Lithologic and mineral information extraction for gold exploration

using ASTER data in the south Chocolate Mountains (California)

Xianfeng Zhang
a,

, Micha Pazner
a,1
, Norman Duke
b
a
Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada N6A 5C2
b
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
Received 6 June 2005; received in revised form 16 April 2007; accepted 17 April 2007
Available online 19 July 2007
Abstract
An ASTER image covering the south Chocolate Mountains area, California, U.S.A. was evaluated for gold-related lithologic
mapping and alteration mineral detection. A supervised classifier was first applied to the 14-channel ASTER radiance data to map
lithologies related to gold deposits. Subsequently, four alteration indices were extracted from the six SWIR channels and
transformed to delineate alteration zones using a PCA transformed mineralogic indices approach. Finally, a subpixel unmixing
algorithm, the constrained energy minimization (CEM) technique was used to detect significant alteration minerals using the
ASTER VNIR and SWIR surface reflectance data and reference spectra from the ASTER spectral library.
The classification results show that the ASTER data were capable of mapping flood basalt, quartz-biotite gneiss, muscovite
schist, granitic, volcanic, and metasedimentary rock units. The ASTER-derived rock units show excellent correlation with those on
the reference geologic map. The overall classification accuracy is 82% and the Kappa coefficient 0.76. A group of gneisses, locally
the most favorable host rocks of gold deposits, were mapped with the ASTER data with a Producer's accuracy of 86%, and more
importantly were also mapped in some areas that were not shown on the field geologic map. Four alteration minerals: alunite,
kaolinite, muscovite and montmorillonite were detected by subpixel unmixing analysis of the ASTER reflectance data. This study
compared different methods for extracting mineralogic information from ASTER data, compared the remotely derived maps to the
mapped field geology, and used the ASTER data to map minerals and lithologies related to gold exploration.
2007 International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Inc. (ISPRS). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ASTER sensor; Constrained energy minimization; Subpixel unmixing; Lithologic classification; Alteration mineral detection
1. Introduction
Remote sensing instruments can provide detailed
information on the mineralogy and geochemistry of the
rock types comprising the Earth's surface, and have
been used for decades to map rocks, mineral assem-
blages and weathering characteristics (Rowan et al.,
1977; Goetz et al., 1983; Boardman and Kruse, 1994;
Papp and Cudahy, 2002; Kruse et al., 2003; Perry,
2004). Spaceborne multispectral systems such as Land-
sat MSS, TM and SPOT have four to seven spectral
channels. Landsat MSS data have mainly been utilized
for structural and geomorphic interpretation at regional
scales (Goetz et al., 1983; Abrams et al., 1983; Sultan
et al., 1987; Perry, 2004). Landsat TM imagery has been
ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282

Corresponding author. Mailing Address: Institute of Remote

Sensing and GIS, Peking University, 5 Summer Palace Road, Beijing
100871, PR China. Tel.: +86 10 62759123; fax: +86 10 62754739.
E-mail addresses: xianfeng67@hotmail.com,
xfzhang@pku.edu.cn (X. Zhang), pazner@uwo.ca (M. Pazner),
nduke@uwo.ca (N. Duke).
1
Tel.: +1 519 6612111x84501; fax: +1 519 661 3750.
0924-2716/$ - see front matter 2007 International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Inc. (ISPRS). Published by Elsevier B.V.
All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2007.04.004

http://www.paper.edu.cn
used more routinely for mineral exploration because the
two SWIR channels may be used to detect associated
alteration mineral assemblages (Podwysocki et al.,
1984; Okada et al., 1993; Sabins, 1996; Sabine, 1997;
Abdelsalam et al., 2000). In the past 10 years, new
spaceborne multispectral and hyperspectral remote
sensing instruments have been launched and have
provided higher spectral resolution data that can be
used for mineral exploration. In addition, the availability
of laboratory-measured spectral data for rocks and
minerals complements remote spectral measurements
and allows geologists to identify unique lithologies (e.g.
