research, the former is selected. However,
even to divide the population into sub-groups, it is necessary to know how to do this. The
sampling practice for preliminary survey brought this.
Based on the sampling experience, it was found that clients who filed specific type of
application cases are more likely to be (occasional) individual clients. The fields of
application forms can provide the criteria to divide the cases into sub-categories (i.e. Client
name, proposal type, agent type, site and client address). This sub-category defines the
strata. The sampling for the main survey is conducted based on the strata. In this section,
trial and error and the know-how for sampling are mainly presented.
6.4.2. Population and sampling for preliminary survey
Initial attempt at sampling
Table 6.5 illustrates the sample of data fields extracted from planning permission
applications in the UK. Data fields that can be actually found in the planning application
form vary in accordance to the policy of local councils but, in general, fields described in
the table are essential. As initial attempt to obtain population lists, among application cases
filed to Reading Borough Council in 2000, the cases in which name is clearly individual
and the client and site addresses are same are manually written down. It took about two
months.
Table 6.5 An example of application cases

Applicant Applicant Site Proposal Date Agent Agent
Name Address Address Decided Name Address
Mr K *** 20 *** 20 *** New 7/13/00 Mr C *** 21 ***
**** **** residential ***
Reading Reading dwelling to Newbury
RG* 3NQ RG* 3NQ side of *** Berkshire
Ansley RG** 2SF
Place
However, these lists have limitations for the probability sampling. The weekly lists are not
completely filed – some lists are missing. For this reason, despite the enormous time it took
to write down the lists manually, the obtained list seems to lack accuracy for probability
sampling because the population is unknown. In order to obtain the full lists, the council
was asked for electronic version of weekly lists or other equivalent database files. However,
it was revealed that the council does not have records of planning permission applications
in electronic format.
Despite the failure to obtain the accurate population list for survey, a couple of points that
should be considered for sampling based on application cases filed to the local councils are
clarified:
Firstly, two types of application list exist: The application list and decision list. The
latter is suitable for sampling as the former includes applications that are rejected – the
clients of these cases are not likely to take actions relevant to enquiry themes of the
research;
Secondly, even in the decision lists, a client seems to file several cases. The reason is
that some clients apply the same project with different proposals to the council. It can
be understood as the contingency plan for the client – even if a case is rejected the
others can be accepted. These are considered in sampling for the main survey by
counting only one case among cases filed by the unique clients in the decision list.
Sample for structured interviews

Due to the unknown population, it was decided to use the list for the preliminary survey
only. In the lists, ten individual clients and their agents are selected and interviews are
organised. Finally, interviews were conducted with two architects, two builder and two
individual clients.
Population and sampling for preliminary postal questionnaire survey

In the list, 100 cases in which the clients seem definitely to be individual are selected and
questionnaires were sent to the address of the client (not the site address).
6.4.3. Population and sampling for main survey
Sampling method: Stratified random sampling

The initial list of planning permission application cases filed to local councils cannot be
used instantly as the applications that are not relevant to building and/or filed by
institutional clients are included. In order to limit the cases to those filed by individual
clients, the cases need to be analysed based on criteria to distinguish them. The approach to
distinguish cases based on data fields is briefly explained in the previous section. The
selected sub-group that have the same value in a certain data field is strata. If the cases are
drawn randomly from each sub-group (not from the whole population list), this process is
called strata random sampling. This is one of most sophisticated probability sampling
approach (Black, 1999: see Appendix 14 for further explanation of sampling).
Stratified random sampling is different from cluster analysis that aims to group samples
based on common characteristics revealed in the data analysis stage. Strata random
sampling is based on information available in the population list before starting
investigation. The objective of stratified random sampling is that one can be sure that
specific groups are represented in proportion to their appearance in the population,
particularly when the sub-population’s characteristics are the variables – ‘individual’ or
‘institutional’ in the context of this research (Black, 1999).
The disadvantages of this method are that the procedure is more complex than simple
random sampling (in fact, it is extremely complex) and requires great efforts in defining
strata. In some cases, specific strata can intentionally be omitted and thus, the result of
analysis does not represent the general characteristics of population (Black, 1999). The
potential setback of this sampling method is mentioned in the later part of this section.
Population
In order to ovoid the problems which occurred in the early stage of the research project,
computer files of weekly planning permission decision lists from July, 2000 to June, 2001
were requested from four councils around Berkshire. One council does not keep the lists as
computer files. Three councils provided them in electronic format and they are exported
from the actual database. Among them, one council’s lists did not include the applicants’
(clients’) address. This council contacts the clients’ agent if the clients prefer it. This list is
excluded from the population.
The remaining two lists of population are from Bracknell Forest Council and West
Berkshire Council. The list from the former includes 1377 cases and the latter 2641 cases.
These lists include cases that are irrelevant to building projects. For this reason, these non-
building applications were culled first. For instance, temporary mobile buildings,
advertisement facilities, telecommunication posts, cash machines, post boxes, telephone
booths, changes of use, renewals of planning permission, etc. are excluded.
Sampling
The main criteria that specify cases filed by individual clients are the name of clients and
their address. Firstly, if the client’s name is that of an individual, these cases are likely to be
filed by individual clients. Secondly, if the client’s address does not include the name of an
institution, these cases are assumed to be filed by individual clients. In addition to
individual clients, in order to estimate the proportions of other client groups, the strata are
classified for private institution, developer and public clients as shown in Table 6.6
Among application cases filed by individual clients, some cases have too small project
value and thus, cannot be analysed based on the conceptual model. For instance, building
works to repair walls, garages, etc. can be performed by means of Do-It-Yourself (DIY).
How, then, can the value of the projects be estimated from the planning permission
application? It cannot be known from any data fields of cases but assumed based on the
type of proposal and client’s agent. If the proposal type is new building or a relatively large
rehabilitation and the client agents are professional service providers, the projects are likely
to be big enough to apply the conceptual model. However, it does not mean the client’s
agents plays a proper role in knowledge streams, as their exact role is not revealed at this
stage. For instance, although the agent is an architect, s/he can only be involved in aiding
the client to obtain planning permission. One certain aspect is that, if the client does not
have an agent, the project is not likely to commence immediately or is to be performed by
means of DIY. Although they are also interesting, these cases are excluded as it seems
difficult to investigate the interaction with potential service providers against the clients of
these cases. The type of proposal and agents are classified as shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Criteria for stratifying

Comparison
Client Type Proposal Type Agent Type between
Applicant and Site
Addresses
1. Individual 1: New building 1: Unknown individual 1: Same
2. Private 2: Major 2: Unknown institution (including 2: Different
Institution refurbishment (1) individual from unknown institution) 3: C/o agent
3. Developer 3: Minor 3: Architect
(Investment, refurbishment (2) 4. Other consultants
estate agency, 4: Additional (Architectural service, design studio,
housing space surveyor, planning consultant, estate
association) (e.g. Barn, shed, office, home improvement
4. Public storage, garage) consulting, etc.)
5. Other facility 5. Builder
(e.g. service 6. Traders (Windows, conservatory)
facility) 7. None
6. Landscape, 8. Self
garden, access
7. Civil project
(1) Require structural change, combination of several minor refurbishments
(2) Replacement or add single components (e.g. conservatory, conversion porch, toilet, etc.)
Finally, if the client’s address is not known, the questionnaire cannot be sent to them
directly. Some clients fill the agent’s address as a contact address. Response rates of postal
questionnaire survey by these clients are likely to be low. For this reason, cases which do
not have the client’s address are excluded.
One of disadvantages of strata random sampling is the complexity of the sampling process.
It was not an exception in this research project. Enormous efforts and time were consumed
for sampling. Based on criteria presented in Table 6.6, around 4,000 application cases were
reviewed one by one for one month as shown in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 An example of classified data field for strata random sampling
Applicant Applicant Address Applicant Site Proposal Agent Agent Agent
Proposal
Type Name Type Address Address Type Type Name Address
New
20 *** 20 *** residen- 21 ***
*** *** tial Rise
Mr C
1 Mr K *** 1 ****** ****** 1 dwelling 1 Newbury
***
Reading Reading to side of Berkshire
RG* 3** RG* 3** *** Ansley RG** 2**
Place
As mentioned in section 6.4.2, some cases are filed more than once. During the review
process, these multi-filed cases are sorted out and only the case filed last is used. Through
this screening process, 838 cases of 1656 from Bracknell Forest and 941 cases of 2641
from West Berkshire are assumed to be building projects ordered by individual clients. In
order to sort out and select cases in accordance to strata, a computer program is developed.
The source code for this program is presented in Appendix 22.1.
Table 6.8 Sub population for main postal questionnaire survey

Bracknell West
Forest Berkshire
Total number of application cases 1377 2641
Number of application cases relevant to building 1016 2119
Number of application cases relevant to building and filed by individual 838 1656
clients (82.48 %) (78.15%)
Number of application cases filed by individual clients and categorised

as proposal type 1, 2 and 3, agent type 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and address 552 941
type 1 and 2
As the result of automated sorting and counting cases using the tailored computer program,
the proportion of each stratum is calculated and the result is presented in Appendix 14.2.
Table 6.8 illustrates key figures. As shown in the row ‘Number of application cases that are
relevant to building and filed by individual clients’ in the table, around 80% (82.48 % for
Bracknell Forest and 78.15% for West Berkshire) of clients are likely to be individuals.
Finally, cases are excluded that are likely to be small (agent types 7 and 8) and where the
address of the clients are unknown (address type 3). The cases remaining are randomly
selected and a questionnaire will be sent to the client in selected cases.
The questionnaires are sent to samples of the sub-population in accordance with the
proportion of sub-groups in the population. The questionnaires were sent twice with a time
interval. According to the response rate of the first, the second questionnaire was sent to the
members belonging to the stratum that showed low response rate in order to equalise the
proportion of samples and cases in sub-population as close as possible. For some sub-
populations, questionnaires were sent to all members due to the small number of the sub-
population. Despite these efforts, the proportional sampling of the cases in the sub-
population could not be achieved. Nevertheless, this sample can be called ‘randomly’
selected because any purpose to control the number of sample is not involved. A total of
832 questionnaires sent: 455 to clients of the sub-population classified from the Bracknell
Forest list and 377 to those from West Berkshire.
After collecting the responses to the questionnaire, the sample was screened again. The
sub-groups showing extremely low response rate were excluded from both regions after
considering the significance of this sub-group in the research.
Setback of strata-random sampling

As mentioned, certain strata can be omitted by intention or chance. In the sampling process
described so far, several sub-groups are excluded systematically. It can rarely be said that
clients of these strata are irrelevant to the research. This can diminish the value of data
collected, in particular whether the generality of the data represents all the individual clients.
However, due to the diversity, whatever the sampling method is, the diversity of
characteristics of the clients seems observable in the data analysis stage. If this is the case,
to limit the finding into the certain sub-groups of the clients classified based on strata can
be more practical as the diversity is the very nature of the context of this research. In other
words, attempts to accept diversity and present findings in accordance with it is more
scientific than to ignore the diversity and generalise findings. This attempt is to balance
between generality and specific situations and is supported by Rigby (1965) and Checkland
(1998) (see Section 2.3.5)
6.4.4. Population and sampling for post-intervention (evaluation) enquiry
The list produced as result of sampling (described in the previous section) for the main
survey is used. The service providers who are named as the client’s agent are assumed to
continue their business in the region. If they agree to use the prototype application for
projects that they are awarded, they will be chosen first to conduct the evaluation. If they
are interested in the prototype application, they are asked to involve their (occasional)
individual clients as well. These clients will also evaluate the application prototype.
The sampling process described above is non-probability sampling and especially, is named
‘snowball’ sampling (Black, 1999). Although this sampling method is not suitable for a
survey that aims to present generalised findings, it is still useful to find a specific group of
subjects to evaluate the prototype application.
In this chapter, the scope and themes for the enquiry are clarified first. Then, a research
framework is developed integrating the intervention and normal enquiry process. The main
phases are pre-intervention, intervention and post-intervention enquiry. The outline of
intervention and post-intervention enquiry themes were given although they are not
included in the scope of this research. They could be referred to by other researchers.
Pre-intervention enquiry is divided into preliminary survey, pilot postal questionnaire

survey and main postal questionnaire survey. The objective of preliminary survey is to
develop the enquiry instrument properly; the pilot questionnaire survey is a kind of final
test of the instrument developed; the main postal questionnaire survey aims to collect data
from sample that can represent the population.
Given that the random sampling is most significant for the survey, enormous effort and
time were given to the sampling process. The main challenge was that there was no list of
(occasional) individual building industry clients. For this reason, the most sophisticated
probability sampling method, strata random sampling was conducted.
CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF THE PRE-INTERVENTION ENQUIRY
This chapter consists of five sections: Introduction; preliminary survey analysis; main
postal questionnaire survey and statistical analysis strategy; analysis results; and summary
of findings.
The objective of the preliminary survey is to develop and refine research instruments (i.e.
Sampling method and questionnaire) for the main postal survey. The main postal
questionnaire survey is conducted against a sample selected through painstaking and
rigorous stratified random sampling. By examining the types of variables and statistical
characteristics of collected data, proper statistical methods are introduced. The rationale for
selecting statistical methods is discussed when the need arises. However, to present a
comprehensible discussion on the analysis of findings, much detail on the background,
algorithm in detail and limitations of statistical analyses are presented in Appendices 13, 14
and 15. If technical discussions on statistical analysis methods are necessary to enhance the
completeness of the discussion in this chapter, they are presented as succinctly as possible.
The statistical analysis process may seem overwhelming, due to the complexity derived
from the number of variables and the relations between them. However, it can be helpful
for readers to follow this chapter by focussing on the following fundamental rationales: Do
the statistical methods introduced, fit with the statistical characteristics of collected data?
Does the analysis of results, presented by statistical methods, contribute to answering
enquiry themes?
7.2. Analysis of the Preliminary Survey
The purpose of the preliminary survey is to draw a rough picture of the current situation
and reflect the findings to develop the instrument for the main survey. An in-house client
representative of a regular institutional client is interviewed to assess the contents of the
activity library developed for the client side as part of the research project (see Appendix
8.3). However, the unique characteristic of individual clients can only be understood
through contacting them, rather than other types of client groups. For this reason, two
individual clients are also interviewed. The challenge is that individual clients are not likely
to have sufficient knowledge of building projects and thus, may show limitations in the way
they express their perception of the building project they ordered. As a supplementary
survey, four clients’ agents, who are named as the client’s agent in planning application
cases, are also interviewed.
The preliminary survey covers the essential enquiry themes, related to the clients’ agent,
which are necessary for conducting the research project further. They are asked their
current strategy or methods, if they have any, for marketing and relationship marketing to
investigate the needs and feasibility for facilitating market-approached Ba for knowledge
streams (see Section 5.3.3 for the explanation of knowledge Ba and facilitating market-
approached Ba).
Although research with clients’ agents should be conducted broadly, in order to address the
aforementioned enquiry themes (Section 6.2.9), investigating both clients and their agents,
to a sufficient extent at the main survey stage, would increase the workload and may
become too broad for a PhD research project. Given that aspects in relation to service
providers have been studied relatively well in previous research, as compared with
individual clients, these are investigated only in the preliminary survey.
7.2.2. Structured interviews with individual clients and their agents
Case study reconstructed from interviews: Individual client’s activities and

concerns
In order to construct findings from interviews into a case study, a case study framework is
necessary. The essential features that should be cleared by means of the case study are:
The background of the projects i.e. Project type, involved service providers
The background of the clients i.e. Clients’ experience
The essential activities they have undertaken
Attitude towards involvement in the project process
Concerns or difficulties they felt as the clients
Differences in attitude and behaviour between experienced and first-time individual

clients
Opinions on the direction of an application to support individual clients
Both projects are domestic rehabilitation projects worth around £60,000: Project I is a two-
storey extension project and Project II is ground floor extension including a conservatory.
Both clients ordered the projects to enhance the quality of their life. They described their
needs: More space with quality.
The client of Project I ordered similar projects twice within five years: The former project
was for his holiday house in France and the other project was for his previous property in
southern England. Project II was ordered by a first-time client.
The two clients exhibited a common activity pattern. They followed neighbours’
recommendations to hire an architect. For information about potential builders, both of
them used the Yellow Pages to search for (only) contact information. The client of Project I
contacted four builders and the client of Project II contacted two builders. Both had
difficulty finding local builders available at that time. The client of Project I contracted a
builder, based in northern England, after failing to find any local builder. By contrast, the
client of Project II waited five months before his initial contact would be available.
The experienced individual client (the client of Project I) expressed severe concerns over
miscommunication within the professional service provider’s organisation. He explained
his needs to the head architect he contracted, but found that a junior member who was
responsible for the project in the same firm and involved later, did not recognise the needs
he explained before. In addition, he complained about immature professionalism of the
architect. According to the architect’s plan, the wall between the inner part of the garage
and existing living room would be removed to create an entertainment room. However, the
builder found that the wall supports the upper structure and recommended reinforcing the
structure, using a steel frame, as it was the only way to create the room as planned. This
additional and unexpected work included extra cost and delay (for about 2 months). Since
the fault of the design was found, the architect never appeared on site and did not contact
the client. He criticised the coordination between service providers in the building industry.
Their attitude towards involvement in the project seemed less affected by their experience.
Both individual clients mentioned that they tried to seek information by themselves, as
much as possible. Both clients emphasised that the project was important, due to its direct
influence upon the quality of their life. In addition, they mentioned that the cost for
building projects was a major expenditure and it made them cautious. They gathered ideas
about the as-built results from various sources (magazines on housing/interiors,
housing/interior fairs, etc.) and asked a couple of builders for estimates to keep the
expected budget as realistic as possible. Although they do not have professional knowledge,
they seemed keen on observing and comprehending the process of works: Client I
expressed his suspicion about the foundation work done by the builder and asked the author
if it was necessary to dig one metre from ground level for foundation work in southern
England.
One of main differences between experienced and first-time clients seems to be the
evaluation process. The experienced client (Client I) prepared a checklist describing points
that the project results should meet before contacting a consultant or builder (e.g. he even
complained that the position and size of a sunken-window in the extended living room were
different from his expectations). On the contrary, the first time client (Client II) followed
the recommendation of the architect, as to what the project results would be like.
Concerning the application to support individual clients, the experienced client presented a
state-of-the-art idea: A computer application that could show the altered cost, according to
changes in design. Given that both clients depended on the recommendation of neighbours
to find an architect and Yellow Pages for builders’ contact information, they mentioned a
need for an information pool or any type of application to present information (in addition
to contact information) on potential service providers.
The conclusions made from the mini case study are:

Even individual clients who do not have experience still try to obtain as much
information as possible
Individual clients seem to depend on builders to acquire information, even in the pre-
project stage. For instance, they refined their initial budget after they received budget
estimates from (several) builders.
Experienced individual clients recognise the fragmented features of the building

industry
Miscommunication, not only among various service providers, but also within the
professional consultants’ organisation, seems to cause main problems even in projects
ordered by individual clients
The main difference between experienced and first-time clients is found in the
evaluation process
The most important concern for individual clients is to know the best quality of product
that can be obtained with their available budget
Appraisal of attitude objects (essential activities that clients should undertake

at the pre-project stage in general)
The activity library, developed for the client side (see Appendix 8.4), was reviewed by a
professional working as the project manager of a regular institutional client (i.e. University).
He agreed with the need for the library as ‘educational material’: The clients can have an
idea of the entire project process. However, he suggested that this kind of library would be
less useful for the professional project sponsor of the regular client, as it can limit flexibility.
In addition, the detail may be too difficult for (occasional) individual clients. For this
reason, a need arises to refine key activities (attitude objects) from the perspective of
(occasional) individual clients.
The two individual clients described in the case study agreed for the need of a checklist to
guide purposeful activities. However, they thought that the activity library was too
complicated and many activities were irrelevant to their situation. Essential activities are
reconstructed by arranging activities that the interviewees (the clients) had taken upon,
based on process-based activities (see Section 4.3.4) and Level 1 activities (see Appendix
8.3).
Refined essential activities for individual clients are given in Table 7.1. These activities
were developed as attitude objects and the opinions of individual clients on them were
asked in a sequence of surveys. The questionnaire for the preliminary postal survey would
be distributed and subsequently modified, in accordance to an analysis of the results for the
design of the main postal questionnaire survey.
Table 7.1 Initial attitude objects

Process-based Activities Attitude objects
Be aware of requirements Clarify needs
Identify objectives Estimate the duration

Define the quality of product
Generate and assess options Estimate the budget
Identify cost items
Produce a strategic brief Explain needs to consultants
Understand design and building process

Establish a procurement strategy Understand payment methods
Understand the types of methods for procuring
Prepare a project programme

Others
Understand jargon
Word-of-mouth: Marketing tool in small size consulting firms and builders

