6

GENERAL

Rainwater harvesting: Kenya

INFORMATION

Implementing institution:
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), KARI-Njoro

Head:
Dr. Miriam G. Kinyua

Details of institution: Address: Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), KARI-Njoro Private bag, Post code 20107, Njoro, Kenya
Tel.: (+254) 51 61528 Fax: (+254) 51 61576 E-mail: karinjr@africaonline.co.ke Web site: www.kari.org

Implementation period:
1999-2000.

Costs:
US$17,000
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SUMMARY
Lare is a dry area with no permanent rivers. It receives an average of 700 millimetres of rainfall a year but this varies widely from one year to another. It is also unevenly distributed among the seasons. Farmers in Lare have identified four major constraints to agricultural production, with scarcity of water as the major one. Before 1998, about 70 per cent of all households in the area experienced shortages of water. In addition, not only was there insufficient water, but it was also of poor quality and caused a high incidence of water-borne diseases. In 1999, a project involving nine collaborating institutions was initiated to address rainwater harvesting practices and water treatment along with other technologies required by the farmers. The project resulted in a dramatic increase in the adoption rate of run-off water harvesting technology from 409 water pans in 1998 to 2,400 water pans in 2002. There was also a marked increase in the adoption of simple water treatments carried out in the home. The incidence of water-borne diseases has been reduced and, related to the increased health status of the local communities, there has been an increase in human productivity. The availability of safe water for crops and for home consumption has improved agricultural productivity in Lare and helped to reduce poverty levels. It was also noted that, to avoid environmental degradation, especially in terms of soil erosion, the use of correctly designed

rainwater run-off harvesting methods is important and has actually improved reforestation in the area.

BACKROUND AND J U S T I FA C T I O N
In Kenya, the practice of harvesting runoff water is carried out mainly in the more arid and semi-arid regions. The most common methods are the collection of rainwater falling on rooftops and the collection of floodwater from watercourses for domestic use. Typically, the harvested water is stored in tanks or dugout water pans (which are ponds used for storing water that runs off fields and roads) or used directly for crop production. However, the adoption rate was found to be poor because there was a lack of understanding of the technology by many farmers and poor information transfer to the farmers by agricultural extension officers. As in many other developing countries, the provision of water to all Kenyans is hampered by financial constraints. However, the nations water requirements are increasing and even people living in areas that are not necessarily semi-arid also find themselves in need of simple technologies to harvest rainwater in order to achieve some level of self-sufficiency in water. In addition, an increasing number of people are also settling in marginal areas where infrastructural support from the central government is often lacking. This was the situation that faced the people in Lare.

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Lare Division, which is located in Nakuru District to the west of Lake Nakuru National Park, covers an area of about 134 square kilometres. It consists of four locations: Bagaria, Gichobo, Lare and Pwani/Naishi Game. The average rainfall in the region is about 700 millimetres a year, but this is very erratic and unevenly distributed and there is a serious drought every three to five years. This situation calls for technologies to improve water storage for use during periods of drought, especially as the area does not have a piped water supply but relies instead on seasonal rivers, dams to collect run-off water and a few boreholes. In 1996, Lare Division had a population of about 30,000, including some 6,000 farming families usually living on privately owned land, with the average

farm size of about one hectare. A recent survey estimated that some 70 per cent of these households were experiencing water supply problems, with the only sources being a borehole (a second borehole was not operational) and ten heavily silted dams. Women, in particular, were suffering as they often had to carry water over long distances (up to 13 kilometres). The issue of improving water harvesting in the area was highlighted by farmers in several stakeholder meetings in Lare as an urgent problem that needed to be addressed. The objective of this project, therefore, was to train farmers in Lare Division in water harvesting techniques so that they would be empowered to tackle their own water shortage problems.

Figure 1. A farmer research extension group (FREG) meeting in Lare.