JPL, USGS, and ASU spectral libraries). These recent
developments have enabled remote sensing technology
to become an increasingly important tool for mineral
exploration, particularly for remote areas with little or
no access, or areas that lack detailed topographic or
geologic base maps.
The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) is a multispectral
imager that was launched on board NASA's Terra
spacecraft in December, 1999. ASTER covers the visible,
near infrared (VNIR), short wave infrared (SWIR), and
thermal infrared (TIR) spectral regions with 14 channels
with high spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution
(Yamaguchi et al., 1998; Abrams and Hook, 2001). The
spatial resolution varies with wavelength region (see
Table 1) and each ASTER scene covers an area of
6060 km
2
. ASTER channels are more spectrally
contiguous than other multispectral sensors such as the
Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper and the Landsat 7 Enhanced
Thematic Mapper, especially in shortwave and thermal
infrared wavelength ranges. Thus, the ASTER sensor can
achieve a higher degree of accuracy in the spectral
identification of rocks and minerals (Crosta and Filho,
2003). Previous studies indicate that ASTER compares
favorably to other similar sensors for lithologic mapping
(Zhang and Pazner, 2007). Also, the ASTER sensor was
the first spaceborne instrument with a high resolution
multispectral TIR subsystem capable of differentiating
between surface minerals based on spectral emissivity
variations. Because of the low-cost, large coverage area,
and availability of ASTER data, it is an ideal tool for
mineral exploration applications provided that it can
accurately map lithologic and mineralogic units on the
surface.
The objective of the study was to use ASTER data to
map lithologies and alteration minerals associated with
gold mineralization in a large mining district in southern
California. The ASTER image data were used to extract
lithologic information using a spectral classification
method and alteration zones associated with gold
mineralization were mapped using principal compo-
nents analysis (PCA) of mineralogic indices extracted
from the ASTER band ratios. Finally, the fractional
abundances of significant alteration minerals are
detected using a matched filtering technique.
2. Geology and morphology of the study area
The south Chocolate Mountains area in Imperial
County, California was selected as the study area
(Fig. 1). The gold prospecting in the nearby Chocolate
Mountains area is likely to be most fruitful in areas
underlain by rocks of the Chuckwalla Complex and
Orocopia Schist (Morton, 1977). However, ground
access is restricted in the mid-west part of the study
area due to a military gunnery range is located in the
Table 1
Characteristics of the ASTER sub-sensor systems (Yamaguchi et al., 1998)
Subsystem Band No. Spectral range (m) Radiometric resolution Absolute accuracy Spatial resolution (m) Signal quantization (bits)
VNIR 1 0.520.60
2 0.630.69
3 0.780.86 NE0.5% 4% 15 8
3N 0.780.86
SWIR 4 1.601.70 NE0.5%
5 2.1452.185 NE1.3%
6 2.1852.225 NE1.3% 4% 30 8
7 2.2352.285 NE1.3%
8 2.2952.365 NE1.0%
9 2.3602.430 NE1.3%
TIR 10 8.1258.475 3 K (200240 K)
11 8.4758.825 2 K (240270 K)
12 8.9259.275 NET0.3 K 1 K (270340 K) 90 12
13 10.2510.95 2 K (340370 K)
14 10.9511.65
272 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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mountains. The climate in this region of California is
extremely arid, with a mean annual rainfall of only
75 mm. As a result, the area is suitable for remote
sensing based investigation because the landscape is
very sparsely vegetated. The area encompasses approx-
imately 1200 km
2
, with the Paymaster mine district
located in the center part (Morton, 1977). The earliest
gold production in California came from this area. The
south Chocolate Mountains have been mined for lode
and placer gold, silver, lead, copper, manganese, clay,
and pyrophyllite, but most of the historical exploration
focused on the search for gold (Morton, 1977; Willis,
1988; Durning et al., 1998). The Mesquite mine is the
most famous in the study area. The oldest rock exposed
in this district is quartz-biotite gneiss, which is
correlated with the Precambrian Chuckwalla Complex
(mc) (Morton, 1977; Willis, 1988; Liebler, 1988). The
gneiss is overlain by highly foliated muscovite-chlorite
schist, tentatively correlated with Orocopia Schist
(mso). The gneiss outcrops occur mainly in a large
body that lies along the western boundary of the district
south and southwest of Imperial Gables. Limited
Mesozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks
(mmc) cover the southeastern part of the study area. A
wide range of Tertiary volcanic rocks (Tv) cover much
of the district. Undivided Tertiary intrusive, extrusive
and pyroclastic volcanic rocks ranging from rhyolite to
andesite underlie much of the southwest flanks of the
Chocolate Mountains in the southwestern part of the
district and the mountains in the northern and eastern
parts. Gently tilted Pliocene flood basalts (Tv
b
) underlie
the area that comprises Black Mountain. Moderately to
poorly sorted, consolidated siltstone, sandstone and
conglomerate (Tc) are exposed in the eastern part of the
study area.