Four service providers named as the client’s agent in the planning application phase are
interviewed: Two architects and two builders. They exhibit common views on marketing
and relationship marketing. In short, they do not have a marketing strategy. They have
depended on words-of-mouth to attract new clients.
All of them agreed with the need for marketing in general. However, in practice they
revealed limitations in applying marketing concepts to their business. One of the architects
mentioned that he cannot predict who the potential clients will be and thus, does not know
to whom he can market. A common concern of builders in terms of marketing is workload-
overflow. They have enough work to maintain their business (in fact, they seemed to be
struggling to manage their workload) and had not felt the need to market and attract more
clients for a while.
Given that the purpose of marketing is to deliver value to the customer, it was asked if they
had attempted to satisfy clients. In short, they regarded the best way to satisfy clients is to
reduce any faults made by them. This level is ‘minimalist step in relations between business
and society’ and can hardly be viewed as a strategy for marketing.
In general, marketing strategies of small-sized consulting firms and builders seem to remain
at the naïve level. If this is so, relationship marketing might not be generally practised by
small-sized service providers. They agreed that they had paid less attention to methods of
managing relationships with clients in the post-project phase. Although they recognised
acknowledged that this would aid their reputation and attract new customers, they seem to
rely on word-of-mouth as main method. In short, small-sized consulting firms and builders
seem to lack any systematic way of managing their relations with their clients (e.g.
monitoring previous works, etc.).
7.2.3. Preliminary postal questionnaire survey
Based on findings from preliminary interviews, a first draft of the questionnaire is designed.
Given that only two individual clients are interviewed, the questionnaire needs to be
validated by more individual clients. To this end, a preliminary postal questionnaire survey
is conducted.
Analysis of responses
One hundred questionnaires were sent to a sample (see Section 6.4.2 for the population and
sampling for the preliminary survey) and twenty-one were returned. Among them, fourteen
respondents completed the questionnaire and seven respondents returned unanswered
questionnaire. Instead, the latter respondents addressed the reasons why they did not
complete the questionnaire (e.g. they have not started the project; their projects have not
finished; their project is too small in terms of budget) and they regarded the questionnaire
as not applicable for their situation.
Opinion on importance and difficulty of attitude objects

Opinions on importance and difficulty of attitude objects defined in Table 7.1 are asked
(see Figure 6.3 for the Likert scale used in the preliminary postal questionnaire survey).
Table 7.2 presents means of opinions on importance in descending order: Higher values
indicate that clients felt the specified attitude object more important than others attitude
objects. On the contrary, means of opinions on difficulty of the attitude objects are sorted in
ascending order: Lower values indicate that clients felt the specified attitude objects
difficult to undertake or perform.
If individual clients’ opinions on the importance of a certain attitude object are significantly
low, it may indicate that they do not think it is important (and therefore, it can be
interpreted that this object is less relevant to this client group) or they do not understand the
questionnaire itself. The latter aspect will be discussed later in this section under
‘suggestions for questionnaire wording’.
Table 7.2 Comparison of means of opinions against attitude objects
Means of Means of
Importance Difficulty
Attitude Objects Scale Attitude Objects Scale
Values Values
To estimate the duration (required

To estimate the budget 4.55 2.31
time)
To understand the types of

To clarify needs 4.33 2.64
methods for procuring the project
To define the quality of end

4.33 To estimate the budget 2.70
product
To identify cost items 4.27 To identify cost items 3.09
To estimate the duration (required To define the quality of end

4.15 3.30
time) product
To explaining needs to
3.91 To clarify needs 3.33
consultants and/or builder
To understand jargon used in To understand argon used in

3.80 3.40
design and building process design and building process
To explain needs to consultants

To understand payment methods 3.80 3.55
and/or builder
To understand design and To understand design and

3.71 3.71
building process building process
To understand the types of

3.30 To understand payment methods 4.00
methods for procuring the project
Need to modify attitude objects

It seems clear that individual clients think the following attitude objects, ‘to understand
payments methods’ and ‘to understand design and building process’ less important and easy
to do. For this reason, these two attitude objects are excluded from the questionnaire for the
main survey. Although the attitude object ‘to understand the types of methods for procuring
the project’ seems not important, it is difficult to do for individual clients. Hence, this
object remains for the main survey. Decisions to exclude attitude objects that seem less
important and easy to do for individual clients are made based on statistical analysis (the
Wilcoxon singed-rank test). This method will be explained in Section 7.4.4.
Individual clients reveal their confusion on several attitude objects. One of the reasons
mentioned is that the attitude objects are too broad to understand. By following their
suggestions, some attitude objects are divided. For instance, ‘to estimate budget’ seems to
require two types of knowledge: ‘To identify cost items (break-down budget)’ and ‘to
estimate budget while balancing the needs and financial resources’. Lacking knowledge for
the former activity can be supplemented by presenting relevant information (or explicit
knowledge), whereas the latter requires tacit knowledge as well as information on various
options. The other attitude object, ‘to explain needs to consultants and/or builder’ is too
broadly defined to analyse the reasons for difficulty and develop solutions. The difficulty is
derived from the clients themselves (e.g. they do not try to clarify needs so cannot explain)
and/or from communication problems between the client and consultants, builders, etc.
The other excluded object is ‘to understand jargon’ because it is information rather than
knowledge; jargon can simply be explained in documents and compared with other
knowledge, it can be understood easily by individual clients as well.
The questionnaire includes two rows in which respondents can add attitude objects (that
they think are essential activities in the pre-project stage). Attitude objects added by clients
include: ‘To understand planning application process’, ‘to obtain other clients’
recommendation on potential consultants or builders’ and ‘to understand relationship
between builders and retailers’. The first and third added objects are not included in the
questionnaire: The first object is more relevant to tactics, rather than knowledge (individual
clients seem more interested in obtaining permission, rather than the process) and the third
object is less relevant to the pre-project stage. The second object is included, as it is part of
the information that can be shared among individual clients at the pre-project stage.
Information source(s)
Due to the small size of the sample, the analysis of the preliminary postal questionnaire
survey focuses on redefining the sources that respondents contracted or consulted to obtain
information at the pre-project stage. The sample framework to investigate this aspect is
presented in Figure 6.4 in Section 6.3.3 from page 146.
Frequency of information sources selected by respondents is presented in Table 7.3.

Information objects are defined from attitude objects and thus, the relationship(s) between
them are generic. For this reason, the relations between the two can provide research
instruments to enhance external validity. The linkage between the attitude objects and
information objects can be used as a tool to test the consistency of responses and this aspect
will be discussed in Section 7.3.3. As a brief example, respondents answered that the
attitude object, ‘to understand payment methods’, is not important (mean score of
importance is 3.30: see Table 7.2) and easy to do (mean score of difficulty is 4.00: see
Table 7.2). The information object corresponding to this attitude object is ‘payment
methods’ and ten respondents mentioned that they did not try to seek information about this
object.
Table 7.3 Sources to obtain information

Advice
I did not I could Client Internet from Others
try to seek not find guide web site friends/
neighbours
Architect (1)
Process 1 0 4 0 *7
Builder
Architect (1)
Jargon 3 0 *4 0 *4
Builder (2)
Architect (1)
Needs 1 0 *6 0 5
Builder (1)
Architect (1)
Duration 1 0 *7 0 3
Builder (3)
Architect (1)
Cost items 4 0 *5 0 3
Builder (2)
Architect (1)
Budget 1 0 *5 0 3
Builder (2)
Quality standard 2 1 *5 0 4 Builder (1)
Procurement
5 0 *6 0 2 -
method
Payment methods * 10 0 5 0 0 -
Programme *4 0 *4 0 2 Builder (1)

* Most frequently observed number
Several individual clients seemed to contact service providers (e.g. architects and builders)
who were supposed to be involved after clarifying needs and identifying the project in pre-
project stage. This real world situation demands redefining information sources.
In addition to the sources, information objects need to be refined in conjunction with

modified attitude objects. Refined attitude and information objects are presented in Section
7.3.2.
Need for redefining information sources

Many individual clients seem to consult the ‘client guide’ to obtain information on various
objects, as shown in Table 7.3. Which client guide have they used? The questionnaire
includes a request for the respondent’s e-mail address for further enquires. In order to check
the types of client guides, an e-mail was sent to respondents who answered ‘client guide’ as
a source of information.
Their replies via e-mail were quite different from expectations. The meaning of ‘client
guide’ for the client is not the one used in the industry or academia. A couple of clients
seemed to regard even the brochures issued by consultants or builders as ‘client guides’.
However, frequently observed explanations showed that they comprehended the term,
‘client guide’ as a ‘guide from the client’ to consultants. In order to enhance the clarity, the
term ‘client guide’ is replaced by the term ‘paper-based client guide’.
Information sources added by the respondents raised the need for new ones. Several
respondents added ‘common sense’ to the ‘other source’ box. Although they might not have
knowledge obtained from experience, they seemed to have their own problem-solving
template. Although capturing mental models is beyond the scope of the research (see
Section 5.2.3 for the reasons), at least the existence of this kind of mental framework (or
self-believed knowledge) can partly be investigated through the main survey. In order to
this, ‘my own knowledge’ is added to sources – whether it is common sense, justified belief
or believing in unjustified knowledge.
As mentioned, the scope of the research is limited to the pre-project stage. However,
individual clients do not seem to recognise the project as process-based. For instance, in the
normative model, the client is recommended to consult an independent advisor to estimate
the budget, project programme, procurement path, etc. But the real situation seems quite
different, as they seem to depend on even the builder to obtain this information. It can
partly be due to the prohibitive costs of hiring independent consultants.
A challenge is now, how to design the questionnaire to acquire information sources that
they contacted only at the pre-project stage. Two options are left: One is to exclude sources
(e.g. architect, builder, etc.) that are not recommended to be contacted (in the normative
model due to the needs of independent consultancy at the pre-project stage) and the other is
to include all possible sources. The objective of the pre-intervention enquiry is to

investigate the current situation as it is. For this reason, it is decided that the questionnaire
for the main survey would include all possible sources. Instead, the covering letter and
statements of questions would emphasise ‘the pre-project stage’ (which is replaced by
‘before design works start’ to enhance the individual client’s comprehension).
Suggestions for rewording and rephrasing

Several clients presented feedback on the questionnaire itself. Almost all clients who did
not complete the questionnaire reveal the reasons as: (1) The questionnaire seems less
relevant to their project due to the small amount of project budget; (2) Their project is not
finished and (3) They just applied the planning permission for the case and have not started
the project yet. The latter two types of clients can simply be grouped by analysing planning
applications cases. However, the response rate seemed to soar by stimulating the first type
of client, if a proper and more detailed explanation of the questionnaire objective is given in
the covering letter.
Comments on vagueness of some terms used in the questionnaire are also a main benefit
from the preliminary postal questionnaire survey. Individual clients seem to interpret the
unique term differently. It is not a problem observed only among clients; even professionals
within an organisation comprehend the same term differently and it has become an issue to
share the same meaning of terms. One of the terms causing various interpretations is ‘client
guide’ as explained in the previous part of this section.
The other problem is unfamiliarity with terms. For instance, several clients suggested
replacing terms, such as ‘procurement’, ‘process’ and ‘pre-project stage’, etc., with plain
English. In addition, common academic terms, such as ‘evaluate’, ‘application’, ‘criteria’,
etc., are also mentioned as unfamiliar terms to the clients. These terms are replaced by
alternative terms or are explained further in plain English.
Suggestions for sampling and statistical analysis

Difficulty and problems raised in the sampling process for the preliminary survey were
described in Section 6.4.2. In addition to the difficulty of obtaining population lists, the
limitation of sampling, based on information appearing in planning application cases, is
revealed. Respondents who did not complete the questionnaire explained that they applied
planning permission but had not started the project. Given that planning permissions in the
UK are valid for 5 years, are the lists of applications filed four years ago suitable for
sampling? In order to raise the response rate, this can be an alternative but, in this research
project, it is believed that the clients who finished their project recently can present answers
reflecting the latest situation. For this reason, the latest application decision list is used as
the population. The detailed procedure to obtain population lists for the main survey is
explained in Section 6.4.3.
In terms of the project budget, clients whose project budget is under £10,000 revealed least
interest in the questionnaire. They addressed concerns that their response could diminish
the accuracy of survey results. The challenge is that clients of extremely small projects
cannot be distinguished by only analysing information on the application. This client group
can be excluded to certain extent through strata sampling (see Section 6.4.3 and Appendix
14.3). However, they are also part of the real world situation and should also be considered.
Their discernable attitude and behaviour due to possessing a small budget, if there were any,
would be analysed.
By considering findings from preliminary interviews and the postal questionnaire survey, a
questionnaire for the main survey is developed. Main findings show the need for:
Modifying attitude objects and information sources; rewording and rephrasing; and
cautious sampling, not to diminish reality.
Parts of enquiry themes defined from the conceptual model are briefly investigated and
interpreted: Learning clients might exist; there is room to introduce a market-approached
Ba to facilitate knowledge streams. Although this approach is a means for facilitating
knowledge streams for (occasional) individual clients, from the service providers’
perspective, marketing and relationship marketing can be practised in the knowledge Ba.
7.3. Main Postal Questionnaire Survey and Statistical Analysis Strategy
This section begins with the research method in part – in particular, the questionnaire
design. It is located in this chapter rather than in Chapter 6 in order to maintain a clear
connection between findings from the preliminary survey and modification of the
questionnaire for the main survey.
Before presenting statistical analysis methods, internal and external validity of the enquiry
are discussed. In short, internal validity is about how to collect data that can represent
research subjects and objects as close to the real situation as possible, whereas external
validity is about how to analyse it accurately.
The last part of this section present the strategy for statistical analysis. The strategy consists
of a brief description of various statistical analysis methods, in relation to the
aforementioned enquiry themes. The responses are analysed briefly before explaining
which statistical methods are chosen. Statistical methods are selected by considering the
types of variables (e.g. nominal or ordinal) and the statistical characteristics of collected
data (e.g. normal distribution of sample). In this section, the rationale, rather than technical
detail for selecting the methods, is explained briefly (a review of various statistical analysis
methods at the technical level is presented in Appendices 13 and 15).
7.3.2. Modification of the questionnaire
Rewording
Academic terms such as ‘application’, ‘criterion’, etc., are replaced by plain English:
‘Means for supporting you’, ‘points you consider’, etc., respectively. Jargon is also
explained further. For instance, ‘procurement method’ is explained as ‘ways to order work’.
Modified attitude objects

In accordance with suggestions from the analysis of the preliminary survey, attitude objects
are redefined, and explanations and examples are added to enhance the understanding of
terms, as follows:
To clarify needs (e.g. to need more space, to add value to your property, to replace old
facility, etc.)
To prepare points for evaluating building after your project is finished (e.g. total space,
value of the property, maintenance cost, etc.)
To be aware of key works in sequence
To prepare a programme (e.g. milestones and decision points)
To guesstimate the duration of works
To identify cost items, i.e. Break down items of your budget
To estimate the budget while balancing your needs and financial resources
To understand the scope of service provided by various consultants (e.g. property
agency, architect, surveyor, etc.)
To understand various ways to order works (e.g. who will do which works, when fees
will be paid, etc.)
To search for information about the consultant(s) (e.g. their previous clients’
recommendations, examples of their works, etc.)
To search for information about the potential builder(s) (e.g. their previous clients’
recommendations, examples of their works, etc.)
A limitation in presenting explanations or examples, as stated above, is that the

respondents’ perspective could be limited to the given explanations or examples. If the
respondents’ actions are not listed, they could skip answering or mark the box indicating
‘do not know’ or ‘did not try’. Nevertheless, these explanations are aimed to prevent
potential vagueness of terms and so, enhance the reliability of data that would be collected.
Given that there is no perfect method to collect data, in this research project, the clarity of
terms is weighted more, considering the absence of broadly used, common terms among
individual clients. It is expected that examples and explanations will enhance internal
validity, rather than increasing the possibility of skipped answers.
Modified Likert scale

The Likert scale used in the preliminary survey is redesigned. An example of the Likert
scale used for the main postal questionnaire survey is illustrated in
Figure 7.1.
A main difference in the main survey, compared with that used in the preliminary postal
questionnaire survey is that the box, ‘I do not know’, is located outside importance and
difficulty scaled boxes. If a respondent does not know the attitude object(s), s/he may not
have opinions about difficulty or importance. The box, ‘I do not think it is a client’ work’ is
newly included. It can be regarded similarly to, ‘Not important at all’, but the two options
are different. ‘Not important at all’ indicates that the respondent regards the attitude object
as one of client’s activities, but is extremely not important. In the preliminary survey, some
respondents write down ‘N/A’ in the box, ‘I do not know’. This answer means they
understood the attitude object, but did not want to rate its importance because they might
think the given attitude object is not an activity that the client should undertake.
IMPORTANCE DIFFICULTY
Of No Of Great Very Very
Importance Importance Difficult Easy
Neutral
Neutral
I do I do not
I did not
not think it is a 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
try
know client work
Attitude objects
Figure 7.1 An example of Likert scale to measure opinions on importance and

difficulty against attitude object (client’s activity)
Modified information source(s) and objects

Source(s) that clients used to obtain information or knowledge are modified by reflecting
findings from the preliminary survey and the modified version is given in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Modified information sources(s)
Paper- Advice
Advice
Internet based from other
My own I did not from Advice Advice Others
Web-site client consul-
know- try to friends or from from (Please
(Please guide tants
ledge seek neigh- architect builder describe)
name it) (Please (e.g.
bours
name it) surveyor)
Objects
Information objects are defined in conjunction with attitude objects. The connection
between attitude and information objects would contribute to an integrated interpretation of
attitude and behaviour. Redefined information objects include:

Points for evaluating the building after the project is finished
Key works in sequence
Decision points
Duration of works
Cost items, i.e. Break down items of your budget
Scope of service provided by various consultants
Ways to order works (e.g. who will do which works, when fees will be paid, etc.)
Information about the potential consultant(s)
Information about the potential builder(s)
Other modifications
The modified questionnaire includes sections, which ask for the clients’ experience and
their satisfaction level with project results, if the project is finished. In order to collect data
on the project background, questions are included to ask for the ‘expected budget’, ‘actual
budget’, ‘expected duration’ and ‘actual duration’. Even though the project is not finished,
the clients can still give the expected budget and duration. These two were defined as
factors that are likely to influence the client’s attitude and behaviour on knowledge streams
(see last part of Section 6.2.7). After describing the background, the respondents are asked
to rate their satisfaction level against the project result in terms of cost, duration and quality
of product.
Network-approached knowledge streams could be implemented easily when information

flown in the Ba is valuable from the individual client’s viewpoint. Hence, it is important to
investigate their opinions on expected benefits from sharing information with other clients.
The results can directly contribute to specifying the application system. To this end, three
attitude objects are defined:
Reviews on building in use after the project is finished (as an example of evaluation
points: see Sections 4.3.4, 5.4.4 and 5.5.3)
Story telling about other clients experience (as a means for socialisation in knowledge
streams: see Sections 3.6.3 and 5.2.2)
Reviews on service providers or builders (as a tool to keep reference power for the
client who would present information; pre-contracting information for the client who
would receive information: see Section 4.4.4)
Pilot postal questionnaire survey

The designed questionnaire was tested against individual clients. Fifty questionnaire were
sent to the sample and it was examined if there were skipped answers (for certain
questions). In addition, expected response rates in the main postal questionnaire survey
were calculated, based on the response of the pilot postal questionnaire survey. A
questionnaire that was returned is given in Appendix 12.
7.3.3. Internal and external validity
Explanation of internal and external validity

Internal validity is about the reliability of the instruments used to collect data. It spans over
sampling (e.g. does sample represent population?), capacity (e.g. is the questionnaire clear
enough to accurately elicit fact or opinions?), etc. (Cherulnik, 2001). In contrast, external
validity is the reliability of the analysis and interpretation of collected data (Cherulnik,
2001). For instance, statistical methods should be selected, considering the constraints (e.g.
number of sample, types of variables, distribution of variables, etc.) and the level of
expected accuracy must be known. This is not to say that an error-zero statistical analysis
should be used, but the awareness of potential errors is important. In this section, various
aspects are explained that are considered in this research project to enhance both internal
and external validity.
Rigorous strata random sampling to enhance the internal validity

Strata random sampling has far greater complexity than simple random sampling.
Nevertheless, it can contribute to preventing biased sampling in favour of certain sub-
groups that consist of a large number of subjects. However, the strata random sampling,
alone cannot guarantee the selected sample will represent all sub-groups of interest. It
requires enormous efforts and instruments to validate the reliability of sampling itself. The
sampling process is mentioned in Section 6.4 and Appendix 14 and parts of sample analysis
results are given in Section 7.3.4.
Preliminary and pilot postal questionnaire survey to enhance the internal

validity
As mentioned in Section 7.2, the purpose of the preliminary survey is to design a
questionnaire that is comprehensible to the respondents. This process can reduce the
number of missing data that could occur, due to the vagueness of questions.
Contending with non-responses and skipped answers