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DESCRIPTION
Following a series of stakeholder meetings at which the need for rainwater harvesting technologies was repeatedly highlighted, the programme for developing such technologies in the Lare Division became driven by farmer demand. Once the commitment of the farmers had been obtained, the farmers were organized into farmer research extension groups (FREGs). Each of the 19 FREGs created consisted of a group of neighbouring farmers who were willing to participate in the project and each elected a group leader to coordinate the activities and to assist with the monitoring of the implementation of water harvesting technologies. Since participation in the FREGs allowed more immediate access to water harvesting technologies, it created a bonding factor that sustained the membership. The FREG system also enhanced farmer-to-farmer information exchange, thereby contributing to ensuring sustainability (fig. 1).

of brochures, training of front-line staff and farmers, on-farm demonstrations, field days and project evaluation.

BROCHURE

DEVELOPMENT

For each of the three main technologies (harvesting of run-off water, rooftop harvesting of rainwater and simple water treatment), appropriate extension messages were identified and 100 pamphlets were prepared, printed in both English and the local Kiswahili language. The effectiveness of the brochures was pretested using farmers, extension staff and other stakeholders operating in Lare.

BROCHURE

O N H A RV E S T I N G

OBEY YOUR T H I R S T : D R I N K R O O F W AT E R
The messages contained in this brochure included information on how to calculate annual domestic water demand and select the appropriate tank capacity, how to construct concrete tanks using local materials and labour, and how to reduce water loss through evaporation and the construction of leak-proof tanks.

R O O F WAT E R :

TYPES

O F WAT E R H A RV E S T I N G

T E C H N O L O G I E S D I S S E M I N AT E D

Farmers and extension staff were trained in various water harvesting technologies, including the collection of run-off using water pans, planting crops in trenches to use harvested run-off water, rooftop rainwater harvesting and simple water treatment procedures. The methodology employed by the project in the transfer of water harvesting technologies included the development

B ROCHURE

ON HARVESTING

RUN - OFF WATER :

WATER
IT

THE

R EAL T HING : C OLLECT

A LL

Information on the water pan technology included how to select the best site for the construction of a water pan (fig. 2), how to calculate the capacity of water pans, how to construct silt traps, how to control the loss of water through seepage and how to reduce evaporation using agroforestry techniques.

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water harvesting technologies. In turn, these extension workers organized training sessions for farmers, especially those in the FREGS, in their respective areas of Lare, again using the brochures as reference material.

EXTENSION
Together with front-line extension workers, researchers from the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) organized a series of demonstrations for groups of farmers at various locations throughout Lare. The demonstrations were publicized through churches and schools. During these demonstrations, the three brochures were distributed to the farmers and different aspects of water harvesting technologies were discussed and demonstrated, with farmers taking an active role. In addition, four primary schools, one from each location, were selected as demonstration sites for the construction of a water tank suitable for storing rainwater collected from rooftops. Schools were chosen because they are owned by the community and are centrally located. Each school contributed 30 per cent of the total cost of the tank, whereas the project paid for the remaining 70 per cent. Parents were also requested to be present and to participate in the different stages of tank construction while farmers provided locally sourced building stones, sand and labour. Several field days were also organized at the Mt. Clara Farmers Training Centre in Lare Division. At each event, different farming methods were demonstrated,

Figure 2. A water pan constructed by a Lare farmer.

BROCHURE

O N S I M P L E WAT E R

T R E AT Y O U R W AT E R , S TAY H E A LT H Y
The extension messages advocated in this brochure included the qualities of clean and safe water for human consumption, water-borne diseases and their impact on human lives, how to remove turbidity or colour from dirty water and how to dose the water with alum and chlorine. The brochure also emphasized boiling water to kill pathogenic organisms as an alternative to chlorination.