Most of the gold deposits in the study area are limited
to the Precambrian metamorphic bedrock such as
quartz-biotite gneiss and muscovite schist, and the
Mesozoic granites (Liebler, 1988). The gold deposits in
the Mesquite mine area were derived from gneiss
immediately underlying the pedimented surfaces (Mor-
ton, 1977). This suggests that gold prospecting in the
nearby Chocolate Mountains area is likely to be most
fruitful in areas underlain by rocks of the Chuckwalla
Complex and Orocopia Schist (Morton, 1977). Remote
sensing data such as that from ASTER and ETM are
particularly useful for lithologic mapping, especially at
the initial stage of gold prospecting. The significant rock
units shown in the geologic map (Fig. 2) were extracted
from the ASTER image used in this study.
3. Gold-related lithologic information extraction
from ASTER
3.1. Lithologic classification
An ASTER image covering the study area acquired
on October 3, 2003 was used for the lithologic mapping.
Fig. 1. The location of the south Chocolate Mountains (Study area: 4527 km
2
).
273 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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The standard surface radiance data product for all 14
channels was used in the classification. The 15-meter
VNIR channels and 90-meter TIR channels were re-
sampled and registered to the 30-meter spatial resolution
of the SWIR channels. A flowchart of the classification
process is illustrated in Fig. 3.
A minimum noise fraction (MNF) transformation
was used to reduce the data redundancy and extract
features for classification (Green et al., 1988; Boardman
and Kruse, 1994). A shift difference method was utilized
to estimate the noise level of the ASTER data in the
study area. The shift difference is performed on the
Fig. 2. Geologic map of the south Chocolate Mountains area (adapted from Morton, 1977) (Qal +Qc: Quaternary deposits; Tc: Clastic rocks; Tv
b
:
Basalt flows; Tv: Volcanic rocks; gr: Granitic rocks; mmc: Interbedded metavolvanic and metasedimentary rocks; mso: Orocopia schist; mc: Quartz
biotite gneiss).
Fig. 3. Flowchart for lithologic information retrieval from ASTER data.
274 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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data by differencing adjacent pixels to the right and
above of each pixel and averaging the results to obtain
the noise value to assign to the pixel being processed.
A portion of homogeneous sand cover on the image was
selected for the noise level estimate because the noise
estimated from a homogeneous area on the image is
more representative of noise than that from the whole
image. A three-band false-color composite image was
selected to delineate rock units by examining different
false color composite images of the MNF bands.
Training samples for each rock type were selected
with the help of field photography, a geologic map, and
1-meter false-color aerial orthophotos. The 1-meter
aerial photos were used to aid in identifying the surface
features because most of the study area is not accessible.
The training stage is critical for supervised classification
such as maximum likelihood classifier. The Bhatta-
charyya distance was used to measure the separability
between classes based on selected training samples
(Fukunaga, 1990). The Bhattacharyya distance assumes
that the two classes, c and d, have a Gaussian
distribution, and is calculated from the statistics of
training samples (Jensen, 1996). The training samples
that had largest average Bhattacharyya distance were
employed for the classification. This approach aids in
the selection of training samples to define a suitable set.