Despite efforts to reduce non-responses and skipped answers, missing cases and data
cannot be prevented, as it is a fact of life: It is rare for the analyst to avoid facing some
form of missing data problems.
However, in order to establish external validity, it needs to counter criticism of non-

responses, by providing evidence that any non-response has nothing to do with the research
or the instruments. To provide an alternative interpretation, it is essential to find out why
those subjects decided not to respond (Black, 1999) or skip certain questions.
The reasons for not answering the questionnaire entirely were clarified as a result of the
preliminary survey: The respondents thought that their projects were too small and so, did
not think the questionnaire was suitable for their situation; their projects were not finished
or they have not started the project.
Skipped answers could also contribute to interpreting the real world situation. The reasons
for skipped answers from conducting a preliminary questionnaire survey are: Respondents
did not have ideas about contents (i.e. Attitude and information object); they do not
understand the questions (i.e. Jargon, academic terms). In order to understand the exact
reasons relevant to the former reason for skipped answers, the questionnaire includes a box
indicating, ‘I do not know’. Enormous efforts were made to reduce the possibility of the
latter cases (see Section 7.3.2.) If the clients indicated that they do not have ideas about
questions, even though they understand them, it would the questions irrelevant to the
respondents and can be interpreted partly as improper attitude or insufficient knowledge of
given objects.
Questions to examine respondent’s consistency

The fundamental assumption of any questionnaire survey is that the respondent answers
honestly. However, the degree of truthfulness or thoughtfulness of the responses is in doubt
until it can be measured. In such situations, it may be appropriate to include facilities to
check the respondent’s consistency. In this research project, virtually similar questions are
asked in a somewhat different manner and at different places. For instance, if the clients
answered that they did not try to undertake a certain activity, it is reasonable that they
answered that they did not depend on any source to obtain information to undertake the
activity. The reliability of this method to test the consistency of respondents is proved
through the preliminary questionnaire survey (see part ‘Information source(s)’ in Section
7.2.3). An example of responses that showed inconsistency on answering is given in
Appendix 12. In the given example, the respondent selected the opinions, ‘I do not think it
is a client task’ under importance and ‘I did not try’ under difficulty, for the activity, ‘to
understand various ways to order work’. However, s/he selected ‘builder’ as a source for
obtaining information to understand ‘various ways to order work’. There could be other
reasons for this inconsistency, but this kind of response showing inconsistency in answers
is excluded at the statistical analysis stage.
As mentioned in the previous section, information objects are developed in conjunction

with attitude objects and as a consequence, there are nine sets of questions. Given that nine
information objects are defined from attitude objects the consistency of the responses can
be tested. Only responses that show consistency in answering all nine sets of questions are
finally selected as the sample. Details of the response screening process is given in the next
section (Section 7.3.4).
Technical aspects to enhance external validity

In addition to internal validity discussed thus far, the reliability of the analysis process
should be considered seriously: These aspects are called external validity.
There are several points that should be considered and techniques available to enhance
external validity. One of most important points is to test the nature of collected data and to
select a statistical approach fitted to the analysed nature of either the parametric and
nonparametric approach. In short, the former can be applied and present the analysis result
properly (only) when the sample is large and the distribution (of the sample or population)
is normal. In many cases, these assumptions may not be met, due to the nature of the
enquiry in fields dealing with human subjects (i.e. Opinions research in social science). The
latter approach, in part, can cope with the problems derived from small samples or
abnormal distribution by using ranks of data, rather than numerical values. Further
explanations of the both approaches are given in Appendix 13.1.
The other aspects are the influence of outliers (i.e. That show an extreme and clear district
from the main pattern of sample or population) on the results. The problem of outliers is not
perfectly solved unless they are excluded. However, the exclusion of these outliers is
expected to diminish the reliability of any analysis, as outliers are also a part of the real
world situation. Thus, instead of excluding them, the magnitude of the extent to which they
affect the analysis could be calculated and reflected into the interpretation. Variance can be
the easiest indicator of this magnitude (Newbold, 1995). However, more sophisticated
indicators are necessary for other complicated analysis methods (e.g. multivariate analysis).
These are explained when the need arises.
The survey is generally conducted against a sample (unless it is a type of census). The
analysed results of the sample are limited because the results present the statistical
characteristics or behaviour of the sample, rather than those of the population. However,
these potential errors are inherent in any case analysing sample: It would be impossible to
match the results with the statistical behaviour of the population. Therefore, it may be better
for the analyst to accept the possibility for errors and calculate the potential magnitude.
These errors are calculated through various ways, with respect to the sampling method,
applied statistical methods, etc. A brief explanation of errors is given in Appendix 13.2.
7.3.4. Analysis of responses and sample
Analysis of responses
Table 7.5 describes the responses with respect to the region of the council to which the
clients filed their application. Note: This is different from the client’s region.
A total of 832 questionnaires were sent to randomly selected individual clients belonging to
a chosen strata (see Appendices 14.2 and 14.3 for selected stratum) and 152 questionnaires
were returned. Among them 121 responses were answered completely, 7 responses were
answered in part, and 25 responses were returned without being answered. These 25
respondents, instead, addressed the reasons why they did not answer. The main reasons are
similar to those revealed in the preliminary survey: They have not started the project or the
project was still under way.
Table 7.5 Population and responses

Total
Bracknell Forest West Berkshire
1493
Selected sub groups of individual clients
552 941
832
Number of questionnaires sent
455 377
153 (18%)
Total number of responses (response rate)
75 (17%) 78 (21%)
121 (2)
Number of responses answered completely (via on-line)
56 (1) 65 (1)
7
Number of responses answered partly
4 3
25
Number of responses without answering
15 10
The 121 complete responses were screened again. Among them, responses that could not
represent the strata (sub-groups), due to having an extremely small number of cases and/or
showed inconsistent answers were excluded (the method to test the consistency is explained
in Sections 7.3.3 and 7.2.3.). Finally, 117 responses remained. These responses were
classified in terms of client’s region, experience and expected budget as shown in Table 7.6.
The client’s region does not refer to the region where their local council is located; it is the
region where the client applied for planning permission. The reasons for analysing
responses according to the client’s region is that the client is likely to seek information
around where they live and the attitude and behaviour could be affected by regional factors
(if unique norms are dominant in the region).
Table 7.6 Analysis of responses after excluding unreliable and unrepresentative

responses
Clients’ Region Clients’ Experience Expected Budget of Projects
Bracknell Forest 57 No experience 70 Under £10,000 10
- £20,000 18
West Berkshire 56 Within 5 years 20 - £30,000 29
- £40,000 13
Others 4 More than 5 years ago 27 - £50,000 5
- £60,000 6
- £70,000 7
- £80,000 0
- £90,000 2
- £100,000 0
Over £100,000 16
Total 117 Total 117 Total 106
Analysis of sample
Among 117 responses, 102 remain from excluding those that did not include expected
budgets (11 responses) and those that were answered by clients from other regions except
Bracknell Forest and West Berkshire (4 responses). Coincidently, the same number of
responses from both regions remain: 51 responses that were answered by clients from
Bracknell Forest and 51 from West Berkshire. The same number of samples from both
regions can make the statistical analysis easier than having different numbers in some cases
(e.g. comparing means from two independent groups). Even if it does not, the statistical
adjustments can solve having unequal sample numbers from different groups (Black, 1999).
If strata random sampling was conducted effectively, it can be assumed that the responses
would show an unbiased proportion of sub-groups categorised by pre-defined criteria (e.g.
clients’ experience, expected budget) in both regions. For instance, it is not likely that there
are significantly more inexperienced clients in one region or that there are expected budgets
are extremely higher in a specific region. The assumption is that the demographic aspects
of residents in a certain area (i.e. Berkshire or Southern England in this research project)
might be similar: Residents in Berkshire may have a similar range of income levels,
proportion of house owners, level of educational background, etc.
Table 7.7 Frequencies of subjects in the clients’ region by experience matrix

Clients’ Region
Experience Bracknell Forest West Berkshire Sub-Total
No Experience 31 29 60
Within 5 Years 10 8 18
More than 5 Years Ago 10 14 24
Sub-Total 51 51 102
Table 7.7 shows the number of individual clients categorised by the combination of clients’
experience and region, and Table 7.8 shows the number of individual clients’ by their
expected budget and region.
In Table 7.8, the clients’ expected budget is a continuous variable and is temporarily
converted into a nominal variable with four categories to compare proportions of clients in
terms of expected budget. The range of their budgets is determined in quartiles. For
instance, the expected budget of the case that is lastly observed in first quartile (that has 26
cases) is £15,000 and the range of the first category (or the range of the quartile) becomes
‘under £15,000’. The other ranges are determined respectively. For this reason, categories
based on quartiles do not indicate any statistical reference. Categories will be refined by
exploring the relations between this and dependent variables (e.g. opinions and information
sources) in the main statistical analysis stage.
Table 7.8 Frequencies of subjects in the clients’ region and expected budget matrix
Client Region
Expected Budget
Bracknell Forest West Berkshire Sub-Total
Under £15000 12 14 26
- £26000 14 11 25
- £50000 12 14 26
Over £50000 13 12 25
Sub-Total 51 51 102
It seems that the two groups of individual clients from Bracknell Forest and West Berkshire
have similar proportions of respondents in terms of experience and expected budget. The
question is, how similar?
The similarity between the two groups in terms of frequency of cases falling into certain
categories can be tested statistically by referring to its chi-square (χ2) value (Black, 1999;
Field, 2000). In short, the chi-square value represents the magnitude of deviance of the
observed from the expected frequency, which is calculated by considering the pattern of
frequencies of both groups together. Larger chi-square values indicate greater deviance. If
the chi-square value is significantly large, it can be said that the two groups do not have the
same statistical characteristics and vice versa. In other words, the smaller chi-square values
the more chances indicating that both groups may belong to the same population (or that
categorical variables do not affect the composition of the sample – this will be explained
later). The relevant equation and process to calculate chi-square values are presented in
Appendix 13.2.3.
The chi-square value for the data presented in Table 7.7 is 0.978 and Table 7.8 is 0.708 (see
Appendix 14.4 for the chi-square test of the sample). Based on these values, it can be
interpreted that the experience and expected budget of individual clients in both regions are
similar.
Given that the clients’ region is not likely to affect the clients’ experience and/or expected
budget, responses from both regions can be analysed together. However, this is not to say
that the clients’ region does not also influence clients’ opinions and/or information sources.
The analysis of responses based on categorical criteria is not simple. A relation remains
untested: The frequency of sub-groups classified by combined categorical variables,
experience and expected budget in accordance to the region. The sub-groups classified on
the basis of these criteria are presented in Table 7.9. The chi-square value for the data in
Table 7.9 is 8.667 and the Z-score is 0.653. Statistically, both groups from different regions
belong to the same population with regard to the frequency of sub-groups categorised by
clients’ experience-expected budget.
Table 7.9 Unequal number of sub-groups classified by the combined independent

variables in accordance to their region
Client Region
Experience - Expected
Budget Bracknell Forest West Berkshire Sub-Total
No-U£15,000 7 8 15
No-£26,000 9 3 12
No-£50,000 9 10 19
No-O£50,000 6 8 14
W5-U£15,000 2 1 3
W5-£26,000 4 3 7
W5-£50,000 2 2 4
W5-O£50,000 2 2 4
M5-U£15,000 3 5 8
M5-£26,000 1 5 6
M5-£50,000 1 2 3
M5-O£50,000 5 2 7
Sub-Total 51 51 102
Experience: No- no experience; W5 - within 5 years; M5- more than 5 years ago
Expected budget: U£15000 – under £15000; -£26000 - between £15000 and £26000; -£50000-between £26000 and
£50000; O£50000 – over £50000
Analysis results for the relations between clients’ region and opinions or information
sources can be affected by unequal frequencies of sub-groups, with respect to clients’
regions. In Table 7.9, the sub-groups, ‘No-£26,000’, ‘M5-£26,000’ and ‘M5-O£50,000’
have a noticeably unequal number of cases in both regions. For instance, if the opinions of
respondents from Bracknell Forest towards a certain attitude object show a significant
difference from that of West Berkshire, the impact of these sub-groups should be noted.
For this reason, the relations between the clients’ region and dependent variables (e.g.
opinions and information sources) are explored after relations between other independent
variables (e.g. clients’ experience and expected budget) and dependent variables are
clarified. If the need arises, adjustments to reflect the unequal number of respondents from
both regions should be conducted.
7.3.5. Aspects to establish a statistical analysis strategy
Through (painstaking and rigorous) processes, described in the previous section and
Appendix 14, samples are selected and analysed. The next stage is to analyse the data
obtained from the sample. In this section, aspects are discussed to establish a strategy for a
proper analysis of the collected data.
Enquiry themes and objects

Most of all, the reasons why a statistical analysis is necessary should be clarified. The
purpose of the analysis should parallel enquiry themes that should be known to achieve
research aims and objectives.
However, although enquiry themes can be answered by interpreting statistical analysis

results, one must always consider the implications in relation to enquiry objects. For
instance, opinions on importance of the attitude objects can be analysed statistically, but it
may not directly represent the attitude of individual clients. The attitude can only be
interpreted, as it is an internal mode existing in the human mind.
For the reasons stated thus far, even during the statistical analysis, it is necessary to recall
the enquiry themes and judge continuously if the analysis results can be used to interpret
them.
Types of variables
Collected data can be categorised in four groups. Each group of data has its own role to
answer enquiry themes. Data at this stage is still unprocessed and needs to be classified and
identified with other information for statistical analysis. This set of data is called variable.
The different types of variables are presented in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10 Variables and their types
Variables Variable Types
Clients’ region Nominal

Clients’ experience Nominal
Clients’ expected budget Nominal (will be converted from continuous)
Opinions on satisfaction level against the project Ordinal

result in terms of duration, cost and quality (3
variables)
Pairs of opinions on importance and difficulty Ordinal

against 11 attitude objects (22 variables: see
Figure 7.1)
Matrix of 8 sources for 9 information objects (72 Nominal (binary)

variables: see Table 7.4)
Pairs of opinions on expectation and reality of Ordinal

usefulness against 3 potential benefits from sharing
information with other clients (6 variables)
The first group of variable is about clients and their projects’ background. These variables
are nominal and become mainly independent variables. The second and third groups of
variables are indicators of the current situation: Individual clients’ opinions on importance
and difficulty of purposeful activities, and source(s) they contacted or consulted to obtain
information for undertaking purposeful activities. The fourth group is the clients’
expectations from information sharing with other clients. Finally, variables to measure the
satisfaction level of clients with project results, in terms of duration, cost and quality, are
grouped. These variables are first analysed independently. Subsequently, the effect of
clients’ attitude and behaviour on their satisfaction level can be measured and in this case,
would become dependent variables. However, there is an enormous amount of factors
influencing the duration, cost and quality of the project and therefore, it can merely be said
that these are the only main factors considered to have an effect on project results.
Nevertheless, at least, relations existing between clients’ attitude and behaviour and their
satisfaction level can be explored.
Statistical characteristics (or behaviour) of data collected

Until statistical characteristics of the data are found, the distribution in particular (see
Appendix 13.2.1 for the explanation of distribution), it is meaningless to say which
statistical approach and method is appropriate. The starting point for understanding the
nature of variables is to characterise the shape of their distribution. Many times the analyst
can gain an adequate perspective on the variable through a histogram (Hair et al., 1995). In
this research project, two sets of variables can be represented in histograms: The frequency
of the opinion scale on importance and difficulty against purposeful activities and client
expectation from sharing information with other clients.
If the sample is normally distributed, parametric statistical methods can be used; otherwise,
alternative nonparametric methods will be introduced (see Appendix 13.1 for further
explanation and discussion). The results of skewness and the kurtosis test (see Appendix
13.2.1) aid the decision-maker on judging the distribution pattern. In general, data
representing ratings of opinions on importance and difficulty against eleven attitude objects
are not normally distributed (see Appendix 15.4.2, 15.4.3 and 15.6.3). For this reason, at
least (pure) parametric methods cannot be used to analyse the collected data.
However, examining the distribution of a variable is essential, though examining (any)

relationship between two or more variables can refine the direction of further analysis as
well. At this stage, specific relationships, such as cause-and-effect, hierarchy classifications,
etc., are not considered. When the need arises to analyse these specific relationships, more
sophisticated methods will be used. Among the basic figures to explore relationships
between variables, correlation coefficients are measured.
A correlation is a measure of the ‘linear’ relationship between variables. For this reason,
measuring correlations between nonparametric (nominal and ordinal) variables is less
efficient because nonparametric data does not have as significant a meaning in a linear
model as does metric (interval and ratio) data. For instance, the clients’ region is a nominal
variable and ratings of importance and difficulty against eleven attitude objects are ordinal
variables. It is not necessary for these two variables to have a ‘linear’ relationship; in fact,
they show non-linear relationships, based on correlation coefficient analysis (see Appendix
15.3 for the further explanation of correlation coefficient and correlations explored).
Although the nonparametric test is suitable to explore correlations due to the abnormal
distribution of variables, the parametric test is also conducted and both results are compared.
7.3.6. Statistical analysis strategy
Statistical analysis framework

In order to enhance the comprehension of the statistical analysis framework, a diagram is
presented in Figure 7.2. There are four groups of dependent variables and three independent
variables as shown in Figure 7.2.
Statistical Independent
Dependent
Analysis Variables
Variables
Descriptive Multivariate
statistics analysis
Group 1
Opinions on the levels of Generalised
satisfaction against the project satisfaction level
results
Generalised
Group 2 Influence of
opinions independent
Opinions on importance and Clients'
variables upon
difficulty against purposeful dependent region
activities Generalised variables
knowledge gap
Clients'
experience
Group 3 Clients sub-

Dominant groups with similar Clients'
Sources to obtain information to information opinions and expected budget
take upon purposeful activities source behaviour
Generalised
Group 4 expectation
Opinions on benefits from sharing
information with other clients Generalised
reality
Figure 7.2 The framework of the statistical analysis
In short, dependent variables (e.g. opinions and information sources – are called
‘dependent’ because these are assumed to change with respect to independent variables) are
analysed to give a generalised picture depicting the current situation of individual clients.
At this stage in the analysis, individual clients are not classified as sub-groups. Then, the
relationships(s) between clients and the following independent variables: Clients’ region,
experience and expected budgets (which are called ‘independent’ because these variables
are already fixed and thus, would not be affected by other variables) are explored. The
influence of the latter on the former; the similarity or dissimilarity between sub-groups (in
terms of the former), classified by the latter.
The simplest way to find out the influence of independent variables on dependent variables
is to investigate the pattern of change that dependent variables show in relation to changes
in independent variables. Indeed, this kind of investigation was conducted for every single
linkage that can be made between one independent and one dependent variable (see
Appendix 15.1 and 15.2).
The statistical analysis that explores the relationship between more than two variables is
called multivariate analysis (see Appendix 15.2 for the further explanation). There could be
various links between variables, whether they be ‘one to one’ or ‘all to all’. These links can
exhibit one-directional influence from independent to dependent variables or there can be
interrelated relations within the same or between different types of variables (e.g. within
dependent or between dependent and independent variables, etc.). Due to the number of
variables, exploring various types of relations is not a simple task. Various types of
relations require several statistical analysis methods that fit collected data and are suitable
to explore relations. Detailed explanations of the process and algorithms of introduced
statistical analysis methods may diminish the clarity of the main discussion. For this reason,
this is covered in Appendix 15. In addition, raw statistical analysis results that mainly
consist of numerical values are presented with explanations of methods between
Appendices 16 and 21.
Statistical analysis tool: MS Excel® with MS Visual Basic®, SPSS®, SAS® and
Minitab®
Several applications are coded using Excel Visual Basic® (see Appendix 22 for source
codes of these applications). The main reason for programming specific applications is to
enable a flexible data analysis process, which commercial statistical analysis packages do
not provide. The practice is to develop tailored applications through a thorough
understanding of the background and procedure of applied statistical methods. However,
the core parts of the analysis were conducted using SPSS®, SAS® and Minitab®, which are
all widely used commercial statistical analysis packages. However, it should be noted that
only the parts that cannot be developed due to limited time (i.e. Ordinal regression
modelling, Singular Value Decomposition in Correspondence Analysis), would be

