Professional Documents
Culture Documents
For all of the above configurations, the interface between the devices must either be the same, or appropriate hardware/software must be provided to convert the coding, formatting, framing and protocols between the different systems. The focus of this chapter is on how communications are achieved between stations on a LAN.
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Communications terminology
Asynchronous communications. Each data character is coded as a string of bits and characters are separated by start-character bit(s) and stop bit(s). Synchronous communications. No start and stop bits are used. Groups of bits are separated using a clocking mechanism. That is, the sending and receiving stations are in synch with each other. Error detection and correction. Techniques to permit a station to detect corrupted data and initiate a retransmission. Bandwidth. A measure of data throughput. The information transmission capacity of the transmission system, typically measured in Megabits per second (Mbps) in LAN environments. Packets/Frames/Datagrams. A package of data with header informationtypically, source and destination addresses, error correction information, sequence numbers and other information. Sent and received by stations on a LAN. Bit stream. A series of binary 0s and 1s, representing the message being communicated.
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CCITT, continued
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Plan Committees (World Plan and Regional Plan Committees) Their focus is to develop general plans for a harmonized evolution of networks and services.
Specialized Autonomous Groups Their focus is to produce handbooks, strategies and case studies for support mainly of developing countries.
The CCITT is more recently referred to as ITU-TSS (International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunications Standardization Section).
CCITT, continued
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OSI Model
The OSI model is concerned with how systems exchange informationtheir interconnectionnot with the internal functions performed by a given system. This model uses a layered approach, where sets of functions are assigned to different layers. A description of the OSI model and the role it plays in the LAN environment is detailed later in this chapter.
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Chapter 3 - LAN Communications Standards 1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
Communications fundamentals
Protocols
Defined
A protocol is defined as:
A specific set of rules relating to the formatting and timing of data transmission between two devices.
Protocols are therefore, the rules that govern the communications between two computers. They represent a standard procedure that two data devices accept and use to communicate with each other. Computer communications protocols are much like diplomatic protocols which, for example, define the proper procedures for communications between two heads of state. They specify who talks to whom, at what point in time, what they can say to each other, and how they must say it. Communication protocols are defined within the context of a layered architecturea protocol stack such as the OSI seven-layer reference model. In a layered architecture, each layer builds a protocol data unit (PDU) that it sends to the peer, or equivalent, layer in the destination computer. Upper layers of a protocol stack build PDUs, then pass them to lower layers for further packaging.
Protocols, continued
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Function of a protocol
Protocols for data communications cover such areas as: Speed of communication. Electrical characteristics. Use of shared resources. Message length. Addressing. Error handling.
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Packets/Frames/Datagrams
Defined
A packet or datagram is a package of data that is transmitted between stations over a transmission channel. Packets are assembled by the protocol layer(s) in the sending station and disassembled by the corresponding protocol layer(s) in the receiving station. Once a packet reaches the bottom of the protocol stack, it is broken into one or more frames for transmission as a bit stream over the communications channel. The frame format is defined by the LAN technology used. A packet consists of two componentsthe data being exchanged (sometimes referred to as the payload) and headers. Headers include the source and destination addresses and control information. The data being exchanged can be: Data, such as the contents of files. Messages and commands, such as a request for service. Control codes for managing the communication session, such as codes to indicate communication errors and the need for retransmission.
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Layered architectures
Defined
Layering is a design approach specifying different functions and services at different levels in a protocol stack. The protocol stack itself defines how communication hardware and software interoperate at various levels. The Open Systems Interconnection seven-layer reference model is an example of such a protocol stack. Protocol stacks have the following characteristics: Lower layers provide services to upper layers. Each layer provides a set of services. Services are defined by protocols. Service access points (SAPs) are the connection points between layers.