Due to large spectral variations in rocks, rock
subtypes were used as classes to maximize the inter-
class separation and minimize the differences between
training samples within a class (Jensen, 1996, 2002;
Lillesand and Kiefer, 2004). This was especially
relevant for Quaternary deposits such as Qal and Qc.
These subtypes are particularly spectrally variable
because they originate from different bedrock types,
which determine their mineral composition. The
volcanic rocks Tv were differentiated as intrusive
(Tv
i
), pyroclastic (Tv
p
), intrusive andesite (Tvi
a
), and
andesitic (Tv
a
). The spectral appearance of intrusive and
pyroclastic volcanic rocks on the MNF false-color
composite image was clearly different. The difference
may be caused by grain size, mineral composition (e.g.
bulk SiO
2
, MgFeO), different combinations of rock
mixtures, topographic texture, and surface roughness.
The subdivision of the rock types improved the
classification result.
Once the training process was completed, the
maximum likelihood classifier was applied using the
14 ASTER channels. A majority filter was used to
improve the classification during the post-processing
stage. The final lithologic classification of the study area
is shown in Fig. 4. Compared with the geologic map
(Fig. 2), the classification result from the ASTER image
Fig. 4. Classification result of rock types in the south Chocolate Mountains area. Note: Circled areas indicate mc rock units by ASTER and not
mapped on the geologic map.
275 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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is very similar. All the significant rocks can be
identified, and the spatial patterns of their distribution
show excellent correlation with the rock units depicted
on the reference geologic map.
3.2. Accuracy assessment and analysis
One of the most common methods of expressing
classification accuracy is the preparation of a classifi-
cation error matrix or confusion matrix (Congalton,
1991). The error matrix compares the relationship
between known reference data and the corresponding
results of the classification. The geologic map in Fig. 2
was employed as a reference to evaluate the ASTER
image classification accuracy in the study area. The
classification result was geo-registered to the same
reference system of the geologic map. An error matrix
was generated for the classification (Table 2).
The overall classification accuracy for the seven rock
types, mso, mc, Tv, gr, Tv
b
, Tc and mmc was 81.4% and
the Kappa Coefficient was 0.76. The Producer's and
User's accuracy of rock type Tv was over 85%, which
shows that the volcanic rocks in the area were identified
with the highest level of accuracy. Both the Producer's
and User's accuracy of rock types mc and mso is over
70%, which can be considered as accurately classified.
The commission error was mainly caused by the
compositional similarity of mso, mc and gr. For example,
both gr and mc rocks contain diorite and quartz. This
resulted in the larger omission error of gr, and the
commission error of mc (Table 2). The Producer's
accuracy of Tv
b
was 99%, indicating that almost all Tv
b
locations of the reference data were identified from the
ASTER image, but some Quaternary deposits were also
assigned to this class. In contrast, the User's accuracy of
Tc was over 94%, but the Producer's only 72%. This was
caused by the fact that the Tc is mainly non-marine clastic
rock and volcanic conglomerate, which was difficult to
differentiate from the Quaternary and Tertiary volcanic
sediment. Some of the Tc rocks were misclassified as Tv
or Qc. In addition, field tests also show that some mc
rocks (e.g. the circled areas on Fig. 4) have been mapped
by ASTER, but are not shown on the geologic map.