conducted, using commercial applications. In any case, all three commercial packages do
not provide required core functions and this limitation will be explained in brief.
This section explains the process of preparing the main postal questionnaire survey. The
main concern is how to develop survey instruments (e.g. sampling and questionnaire) to
maintain internal and external validity.
Statistical analysis methods should be selected according to the types and distribution of
variables. The strategy for statistical analysis is established by considering enquiry themes,
objects and distribution patterns of the sample (analysed in the preliminary phase). In short,
descriptive statistical methods will be conducted to generalise the findings and multivariate
analysis methods will be performed to explore the relations between variables. Several
tailored applications are developed by the author for flexible analysis. In order to reduce the
complexity of discussions on the analysis results, complicated algorithms, procedures and
detailed analysis results are presented in the appendices.
7.4. Results of the Main Postal Questionnaire Survey Analysis
Individual clients’ opinions and preference for information sources are analysed in general.
In other words, the sample is analysed as a whole without dividing it into sub-groups. The
knowledge gap is not directly observed and it is interpreted by analysing the difference
between opinions on importance and difficulty of the unique attitude object. Later parts of
this section explore unique characteristics of sub-groups, classified by three independent
variables: Client’s region, experience and expected budget.
7.4.2. Generalised clients’ satisfaction level
Clients’ satisfaction of project results has been measured in terms of time, cost and quality
in other research, and their dissatisfaction has been mentioned continuously. However, in
this research project, survey results present a controversial version.
Even though individual clients seem discontent concerning the duration of their projects
(see Figure 7.3), they seemed to have been content, in terms of cost and quality. From this,
it can be assumed that currently, building projects that are ordered by individual clients
around the Berkshire area have been delivered (reasonably) within clients’ expected budget
and required quality, despite in some cases, delays.
%
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Very Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Very Satisfied
Dissatisfied
Duration Cost Quality
Figure 7.3 Individual clients’ satisfaction level with the project results
If this is the case, what is the need for any research or application for (occasional)
individual clients? More questions arise that cannot simply be answered by merely
considering the clients’ satisfaction level, in terms of duration, cost and quality.
Have their projects fulfilled their needs after the project is delivered?
Have individual clients been aware of better or best results that they could have
achieved if they had more knowledge in the pre-project phase?
Who (or which sub-groups, if they can be classified) have mostly suffered from delay,
over-cost and deficient quality?
With the first question, in order to know if the delivered project has fulfilled their needs,
they should have at least, thought of what they need and how to evaluate it in the post-
project phase. The prerequisite of this is the acknowledgement of these activities, readiness
and capability to perform them, which can be evaluated from interpreting attitude and
behaviour.
The second question leads from the first – dealing with attitude and behaviour. The last
question cannot be answered now because there could be many ways to group clients. They
can be classified by passive aspects (and therefore, fixed to some extent, e.g. their
experience or expected budget), active ones (and therefore, changeable in some cases, e.g.
their attitude and behaviour) or both. Classification can only be performed after various
types of relationships are explored (e.g. one-to-one, one-to-all, one-direction, interrelations,
etc.) and between variables (e.g. within dependent or independent variables, between
independent and dependent variables, etc).
As mentioned, there are various factors affecting client satisfaction levels. In this research
project, client satisfaction levels were examined according to the client experience and
expected budget.
Figures 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6 shows changes in satisfaction levels, with respect to client
experience. As shown in the figure, more clients with experience (i.e. W5) were dissatisfied
with the duration of the project. In terms of cost, more clients without experience (almost
20%) expressed satisfaction with the results. In general, the satisfaction level of product
quality is high irrelevant to client experience. However, clients who recently gained
experience (i.e. W5) are more likely to achieve the quality they aimed for, when they
commissioned the building project (20% greater than other client groups). From this, it can
be interpreted that experienced clients might be able to better identify attainable value
obtain expected product quality.
By contrast, a clear influence of expected budget on the satisfaction levels was observed.
The clients whose expected budget is over £50,000 showed distinguishable dissatisfaction
level, in terms of project duration (see Figure 7.7). Satisfaction levels in terms of cost are
also lower than other client groups. From this it can be interpreted that individual clients,
whose expected budget is high, are not likely to actively be involved in the project or they
have higher expectations than that, which can be achieved.
%
100 %
100
80
80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0
0
Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied
Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied
Under £15000 - £26000
No W5 M5
- £50000 Over £50000
Figure 7.4 Level of satisfaction with Figure 7.7 Level of satisfaction with
project duration according to the clients’ project duration according to the clients’
experience expected budget
% 100 %
100
80 80
60 60
40
40
20
20
0
0 Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied
Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Under £15000 - £26000
No W5 M5 - £50000 Over £50000
project cost according to the clients’ project cost according to the clients’
% 100 %
100
80 80
60 60
40
40
20
20
0
0 Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied
Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Under £15000 - £26000
No W5 M5 - £50000 Over £50000
product quality according to the clients’ product quality according to the clients’
7.4.3. Generalised opinions of individual clients on the importance and

difficulty of activities (attitude objects)
There is a limitation in measuring the attitude of respondents by only considering numerical

means of stated opinions. Nevertheless, values of numerical means that are higher than
three, which is the opinion score for ‘neutral’, indicate that individual clients, in general,
regard the attitude objects as more than neutral, i.e. Important or very important (for
opinions on importance) and easy or very easy (for opinions on difficulty).
Opinions on importance against the clients’ (purposeful) activities

Table 7.11 presents numerical means of opinion states for activities (attitude objects). In the
table, the 5% trimmed mean is given because this can exclude outliers that might distort the
general opinions of the other 95%. However, the difference between the normal and 5%
trimmed mean is not significant and the order of attitude objects, sorted by importance
ratings, is same in both cases.
Table 7.11 Individual clients’ opinions on the importance against attitude objects
Attitude Objects (purposeful activities) 5% Trimmed

Mean
To clarify needs 4.61

To search for information about potential builders 4.39
To estimate budget while balancing needs and financial resources 4.32
To identify cost items 3.96
To understand the scope of service provided by various consultants 3.94
To search for information about potential consultants 3.89
To be aware of key work in sequence 3.69
To guesstimate the duration 3.66
To prepare a programme 3.56
To understand various ways to order work 3.18
To prepare evaluation points 3.08
From the table, it can be interpreted that individual clients acknowledge which (purposeful)
activities are supposed to be performed by the client. All attitude objects have means over
three and it indicated that they think that all activities are important or at least neutral. In
particular, they consider three activities – ‘to clarify needs’, ‘to search for information
about potential builders’ and ‘to estimate budget while balancing needs and financial
resources’ more than ‘important’, as these activities have means higher than four. Even
given the standard error of means, these three activities are certainly acknowledged by
individual clients as more than important.
By contrast, individual clients seem less keen on evaluating their project after it is delivered
(in the post-project phase). Moreover, individual clients do not think activities related to
establishing the procurement strategy (i.e. ‘Various ways to order work’) as important as
other activities.
Based on numerical means, individual clients may regard the activities listed above (in the
order given in the table) as more than neutral with almost the same magnitude. By
regarding the standard error, these activities are statistically hard to rank with respect to
their importance for individual clients (see Appendix 13.2.2 for details of standard error
and Appendix 15.4.2 for detailed analysis results).
Descriptive statistics presented in Table 7.11 are the analysed results of responses that give
ratings. However, some individual clients answered that they did not agree that the given
activities were client’s tasks. This ‘non-importance’ opinion-based response is not counted
to derive the general opinion, but the attitude of individual clients can be interpreted from
these as well: Which activities are most unfamiliar to individual clients? Which activities
are most neglected by individual clients?
Table 7.12 presents the proportion of non-importance opinion-based responses. In addition,

the table includes the proportion of responses, which fall into each opinion state and it can
be useful to roughly grasp the pattern of individual clients’ attitudes. In the table, the
attitude objects, ‘to be aware of key work in sequence’ and ‘to prepare a programme’ have
higher frequencies (more than 10%) on ‘do not agree’ than others. Yet the proportion of
responses is low; some individual clients are not likely to get involved in their projects in a
structured way (e.g. plan-and-action, process-based approach to order building work, etc.).
Who are they? They could be clients of extremely small projects and thus, do not need to
have a cumbersome programme or they do not bother to think of their building work as
process- or sequence-based. In contrast, they could be clients who can afford to hire a
project manager or who have an empowered (family) architect and can become the so-
called ‘order-and-sit-back’ clients. This can be explored at a later analysis stage – exploring
relations between variables.
Table 7.12 Proportion of importance opinions states against attitude objects

Do not Of no Not Of great
Neutral Important
agree importance important importance
1 5 34 61
To clarify needs - -
1% 5% 33.7% 60.4%
To search for information about 2 4 3 10 26 57
potential builders 2% 3.9% 2.9% 9.8% 25.5% 55.9%
To estimate budget while balancing 3 1 3 13 31 51
needs and financial resources 2.9% 1% 2.9% 12.7% 30.4% 50%
7 2 16 44 33
To identify cost items -
6.9% 2% 15.7% 43.1% 32.4%
To understand the scope of service 3 3 7 24 29 35
provided by various consultants 3% 3% 6.9% 23.8% 28.7% 34.7%
potential consultants 5.9% 2.9% 3.9% 17.6% 38.6% 30.7%
To be aware of key work in 12 4 2 19 34 31
sequence 11.8% 3.9% 2.0% 28.6% 33.3% 30.4%
7 3 7 26 35 22
To guesstimate the duration
7% 3% 7% 26% 35% 22%
11 4 5 22 29 28
To prepare a programme
11.1% 4% 5.1% 22.2% 29.3% 28.3%
To understand various ways to order 6 10 10 33 24 18
work 5.9% 9.9% 9.9% 32.7% 23.8% 17.8%
7 8 13 31 24 15
To prepare evaluation points
7.1% 8.2% 13.3% 31.6% 24.5% 15.4%
* The attitude objects is sorted in the same order to the table for importance: The upper rows are attitude objects that the
clients think more important and vice versa
Opinions on difficulty against the clients’ (purposeful) activity

Table 7.13 presents the 5% trimmed means of opinion ratings on difficulty for the same
attitude objects, against which the opinions on importance are asked. Detail on descriptive
statistics is given in Appendix 15.4.3.
The table shows that individual clients feel difficulties in undertaking almost all activities
except, ‘to search for information about potential builders’ and ‘to clarify needs’. The most
difficult task for individual clients is ‘to guesstimate the duration’ of the project. By
contrast, they are likely to clarify their needs ‘easily’ as the numerical mean of opinion
ratings for this attitude object is over three. This attitude object is also ranked as the most
important activity (see Table 7.11). The attitude object, ‘to search for information about
potential builders’ has the same cross-rating between importance and difficulty – important
but easy.
Table 7.13 Individual clients’ opinions on the difficulty against attitude objects
Attitude Objects 5% Trimmed

Mean
To guesstimate the duration 2.36

To prepare evaluation points 2.63
To identify cost items 2.68
To prepare a programme 2.75
To estimate budget while balancing needs and financial resources 2.77
To search for information about potential consultants 2.79
To understand various ways to order work 2.80
To be aware of key work in sequence 2.80
To understand the scope of service provided by various consultants 2.95
To search for information about potential builder 3.12
To clarify needs 3.63
Many questionnaires in the field of construction management have only asked one type of
opinion: The importance or difficulty of attitude objects that are specified as results of
developing the theoretical framework. However, this type of survey can be trapped into
prejudice – it may assume that the more important the activity is, the more difficult it is as
well or vice versa. Both are different from the actors’ perspective. Large numbers of
activities can be easier to do, compared to their importance for respondents. This
phenomenon is clearly observed here.
Attitude objects listed in the past three tables, might have been recognised by clients with a
similar extent of difficulty – between neutral and difficult to do.
Although several clients mentioned that their project was not finished and they had not
completely formed opinions of difficulty, the non-responses on opinions of difficulty can
also be interpreted that these clients did not take relevant activities at the pre-project stage.
The rationale is that clients are supposed to perform or at least, consider these activities in
the pre-project phase. The proportion of respondents who indicated that they did not try to
take on given activities is presented in Table 7.14.
Table 7.14 Proportion of opinion states on difficulty against attitude objects

Very
Did not try Difficult Neutral Easy Very easy
Difficult
10 22 20 22 18 6
To guesstimate the duration
10.2% 22.4% 20.4% 22.4% 18.4% 6.1%
19 4 7 41 15 19
To prepare evaluation points
19.8% 4.2% 7.3% 42.7% 15.6% 10.4%
8 13 21 29 22 7
To identify cost items
8% 13% 21% 29% 22% 7%
11 8 22 26 23 7
To prepare a programme
11.3% 8.2% 22.7% 26.8% 23.7% 7.2%
To estimate budget while balancing 4 13 28 22 21 12
needs and financial resources 4% 13% 28% 22% 21% 12%
potential consultants 12.1% 9.1% 23.2% 17.2% 25.3% 13.1%
To understand various ways to order 14 9 14 34 12 16
work 14.1% 9.1% 14.1% 34.3% 12.1% 16.2%
13 5 21 34 16 11
To be aware of key work in sequence
13% 5% 21% 34% 16% 11%
To understand the scope of service 6 11 18 28 26 10
provided by various consultants 6.1 11.1% 18% 28% 26.3% 10.1%
potential builders 3% 17% 20% 16% 22% 22%
4 14 21 35 24
To clarify needs -
4.1% 1.37% 20.6% 34.3% 23.5%
The table also presents another way to interpret the attitude of individual clients. Several
activities ranked highly as ‘difficult’ in Table 7.14 are indeed due to the large frequency of
opinion ratings on ‘neutral’. In particular, the activity, ‘to prepare evaluation points’, have
few ratings on ‘very difficult’ and ‘difficult’, but is ranked in second place due to 43% of
respondents who said that this activity is ‘neutral’ (i.e. Neither difficult nor easy) to do. The
proportion of respondents who did not try to take this activity, 20%, also confirmed that
individual clients are less keen on evaluating the project in the post-occupying phase.
Although the rank in the difficulty ratings is in the middle, the activity, ‘to estimate the
budget while balancing needs and financial resources’, seems an activity difficult for
individual clients, as 13% and 21% of respondents said that this activity is ‘very difficult’
and ‘difficult’ to do, respectively.
In contrast, with the similar frequencies of ‘neutral’, the activity, ‘to search for information
about potential builders’, is ranked extremely low, compared to its portion of responses on
‘very difficulty’ and ‘difficulty’. Only by considering the proportion of responses on the
difficult side, this activity should be ranked in third. However, this activity also has many
responses falling into ‘easy’ and ‘very easy’. It means that the difficulty, ‘to search for
information about potential builders’, could be felt differently, with respect to sub-groups.
Another curious question arises: Who (or which client sub-group) feel that this activity is
difficult to do? For whom is it easy? The matter needs to be resolved to group individual
clients.
7.4.4. Generalised knowledge gap
The relationship between opinions on importance and difficulty for a unique attitude object
were roughly mentioned in the previous section. However, this kind of comparison could
not give reference to rigorous judgement on the knowledge gap (see Section 5.5.4). Is there
any statistical test to judge the dominant knowledge gap that individual clients have felt?
The first step is to define the knowledge gap from quantitative data.
Category to determine knowledge gap

Certainly, a knowledge gap is more relevant to practical actions than opinions. For this
reason, between opinions on importance and difficulty, the latter should be considered more
carefully. Opinions on difficulty for attitude objects might have formed as a sequence of
actions or at least, from attempting to undertake them. If they feel that the task is difficult to
do, certainly, there could be a higher chance of an existing knowledge gap. However, if
individual clients voluntarily hesitate or deny undertaking actions because they do not think
the action is important or compulsory for the client, these cannot be counted for the
existence of a knowledge gap. For this reason, the analysis of a knowledge gap cannot be
performed against a single type of opinions (i.e. Importance or difficulty). The combination
of the two opinions states seem to present an instrument to measure the knowledge gap that
individual clients might feel.
The simplest method to measure the knowledge gap could be to analyse the subtracted
values of opinions on difficulty (smaller values indicate greater difficulty) from importance
(larger values indicate greater importance). Based on the subtracted value, the responses
can be categorised as two groups: One group consists of responses that have positive signs,
which means that respondents felt the attitude object difficult to do, compared to its
importance the other for negative signs, means that respondents felt the attitude objects
easy to do, compared to its importance. If the number of the groups for positively assigned
values is larger than that for negatively assigned values, it can be said that individual clients
might feel the attitude object is difficult to do, compared to its importance. This method is
called the sign test (Siegel and Castellan, 1988).
Table 7.15 Classification of combined opinions and its quantification
Importance Difficulty Subtraction Value

Category of Compined Opinions Scale Value Scale Value (Importance –
Difficulty scale value)
1. Do not know and/or did not try to do † 0 0 -

2. To feel that a certain attitude object is 4,5 4,5 -1, 0, 1
important and easy to do.
3. To feel that a certain attitude object is 4,5 3 1,2
important and neutral** to do in terms of
difficulty
4. To feel that a certain attitude object is 4,5 1,2 2,3,4
important and difficult to do.
5. To feel that a certain attitude object is 3 4,5 -2, -1
neutral in terms of importance and easy
to do
6. To feel that a certain attitude object is 3 3 0
neutral* in terms of importance and
neutral** to do in terms of difficulty
7. To feel that a certain attitude object is 3 1,2 1,2
neutral* in terms of importance and
difficult to do in terms of difficulty
8. Individual clients feel that a certain 1,2 4,5 -4, -3, -2
attitude object is not important and easy
to do.
9. Individual clients feel that a certain 1,2 3 -2, -1
attitude object is not important and
neutral** to do in terms of difficulty
10. Individual clients feel that a certain 1,2 1,2 -1, 0, 1
attitude object is not important and
difficult to do
† Category 1 is excluded in the statistical analysis stage and interpreted separately
* Neutral in terms of importance: Neither important nor unimportant
** Neutral in terms of difficulty: Neither difficult nor easy
However, the sign test only utilises information about the direction of differences within
pairs. If the relative magnitude as well as the direction of differences is considered, a more
powerful test can be used (Siegel and Castellan, 1988). In this research project, the
responses can be classified in more than two sub-groups that have positive and negative
sings, respectively. Table 7.15 presets a possible combination of opinions on importance
and difficulty for each attitude object. In the table, the first category is considered
separately because clients belonging to this group do not have ideas about the attitude
object and hence, they do not try to take on activities. The knowledge gap can only be
analysed among respondents who were at least aware of the activity (attitude objects) and
agreed that the activity should be taken by the client and thus, tried to take it.
Rethinking knowledge gap and modification of category

A set back of the category presented in Table 7.15 is that quantitative differences within
and between scales of importance and difficulty states do not indicate the same amount of
qualitative magnitude or extent. For instance, it can hardly be said that on a scale of 1 to 5,
that an importance state of five times as important as an importance state of 1. Furthermore,
the numerically subtracted value of difficulty from importance, on the scale, can hardly
show the degree of the knowledge gap.
The vague meaning of subtracted value seems to diminish the robustness of the statistical
analysis as well. For instance, the subtracted value of zero includes not only sets of
opinions, where both activities were marked ‘neutral’, but also those activities that have the
same numerical values (e.g. importance state of 4 and difficulty state of 4). It is apparently
wrong to treat those cases with a subtracted value of zero in the same manner.
Table 7.16 Simplified categories of clients’ opinions
Logically Modified
Importance Difficulty Qualitative Description Assigned Logically
Rating Rating (Importance and difficulty) Difference Assigned
Value Difference
Value
4,5 1,2 Important and difficult 4 3
3 1,2 Neutral and difficult 3 2
1.2 1,2 Not important and difficult 2 1
4,5 3 Important and neutral 1 1
3 3 Neutral and neutral 0 0
1,2 3 Not important and neutral -1 -1
4,5 4,5 Important and easy -2 -1
3 4,5 Neutral and easy -3 2
1,2 4,5 Not important and easy -4 3
Thus, it seems better to turn the perspective to qualitative aspects, rather than numerical
subtraction to carry out the initial analysis objective - do individual clients feel a certain
attitude object difficult to do, compared to its importance? As an attempt to cope with the
problems stated above, both opinion scales are simplified into three categories: Not
important, neutral and important; easy, neutral and difficult. In addition, the subtracted
value is determined qualitatively, rather than basing it on numerically subtracted values.
The new classification is presented in Table 7.16.
However, the new way also reveals a problem. Placing values on importance and difficulty
depends on making subjective decisions in which the extent of knowledge gap can hardly
be judged. For instance, between ‘not important and difficult’ and ‘important and neutral’,
it is not easy to decide which one should have more value; which one was felt as more
difficult by the client? The same dilemma is also found between logically assigned
differences between -1 ‘not important and neutral’ and -2 ‘important and easy’. In order to
be relieved from this solution-less situation, the same value is given to the both (i.e. 1 and
-1). Other difference values are amended, respectively (e.g. from 4 to 3, from -4 to -3).
Statistical tests and results