T R E AT M E N T :

TRAINING

O F F R O N T- L I N E

E X T E N S I O N S TA F F A N D FA R M E R S

Using these brochures, front-line extension workers from various departments such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Ministry of Forestry, various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other service providers in Lare Division were given a one-day training session on each of the

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including the water harvesting technologies. The latter were greatly appreciated by the farmers.

of water harvesting technologies promoted by the project; the reasons why some farmers did not attend the demonstrations; the best methods of communication from the farmers point of view; reasons why some farmers did not implement the project recommendations; and suggestions by farmers on the best ways forward. Of the five different groups identified, only groups 4 and 5 were implementing water harvesting technologies. The main reasons given by farmers in groups 1, 2 and 3 for not implementing the technologies included the lack of funds and a lack of information. However, farmers in all categories agreed that churches and schools were the most effective avenues for the dissemination of information, although some women farmers also suggested that contacting people at home could be an improvement to the current extension methods. Among the three technologies demonstrated, the most popular in terms of uptake was the water pan, with rooftop rainwater harvesting being the least popular. This is most likely because rooftop rainwater harvesting, which involves the construction of a water tank, is the most expensive option and owing to a crop failure in 1998, most farmers in Lare Division were weak financially and therefore unable to construct the tanks at that time (the cost of constructing a roof water storage tank is estimated to be about US$0.014 per litre of water).

E VA L U AT I O N
Evaluations were carried out after the first and second years of the project to establish the impact of the project. Stratified sampling revealed that farmers generally fell into one of five categories: group 1, the non-adopters: did not attend the demonstrations and were not adopting the technologies; group 2, the laggards: attended the demonstrations but did not attend follow-up activities; group 3, late adopters: attended the demonstrations and expressed interest in the new technologies but did not implement them; group 4, early adopters: attended the demonstrations, received further information and are now implementing the new technologies; and group 5, innovators: did not attend the demonstrations and received no further information but are implementing the new technologies. The evaluation also collected data on: the number of households that had constructed water pans and water storage tanks during the project period; the perception of farmers regarding the usefulness and popularity

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Table ??.
YEAR 1998 1999 2000 2002

Total number of water pans and their adoption rate in Lare Division, 1998-2002.
NUMBER
OF WATER

PANS

ADOPTION RATE (%) 12.7 23.1 41.9 53.9

409 1,028 1,863 2,400

In contrast, many farmers opted for the most cost-effective option, the construction of a water pan (the cost of constructing a water pan is estimated to be about US$0.002 per litre of water). Before the project started, just 409 households (or 12.7 per cent) in Lare Division had water pans. During the implementation of the project, this number increased to 2,400, or 53.9 per cent (see table). This dramatic rise in the adoption rate can be attributed to the efforts made to enhance technology transfer by the project team through the integrated approach of using brochures, training sessions, field days and demonstrations. Interestingly, the benefits of water harvesting technologies as perceived by the implementing farmers differed between the groups. Group 4 farmers (early adopters) rated the benefits in the order of family health, safe water for drinking, and water for livestock. In contrast, group 5 farmers (innovators) indicated that most benefits were related to the availability of water for both people and livestock. As group 5 farmers received no direct training, it appears that the greatest motivating force for the

adoption of water harvesting technologies is actually livestock production. Attendance at the demonstration events and implementation of the technologies were also compared on the basis of gender. In general, more men attended the events than women (56.9 per cent of men compared to 43 per cent of women) and rates of uptake of the technologies were similar (54.6 per cent of men and 45.5 per cent of women). The main difference noted was that although more men attended the demonstrations on domestic water treatment (63.2 per cent of men compared to 36.8 per cent of women), many more women implemented the recommendations, including many who did not attend the workshops (52.4 per cent of men and 47.6 per cent of women). In total, some 75 households were practising water treatment by the end of the first season compared with zero households at the beginning of the project. By 2000, more than 200 households in Lare Division were practising water treatment technology using chlorine and alum at a cost of about US$0.016 per litre of water.

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P AT E N T I N G A N D C O M M E R C I A L I Z AT I O N
The construction of water pans and rooftop rainwater harvesting systems are traditional technologies and therefore ineligible for patent protection. Likewise, the use of chlorine and the use of alum to purify water are well-known techniques. Therefore, there are no plans to commercialize these technologies. Instead, KARI is making its know-how available to local communities as long as the local communities and individual farmers are willing to provide the necessary resources to help with the construction of the rainwater harvesting systems.