4. Alteration mineral mapping
4.1. Mapping alteration zones
Band ratio techniques are useful in discriminating
mineral types and vegetation density in remote sensing
image data by suppressing the proportionally constant
radiance values in the bands and enhancing the
differences (Rowan et al., 1977; Crippen et al., 1988;
Gupta, 2003; Crosta and Filho, 2003; Rowan and Mars,
2003; Ninomiya, 2003a,b). Ratio images may correlate to
one or more surface materials such as lithologic types and
vegetation density (Crowley et al., 1989; Sabine, 1997;
Gupta, 2003). The band ratio technique has been widely
used to extract hydrothermal mineral information in the
analysis of Landsat MSS, TM and ETM image data
(Perry, 2004). Because ASTER has 14 spectral channels,
more ratio images, and therefore more lithologic indices,
more accurate results can be derived from ASTER than
from Landsat data. Four mineralogic indices using the
radiance data of the six SWIR channels, proposed by
Ninomiya (2003a), were used for the alteration mineral
mapping. The formulas are listed below:
OHI band7= band6

band4= band6;
KLI band4= band5

band8= band6
ALI band7= band5

band7= band8;
CLI band6= band8

band9= band8
Table 2
Assessment of the classification accuracy
Classification Reference data
mc (%) mso (%) Tv (%) gr (%) Tv
b
(%) Tc (%) mmc (%) Total User's accuracy
mc 85.7 11.5 5.2 25.0 0.0 3.8 4.1 20.7 71.0
mso 5.7 78.3 3.5 10.0 0.7 0.7 19.9 17.4 79.7
Tv 2.6 2.5 87.9 4.9 0.2 20.6 10.1 38.7 88.6
gr 1.1 3.4 1.4 60.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 4.4 68.7
Tv
b
2.4 2.6 0.4 0.0 98.8 2.6 18.6 5.7 66.7
Tc 1.6 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.1 72.1 0.8 11.1 94.3
mmc 0.9 1.5 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.1 46.5 2.0 63.4
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Producer's accuracy 85.6 78.3 87.9 60.1 98.8 72.0 46.4
Overall accuracy=81.4%, Kappa coefficient =0.76.
276 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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where OHI is the index for OH bearing minerals, and
KLI is the kaolinite index, ALI is the alunite index, and
CLI is the calcite index. Each index was thresholded and
then merged spatially to map the alteration zones using the
mineralogic indices for each alteration mineral. To take
advantage of band ratio and principle components
analysis (PCA) techniques, a combined approach was
applied to extract alteration information (Fig. 5). First,
band ratio images were generated and then a PCA was
applied to each image to create images that contain
information about unique mineral assemblages.
The first eigenvalue vector accounts for 75% of the
total variance, and the first PCA image correlates with
the four indices. This indicates the first PCA image
combines the variance of the alteration mineralogic
indices. Thus, this image was used to map the distri-
bution of alteration zones (Fig. 6). ASTER band 5 was
used as the background to show textural information,
and the alteration information was draped on top of it.
The alteration distribution was mapped from low to high
probability using a blue (low values) to red (high values)
color sequence.
4.2. Matched filter detection of alteration minerals
The alteration zones discussed in the previous section
were mapped using mineralogic indices of Ninomiya
(2003a). For comparison, ASTER surface reflectance
data were also used to map alteration minerals using a
subpixel unmixing analysis.
ASTER L2 surface reflectance image data sets
acquired on October 3, 2003 were used to extract mineral
information in the study area. The surface reflectance data
of the ASTERVNIR and SWIR regions are available for
Fig. 6. Alteration zone mapping using PCA transformed indices approach. (The first PC of the four alteration indices is thresholded and used to
indicate alteration probability. The ASTER channel 5 is provided to show surface textures.).
Fig. 5. Flowchart for PCA transformed indices approach.
277 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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downloading at the EROS Data Center. The nine VNIR
and SWIR channels were used for alteration mineral
mappingbecause many alteration minerals have diagnostic
absorption features in these wavelength regions (Fig. 7).
4.2.1. The mapping method for subpixel minerals
Mineralogic indices can map the distribution of some
mineral assemblages, but it is difficult to define the
distribution of unique minerals. The thresholds used in
the process of band ratioing are subjective and scene-
dependent. To detect minerals important for exploration
activity in the study area, advanced spectral analysis
methods were used. The Constrained Energy Minimi-
zation (CEM) technique is an implementation of
matched filtering methods in the context of hyperspec-
tral analysis (Farrand and Harsanyi, 1994, 1997). This
technique was used to identify the abundance of
significant minerals in the study area. The CEM
technique was developed by analogy to the solution of
the typical adaptive beam-forming problem in the signal
processing community (Resmini et al., 1997; Farrand
and Harsanyi, 1997). The CEM algorithm attempts to
maximize the response of a target spectrum and suppress
the response of the unknown background signature(s).