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Hardware independence
Overview
A major problem in the early days of LAN computing was the lack of hardware and cabling independence. That is, the hardware and the cabling system were dependent on the type of LAN environment. The difficulty was that no one type of hardware and cabling was best suited for all situations. LAN buyers confirmed the need for these different environments by purchasing different systems for different organizational requirements. Unfortunately, few of these diverse systems were able to communicate with each other. Rather than focus on a single, general-purpose LAN to satisfy all requirements, standards committees work towards achieving hardware independence, defined as the ability of different components to communicate and work with each other.
Objectives
There are certain objectives that should be met in the development of open communications standards:
Connectivity
It should be possible to connect different hardware and software products to form a networking system.
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Modularity
It should be possible to use a relatively small set of general-purpose building blocks in a wide variety of network environments.
Ease of implementation
It should be possible to quickly and easily install in a variety of configurations to meet the needs of the users.
Ease of use
It should be possible for network users to use the communications facilities without knowledge of the network structure or implementations.
Reliability
It should provide error detection and correction functions.
Ease of modification
It should be possible for the network to evolve as user needs changes or as new technologies become available.
Much of the credit for hardware independence and ease of communication between devices goes to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Their work in these areas is discussed in the following pages.
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One or more computers and the associated software, peripherals, operators, physical processes and transfer means that forms an autonomous whole capable of processing and/or transferring information.
This broad definition of a system allows the OSI model to be applied to very simple systems as well as to complex ones. The model is meant to provide a generalized view of a layered architecture. The model, introduced in 1978, divides the communication process into a hierarchy of seven interdependent functional layers. Each layer has a built-in interface to the adjacent layer(s).
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Network Layer
The network layer is concerned with routing data from one network device to another. It is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating the network connection between any number of devices and for transferring data along that connection. It is possible to have only one path for network connection or many possible routes to choose from when a connection is established between any two devices on a network.
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Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for providing data transfer between two users at an agreed-upon level of quality. After establishing a connection between two users, the transport layer is responsible for selecting a particular class of service to be used, monitoring the transmission for billing purposes, ensuring that the appropriate service quality is maintained, and for generating an alert if this quality has been compromised.
Session Layer
The session layer provides the services used to organize and synchronize a given dialog occurring between devices and to manage the data exchange. A major purpose of the session layer is to control when devices in communications with each other can send and receive data. Among other factors, this is based on whether the devices can send and receive data concurrently or alternately.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for the presentation of information in a way that is meaningful to the network devices. Included in the specifications are character code translations, data conversions, or data compression and expansion.
Application Layer
The application layer provides a means for similar or dissimilar application processes to exchange information. Included are services used to establish and terminate connections between devices, and services to monitor and manage the systems being interconnected as well as the various resources being employed.
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Transport-level protocols Several transport level protocols are commonly found in the LAN environment. Each of these protocols has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. Two of the more commonly used LAN transport level protocols are the following:
IPX/SPX
Novells transport protocol, IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/ Sequenced Packet Exchange) is based on Xeroxs XNS (Xerox Network Systems). It was designed at a time when few LAN-specific transport protocol existed. Today it is a widely-used protocol in LAN environments.
NetBEUI
Developed by IBM and Microsoft, NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) was introduced in 1984, along with NetBIOS (Network Basic Input and Output System), its corresponding session layer protocol. Since both of these influential vendors declared that they would use NetBIOS/NetBEUI in their future networking products, many other vendors have adopted these protocols for their networking systems.
Both of these protocols enjoy a wide level of support in the LAN community. This, combined with the independence between the transport and the hardware levels, means that either of these protocols can be used to establish communications between stations on dissimilar LANs.
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.....................
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
.....................
Logical Link Control Data Link
.....................
Physical
.....................
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802 standards
The IEEE 802 is made up of many subcommittees. A brief overview of these committees follows.
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OSI layers
802.1 Bridging 802.2 Logical Link 802.3 Medium Access 802.4 Medium Access 802.5 Medium Access 802.12 Medium Access Data link
802.3 Physical
802.4 Physical
802.5 Physical
802.12 Physical
Physical
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IEEE Project 802 accommodates the three transmission media used at the Physical layer twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and optical fiber cable. Its specifications, for a given LAN architecture, include: The type of cable. The type of transmission. The encoding method. The data rate.