Wilcoxon signed-rank test is introduced to test the significance of the knowledge gap for
each attitude object. Details of this method is described in Appendix 17.1. In short, this test
is appropriate to judge the degree of difference between subtracted values that either have a
positive or a negative sign. Due to the small range of subtracted values (i.e. From -3 to 3),
comparing numerical values is statistically less sensitive. Instead, the method uses rankings.
If the sum of rankings for both signs has a significant difference, it can be assumed that
there is a severe knowledge gap or the attitude object is extremely easy to do, compared to
its importance. This is judged by hypotheses and it is explained further in Appendix 17.1.4.
According to test the hypotheses with a significance level of 0.05 (see Appendix 17.1.3 for
the process and Appendix 17.2.3 for detailed results), the dissimilarity between the sum of
rankings of positive differences and that of negative differences, is significant for all
attitude objects. In other words, individual clients might feel that all attitude objects easy or
difficult compared to its importance. Only the attitude object, ‘to clarify needs’, falls into
the former; the ranking sum of positive difference is smaller than that of negative
differences. This indicates that individual clients feel the activity ‘to clarify needs’ is easy
to do compared to its importance and it can be interpreted that they do not feel the
knowledge gap ‘to clarify needs’.
Although the difference between the sum of rankings of negative differences and that of
positive difference do not have any rigorous quantitative meaning, the knowledge gap of
attitude objects can be sorted on the basis of these values. Table 7.17 presents the attitude
objects in descending order of subtracted sum of ranks. The higher rank sums indicate that
more clients give opinions on both importance and difficulty, rather than ‘neutral’ and more
responses fall into the important-difficulty knowledge gap category.
Table 7.17 Sums of ranks for positive and negative differences (based on 7 difference
categories)
Sum of Ranks Sum of Ranks Rank Sums
Attitude Objects of Positive of Negative Difference
Differences Differences
To estimate the budget while balancing needs
1784.0 857.0 927.0
and financial resources
To guesstimate the duration 1294.0 585.0 709.0
To identify cost items 1443.0 843.0 600.0
To be aware of key work in sequence 998.5 534.0 464.5

To understand the scope of service provided by
1245.0 899.0 346.0
various consultants
To understand various ways to order work 805.0 498.5 306.5
To search for information about the consultants 1024.5 811.5 213.0

To search for information about the potential
845.5 644.5 201.0
builders
To prepare evaluation points 407.5 298.5 109.0
To prepare a program 900.5 821.5 79.0
To clarify needs 848.0 1002.0 -154.0
It seems clear that individual clients feel knowledge gap in estimating budgets and project
duration. In addition, they seem to recognise their lack of knowledge on the process and on
alternative procurement paths. In contrast, they certainly believe that they know how to
clarify their needs in the project.
7.4.5. Generalised sources to obtain information
Which sources have individual clients consulted to obtain information to take on

(purposeful) activities? The information objects that match attitude objects (e.g. sources to
obtain information about ‘evaluation points’ match the attitude objects ‘to prepare
evaluation points’) are given and respondents are allowed to select up to four sources to
obtain relevant information on the objects.
Table 7.18 Observed frequency of sources to obtain information
Friends/
Paper-
My own Do not neigh- Other
based Archi-
knowl- try to Internet bours/ consul- Builder Missing
client tect
edge obtain col- tant(s)
guide
league
***
Evaluation 19 1 0 12 ** 37 15 * 29 7
48
points 18.6% 1.9% 0% 11.8% 36.3% 14.7% 28.4% 6.86%
47.1%
***
Key work in * 32 11 2 0 2 ** 39 13 4
61
sequence 31.4% 10.8% 2.0% 0% 2% 38.2% 12.7% 3.92%
59.8%
***
Decision 12 0 0 6 **33 11 * 32 6
47
points 11.8% 0% 0% 5.9% 32.4% 10.8% 31.4% 5.88%
46.1%
***
Duration of * 29 3 0 1 3 ** 35 8 6
68
work 28.4% 2.9% 0% 1% 2.9% 34.3% 7.8% 5.88%
66.7%
***
** 43 7 5 3 5 * 30 12 3
Cost items 64
42.2% 6.9% 4.9% 2.9% 4.9% 29.4% 11.8% 2.94%
62.7%
***
Scope of ** 29 22 3 1 10 18 * 25 7
34
service 28.4% 21.6% 2.9% 1% 9.8% 17.6% 24.5% 6.86%
33.3%
***
Ways to * 29 17 1 2 2 ** 30 11 10
38
order work 28.4% 16.7% 1% 2% 2% 29.4% 10.8% 9.80%
37,3%
Info. about ***

* 22 1 0 ** 25 18 7 19 9
potential 27
21.6% 1% 0% 24.5% 17.6% 6.9% 18.6% 8.82%
consultant(s) 26.5%
Info. about ***
6 3 2 ** 40 * 27 10 10 7
potential 41
5.9% 2.9% 2.0% 39.2% 26.5% 9.8% 9.8% 6.86%
builder(s) 40.2%
*** Most frequently observed number
** Second frequently observed number
* Third frequently observed number
Table 7.18 presents the frequency of sources with respect to information objects. In general,
clients seem to depend on themselves (‘my own knowledge’), architects and builders as
information sources.
The builder is mentioned as the primary source to obtain information about ‘key work in
sequence’, ‘duration of work’, ‘cost items’ and ‘ways to order work’. Own knowledge was
referred as main sources for acquiring information about ‘evaluation points’, ‘decision
points’ and ‘builders’.
Although the architect was not ranked first in many objects, individual clients seem to have
also obtained information about various objects. In particular, the architect contributed to
informing individual clients on, ‘scope of service’, ‘ways to order work’ and ‘information
about builders’.
In contrast, the Internet and paper-based clients guide might have rarely been consulted by
individual clients. Although frequencies are lower than ‘own knowledge’, ‘architect’ and
‘builder’, the ‘friend/neighbours/colleagues’ and ‘other consultants (but architect)’ seem to
have been contacted to obtain information.
Among information objects, ‘information about potential builder(s)’ might have mainly
been sought by individual clients from ‘friend/neighbours/colleague’.
In order to reduce the complexity, radar graphs are presented under three categories: Project
background, managerial activities and procurement system in order to enhance
comprehension.
Figure 7.10 represents the proportion of frequencies of information sources for activities
relevant to clarifying the project background: Evaluation points, duration of work and cost
items.
Evaluation points are specific to needs and this is different from the final quality of the
product. If the client prepared evaluation points, they are likely to try to define their needs
or requirements that are supposed to be fulfilled by ordering work. Instead of the duration
of work, (e.g. when they wish to order work, the project is finished, etc.) the programme,
including milestones, is more essential to clarify the project background. However, this is
included in the managerial aspect (see Figure 7.11), as it runs along with key work in
sequence. Cost items are slightly specific to the budget. In a point, these objects are
essential for client briefing. For evaluation points, they consult architects and acquaintances.
My own knowledge
70.00%
60.00%
Missing Did not try to seek for
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
Builder Internet
10.00%
0.00%
Other consultant(s) Paper-based client guide
Architect Friends, neighbours, colleagues
Evaluation points Duration of works Cost items
Figure 7.10 Radar graph illustrating the proportion of information sources to define
project
In Figure 7.10, it can be interpreted that individual clients mainly depend on builders to
obtain information for client briefing. Although the Internet was not widely used, it was
used by clients who sought information on cost items.
Figure 7.11 illustrates sources that individual clients consulted to obtain information on
supporting managerial activities – ‘to be aware of key work in sequence’ and ‘to prepare a
programme (milestone and decision points)’. The builder is named as the main source of
information about ‘key work in sequence’. Even though the builder is supposed to be
involved after the design is finished, individual clients are likely to contact the builder first,
rather than other consultants. From a different angle, it can be interpreted that individual
clients may regard building work as a major part of the project. For ‘decision points’, on the
other hand, individual clients are likely to follow the advice of architects and builders with
similar frequency. Once again, the clients’ own knowledge is found to be the main source
of information when making decisions. Documented materials, such as Internet web-sites
and paper-based client guides seem less popular as information sources to support
managerial activity.
My own knowledge
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
Builder Internet
10.00%
0.00%
Key works in sequence Decision points
understanding the process
Figure 7.12 illustrates the clients’ dependence on sources to obtain information about
procurement systems and potential service providers. Certainly, a different pattern is

observed in comparison to the previous groupings of sources. Most noticeably, the
influence of the builder is lower, even though s/he remains as the main source of
information on the procurement path (i.e. Ways to order work). From this fact, it can be
thought that individual clients contacted builders first, rather than architects or other
consultants. Alternatively, clients may have interpreted ‘work’ as work conducted by sub-
contractors. The other distinctive difference is that acquaintances appear to be the main
source of information on potential builder(s). They seem to provide reference for potential
consultants as well. The response, ‘did not try’ increase in this grouping. In particular, those
who did not try to seek information about potential consultants (including architects)
reached a significant level (of around 30%).
My own knowledge
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
Builder Internet
10.00%
0.00%
Scope of service Ways to order works Info. about potential consultant(s) Info. about potential builder(s)
procurement path and staffing
A common fact found through these three groupings is that individual clients believe in
their own knowledge. The percentage of individual clients who depended on their own
knowledge is higher than the proportion of clients who do not have any experience with
building work. How could this happen? It is also curious to find out if the background of
clients and project work influence their behaviour in selecting information sources.
Questions presented above could be summarised by the following:

How can some individual clients depend on their own knowledge, even though they are
not likely to have any experience in building projects?
Are there any relationships between client dependence on certain information sources
and the background of individual clients or their projects (i.e. Their experience and
expected budget)?
The first question is probably difficult to answer, based on the data obtained from the
survey. Intuitively, they are likely to have long-term memory about objects and recall it
when they are about to order a project. In particular, given that 40% of individual clients
refer to their own knowledge when selecting builders, this indicates that they have collected
information on potential builders. The second question can be answered after the
relationships between variables are explored.
7.4.6. Influences of clients’ experience and expected budget on opinions
In this section, the results of the correspondence analysis, which explores the relations
between the clients’ experience-expected budget and combined opinions for attitude objects
are given.
Reasons for introducing the correspondence analysis

Correspondence analysis is introduced to analyse the relations between variables as a whole.
Although this section only presents final step of exploring the relations between variables,
the enormous efforts made to find any relation between variables (from simple one-to-one
to all-to-all combinations) are hidden behind this result. As a beginning, the relations
between one independent variable, clients’ experience or expected budget, and one
dependent variable, opinions on importance or difficulty against attitude object, were
analysed (see Appendix 15.6.). The analysis of these relations was conducted by means of
ordinal regression and it yields elegant numerical results, as Pearson residuals (see
Appendices 18.2.2 and 18.2.3 for background and explanations of ordinal regression
analysis). This value is handy to grasp the diversity of certain sub-groups from the general
pattern observed in the one-to-one relation (e.g. clients’ experience and opinions on
importance). The pattern of how clients selected sources to obtain information, with respect
to their experience or expected budget were analysed relatively successfully (see
Appendices 18.2.7 and 18.2.8).
After this simple relation analysis, the variables are combined one by one. For instance, the
opinions on importance and difficulty for unique attitude objects are combined and their
relations with one independent variable, clients experience or expected budget are analysed
(see Appendix 19.2). However, these attempts did not produce fruitful results, due to a
shortage of cases (which resulted from having less than the sufficient number of observed
cases in certain cells because the opinions were biased to a couple of opinion states: see
Appendix 20.1.1 for further explanation) and highly complex analysed results (see
Appendix 20.1.1). These two features are the very reasons for introducing correspondence
analysis.
Guidance to follow the explanations of analysis results

The relation between one independent and one dependent variable can be expressed
succinctly as a line graph. This kind of graph can be understood relatively easily (see any
line graph in Appendices 18.2.7 and 18.3.8).
Although it is true that understanding coordinated correspondence in a two-dimensional

space is easier than any other graphical expression of analysed results for complex relations,
due to the number of variables, it may not be easy to follow the explanations of the analysis
results. To reduce graphical complexity, the categorical variables (i.e. The combined
variables of clients experience and expected budget) and measured variables (i.e. The
combined opinions on importance and difficulty for unique attitude objects) are marked in
abbreviation. The full description of abbreviations are presented in Table 7.19.
The easiest way to understand coordination is to imagine the pulling power of the sun in the
solar system. The general pattern and outlier can be analysed at a glance in this way. If
members belonging to several sub-groups selected certain opinions, then these sub-groups
are coordinated with opinions states around the centre (imagine the sun) in two-dimensional
space (imagine the solar system). These sub-groups can be said to share a general pattern of
opinions. On the contrary, if a sub-group is coordinated in outer space alone, it can be
interpreted that this sub-group does not follow the general pattern. What makes this sub-
group an outsider? It would probably be an opinion state between the centre and this sub-
group in dimensional space, which means that this sub-group is biased to the opinion. The
converse scenario can be observed in dimensional space. If an opinion state is located in a
solitary area in dimensional space, it means that only a few members selected this opinion
state. Once again, the sub-groups to which those few members belonging can be located
between this opinion state and the centre of the dimensional space. This means that there
are more members who selected the opinion state in the sub-group, than in other sub-groups,
but they are still in the minority, even within the sub-group.
Table 7.19 Grouping categories of combined clients experience-expected budget

and opinions
Combined Categories of Clients’ Experience and Combined Categories of Opinions
Expected Budget on Importance and Difficulty
Abbreviation Description Abbreviation Description
Important and
No-U£15000 No experience and under £15000 I-D
difficult
No experience and between £15000 Important and
No-£26000 I-N
and £26000 neutral
No experience and between £26000 Important and
No-£50000 I-E
and £50000 easy
Neutral and
No-O£50000 No experience and over £50000 N-D
difficulty
Neutral and
W5-U£15000 Within 5 years and under £15000 N-N
neutral
Within 5 years and between £15000
W5-£26000 N-E Neutral and easy
and £26000
Within 5 years and between £26000 Not important
W5-£50000 NI-D
and £50000 and difficult
Not important
W5-O£50000 Within 5 years and over £50000 NI-N
and neutral
More than 5 years ago and under Not important
M5-U£15000 NI-E
£15000 and easy
More than 5 years ago and between Do not agree
M5-£26000 DA/DT
£15000 and £26000 and/or did not try
More than 5 years ago and between
M5-£50000
£26000 and £50000
More than 5 years ago and over
M5-O£50000
£50000
If members of a sub-group selected a certain opinion state more than other sub-groups,
these two are coordinated closer to each other. Other sub-groups are coordinated around the
opinion state if the main portion of members belonging to the sub-group, selected this
opinion state. The distance between sub-groups and the opinion state are relative to the
proportion of members who selected the opinion.
The explanations of correspondence analysis results are presented in conjunction with

ordinal regression analysis results; in particular, the Pearson residual. It can support judging
the statistical significance of observed patterns through correspondence analysis. If needs
arise, tables (denoted by denoted by Table A.) and graphs (denoted by Figure A.) presented
in appendix, are referred. However, analysis results of ordinal regression represent one-to-
one relations and thus, cannot match the correspondence between combined variables. The
relations analysed through correspondence analysis can be supported by the results of
ordinal regression but the converse action cannot be done.
Names of cross-tabulations, presented in appendix, are given as well. Comparisons between

the frequency in cross-tabulation and coordinated patterns in a two-dimensional space
should match. For this reason, correspondence analysis results is validated based on the
relevant cross-tabulations.
Further explanations of the background and process for correspondence analysis can be
found in Appendix 20.1. The coordinates are calculated by using a function provided in
SPSS and these are graphically represented by using an application developed by the
researcher (see Appendix 22.5.).
An example of correspondence analysis and experience-budget and

combined opinions against the attitude object: ‘To clarify needs’
Opinions on importance for the activity, ‘to clarify needs’, individual clients seem to
recognise the importance of this activity, regardless of their experience (see Figure A 18.4
and Table A. 18.9 on page A-151) and expected budget (see Figure A. 18.26 and Table A.
18.35 on page A-172). In contrast, opinions on difficulty seem to be affected by their
experience. Individual clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago are
more likely to regard the activity, ‘to clarify needs’, as more difficult than other sub-groups
(see Figure A. 18.5 and Table A. 18.10 on page A-151). In Table A. 18.10, this sub-group
has a Pearson residual 2.097 for the opinion state, ‘difficult’, and it is statistically
significant.
5
N-D
F 3
2
M5-U£15000
A 1
I-N
B M5-O£50000 C
No-O£50000 M5-£26000
No-U£15000
0 I-E No-£26000
M5-£50000 W5-O£50000 W5-£26000
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
I-D DA/DT W5-£50000
N-N
D W5-U£15000
No-£50000
-1
E
-2 NI-E
-3
Figure 7.13 Correspondence analysis of clients’ experience-budget and combined

opinions for the attitude object ‘to clarify needs’
This tendency is graphically expressed in Figure 7.13. Note that the sub-group names is
followed by ‘M5’ in the figure. Correspondence analysis for this attitude object is
conducted based on data presented in Table A. 20.3 (on page A-246). The clients’ sub-
group who ordered the building project more than five years ago is generally located nearer
to the combined opinion states indicating important and difficult (i.e. ‘N-D’ or ‘ID’: see
arrows D and F in the figure).
Around the centre, combined opinions ‘I-E’ and ‘I-N’ are coordinated with sub groups ‘No-
U£15000’, ‘No-O£50000’, ‘No-O£50000’ and ‘M5-O£50000’ (see the circle A in the
figure). Among combined opinions, ‘I-E’ is closest to the centre. This shows that a large
number of these sub-groups might regard the activity, ‘to clarify needs’ important and easy
to do and other members may regard it ‘important and neutral to do’. This tendency is
supported by ordination regression of one independent variable and combined opinions (see
Figure A. 19.1 and Table A. 19.1 on page A-202 for experience-combined opinions and
Figure A. 19.12 and Table A. 19. 12 on page A-213 for expected budget-combined
opinions).
Members of the sub-group, ‘M5-£50000’, may feel the activity important and difficulty to
do more than other sub-groups. This sub-group is far away from the centroid in the
direction of ‘I-D’ (see the arrow D in the figure). It indicates that this sub-group does not
present a diverse set of opinions, as seen in other sub-groups nearer to the centroid and
biased to ‘I-D’ (e.g. sub-groups within the circle A in the figure). In addition, members
belonging to sub-groups, ‘W5-U£15000’, ‘W5-£26000’ and ‘W5-O£50000’ may regard the
activity, ‘to clarify needs’, important and difficult to do, more than other sub-groups (see
the circle B in the figure).
In contrast, there are other sub-groups whose members do not agree that clarifying needs is
a client’s task and/or did not try to do this activity. In circle C, three sub-groups are
coordinated with the opinion states ‘DA-DT’: ‘No-£26000’, ‘M5-£26000’ and ‘W5-
£50000’. Among them, more clients belonging to the sub-group, ‘W5-£50000’, are not
likely to clarify needs in the pre-project stage.
However, when two combined opinions are coordinated far away from the centre (instead
of sub-groups) – ‘NI-E’ and ‘N-D’, it means that these two opinions are rarely selected.
Based on arrow E in the figure, in can be interpreted that few members belonging to the
sub-group, ‘No-£50000’, regarded the activity not important and easy to do. However, large
numbers of this sub-group share opinions close to the general pattern (like sub-groups
within circle A). Based on the same background, it can be assumed that few members
belonging to the sub-group, ‘M5-U£15000’, regarded the activity as neutral (in terms of
importance) and difficulty to do. It can be interpreted that members of the sub-group, ‘No-
£50000’, may regard the activity as not important and easy to do (see arrow F in the figure).
Comparing the distance between the two sub-groups and associated opinion states, the
latter tendency is expected to be more clearly observable in the real situation because the
distance between the latter sub-group and the opinion state, ‘NI-E’, is shorter than that
between the former sub-group and the opinion state, ‘N-D’.
Summary of findings
The results of correspondence analysis for other attitude objects are presented in Appendix
20.4.4. Correspondence analysis itself is the graphical summary of complex relationships
between grouped variables (sub-groups) and dependent variables (combined opinions of

importance and difficulty). For this reason, to summarise these results again may be an
unnecessary task.
However, in order to reflect the findings from correspondence analysis on specifying the
application, results should be simplified to a certain level without diminishing reality. The
findings can be summarised in various ways, whether they be in terms of sub-groups or
activity. The main aim of this research is to present a practical application to facilitate
knowledge streams. For this reason, the findings are summarised according to the activity
and they are presented in Table 7.20.
Table 7.20 Summary of findings from correspondence analysis on experience-