Mathematical details of the CEM operator can be found
in the related references.
The CEM algorithm performs a partial unmixing of
spectra to estimate the abundance of user-defined end-
member materials from a set of reference spectra (either
image or laboratory spectra) (Harsanyi et al., 1994;
Boardman et al., 1995; Boardman, 1998). The strengths
of the CEM technique are its ability to deal with a
variety of spectral backgrounds and to accommodate
nonlinear mixing among background materials (Farrand
and Harsanyi, 1997). CEM is optimal for detection of
distributed subpixel targets such as mineral occurrences
or sparse vegetation (Resmini et al., 1997).
4.2.2. Spectral unmixing of the ASTER reflectance data
The mineralogic indices discussed in Section 4.1
mapped the possible alteration zones, but the CEM
matched filtering mapping can not only map the
alteration mineral distribution, it can also be used to
check the consistency between the results of the two
methods.
Four alteration minerals: alunite, kaolinite, musco-
vite and montmorillonite were identified from the
VNIR/SWIR surface reflectance data. The reference
spectra of these four minerals (Fig. 7) were extracted
from the ASTER spectral library (Version 1.2,http://
speclib.jpl.nasa.gov), and were convolved to the spec-
tral response function of ASTER's VNIR/SWIR chan-
nels. These spectral data were used to extract fractional
abundance from the VNIR/SWIR reflectance data using
the CEM technique. The resultant abundance images of
these four alteration minerals are shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 7A shows the laboratory spectra of the four
alteration minerals: alunite (KAl_3(SO_4)_2(OH)_6),
kaolinite (Al_2Si_2O_5(OH)_4), montmorillonite ((Na,
Ca)_0.33(Al, Mg)_2Si_4O_10(OH)_2H_2O) and mus-
covite (KAl_2(Si_3Al)O_10(OH, F)_2), and the spectra
in Fig. 7B are of the four alteration minerals convolved
to the ASTER bandpasses. The resultant abundance
images in Fig. 8 show that the distribution of the four
alteration minerals agrees very well with the alteration
zones extracted from the mineralogic index images in
Fig. 7. Reference spectra from the ASTER spectral library (v1.2) (A) and the spectra convolved to the ASTER bandpasses (B).
278 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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Fig. 6. Sericite (a fine-grained variety of muscovite),
montmorillonite, as well as alunite and kaolinite, can be
identified well from the ASTER data. This agrees with
the findings of Durning et al. (1998) that sericite and
argillic alteration are the main forms of alteration in the
area, which indicates there is less alteration compared to
silicified or opalized alteration forms. Fig. 9 shows a
comparison between the pixel spectra of the highest
fraction for each mineral and the convolved reference
spectra in Fig. 7B. The comparison indicates the
similarity between the spectra from the image pixels
with highest mineral fraction and the spectra from the
Fig. 8. Thresholded mineral fraction of the ASTER reflectance image using the CEM technique and the ASTER library spectra in Fig. 7B. (Color
code of alteration mineral categories: redalunite; greenkaolinite; purplemontmorillonite; cyanmuscovite).
Fig. 9. Comparison of the highest fraction pixel spectra and the reference spectra convolved to the ASTER bandpasses.