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Framing
The addition of header and trailer information necessary to identify the beginning and end of a packet, to synchronize the sender with the receiver, to route the packet, and to provide for error detection.
Addressing
The determination of the appropriate network addresses to identify the devices involved in sending and receiving a message.
Error Detection
The checking done to ensure that a packet has been transmitted and received correctly.
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Although many access control methods exist, Project 802 has standardized three methods: CSMA/CD [introduced in IEEE 802.3] . Token-bus [introduced in IEEE 802.4] . Token-ring [introduced in IEEE 802.5].
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Carrier sensing
Carrier sensing is the approach used by CSMA/CD for listening to the transmission mediumthe carrier to see if it is free. If it is, the encapsulated data frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission. If the carrier is busy, it continues to be monitored until it is free.
Collision detection
After transmission has begun, monitoring of the transmission medium continues. When two signals collide, their messages get mixed and become unreadable. If this happens, the affected stations stop transmitting and send out a jamming signal. This jamming signal ensures that all other stations on the network are aware a collision has occurred.
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CSMA/CD functions
The IEEE CSMA/CD standard defines a model made up of six functions. Three of these functions are concerned with sending data and the three others are concerned with receiving data. The receiving functions operate in parallel with the sending functions.
Data encapsulation/decapsulation
The data encapsulation and decapsulation function is performed by the Media Access Control sublayer. This process is responsible for addressing and error-checking functions. Data encapsulation Data encapsulation is performed by the sending station. It is the act of adding informationaddresses and error control bytesto the beginning and end of the data unit to be transmitted. This is done after the data packet is received from the Logical Link Control sublayer. The information added to the packet is needed to perform the following tasks: Synchronize the receiving station with the signal. Delimit the beginning and end of the frame. Identify the addresses of both the sending and receiving stations. Detect transmission errors.
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Data decapsulation Data decapsulation is performed by the receiving station. When a frame is received, the receiving station is responsible for performing the following tasks: Recognizing the destination address and determining if it matches the stations own address. Performing an error check. Removal of the control information that was added by the data encapsulation function in the sending station.
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Data encoding/decoding
The data encoding/decoding function is performed by the Physical layer. This function is responsible for getting the electrical form of the data transmission onto the transmission medium. Data encoding Data encoding is performed by the sending station. It is responsible for translating the bits into the correct electrical signals to be sent across the transmission medium. With CSMA/CD, Manchester phase encoding is used to translate the bit stream into electrical signals. In addition, this function is responsible for listening to the transmission medium and for notifying the media access management function whether the medium is free or busy or if a collision has been detected. Data decoding Data decoding is performed by the receiving station. It is responsible for translating the electrical signal back into a bit stream.
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A group of bits in a specific format, with an indicator at each end to signal the beginning and end of the frame.
The defined format of a frame allows network equipment to recognize the meaning and purpose of the specific bits in the frame. A frame is usually a logical transmission unit containing control information for error checking and addressing purposes. The CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3) frame format is shown below. FIGURE 3.4: CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3) FRAME FORMAT
7 bytes
1 byte
2 or 6 bytes
2 or 6 bytes
Source Address
2 bytes
Length Count
Variable
0 - n bytes
4 bytes
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The CSMA/CD frame components are responsible for the following tasks:
Preamble
The preamble is responsible for providing the synchronization between the sending and receiving device. It is a series of 56 bits (7 bytes) of alternating 1s and 0s found at the beginning of the frame.