expected budget and opinions
Activity Findings
- Individual clients recognise the importance of this activity, regardless of their
experience and expected-budget.
To clarify needs - This activity is neutral to do in terms of difficulty, regardless their experience
and expected-budget.
- Sub-group ‘M5-£50000’ felt more difficulty than other sub-groups.
- Individual clients regard this activity neutral in terms of importance and
neutral to do in terms of difficulty.
To prepare
- Individual clients who ordered building projects recently (sub-group ‘W5’)
evaluation
think this acitivty is easy to to do.
points
- More clients belinging to the sub-group ‘W5-O£50000’ and M5-U£15000’ did
not agree that this activity is a client task.
- Individual clients agree with the importance of this activity, regardless of their
experience and expected-budget.
- Difficulty is affected by experience.
To be aware of
- More indivdividual clients beloning to sub-groups ‘No-£26000’, ‘No-£50000’,
key work in
‘W5-£26000’ and ‘M5-£50000’ regarded this activity important and difficulty
sequence
to do.
- Around 50% of clients belong to the sub-group ‘No-U£15000’ and ‘W5-
£50000’ did not agree that this is a client task
- More individual clients who ordered building projects within five years tried to
prepare a programme and felt ‘to prepare a programme’ easier than
others.
- Individual clients who do not have experience are more likely to feel
To prepare a
difficulty in preparing a programme, although they recognise the
programme
importance of this activity (i.e. ‘No-U£15000’, ‘No-£26000’ and ‘No-
O£50000’).
- The sub-group ‘W5-O£50000’ showed that a majority of their members did
not agree that this activity is a client task and/or did not try.
(continued)
- The clients recognise the importance of this activity, regardless of their
To guesstimate experience.
the duration of - Individual clients who has experience within five years and whose expected
work budget is over £50,000 seem very keen on finding out how long the project
woul take, although they rendered it difficult.
- The dominant pattern is ‘I-D’ (this activiy was regarded as important and
To estimate the difficult) regardless of client experience and expected-budget.
budget while - Individual clients who do not have any experience seem to believe that ‘to
balancing balance needs and financial resources’ are less difficult than those who
needs and have experience.
financial - Individual clients whose expected budget is over £50,000 (‘No-O£50000’,
resources’ ‘W5-O£50000’ and ‘M5-O£50000’) seem to be keen on doing this activity,
although they regarded this activity as difficult.
To understand - A general pattern on importance could not be found.
the scope of - Sub-group ‘W5’ are slightly biased to ‘I-D’; and those of ‘M5’ are done to ‘I-E’.
services
provided by
various
consultants’
To understand - Clients who had no experience and whose expected budget is small (i.e.
various ways to ‘No-U£15000’ and ‘No-£26000’) might not try to understand various ways to
order work order work.
- More members belonging to the sub-groups, ‘W5-£26000’ and ‘W5-£50000’
To search for
regarded this activity difficult.
information
- Individual clients who do not have experience (i.e. ‘No-£26000’ and ‘No-
about potential
£50000’) or whose expected budget is small (i.e. ‘W5-U15000’ and ‘M5-
consultants
£26000’) are more likely to neglect this activity.
- A majority of the sub-groups are coordinated around the centre with opinion
states, ‘I-E’, ‘N-N’ and ‘I-D’.
To search for - Individual clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago
information (i.e. ‘M5-£50000’ and ‘M5-O50000’) are especially keen on reviewing
about potential information about potential builders and found it difficult to obtain their
builders information.
- individual clients who recently ordered building projects are not likely to
investigate the background of potential builders.
7.4.7. Influences of clients’ experience and expected budget on selecting

sources to obtain information
Weakness of correspondence analysis for multiple-response binominal

variables
This section presents a weakness in correspondence analysis. If the cross-tabulation is
asymmetric (i.e. Row totals are unequal to the column totals), the results of correspondence
analysis cannot represent data characteristics (Appendix 20.4.1 on page A-275). One of
solution, to cope with this problem, is to convert the original matrix into a Burt matrix (see
Table A. 20.15 on page A-277). However, in order to create a Burt matrix, a nominal
variable should be divided into two columns – ‘yes’ when the information source is
selected and ‘no’, otherwise. The problem is that ‘no’ columns for each information source
influence analysis results. Although the coordination score for ‘no’ columns of each source
(e.g.. ‘No for architect’) is excluded in the coordination dimension space, results could be
distorted by these values.
2.5
2
M5-£50000
1.5
M5-U£15000 O. Const.
1 No-U£15000
B Friends
Did-Not 0.5
M5-£26000
W5-£26000 W5-U£15000 My-Klg.
0 Builder
No-£26000
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
M5-O£50000
-0.5
No-O£50000 W5-O£50000
No-£50000
Archi.
-1W5-£50000
A
-1.5
Internet
-2
-2.5
Figure 7.14 An example representing the limitation of multiple correspondence

analysis (for information sources for ‘evaluation points’)
When comparing results of correspondence analysis (Figure 7.14) and cross-tabulation (see
Table A. 20.14 on page A-276), it can be found that correspondence analysis has failed to
represent the relations between grouping variables and opinions states. For instance,
although more members belonging to sub-groups, ‘W5-U£15000’ and ‘M5-O£50000’
consult architects to obtain information about evaluation points (around 33.3% in the table),
these sub-groups are not coordinated around ‘architect’ (see the circle A in Figure 7.14).
This failure is also found for the information source, ‘my own knowledge’. According to
the cross-tabulation, the sub-group, ‘W5-£26000’, should be coordinated closer to this
source, but it does not (see the circle B in Figure 7.14)
In addition to this fundamental technical weakness, several limitations of the analysis, due
to limited functions of statistical analysis packages were found.
The standard version of SPSS does not provide a function for multiple correspondence
analysis. For this reason, SAS and Minitab were used to conduct multiple
correspondence analyses. The weakness of correspondence analysis stated above is partly
due to the provision of improper algorithms in commercial analysis packages. If an unequal
number of sub-groups in the cross-tabulation could be equalised to generate a Burt table the
accuracy might be enhanced. However, the function to equalise unequal row totals is not
available in commercial packages. To cope with this problem, applications to equalise
unequal row totals and create a Burt table from this data are developed by the author (see
Appendix 22.6.). However, the problem could not be solved because commercial statistical
analysis packages do not present a function to perform correspondence analysis based on
Burt tables entered by users; SAS and Minitab are programmed to use raw data. An
advanced statistical analysis package called Statistica includes a function to conduct
correspondence analysis from the Burt table, but this package was not available.
The other limitation found during the analysis stage concerns data coding. Respondents
were allowed to select up to four information sources. However, initial data coding for
correspondence analysis was not designed to reflect that respondents may have selected
multiple choices. For instance, in Figure 7.14, it cannot be known if respondents selected
one source or multiple sources.
Alternative approach: Introducing the indicator to convert multiple

binominal variables to nominal variables
An alternative option is to convert multiple binominal variables to a nominal variable, so
that patterns of behaviour in selecting information sources can be categorised. A total of 95
categories are defined and details are presented in Appendix 20.4.2 (see Table A. 20.16 on
page A-278). By using this method, correspondence analysis can account for the types and
numbers of sources that clients consulted to obtain information. Given that multiple
binominal variables are aggregated into a nominal variable, single correspondence analysis
could be conducted and the problem of multiple correspondence analyses could be solved.
The process of defining categories, code indicators for each category range and converting
multiple binominal variables to a single nominal variable, based on the indicator index, is
extremely complicated. In order to reduce human error in performing the process, several
applications are developed by the research. The source codes for these can be found in
Appendix 22.7.2.
One set back of this approach is that graphical expressions become complex, due to the
number of keys representing categorical ranges. Although the patterns of consulting
information sources are limited to around 20 among 95 ranges, the graphically illustrated
analysis results are complicated to follow.
Guidance to follow explanation of analysis results

Before conducting correspondence analysis to explore the relations between experience-
budget and patterns in selecting sources for information, the relations between the single
independent variable and its dependency on each source, in terms of the proportion, were
analysed one by one. The results of this analysis present the general and simple behaviour
pattern, with respect to client experience and expected budgets. Reference is made to
Appendix 18.4. (for relations between client experience and information sources) and
Appendix18.5. (for relations between client expected budget and information sources) – if
needs arise.
Table 7.21 Examples of abbreviated keys for information source(s)
Abbreviatio Description
n Key
K(1) My knowledge (only 1 source)
I(1) Internet (only 1 source)
G(1) Paper-based client guide (only 1 source)
F(1) Friend/ neighbour/ colleagues (only 1 source)
A(1) Architect (only 1 source)
O(1) Other consultant(s) (only 1 source)
B(1) Builder(s) (only 1 source)
KI(2) My knowledge and Internet (2 sources)
KG(2) My knowledge and paper-based client guide (2 sources)
.
.
.
FAOB(4) Friend/ neighbour/ colleagues, architect, other consultants and builder (4 sources)
Did Not Did not try to seek for information
To reduce graphical complexity, the categorical ranges of grouped clients are abbreviated
as keys and they are same ones used in the correspondence analysis for opinions (see Table
7.19). As discussed above, there are 95 categorical ranges representing client patterns in
consulting sources for information and these are also abbreviated. The description of these
is presented in Table 7.21.
The cross-tabulation presented in Appendix 20.4.3. can be useful to follow the explanations
of correspondence analysis results. However, these cross-tabulations were not used for
correspondence analysis. As mentioned, correspondence analysis was conducted based on a
nominal variable with 95 categorical ranges, converted from multiple binominal variables.
For this reason, cross-tabulation for the nominal variable with 12 ranges (i.e. Category of
clients’ sub-groups) and the nominal variable used to classify client patterns in consulting
information sources is extremely complicated. (Imagine a cross-tabulation of 12 rows and
95 columns). In order to reduce complexity, a simple cross-tabulation of frequency of
selected information sources, with respect to client sub-groups will be referred and this can
still be used to examine the accuracy of correspondence analysis results.
Since the keys are coordinated in a narrow area and may be unrecognisable, a zoomed
coordination plot is provided with the main coordination plot. Dimension scales in the both
spaces can be referred, to find out the original zoomed dimension.
An example of correspondence analysis on experience-budget and

patterns to consult sources: ‘To prepare evaluation points’
More clients who ordered building projects within five years, depended on their own
knowledge to prepare ‘evaluation points’. In contrast, the proportion of clients who did not
try to seek for the information is higher in sub-group, ‘M5’, than in other sub-groups (see
Figure A. 18.48 and Table A. 18.57 on page A-183). The preferences for information
sources show (insignificant) differences, with respect to the experience. Around half of the
clients of sub-group, ‘W5’, consulted architects to prepare evaluation points, whereas those
of ‘M5’ preferred to consult acquaintances (i.e. Friends, neighbours and colleagues) and the
difference in magnitude of these tendencies was found to be within 10%. Individual clients
who did not have experience seemed to depend slightly more on builders (around 10%)
than clients from the other two sub-groups (i.e. ‘W5’ and ‘M5’). Sub-group ‘M5’ seemed to
prefer other consultants (excluding architects) but the magnitude of this observation is
small (around 10%).
The influence of expected budgets on patterns in consulting information sources on

evaluation points is intuitive: The greater the expected budget, the higher the dependency
on consultants, as they can only be afforded for hire at high cost. This tendency is observed
in the relation between expected budget and dependency on architect. The relation between
the two is almost linear (see Figure A. 18.57 Table A. 18.66 on page A-192).
5
KAOB(4)
4
D W5-O£50000
3
O.Con.(1). B
2
KF(2)
KAO(3)
FO(2)
C
M5-£50000
M5-£26000 OB(2)
1 A KA(2)
KFB(3)
KAB(3) W5-£50000
MyKlg.(1)
0 No-U£15000
No-O£50000
W5-£26000
KB(2)
-4 -3 -2 -1 Archi.(1)
No-£26000
0 KO(2)
FA(2)
DidM5-O£50000
Not
Friend(1)
No-£50000
AOB(3)
FAB(3)
AB(2) 1
KFA(3) 2 3 4
Builder(1)
W5-U£15000
KOB(3)
KFO(3)
M5-U£15000
Internet(1)
-1
KFOB(4)
-2
0.1
MyKlg.(1)
0
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
No-U£15000
-0.1
No-O£50000
W5-£26000
-0.2
E
KB(2)
-0.3
Archi.(1) No-£26000
M5-O£50000
-0.4
KO(2) FAB(3)
FA(2)
Friend(1) Did Not
AOB(3)
No-£50000
-0.5
AB(2) KFA(3)
Builder(1)
W5-U£15000
KOB(3)
-0.6
KFO(3)
Internet(1)
M5-U£15000
-0.7
KFOB(4)
Figure 7.15 Correspondence analysis of clients’ experience-budget and sources for
information to ‘prepare evaluation points’
Figure 7.15 is the result of the correspondence analysis and the relevant cross-tabulation is
given in Table A. 20.14 (page A-276). From the figure, it can be interpreted that individual
clients depend on their own knowledge (i.e. ‘MyKlg’.), architects (i.e. ‘Archi.’) and
builders (see the circle A and E in the figure). In addition to using single sources, they
synthesised various sources to prepare evaluation points. The patterns of synthesising
various sources require cautious interpretation.
Clients who ordered building project more than five years ago and whose expected budget
ranges between £26,000 and £50,000 might depend on consultants more than other sub-
groups (see the circle B and C in the figure). The dependency of this sub-group on
acquaintance is higher than other groups as the categorical keys, including ‘F’, are
coordinated around these sub-groups.
In the circle E, it can be interpreted that first time clients or clients whose expected budget
is small (i.e. ‘No-£26000’, ‘No-£50000’, ‘No-O£50000’, ‘W5-U£15000’ and ‘M5-
U£15000’) might not consult sources to prepare evaluation points (relevant key: ‘Did Not’)
or depend on builders more than other sources (relevant keys: ‘Builder’, ‘KB’, ‘AB’,
‘KOB’, ‘AOB’ and ‘FAB’).
The sub-group ‘W5-£50000’ are likely to refer their own knowledge alone, rather than
consult other sources (see the circle A in the figure). The sub-group ‘No-U£15000’ shows
this pattern. In contrast, even if the expected budget is small, clients who ordered building
project more than five years ago (i.e. ‘M5-U£15000’) still consulted various sources (i.e.
‘KFOB’).
Summary of findings
The type and number of sources, consulted by individual clients, seem to be affected by
their experience and expected-budget. However, the influence could not be generalised into
a dominant unique pattern. Instead, the correspondence analysis results can be referred
when the behaviour in searching for information needs to be reviewed according to the
client’s sub-groups. Detailed analysis results is presented in Appendix 20.4.5.
In this section, a summary of the results are given in Table 7.22.
Table 7.22 The unique features found from correspondence analysis for experience-
expected budget and dominant information sources
Activity Findings
- Although the expected budget is small, clients who ordered building
project more than five years ago (i.e. ‘M5-U£15000’) consulted various
sources (i.e. ‘KFOB’).
- First time clients or clients whose expected budget is small (i.e. ‘No-
£26000’, ‘No-£50000’, ‘No-O£50000’, ‘W5-U£15000’ and ‘M5-U£15000’)
To prepare
might not consult sources to prepare evaluation points (relevant key: ‘Did
evaluation points
Not’) or depend on builders more than other sources (relevant keys:
‘Builder’, ‘KB’, ‘AB’, ‘KOB’, ‘AOB’, ‘FAB’).
- The sub-group ‘W5-£50000’ and ‘No-U£15000’ and are likely to refer to their
own knowledge alone, rather than consulter other sources (see the circle A
in the figure).
- Experience and expected budget influence the types and number of

sources to contact.
- Clients who ordered building projects within five years referred to their own
knowledge (see the circle B in the figure).
- More clients who ordered building project more than five years ago
To be aware of
obtained information about the process from other consultants. Few clients
‘key work in
belonging to this sub-group surfed the Internet as well to obtain information
sequence’
(relevant key is ‘IOB’).
- First time clients whose expected budget is over £26,000 depended on
architects (relevant keys are ‘Archi.’, ‘AO’, ‘AOB’ and ‘FAB’: see the circle D
in the figure).
- Clients whose expected budget is over £50,000 seek advice from
architects or other consultants (relevant keys are ‘KAO’ and ‘KAB’).
- Individual clients mainly consulted architects and builders

- Experienced clients depend on their own knowledge
To be aware of
- Except the sub-group, ‘M5-U£15000’, more clients from these sub-groups
decision points
(‘M5’) sought information from other consultants in addition to information
from architects and builders
- More clients who ordered building project recently referred to their own
knowledge than others and the proportion of clients who consulted
To guesstimate architects is directly related to value of their project.
the duration of - First time clients (i.e. ‘No-£26000’, ‘No-£50000’ and ‘No-O£50000’) and
work clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago (i.e. ‘M5-
£50000’ and ‘M5-O£50000’) consulted architects and other consultants as
well.
- Expected-budget influences the types and number of information sources.

- More clients whose expected budget is over £50,000 consulted architects
To identify cost
and builders, than any other sub-group.
items
- The Internet was relatively frequently consulted to obtain necessary
information to conduct this activity.
- Individual clients tried to understand the scope of service by synthesising

To understand information from various sources.
scope of service - More clients belonging to sub-groups, ‘W5-£26000’ and ‘W5-£50000’
provided by (around 50% and 67% relatively), did not try to seek for information about
various the scope of service.
consultants - First time clients seem to make every effort to understand the scope of
service provided by various consultants.
(continued)
- Recently experienced clients depended on their own knowledge, rather
than seek for information (about 75%).
- Clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago show
similar patterns to first time clients, but their dependence on builders is
To understand higher (60%).
various ways to - First time clients consulted architects and builders (around 40%) to obtain
order work information about various ways to order work.
- Main sources are: Builders for sub-group, ‘U£15000’, own knowledge for
sub-group, ‘-£26000’ and architects for sub-group, ‘O£50000’.
- Clients whose expected budget is between £26000 and £50000 consulted
various sources without bias. In particular, about 10% of this client group
referred to the paper-based client guide.
- The majority of clients who ordered building project within five years
(around 54%), did not try to seek for information about potential
consultants.
To search for - A noticeable pattern was found in sub-group, ‘M5’: Around 41% of clients
information about tried to seek for information (i.e. Recommendations) about consultants
potential from acquaintances.
consultant(s) - First time clients show a plain pattern: No dominant source was observed
and all sources are consulted with a relatively low frequency.
- Clients whose expected budget is between £26,000 and £50,000 are
keen on seeking information about potential consultants.
- Recently experienced clients (i.e. Sub-group ‘W5’) referred to their own

knowledge (around 70%).
To search for - Clients who ordered building project more than five years ago sought
information about information about potential builders from acquaintances (around 70%).
potential builder(s) - Clients who have no experience consulted builders directly
- Clients whose expected budget is over £50,000 consulted various sources
(i.e. Friends, architect and other consultants).
7.4.8. Influences of clients’ region upon opinions and information sources
It is likely that the client’s region does not affect the attitude and behaviour of individual
clients, with some exception. Although the sample is selected from different regions, their
opinions on importance for purposeful activities (see Appendix 21.1) and information
sources they had consulted (see Appendix 21.2) are similar.
However, opinions on difficulty for couple of purposeful activities show differences. For
instance, there is a noticeable difference in the proportion of clients who expressed
difficulty in: ‘To understand various ways to order work’ (see Table A.21.18 on page A-
308); ‘to search for information about potential consultants’ (see Table A.21.20 on page A-
309). Furthermore, the former difficulty is statistically significant.
7.4.9. Generalised opinions of individual clients on expectation and usefulness

against sharing information with other clients
Initially, it was assumed that network-approached knowledge Ba would be more dominant

for individual clients, rather than market-approached knowledge Ba. According to the
analysis of source(s) that clients used to seek for information, this assumption is not likely
to fit to the current situation: Individual clients seem to depend on the client network (only)
for staffing.
Given that network-approached knowledge Ba is regarded as more proper context for

clients, specific questions, which ask the opinions of individual clients about sharing
information with other clients, are included in the questionnaire. The results can be
interpreted in conjunction to consulted information sources.
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Reviews on building in use after Stories about procedure to order Reviews on service providers
the project is delievered works
Expected Benefits Real Benefits
Figure 7.16 Expected and real benefits from sharing information with other clients
In general, individual clients agree on the potential usefulness for sharing information with
other clients (who has ordered or would order similar building projects: The term ‘similar’
caused a lot of comments from respondents and is very arguable). The numerical means of
expected usefulness for three aspects (i.e. Reviews of building in use after the project is
delivered, story about how other clients ordered building works and reviews on consultants
and builders) all have values over three and it can be interpreted that individual clients
expect sharing information with other clients to be beneficial. In particular, they have
comparatively high expectations of the usefulness of client reviews on consultants and

builders.
Figure 7.16, shows that reality seems to deviate from their expectations, as real usefulness
is far lower than expected. However, reviews on consultants and builders are regarded
reasonably useful in the real situation as well.
7.5. Interpretation of Statistical Analysis Results and Summary
7.5.1. Interpretation of pre-intervention enquiry in conjunction to the enquiry

themes
In this section, the interpretation of statistical analysis results are presented in conjunction
with enquiry themes defined in Section 6.2.
The status of individual clients

The proportion of individual clients among clients who applied for building permissions
was estimated through a second data analysis. It was estimated that around 80% of clients
belonged to this client group. However, this figure is only for South-East England.
To classify individual clients into sub-groups, in terms of experience and budget, is a very
complicated matter. Unless all individual clients respond to the questionnaire, those figures
cannot be revealed. Based on responses, it is estimated that around 60% of individual
clients are first time clients (see Table 7.6). Including 23% of individual clients who
ordered building projects more than five years ago, 83% of clients are likely ‘occasional’
clients.
Attitude of the individual clients on involvement