279 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
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ASTER spectral library. The absorption features for
muscovite and montmorillonite are quite similar and,
consequently, make the discrimination of the two
minerals difficult. However, if checking the spectral
curves in Figs. 7B and 9, we can see that there is a weak
reflectance peak at ASTER channel 4 in the spectra of
muscovite. Thus, it seems that the muscovite and
montmorillonite in the study area can be differentiated
to some extent. The muscovite was mainly detected in
the middle of the study area (the middle part in Fig. 8),
while the montmorillonite was mapped in the Mesquite
Mine area (lower-left corner in Fig. 8) and the northern
part of the study area. The different bedrocks (muscovite
is usually from gneiss rock, while montmorillonite is
related to base igneous rocks such as Tv in the study
area) resulted in these patterns. The unmixing results
from the ASTER reflectance data are very similar to the
findings of other geologic and mineralization studies in
the same area (Morton, 1977; Willis, 1988; Durning
et al., 1998).
Although Rowan and Mars (2003) reported that
ASTER surface reflectance data have an atmospheric
over-correction of 1020%, the matched filtering-based
mapping of hydrothermal alteration minerals indicates
that ASTER reflectance data are still useful for accurate
mineral mapping. Thus, compared to other multispectral
data, the six SWIR channels enable ASTER reflectance
data to accurately map alteration mineral assemblages in
the south Chocolate Mountains area.
5. Summary and conclusions
This study used ASTER data to map lithologic and
mineralogic units related to gold exploration in the south
Chocolate Mountains area. The important lithologic
units were mapped using the ASTER surface radiance
data and a maximum likelihood classification technique.
The overall accuracy of the classification is about 82%
with a Kappa Coefficient of 0.76 when the geologic map
is used as a reference. The accuracy assessment
illustrates excellent correlation between the classifica-
tion units and the lithologic map units. A group of
gneisses (mc) on the lithologic maps (Figs. 2 and 4),
consists of the most favorable host rocks for gold
deposits in this area and was identified from ASTER
data with a Producer's accuracy of 86%. In addition,
different types of volcanic and intrusive rocks ranging
from basalt to rhyolite were discriminated spectrally due
to their different compositions. However, while they
were not differentiated on the geologic map, they were
mapped very well by ASTER. Field checks also showed
that some mc rock units not mapped on the geologic
map can be differentiated by ASTER, which is
potentially important for gold exploration in the area.
Considering the large spectral variations of lithologies
and the generalization of the reference geologic map, the
ASTER lithologic map is accurate and provides useful
information for gold exploration in the south Chocolate
Mountains area.
Analysis of ASTER surface radiance data provides a
basis for mapping alteration zones. The alteration zones
of the study area were mapped from the radiance data
using band ratio and PCA analyses. The results indicate
that hydrothermal alteration is not well developed in the
study area and it was found that the Mesquite gold mine
lacks widespread clay alteration at the surface. The
resultant map of alteration zones includes all the
alteration areas mapped by Durning et al. (1998) in
the same area.
The four alteration minerals mapped from the
ASTER surface reflectance data: alunite, kaolinite,
montmorillonite and muscovite, were detected using
the CEM technique complemented by laboratory
spectra. The distribution patterns of these four minerals
agree very well with the alteration zones derived by the
mineralogic indices that were derived using radiance
data. All the results extracted from the ASTER data
provide detailed mineralogic and lithologic information
for gold exploration in the south Chocolate Mountains
area. This case study shows that the CEM technique is a
powerful subpixel unmixing analysis tool for analyzing
ASTER reflectance data.
This study adds to the volume of literature that
supports the use of ASTER as a mineral exploration
tool. Three methods were used and all work well in the
lithologic and mineralogic information extraction of the
ASTER surface radiance and reflectance data. The
central-north and northwestern parts of the study area
may be potential areas for gold exploration based on the
alteration mineral and lithologic mapping results. In the
future, ASTER reflectance data needs to be verified
further using field spectral analysis and the use of
ASTER TIR channels in detailed lithologic mapping
needs to be studied further as well.
Acknowledgement
This manuscript was substantially improved due to
reviews by Dr. Greg Vaughan and an anonymous
reviewer. We also would like to express our great
appreciation to Dr. Bill Church at the Department of
Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, Canada,
for his valuable input of gold geology in the southern
Chocolate Mountains area, California.
280 X. Zhang et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 62 (2007) 271282
http://www.paper.edu.cn
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