REPLICABILITY
The project in Lare has attracted a great deal of interest from farmers in other parts of Kenya and even internationally. By 2004, some 8,000 farmers from adjacent Divisions and more distant regions had visited Lare. Other visitors have included 25 participants at an international course on water harvesting, 25 participants at a national agroforestry course and three delegates from the International Water Management Institute. These visits are a clear indication that the project has had a positive impact in Lare and that there is considerable interest in replicating the simple technologies and the methods of their dissemination in other areas. Indeed, farmers who have visited Lare show a high uptake of the water harvesting technologies demonstrated to them by Lare farmers.

PA R T N E R S H I P S
The project was coordinated by KARI and financially supported by the Netherlands Liaison Office. In particular, the project required collaboration from the stakeholders, especially FREG members. Among the collaborating organizations were: the Anglican Church of Kenya; Baraka Agricultural College; the Catholic Diocese of Nakuru; Egerton University, Njoro; Farming Systems, Kenya; the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Government of Kenya; Self Help Development International; and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).

P O L I C Y I M P L I C AT I O N S
The dramatic rise in the percentage of households implementing water harvesting practices in Lare as a result of improved extension methods serves as an example for government departments and government-funded institutions in developing effective ways of communicating their advice and recommendations to local communities.

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LESSONS LEARNED
Demand-driven technologies. For the improvement of the dissemination and adoption of water harvesting technologies, it was observed that there was a need to consult farmers first (a bottom-up approach) to ensure local ownership and long-term sustainability of the project. Strong partnerships. Such partnerships brought together all the stakeholders (researchers, extension personnel, NGOs and farmers) in the planning and implementation of the technologies. Local contacts. The dissemination approach using FREGs ensured that the horizontal transfer of water harvesting technology from farmer to farmer was facilitated, thus increasing the critical mass of potential adopters. Experimentation. Once farmers had successfully created water pans and planting in trenches, they began experimenting on their own, trying different combinations of crops (bananas, pumpkins, sugar cane, sweet potatoes and vegetables) until they found what worked best for them. In other words, the farmers became researchers. Reduced labour inputs. The adoption of run-off water harvesting resulted in an increased demand by farmers for more technologies to use the water that they had collected, including treadle pumps

and low-cost drip irrigation kits, necessitating the creation of a revolving credit scheme. These additional technological improvements further improved local food security and reduced the burden on women and children, who traditionally were responsible for manually watering vegetable plots.

I M PA C T
There has been a high rate of adoption of the rainwater harvesting technologies, especially the construction of water pans to collect and store run-off rainwater, among farmers in Lare District (table 1). Farmers have also been taught how to assess the water requirements for their domestic needs and their livestock, which determine the size of the tank that needs to be built. In addition, they have been trained in tank construction techniques. Farmers have also been taught how to carry out simple home water treatment by boiling, the flocculation of suspended particles using alum, or the use of chlorine to kill bacteria. Currently there are retailers of these chemicals in the local trading centres. These efforts have resulted in the reduced incidence of waterborne diseases, especially typhoid and amoebic dysentery. As good health means fewer days of incapacitation through sickness, families are not only seeing savings on medical bills but are also able to increase their economic activities. For example, owing to a failure of the crop, no maize was produced in

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Lare in 2000. In contrast, during the 2001 and 2002 seasons, Lares farmers produced maize worth US$1.1 million and US$3.9 million, respectively. In addition, prior to the project, women were travelling long distances to fetch water. With the introduction of the new water pans, women are spending more time on their farms and are seeing their incomes from farming rise as their water-related workload decreases. New farming techniques are even being introduced to use surplus water. Trenches measuring some 40 kilometres have been dug and planted with 16,000 banana plants. Other crops such as pumpkins, sugar cane and vegetables have also been planted in the trenches irrigated by harvested run-off water. This new diversity of local crops has resulted in improved food security and better nutrition in the area. Farmers along the roads have formed Water Use Committees to facilitate the equal sharing of water that runs off the road. These committees ensure that runoff water is available for users farther down the slope. Uncontrolled run-off water on the roads has also been reduced, thereby reducing erosion and improving the status of the roads. Small barriers placed along the roads to facilitate the trapping and harvesting of run-off water have also helped to reduce the quantity and speed of water run-off, thereby preventing soil erosion. Village Environmental Committees have also been formed to oversee the rehabilitation of catchments, with the aim of reducing soil erosion, thus reduc-

ing the amount of silt entering the water pans, and to promote reforestation. Indeed, eleven community agroforestry nurseries with a capacity of 100,000 seedlings have been established to supply farmers with tree seedlings. Educational tours for farmers from outside Lare have led to the wider adoption of water harvesting technologies. The transfer of know-how from farmer to farmer also means that the technology is now spreading to the divisions outside the project area without the intervention of project staff.