As mentioned in Section 3.3.4, attitude is an internal model that can only be interpreted
from opinions and other measurements. For this reason, attitude that is interpreted by
means of opinions cannot reflect the real perspectives of individual clients. Nevertheless,
there are only few ways to expose attitude.
The individual clients seemed to be aware of the importance of purposeful activities that are
recommended in various client guide. However, they seemed to be less keen on evaluating
the delivered product (see Table 7.11). Considering the procurement path is a less serious
activity than other activities for individual clients (see Table 7.11).
To interpret the unique attitude of individual clients on involvement, with respect to their
experience and expected budget, is extremely complicated. The individual clients are aware
of the importance for conducting recommended activities regardless of their experience.
A tiny difference between opinions of individual clients on importance is observed, with

respect to their expected budget. Individual clients whose expected budget is comparatively
small are less concerned with preparing a programme (see Figure A. 18.32 on page A-175)
and guesstimating the duration of the project (see Figure A. 18.34 on page A-176).
Unexpectedly, individual clients whose expected budget is high are not likely to think how
they would evaluate project results (see Figure A.18.28 on page A-173).
Knowledge gap felt by the individual clients

In general, individual clients recognised the existence of a knowledge gap in the following:
‘To estimate the budget while balancing needs and financial resources’, ‘to guesstimate the
duration’ and ‘to identify cost items’, more than other activities (see Table 7.17).
To interpret the knowledge gap, identified by clients in relation to their experience and
expected budget, requires enormous efforts and a decisive viewpoint in order to simplify its
diversity. The knowledge gap should be understood on an activity basis and therefore, the
influence of experience and expected budget has to be analysed on the same basis. Any
attempt to generalise the knowledge gap, without considering the type of activity, will
diminish meaningfulness of analysis results. Although analysis results of the knowledge
gap cannot provide a generalised pattern, a common analytical framework was developed.
Dominant knowledge Ba
Unlike the knowledge gap, a dominant Ba was observable. The main information source for
conducting purposeful activities is professionals in the industry. The network-approached
knowledge Ba could be implemented regarding the expectation of them. In particular, the
purposeful activities that require recommendation on service providers from other clients
are likely to be useful.
Behaviour on information search

An attempt to generalise the complex real world situation can twist the real world situation.
In this research project, clients’ behaviour in searching for information is certainly diverse
and a generalisation of this can present an unrealistic picture.
Feasibility for cultivating a network-approached Ba

Clients’ expectation on sharing information with other clients was high. However, the
magnitude of expectations differ with respect to the type of information that can be
obtained in a network-approached knowledge Ba. The clients’ behaviour in their
information search was partly reflected in their expectations of the network-approached Ba.
As clients depend on other clients to obtain service providers’ information, they also expect
that the wide range of recommendation could be most useful, among information that
would flow in a network-approached Ba.
Feasibility for cultivating a market-approached Ba

Due to limited time and resources, the opinions of service providers were not broadly
investigated. According to the interviews, which were a part of the preliminary survey,
service providers (professionals in the field) seemed to recognise the need for relationship
marketing. However, a practical method to this end has not yet been developed.
Factors affecting attitude and behaviour of individual clients

It can be hardly said that experience, expected budget and region are the only factors that
affect the attitude and behaviour of individual clients. However, the influence of these
factors on client attitude and behaviour were analysed.
Myths of the individual clients’ approach of ordering building projects are revealed in part.
Due to the diversity of clients, it might be an over-enthusiastic aim to find out general
patterns of attitude and behaviour. Nevertheless, unique characteristics of individual clients
according to their experience and expected budget are analysed.
It seems that it is not always the case, that experienced individual clients follow the
normative model, than other sub-groups who ordered building projects for the first time or
a long time ago. Experienced clients seem less keen on searching for new consultants and
builders. Furthermore, they seem to believe their own knowledge and the need to examine
if their knowledge were justified, arises.
In general, clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago seem keen on
contacting more sources. This behaviour can lead to an interim conclusion: If the client
knows the project process and it exists in the long-term memory, they try to obtain new
information according to their problem-solving template. This sub-group of clients shows
neither the lack of knowledge on the project process, nor over-confidence of their
experience.
7.5.2. Discussion
Rethinking the definition for the term ‘occasional’ in the individual clients
group
Intuitively, clients who ordered building projects within five years, are likely to follow the
normative model. However, in many respects, clients who ordered building projects more
than five years ago, showed the appropriate attitude and behaviour. The term, ‘occasional;
in part, recalls the naïvete and inexperience of these clients on building project. If this is the
case, clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago should be
differentiated from first time or recently experienced (within 5 years) clients.
Clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago showed similar patterns of
attitude and behaviour to those who ordered building projects within five years, in some
respects. However, in other ways, they are closer to first time clients. For this reason, it
seems unreasonable to classify clients, based on their last order of a building project (e.g.
five years). In general, clients who ordered building projects more than five years ago are
believed to have long-term memory on the process and scope of service. However, they
need refreshed ideas on cost items and various information about consultants and builders.
.
Individual clients who believe in their own knowledge
The theory of knowledge was reviewed and a main topic in the field was introduced in
Section 3.3.2: The external appearance of a person’s knowledge (p knows q) is different to
the justification of the contents of that knowledge (if q is justified knowledge). It has been
determined from the analysis that the all client sub-groups believe in their own knowledge
in conducting almost all activities.
In particular, clients who do not have experience seem to also depend on their own
knowledge. Given that their knowledge could not have any chance to be justified, their
dominant dependence on the single source could cause enormous problems throughout the
project process. In contrast, clients who ordered building projects at least once before,
attempted to seek information from various sources.
The perspectives of individual clients on the building industry are revealed in part. They
might regard that the success of the project (in terms of traditional criteria: Time, cost and
quality) would depend on builders.
Individual clients seem not to be concerned about time spent at the pre-project and design
stage. Their main concern, in terms of duration, is time spent for building work. They may
think the duration of time is mainly determined by the performance of builders, rather than
other consultants.
7.5.3. Limitations of the pre-intervention enquiry and analysis results
Unknown attitude and behaviour of individual clients who were

systematically excluded
Clients belonging to the sub-group that is categorised as ‘minor rehabilitation’ and ‘no
client representatives’ could be DIY clients or those who are just considering a building
project and/or applying for planning permission. This client group is not included in the
analysis. In addition, clients whose address appeared as “C/O Agent” are excluded due to
the practical problems with sending questionnaires. This client group can be assumed to be
more dependent on client representatives, but an investigation into their attitude and
behaviour could not be performed.
All scientific enquiry is subject to error, and it is far better to be aware of this, to study
the sources in an attempt to reduce it, and to estimate the magnitude of such errors in
our findings, that to be ignorant of the errors concealed in the data [Black, 1999].
Despite tremendous efforts to avoid terms that may be difficult to understand for individual
clients and/or interpreted differently from client to client, there is still a possibility that the
clients’ understanding may be different to mine. For instance, if the client response for ‘to
seek information about potential builder’ is ‘difficult’, this can either mean that they could
not find available builders at the time (due to the high demand for builders), or they could
not obtain information about them (e.g. their previous works and recommendation from
other previous clients who hired builders).
The beginning part of this chapter covers the process of developing research instruments to
investigate individual building industry clients. Due to the lack of previous research, all
steps – from sampling to questionnaire design – were verified. Strata random sampling was
successfully conducted and its reliability was confirmed from chi-square tests (see Section
7.3.4 from page 180). The questionnaire was validated before conducting the main survey:
Attitude and information objects were modified; unclear and/or difficult terms and phrase
were replaced or rephrased.
Collected data from the main survey was analysed according to the purpose of statistical
analysis results and the relationship between variables. Unexpectedly, individual clients
seemed satisfied with project results in terms of cost, duration and quality (see Section
7.4.2 from page 190). Generalised opinions on the importance and difficulty on activities
were described (see Section 7.4.3 from page 194). From comparing opinions of importance
and difficulty of activities, analysed by Wilcoxon-signed rank tests, it was found that the
knowledge gap is different to the difficulty felt by the client. Individual clients might lack
the knowledge ‘to estimate the budget while balancing needs and financial resources’.
Radar graphs that were drawn to analyse the general behaviour of clients during the
information search showed that individual clients are likely to consult architect and/or
builder to obtain information to define the project and understand the process (see Figure
7.10 on page 206) and relied heavily on acquaintances to obtain information on
procurement paths and staffing information.
Exploration of the influences of client’s experience, expected-budget and region was

complicated. In order to succinctly express their influence without diminishing reality, in
particular the diversity, correspondence analysis was conducted. The result, itself, is the
summary of the relationships and it is thought to be hazardous to generalise the findings.
Nevertheless, a controversial finding was presented: The attitude and behaviour of
individual clients who ordered building work more than five years ago are closer to the
normative model than recently experienced clients. The main reason is that the latter client
sub-group seemed to rely on their experience and thus, did not try to find any new
information.
The crucial role of the real world investigation is to validate the conceptual model,
purposed to facilitate knowledge streams by means of market- and network-approached Ba.
The service providers in the industry seemed to mainly rely on word-of-mouth to market
their services and clients agreed that they highly valued information sharing. By
synthesising these two findings, the feasibility of developing the application was verified.
The application can be implemented by initiating the ontological part that would become
the infostructure and initiate the two Bas.
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE APPLICATION
The conceptual model presented in Chapter 5 is the theoretical outline of the application
drawn from literature reviews. In Chapter 6, the scope of the research is confined to
determine unknown aspects to support the concept. Consequently, the approach is validated
though real world investigation in Chapter 7. Validation focuses on proving the necessity
and feasibility for developing the application. Although validation of application system is
beyond the scope of this research project, the groundwork and design of systems is based
on sound analyses and has been carefully tested, such that it can be useful for other
researchers, as it is believed to provide a strong foundation of systems specification and
engineering.
This chapter discusses the development of the application. The role of the application is
‘ontological’ part, to facilitate knowledge streams. The epistemological part of knowledge
streams would be the result that can be observed after implementing and applying the
ontological part. The ontological part, unlikely the epistemological part, can be specified in
a hard systems method. However, this is not to say that the application can be developed
like a machine. The results of real world investigations, presented in the previous chapter,
should be reflected in the systems specification.
Hence, the main contents of this chapter includes the role of the application, as the
ontological part in facilitating knowledge streams, as given in Section 8.2 and various
models to describe the ontological part, as given in Section 8.3.
8.2. Ontological Part of the Application to Facilitate Knowledge Streams
IS can be interpreted in various ways. It can be a representation of the phenomenon, in

which information flows; it can be a technical structure in which information flows; it can
be a combination of information flows and relevant people-bound aspects, such as culture
and relationships in an organisation.
The ontological part of the application cultivates non-technical aspects such as attitude,
behaviour and culture in an organisation, as well as supplying timely information to
practitioners (see Section 5.5.3). In order to achieve these requirements, the necessary
information should be defined.
Given that research has been conducted to define necessary information for the client in this
section, the role of information is focussed on knowledge streams.
8.2.2. From real world investigation towards specification of the application
The attitude and behaviour of occasional individual clients are too diverse to generalise in
one pattern. For this reason, it seems unrealistic to develop an application to support all of
them with a unique approach. Hence, the developed application to support individual
occasional clients should reflect this diversity. In this way, it seems at least possible to
develop a framework to enable them to get into the learning cycle. However, the
epistemological process to obtain information and take upon purposeful activities cannot be
directly supported.
The Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) seems appropriate for this client group, as this
methodology is suitable for supporting practitioners to share context-specific knowledge
(see Appendix 4). However, the application should also fulfil the essential requirements to
implement this normative situation. The application should be accessible by occasional
clients without additional cost.
Real world investigation analysis shows that the following features should be reflected in
specifying the application:
- For individual clients who do not have experience, key work in sequence and example of
programme should be given first.
- The attitude of experience clients on information search needs to be changed.
- The application should provide information and enable one to conduct puposeful
activities to reduce difficulties experienced by the client.
Figure 8.1 is the schematic model of the application to support occasional individual clients
in obtaining knowledge, based on SSM, while being accessible to clients without additional
costs. The application consists of both, epistemological and ontological parts. The
epistemological part aims to lead occasional client to get into the leaning cycle. The
ontological part will help occasional clients to obtain a framework to compare the current
and ideal situation and relevant information to this end.
Current project Ideal Supporting Decisions made

situation project comparison process-based
situation
Normal project
cases
Comparison
Action to Ideal project
improve cases
Structured debate Presenting

about change and fundamental Project process
the accommodations knoweldge
which make change Information
possible management
SSM HSM
(Epistemological (Ontological part)
part)
Figure 8.1 The combination of HS and SS approach to facilitate knowledge streams
As mentioned, the aim of this research is not to clarify information items, but how this
information can be incorporated into externally expressed knowledge. The next section
describes the method to implement this approach.
8.2.3. Domain model describing the ontological part of application
The domain model describes the support of the computer system, whose primary subject is
the world. Figure 8.2 describes the role of the computer system, which is the ontological
part of the application to facilitate knowledge streams. Although the types of necessary
information of the client have been defined, it has been less mentioned the way to manage
the context in which it is input and maintained. The domain model focuses on the context
of how this information flow could be sustainable.
Initiate capturing feedback Ontological

System
Provide
Client A
Keep communication records
Pre-contract contact
Consultants
Recommendation
about consultants
Property evaluation
Client B
Project process
Figure 8.2 Domain model describing ontological part of the application
The ontological part aims to implement two approaches, the market and network approach
and that part of the application serves as the tool for communication between the client and
potential service providers. The service provider can keep detailed records, resulting from
contact with the client. They can also use this as a marketing tool. Other benefits are
discussed in Section 4.5.3.
The experiences of clients, who have recently ordered projects, will accumulate in the
knowledge warehouse. This can be reviewed by potential clients. Despite a possible time
and space gap, the clients will be connected by means of the application. The virtual
community can be organised and this context is called the network-approached Knowledge
Ba.
To attract service providers and clients, the information provided in the ontological system
should be useful for both. In this research project, three sub-sections of the knowledge
warehouse are defined as follows:
Project process
Property evaluation
Recommendations on service providers
The project process will provide an essential framework to conduct any purposeful
activities. However, occasional individual clients may not be familiar with processes
provided by others. Therefore, the key aspect for successfully maintaining applications, is
to let them provide their process, as similar as it was to their own proposal. The means of
clarifying the proposal type was discussed, while developing the sampling method (see
Section 6.4.3). By regarding the level of occasional clients’ knowledge on the model, story
telling could be most practical way to transfer the context-specific process.
Although preparation of evaluation points, based on which project results will be measured,
is an essential activity that should be done by the client, real world investigations show that
many clients have not prepared the criteria to evaluate project results (see Table 7.11 in
Section 7.4.3). In order to change their attitude, examples of property evaluation, provided
by experienced clients, should be presented in the application.
It has been found that the most necessary and useful information for individual clients is the
‘recommendation on service providers’ (see Section 7.4.9).
8.3. Systems Modelling and Engineering
The epistemological part of the application occurs after implementing and applying the
ontological part of the application. The latter can be developed with a hard systems method.
The specification of the ontological part is presented in the previous section. The
specification is yet abstract and it needs to be realised through visible means. Various
models are necessary to extract the abstract concept externally. Systems engineering is
employed to realise the models.
Systems models presented in this section are designed by using Unified Modelling
Language (UML: see Appendix 23.1), consisting of:
Deployment diagram
Use-case
Class diagram
8.3.2. Deployment diagram
A deployment diagram shows the physical relationship among software and hardware
components in the delivered system. A deployment diagram is a good place to show how
components and objects are routed and how they move around in a distributed system.
Connections among the nodes show the communication paths over which the system will
interact. The components on a deployment diagram represent physical modules of code
(Fowler and Scott, 1997).
The main features of the concept for implementing the conceptual model is to connect
people, irrelevant to their involvement, in terms of time and space: Connecting consultants
and clients; connecting experience and inexperience clients. To this end, web-based
systems were introduced as a possible solution. In order to implement the web-based
system, the layout of hardware connections is necessary. Figure 8.3 shows PCs connected
to a UNIX server through TCP/IP.
Web Server Database Server

PC
Clients PC
PC
Service Providers
Figure 8.3 A deployment diagram describing hardware connection to implement

ontological parts of the application
8.3.3. Use-case view
A use-case is a typical interaction between a user and a computer system. Use-cases capture
functional requirements; analysis models explore the implications of these requirements for
a particular application; design models provide an internal infrastructure to make the
application work (Fowler and Scott, 1997).
Search
Add
Yes
Project Process
Client If a No
description storytelling
Log In member
Register
Service provider Review

recommendation property
Service providers
Knowledge Warehouse
Figure 8.4 Use case of the ontological part of application to facilitate knowledge
streams
Figure 8.4 describes the scenario of using the application. The main aim of the ontological
part of the application is to maintain necessary information for the client and provide
accommodation to search accumulated information.
In order to capture the information that will be saved in knowledge warehouse from the
outset, the web-based application will be managed on a membership basis. If end-users are
members, they can add, modify and search for information. Unless they are a member, end-
users will be required to input information for membership.
8.3.4. Class diagram
Use cases describe the process of using the application. However, the contents that end-
users add, search and modify need to be identified in detail. A class diagram describes the
types of objects in the system and the various kinds of static relationships that exist among
them (Fowler and Scott, 1997).
Add, modify, search Project

Main Window
-Project_Description
-Search_Project
-Proces_StoryTelling
-Add_Project
-ServiceProvider_Review
+Search() -Property_Review
+Add()
-()
-()
*
Project Description
Service Provider Review
-Building_Type
-First_Contact
-Work_Type
-Scope_Of_Service
-Expected_Budget
-Recommendation_On_ServiceProvider
-Pictures_of_Property
-Link_Process_To_ServiceProviders()
-()
-() *
-()
Process Story Telling Property Review

-Main_Process -Actual_Cost
-Essential_Decisions -Monetary_Benefits
-Difficulties -Initial_Needs
-() -Evaluation_of_Products
-() +Obtain_RegionPropertyPrice()
+Obtain_Expected_Budget()
Client Information Service Provider

-Client_Region -Location
-() -Available_Region
-() -Link_to_Project()
-Link_to_Client()
Architect Quantity Surveyor Builder
Figure 8.5 A class diagram of the application
Figure 8.5 describe the attributes of data set as classes. The classes are components of the
knowledge warehouse in Figure 8.4.
8.3.5. Systems engineering
Prototyping as a specification technique

The information or knowledge needs for the clients were investigated through the survey
(by analysing the knowledge gap, see Section 7.4.4) and were defined at the strategic level.
In order to determine information needs in detail, a more sophisticated process is required.
The rapid prototype is used solely as a means of accurately determining the user’s needs
and is then discarded after the specifications have been confirmed. That is to say, rapid
prototyping is used as a requirement analysis technique (Schach, 1993).
Figure 8.6 illustrates the role of prototyping as a specification technique in the entire
system development process.
Changed
Rapid Prototype
requirements
Verify Verify
Planning
Verify
Design
Verify
Implementation
Test
Integration
Test
Operations mode
Development
Maintenance Retirement
Figure 8.6 Rapid prototype serving as specification (Schach, 1993)
Early conceptual models will be incomplete, as compared to the real world situation.
Prototyping aids in driving out user requirements and testing the efficacy of the models.
Based on findings from the prototype effort, the conceptual models can then be modified
and expanded (Gardner et al., 1998).
Programming language and coding

PHP was selected as the programming language because this language can save and store
clients’ information (end-users’ personal computer connected to web-server), as it will be
running on the server (refer to Section 8.3.2). In addition, if the web-site is developed by
using PHP, it will be secure as source codes for conducting functions are not opened to the
end-user; PHP is running at the server computer and the results will be shown in an Html
format at the client’s computer.
MySQL was used as the database management system. The limitation of using a
combination of PHP and MySQL is that this only works on the Unix system in which both
are installed. Due to the limited financial resources, a web and database server, provided by
a commercial web-hosting service agent, was used.
Table 8.1 describes the files, which comprise the application. Each file will conduct
functions to implement use cases, as described in Section 8.3.3. An example of such a file
is presented in Appendix 23.2.
Table 8.1 Files consisting the application