Address Fields
Each of the address fieldsthe destination address and the source addresscan be either 2 bytes or 6 bytes in length. If universal addressing is used, the addresses must be 6 bytes each. But if local addressing is used they may be either 2 or 6 bytes long. Both destination and source addresses must be of the same length for all devices on a given network. The destination address field specifies the station(s) to which the data is to be sent. An address referring to a specified group of stations is known as a multicast group address and an address referring to all of the stations on the network is known as a broadcast address. The source address identifies the station making the transmission. CSMA/CD transmission frame, Chapter 3 - LAN Communications Standards continued 38 1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
Length Count
This is a 2-byte field indicating the length of the data field that follows. It is needed to determine the length of the data field in those cases when a pad field is used.
Information Field
The information field contains the actual data packet to be transmitted. Its length is variable.
Pad Field
A pad field is used to ensure that the frame meets a minimum length requirement. A frame must contain a minimum number of bytes in order for stations to detect collisions accurately.
When the destination device receives the frame, it performs the same calculation and compares the result to that in the frame check sequence field. If the two values are the same, the transmission is assumed to be correct. If the two values are different, the destination device can request a retransmission of the frame.
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Some of these IEEE 802.3 implementations and their characteristics are as follows:
1Base-5
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 1 Mbps over twisted-pair cabling to a maximum distance of 500 m (1640 ft).
10Base-5
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10 Mbps over coaxial trunk and AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) twisted-pair cable to a maximum distance of 500 m (1640 ft).
10Base-2
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10 Mbps over thin coaxial cable to a maximum distance of 185 m (607 ft).
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10Broad-36
The IEEE standard for broadband Ethernet at 10 Mbps over broadband coaxial cable to a maximum distance of 3600 m (2.25 mi).
10Base-T
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10 Mbps over unshielded twisted-pair following a star horizontal cabling topology, with a maximum distance of 100 m (328 ft) from the station to the hub.
10Base-F
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10 Mbps over optical fiber to a maximum distance of 2 km (1.25 mi).
100Base-TX
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 100 Mbps over two twisted-pairs either 2-pair Category 5 UTP or 2-pair STP cabling.
100Base-T4
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 100 Mbps over four-pair UTP cablingeither Category 3, 4 or 5.
100Base-FX
The IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 100 Mbps over a two-fiber 62.5/125 m optical fiber cabling system.
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Devices on the network acknowledge only those transmissions addressed to them. When a token is passed to the next device, the address field is changed. The token is always passed from station to station in order of decreasing addresses. When the lowest address is reached, the token is sent to the station with the highest network address. If a station receiving the token has no message to transmit, the token is immediately passed on to the next station in the hierarchy. Since possession of the token is needed for a station to transmit, there is no possibility of a collision. With no possibility of a collision, there is no minimum length requirement for data packets and only minimal control information is required for proper processing.
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Token-bus functions
The Token-bus standard addresses five key areas as part of the Media Access Control sublayer.
Token handling
This function makes provisions for: Passing tokens from station to station. Recognizing a token when it is received. Prioritizing data packets.
Ring maintenance
Ring maintenance functions include initialization of the logical ring during network start-up and modification of the logical ring as stations are connected to or disconnected from the network.
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1 byte
Frame Control
2 or 6 bytes
Destination Address
2 or 6 bytes
Source Address
0 - 819 bytes
4 bytes
1 byte
End Delimiter
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The Token-bus frame components are responsible for performing the following tasks:
Preamble
The preamble is responsible for providing the synchronization between the sending and receiving device. The length of this field and its contents depend on the modulation method being used and the speed of the network.
Start Delimiter
The start delimiter follows the preamble. As its name implies, it indicates the start of the data frame. The start frame delimiter is 1 byte in length and contains a signaling pattern that is always different from the datathe actual signaling pattern varies with the encoding scheme used.
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Address Fields
Each of the address fieldsthe destination address and the source addresscan be either 2 bytes (16-bit addresses) or 6 bytes (48-bit addresses) in length. If universal addressing is used, the addresses must be 6 bytes each. But if local addressing is used they may be either 2 or 6 bytes long. Both destination and source addresses must be of the same length for all devices on a given network. The source address must be for an individual device. The destination address can be an individual address, a group address or a broadcast address.