FUTURE PLANS
Despite the large number of Lare farmers who adopted the water pan technique for harvesting run-off rainwater, few families adopted the rooftop rainwater harvesting methods prescribed. However, as these are more expensive, many farmers have pointed out that the water pan technology is a transition to implementing roof water harvesting. Even so, the construction of demonstration tanks in selected primary schools was greatly appreciated by many farmers and parents. The farmers said that they learned a great deal and plan to adopt the new construction methods demonstrated. Since Lare farmers now have ample water in their water pans, they have expressed the desire for training in the use of small-scale drip irrigation and other activities such as bee-keeping and fish farming. The adoption of such additional

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components will strengthen their financial base and improve their livelihoods. However, there are still some requirements to which the researchers need to attend. For example, different small-scale irrigation technologies must be evaluated under local conditions and for use with local crops. Also, methods to discourage malaria-carrying mosquitoes from breeding in the water pans need to be investigated.

case study of Lare Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. Paper presented at the Dryland Farming Workshop, Agriculture Resource Centre, Egerton University, Njoro, 20-24 January 2002. Tuitoek, D.K. (2000). Lare: How we tackled the water problem in Lare. In: Netherlands Support to the National Agricultural Research Project Phase II. Proceedings of the End of Project Conference. KARI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya, 29 November-1 December 2000, pp. 283-293. Warui, E., Kiprono, A. and Macharia, M. (2002). Dissemination and adoption of demand driven technologies in the dry lands: A case study of Lare Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. Paper presented at the Dryland Farming Workshop, Agriculture Resource Centre, Egerton University, Njoro, 20-24 January 2002.

P U B L I C AT I O N S
Hai, M.T. (1998). Water harvesting. RELMA Technical Handbook No. 16, Soil and Water Conservation Branch, Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. (1999). Annual Report for Lare Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. _____. (2000). Annual Report for Lare Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. _____. (2001). Annual Report for Lare Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. Gamba, P., Wanjama, J.K., Onyango, T., Riungu, T.C., Tuitoek, D.K., Macharia, M. and Nassiuma, E.W. (2000). Participatory dissemination of livestock, crop production and water harvesting technologies in Lare Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. In: Netherlands Support to the National Agricultural Research Project Phase II. Proceedings of the End of Project Conference. KARI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya, 29 November-1 December 2000, pp. 265-281. Kiprono, A., Mbui, J., Macharia, M., Tuitoek, D. and Wanjama, J.K. (2002). Water harvesting in dry lands: A

Prepared by Peter K. Langat Address: Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), KARI-Njoro Private bag, Post code 20107, Njoro, Kenya Tel.: (+254) 51 61528 Fax: (+254) 51 61576 E-mail: karinjr@africaonline.co.ke

Project participants: Miriam G. Kinyua, KARI-Njoro: Plant breeder, also involved in training extension staff. P.A.L. Kipkemoi, KARI-Njoro: Agronomist, also involved in training extension staff.

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M. Macharia, KARI-Njoro: Entomologist, transfer of water harvesting technologies; also involved in training extension staff. Daniel K. Tuitoek, Egerton University: Transfer of water harvesting technologies. S.F.O. Owido, Egerton University: Transfer of water harvesting technologies. S.S. China, Egerton University: Socio-economic aspects of the project. P. Gamba, Egerton University: Socio-economic aspects of the project. J.K. Wanjama, director of agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture: Took the lead in project implementation. A. Kiprono, Ministry of Agriculture: Involved in extension programme. J. Mbui, Baraka Agricultural College: Involved in extension programme.