File Name Description
Index.html First page
Userauth.php4 A function to authorise users
Projectupload.php4 A function to upload project review
clientregi.php4 A function to register new clients: Link to projectupload.php4
Consulregi.php4 A function to register new service providers: Link to projectupload.php4
list.php4 A function to display the list of projects
Sub-function: Read from profiles DB as many as webmaster determine
Db_fns.php4 A function to connect DB
view.php4 A function to create a review page of profiles
fill.php4 A function to write project profiles
Sub-function: Create a html
Link to db_fns.php4
edit.php4 A function to edit profiles
Link to db_fns.php4
delete.php4 A function to delete profiles
Link to db_fns.php4
8.3.6. Limitations of systems engineering
As a preliminary evaluation of project feasibility, opinions of the benefits from

implementing the approach were investigated. Although the opinions were investigated the
phenomenon, phenomena which would occur in the real world context remain unknown. As
mentioned in Section 6.3, the possibility for implementing these approaches can only be
examined through post-intervention enquiry after implementing and applying the
ontological part of the application.
Technically, it seems possible to develop the web-based application. The assumptions for
sustainability of the application are that network and market-approached knowledge Ba
exist.
The metaphysical outcome of application development was a web-based application,

designed to play the role of an information highway. However, the main aim of
implementing the application was to support occasional clients, while coping with the
problematic situations analysed from investigating the real world situation.
It was found that knowledge streams for individual clients should be sustainable at the
societal level. To this end, the ontological part should present a space in which clients and
service providers can connect. For this reason, the ontological part was developed and
formed in the web as the virtual community can be maintained in the web. The web-based
system is the deployment concept and other models are necessary to specify the ontological
parts.
Other models are designed in the line with a hard systems method, particularly systems
engineering. Use-cases and class diagrams are additionally designed by using UML. The
fundamental concept of these models is to implement the conceptual model presented in the
Chapter 5, which discusses how the learning cycle in SSM and sustainable knowledge
streams can be implemented with support from the ontological part of the application.
Previous research (see Section 4.5 from page 81) have focussed on the contents of
information and knowledge streams, with much less emphasis on practical methods to
guide how it can be incorporated in the real world situation to aid occasional building
industry clients. UML models presented in this chapter can fill this serious need.
CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter reviews the results from the investigation, by providing a synopsis of the
investigation and conclusions from previous chapters.
Given that the objectives are specified from the aims in Chapter 1, the main findings are
presented in according to the objectives, which are:
1. To obtain insight into the theory of knowledge and its applications
2. To clarify the main issues concerning knowledge streams of building industry

clients
3. To construct a conceptual model to facilitate knowledge streams of building

4. To investigate aspects of current knowledge streams of individual clients
5. To specify an ontological system to facilitate knowledge streams
6. To develop and evaluate a prototype ontological system to facilitate knowledge

streams
7. To present findings and recommendations for further research
Fifteen conclusions are numbered and given with respect to the objectives listed above. In
order to synchronise these to the contents of the thesis, relevant chapters are also referenced.
Whatever the reasons were, many limitations were revealed in conducting this research
project and analysing the collected data. In this section, these limitations are also presented
for other researchers who have interests in developing an application to support individual
building industry clients. They should be considered and this section will be helpful in
research treating clients, in general. By doing this, the last objective would be achieved.
In short, a presentation of conclusions and limitations lead to recommendations for further

work and raise questions that should be considered.
9.2. Summary of the Thesis and Conclusion
During the course of this research project, in addition to the development of a conceptual
framework to facilitate knowledge streams of individual occasional clients and its partial
implementation by means of a web-based system, a number of relevant conclusions were
drawn.
9.2.2. Literature review: The theory of knowledge and its application (Chapter
3) and building Industry clients and knowledge (Chapter 4)
The aim of the literature review was to find any potential contribution of theories and
practices in the field of KM, which would support purposeful activities of individual clients.
In order to achieve this objective, literature on the theory of knowledge, KM and clients
were reviewed. The number of texts searched exceeded three hundred.
To obtain insight into the theory of knowledge and its applications

1) Main element studies in the field of knowledge theory concern: Attitude, behaviour,
context and mental models. In cognitive science, knowledge is logic existing in the
mind. In social science, knowledge is a context-specific belief (from the
epistemological perspective). Although data and information can be developed into
knowledge (from the ontological perspective), dominant norms and beliefs in the
context should be understood to recognise the meaning of knowledge to practitioners
(Sections 3.3.4 and 3.3.5). Norms and beliefs comprise the internal mode of knowledge
and attitude and behaviour comprise its external mode. The context is both, the basis on
which norms and beliefs are formed, and the structure through which necessary
information is searched and obtained.
2) In order to treat knowledge, the level of knowledge flows should be determined
properly. Orthodox knowledge theory aims to generalise the possession and expression
of knowledge at the individual level. Applied knowledge theory gave birth to KM at the
organisational level. Although societal level has not been covered in literature, in order
to treat knowledge relevant to the building industry clients, this level should be
intensively considered, as the attitude and behaviour of clients are generally formed at
the societal level, rather than at the organisational level (Section 3.4).
3) Knowledge should be understood as streams because it is internalised and externalised
through interactions between actors in the situation (Section 3.6.2).
4) Attitude and behaviour are fundamental elements to initiate knowledge creation.
However, in order to enable knowledge creation, other managerial elements should also
be considered: Structure and system. Knowledge management is a managerial tool to
cultivate the attitude and behaviour (at the individual level) and implement system and
structure (at the organisational level), in which information can flow towards managing
intellectual capital for meeting the strategy of an organisation (Section 3.5).
To clarify the main issues concerning the knowledge streams of building

industry clients
5) The unique features of occasional individual clients are theoretically assumed through
classifying clients according to the following criteria: The client’s enterprise type and
experience on construction projects; the purpose of project; the client’s business sectors;
the client’s expenditure interval in the marketplace; the value of a project; and the
source of finance (see Appendix 6). From comparing various types of clients,
occasional individual clients are likely to order small- and medium-sized private
facilities (Section 4.2.5).
6) What the client ought to know is classified according to purposeful activities that
should be done by the client. In order to classify purposeful activities, various process
models are compared and common activities, that should be undertaken irrelevant to the
types of clients, are reconstructed as a library (Section 4.3.3). These activities can be
classified in two dimensions, as process- and function-based. Process-based purposeful
activities include: Being aware of requirements and producing a statement; identifying
objectives; generating and evaluating options; producing a strategic brief; establishing a
procurement strategy and preparing information for staffing (Section 4.3.4). Function-
based activities include: Information search, decision-making, and other overall
managerial activities.
7) Building industry clients have sufficient knowledge on their own facility. However,
what they do not know is different to what they ought to know (Section 4.4). Given that
the value of projects, ordered by individual clients, is small and less complex than that
ordered by institutional clients, important knowledge that they need to obtain concerns
the project process, available consultants in each process stage and information for
staffing.
8) Previous research has focussed on the role of clients as initial sources of information for
conducting further processes (Section 4.5.3) or as decision-makers, who should be
supported by providing them with pre-defined information (Section 4.5.4). Given that
knowledge is belief, a different approach to cultivate proper attitude and behaviour on
searching for information and creating knowledge by themselves, is necessary.
9.2.3. Conceptual model construction (Chapter 5)
To construct a conceptual model to facilitate knowledge streams of building

Regarding the issues clarified from literature reviews, a conceptual model to facilitate
knowledge streams of the client is developed. In the context of this research project, to
facilitate knowledge streams can be defined as, ‘enabling socialisation and combination.
This is because epistemological knowledge spirals (i.e. Internalisation and externalisation)
cannot be directly supported, whereas socialisation and combination can be implemented
by means of ontological parts (Section 5.2.2).
The main concept of the approach for facilitating knowledge streams is based on the
following:
9) Among elements of knowledge streams, context (Ba) is essential because it serves as
the basis, on which attitude and behaviour of the clients are formed, and they search for
information in it (Section 5.2.5).
10) Two kinds of Ba exist in this context and both should be cultivated in order to facilitate
knowledge streams: Network-approached Ba and market-approached Ba (Section 5.3.3).
The former is to externalise the experience of clients and the latter is to capture and
reuse information flows between the client and service provider(s).
It is not easy to extract explicit knowledge and even if it were possible, the measurement of
the effects of knowledge transfer is limited. In the real world situation, knowledge is not
transferred without rewards and thus:
11) Knowledge transfer between occasional clients will not occur unless the system and
structure connect them: They are not likely to be motivated to transfer knowledge to
other clients. For this reason, again, market-approached knowledge Ba should be
cultivated in which service providers voluntarily capture knowledge of the clients and
provide it to public.
9.2.4. Real world investigation (Chapter 7)
This concerns several aspects of occasional clients: Their attitude and behaviour on
undertaking purposeful activities and the current Ba, on which their beliefs are formed and
where they search for necessary information. The real world investigation aims to clear
these unknown aspects.
The success of the main empirical study, which is the pre-intervention enquiry, contributes
to achieve the aforementioned objectives. For clarity, a tabulation of findings in
conjunction with initial enquiry themes is provided in Table 9.1 to give a succinct picture of
findings and achievements. Section references (with page numbers) are also included for
background information.
Table 9.1 Initial enquiry themes and findings

Initial Enquiry Themes Findings
The status of (occasional) In terms of number, around 80% of clients who applied for
individual clients planning permissions are likely to be individual clients (Appendix
14.2). Among them, around 60% are first time clients; 17% are
experienced clients (according to the definition of experienced
clients: Those who have ordered a building project within five
years) and around 23% are those who ordered building project
more than 5 years ago.
The project type that The project type of this client group is divided into the following:
occasional individual clients 8% seek new housing; 14% seek major rehabilitation; 76% seek
have mainly commissioned minor rehabilitation and 2% seek other types of building.
According to the project type, the type of client agent, named
on the application form, varies (Appendix 14.2).
The satisfaction level The analysis of satisfaction level against duration, cost and
product quality show contrary results to previous research.
Individual clients are likely to be satisfied with the project results
(Section 7.4.2 from page 190). However, given that they do not
prepare their own evaluation points, this satisfaction may due to
an absence of standards (Table 7.11 on page 194).
Attitude of the client on The analysis of results show that individual clients recognise the
involvement importance of activities that are supposed to be undertaken in
the normative model. However the activity ‘to understand various
ways to order works’ and ‘to prepare evaluation points’ attract less
attention to them (Table 7.11 on page 194).
(continued)
Knowledge gap The knowledge gap is different to the opinions on importance. It
should be analysed while synthesising it and the difficulty they felt
to undertake the activity. The most difficult activity was ‘to
guesstimate the duration’ (Table 7.14 on page 198). The statistical
analysis (Section 7.4.4) shows that individual clients exhibited a
knowledge gap to take purposeful activities, except ‘to clarify
needs’. The most severe knowledge gap felt by individual clients
was ‘to estimate the budget while balancing needs and financial
resources’ (Table 7.17 on page 203).
Dominant knowledge Ba The market-based knowledge Ba seems dominant, as individual
clients consult professional service providers (e.g. architect,
builder etc.) rather than acquaintances (Table 7.18 on page 204)
Behaviour on information Individual clients consult builder, their own knowledge and/or
search architect in order to define the project (Figure 7.10 on page 206).
This behavioural pattern is also observed when they attempt to
understand the project process (Figure 7.11 on page 207).
However, it should be noted that when they seek information on
the procurement path and for staffing, they consult their
acquaintances (e.g. Friends, neighbours, colleagues, etc: Figure
7.12 on page 208).
Feasibility for cultivating the Given that individual clients believe that there are benefits from
network approached Ba sharing recommendations on service providers (Figure 7.16 on
page 225), if this information can be captured and shared by
implementing the ontological part of the application, the
network-approached Ba can be successfully cultivated.
Feasibility for cultivating the The service providers are keen on advertising their work on-line.
market approached Ba Nevertheless, they are hesitant to do this, due to expenditure and
work-overload. However, they agree that necessities of pre-
contract on-line contacting with potential clients and relationship
marketing after delivering the project. The web-based application
can fulfil their requirements and simultaneously, the experience of
clients could be uploaded and maintained by service providers
(Section 7.2.2).
Factors affecting attitude and The experience seems to affect the attitude and behaviour of
behaviour individual clients. However, the influence seems not always
positive: Recently experienced clients believe their own
knowledge, and thus, might not try to find out information to
undertake some activities (Table 7.20on page 215). For this
reason their attitude and behaviour deviates from the normative
model. Individual clients who ordered building projects more than
five years ago are closest to the normative model. They have
knowledge on the project process and appear to search for
information, according to their own problem-solving framework.
The number of types of sources that individual clients consult
shows differences according to their expected budget. The
portion of individual clients who consulted architects is
proportionally higher with respect to their expected budget (Table
7.22on page 223).
Based on findings from the empirical study, useful conclusions for specifying the
application were drawn and they are:
12) The diversity of the clients is itself, not the problem but the very nature of the real
world situation. In a nutshell, the diversity of clients, in terms of their needs, attitude
and behaviour in ordering the project could be a reason for seeking various types of
consulting services. Although support for clients is needed in obtaining necessary
knowledge, no application can replace all existing consulting services.
13) Given that this is the case, knowledge streams can be initiated from connecting
potential clients and professionals in the industry. However, the ontological part that
will become the infostructure, should be developed to implement a network-approached
Ba, such that valuable knowledge from the clients’ perspective (i.e. Recommendations
on service providers) can be shared between the clients.
14) Given that the recently experienced clients seem to rely on their knowledge and neglect
searching for new information, contents that can change the passive attitude of this
client sub-group should be included in the ontological part of application.
9.2.5. Systems Specification and Engineering (Chapter 8)
To specify an ontological system to facilitate knowledge streams

A real world investigation is part of systems analysis. The findings from the real world
investigation should contribute to the specification of the application and the main concept
of the ontological part of the application can be summarised as:
15) The application should enable to lead individual clients into the learning cycle (Figure
5.2 in Section 5.5.2 and Figure 8.1 in Section 8.2.2). The ontological part of the
application would present the framework for the learning cycle and provide the
necessary information to this end (Figure 8.2 in Section 8.2.3).
9.3. Main Achievements
9.3.1. Reminiscence of the research aims
As shown thus far, six objectives were achieved through designing a theoretical framework,
constructing a conceptual model and investigating real world situations. In so doing, the
aims were also achieved. A need to recall the aims presented in Section 1.3.1 arises:
To contribute theoretically towards a clarification of issues relevant to the knowledge

and building industry clients – in general and specifially for occasional individual
clients

pre-project stage based on a rigorous investigation into the current situation
The first aim was fully and successfully achieved, as existing research have been found to
largely neglect occasional individual clients and a means of providing knowledge to this
client sub-group, by means of knowledge streams, has been established. The second aim
was also achieved, as the ontological part of the application was specified, by reflecting the
rigorous real world investigation and the technical feasibility for developing it is also
examined through generating various models necessary for systems engineering.
In the course of achieving research aims and objectives, many other achievements that can
contribute to the general body of knowledge in the field are produced. They will be
discussed in the next section.
9.3.2. Contribution to the general body of knowledge
To clarify the aspects of knowledge streams for the client

Irrelevant to the type of the client, the main aspects of knowledge streams for building
industry clients (in general) are clarified. These include mental models, attitudes, behaviour
and Ba (context).
To develop a research instrument to sample and investigate occasional

individual building industry client
The scope of the real world investigation is far wider and more difficult than initial
expectations. Most of all, there is no previous research on which to base the survey of
individual clients, selected through rigorous ‘random’ sampling. For this reason, research
instruments should be developed. Despite challenges of time and efforts, strata random
sampling was conducted in this research project.
The strata used to sample individual clients are based on information from planning
applications, which include: Client type, proposal type, agent type and address type (see
Section 6.4.3). In addition to these strata, expected-budget was added and this information
was obtained from the respondents.
Strata random sampling was scrutinised statistically (see Section 7.3.4) and the developed
sampling instruments from this research project could be used in further research, aiming to
study building industry clients.
To introduce correspondence analysis to present the diverse attitude and

behaviour of building industry clients
Correspondence analysis was used to analyse the diverse attitudes and behaviours of clients
searching for information, in accordance to their region, experience and expected-budget.
Correspondence analysis can cope with the limitation of other statistical analysis method,
such as ordinal regression (see Appendix 20.1).
Most of all, it allows comparisons between sub-groups by means of graphical distance,

rather than by numerical value (Section 7.4.6). In particular, this method was useful in
presenting differences that were converted from qualitative scaling.
Given that correspondence analysis has limitations in analysing binominal variables, these
variables were converted to indicator variables (see Section 7.4.7) to add to the robustness
of analysis results.
If unique characteristics of the client’s sub-group need to be noted, correspondence analysis

was determined to be the method of choice. Although generalisations can diminish the
reality, a couple of unique attitude and behaviour that are likely to be influenced by
experience and expected budget (or other interesting factors) can be considered and the
research instruments can be developed. For future reference, any research aiming to deal
with building industry clients should be able to incorporate their diversity as it is, which
requires the use of correspondence analysis.
To specify the approach to facilitate knowledge streams at the societal level

The epistemological part of knowledge streams is distinguished from the ontological parts.
Given that this part can be similar to socialisation and internalisation, presented by
Takeuchi and Nonaka (1995) (see Section 3.6.3 on page 49), those knowledge spirals are
reconstructed from client’s perspectives, addressing which information can be

epistemologically internalised, which information can be ontologically managed and how
these two types of knowledge streams can be initiated.
Most of all, the level of knowledge streams for the client are clarified in this research
project. Knowledge streams also occur at the societal level and other approach, which treats
knowledge at the organisational level cannot fit in this context.
9.4. Recommendations: Questions to consider for further research
Is there an easier method to sample the clients without losing the scrutiny?
If the real world situation is not understood as close to reality as possible, further research
would be based on false information and the direction of any application to solve
problematic situations would be unrealistic. For this reason, the survey instruments (i.e.
Strata random sampling) were carefully designed in the throughout the research project.
Despite the pain staking process, much time of this research project was spent on sampling.
An application was developed to sort out the population and it was developed further to
classify the population into strata (see Appendix 22.1). Based on the experience of
developing the sampling application, it seems possible to classify application cases into
strata, based on text-rule-based algorism. In other words, if the case includes certain words
(e.g. Storey extension, windows, etc.) in the data field (i.e. Proposal type) it can be
automatically classified.
Are there other issues to consider in the implementation the ontological part
of application?
In this research project, the attitude of individual clients involved in the project and
interesting aspects for them were investigated. Although their attitude and behaviour
seemed too diverse to generalise, some useful findings for further researcher were extracted.
The main recommendations for further research is to initiate a market-approached Ba under
a master plan, enabling network-apporached Ba for knowledge streams. The schematic
model and outline of the ontological part of the application were fully developed in this
thesis. Subsequently, the feasibility for developing the ontological part of the application to
fulfil client information and knowledge requirements was examined theoretically and in
part, empirically.
However, it should be noted that extraenous issues should be considered, concerning who
should hold the authority to maintain knowledge streams and the legal responsibility for
any unexpected situations, caused from using information provided in the ontological part
of the application.
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An Approch To Facilitate Knolwedge Streams of Occasional Individual Building Industry Clients at The Pre-Project Stage

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The University of Reading

An Approach to Facilitate Knowledge Streams of

Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

School of Construction Management and Engineering

Keywords: Occasional individual building industry clients, knowledge streams, attitude

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT AND THESIS 1

1.2. Motivation of the Research Project 2

1.3. Aims and Objectives of the Research 6

1.4. Structure of the Thesis 9

1.5. Guidance for Terms and Cross-references from Appendices 12

CHAPTER 2. PARADIGMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH 14

2.1. Introduction to the Chapter 14

2.2. Review of the Evolution of Research Paradigms and Perspectives 14

2.2.1. Introduction to the section 14

2.2.2. Definition of paradigm, perspective, approach and method 15

2.2.3. Nature of real world situations 16

2.2.5. Positivism, post-positivism and constructivism 18

2.3. Paradigms Adopted in the Research 19

2.3.1. Introduction to the section 19

2.3.2. Constructivist approached epistemology and post-positivists

2.3.3. The meso approach 20

2.3.4. The systems approach 21

2.3.5. Balance between general theory and specific situations 22

2.3.6. From deductive to inductive approach 23

2.4. Summary of the Chapter 23

CHAPTER 3. THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 25

3.1. Introduction to the Chapter 25

3.2. Definitions and Classifications of Knowledge 25

3.2.1. Introduction to the section 25

3.2.2. Definition from epistemological views 26

3.2.3. Definitions from ontological views 27

3.2.4. Classifications of knowledge 28

3.3.1. Introduction to the section 29

3.3.2. Rhetoric in the theory of knowledge 29

3.3.3. Structure and representation of knowledge: Mental model 30

3.3.4. Belief, attitude and behaviour 31

3.4. Units of Analysis and a Perspective to Overview Knowledge Streams 34

3.4.1. Introduction to the section 34

3.4.2. At the individual level 34

3.4.4. At the society level 37

3.4.5. Knowledge: Socially embedded act 38

3.5. Knowledge Management (KM): A managerial implication at the organisational

3.5.1. Introduction to the section 40

3.5.2. The origin of KM 40

3.5.3. The fundamentals of KM 41

3.5.4. Various perspectives on KM 41

3.5.6. KM in the context of construction management 46

3.6. Adoptable Theories and Practices from the Field of KM 48

3.6.1. Introduction to the section 48

3.6.2. Knowledge as flows 48

3.6.3. Enabling knowledge creation: Knowledge spiral 49

3.6.4. Organisational learning 50

3.6.5. Summary of the section 52

3.7. Summary of the Chapter and Discussion 52

CHAPTER 4. BUILDING INDUSTRY CLIENTS AND KNOWLEDGE 54

4.1. Introduction to the Chapter 54

4.2. The Client: Definition, classification and their performance 55

4.2.1. Introduction to the section 55

4.2.2. Various definitions of the client 55

4.2.3. Individual and institutional clients 57

4.2.4. Project performance and client performance 58

4.2.5. Discussion: Who are occasional individual clients? 60