Information Field
The information field contains the actual data packet to be transmitted. Its length is variable. It may contain a Logical Link protocol data unit, token control data, management data or special-purpose dataas indicated in the frame control field.
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End Delimiter
The end delimiter marks the end of the frame and shows the position of the frame check sequence field. Just as with the start delimiter, the signaling value is always different from the data.
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Token-bus options
While the general principle behind Token-bus is token passing over a bus or tree topology, the standard actually specifies three Physical layer optionsbroadband, carrierband and optical fiber.
Broadband Token-bus
The definition of broadband states that such a transmission technique allows multiple transmissions to occur simultaneously, with each transmission taking place at a different frequency on the cable. Broadband Token-bus is defined by the following characteristics: It uses 75 coaxial cable as the transmission mediumcoaxial cable is commonly used for broadband systems. It follows a tree topologythis is sometimes referred to as a directional bus. It supports data channels with the following bandwidths and transmission speeds: 1.5 MHz bandwidth with a transmission speed of 1 Mbps. 6 MHz bandwidth with a transmission speed of 5 Mbps. 12 MHz bandwidth with a transmission speed of 10 Mbps.
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Carrierband Token-bus
Carrierband signaling requires that the whole frequency spectrum of the cable be devoted to a single transmission path for the purpose of transmitting analog signals. For this reason, carrierband is also referred to as single-channel broadband. Carrierband Token-bus is defined by the following characteristics: It uses 75 coaxial cable as the transmission medium. It follows a traditional bus topology. Since there is only one data channel, electronics are simpler and less expensive than those used for broadband. Specifications exist for transmission speeds of 1, 5 and 10 Mbps.
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The intended destination station, upon receiving and processing the data unit, sets three control bits in the data unit before sending it to the next station: The Address Recognized control bit allows the destination station to indicate that it identified the data unit as being addressed to it. The Packet Copied control bit shows that the destination station sent a copy of the data unit to the LLC sublayer for processing. The Error control bit shows that an error condition was detected. This control bit can be set by any station on the ring, not only by the destination station.
Once the data unit returns to the originating station, it is removed from the network. The station then sends a free token to the next station in the ring.
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Token-ring functions
Token-ring tokens use three control bits indicating if the data unit was processed or if any error conditions were detected. The different combinations of two of these bits, address recognized and packet copied, allow the source station to differentiate between different conditions. For example, it would be able to see if: The data unit was recognized by the destination station and processed. The data unit was recognized by the destination station but it was not able to process it. The data unit was not recognized by the destination station or the destination station is nonexistent or inactive.
Token-ring differs in two other areas with respect to method of operationits manner of fault management and an optional priority scheme.
Fault management
There are three serious error conditions affecting the operation of Token-ring: The loss of a token. A constantly busy token. The failure of a station on the ring.
In order to detect and then correct the first two of these conditions, Token-ring designates one of the stations on the network as an active monitor. All the remaining stations are designed as passive monitorsmonitoring the operation of the active monitor.
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The station designated as the active monitor performs the following duties: It continuously monitors the network. If no token is detected for a predetermined amount of time, the monitor assumes that the token has been lost and issues a new token. To check for a constantly busy token, the monitor sets a monitor bit in a busy token as it passes. If the busy token returns with the monitor bit still set, the monitor will know that the sending station did not remove the data unit from the network. The monitor then changes the data unit to a free token and passes it to the next device.
If the active monitor fails, the passive monitors use a contention procedure to determine which one of them becomes the new active monitor. The third serious error condition is that of a failed station. If a station fails, it may not be able to transmit, causing the ring to be broken. To accommodate for such an occurrence, a bypass switch in incorporated into each device. Closing this bypass switch removes the station from the ring and allows data units to circulate properly. When a star-wired topology is used, the bypass switches are found in the central hub. This makes physical failures in the ring easier to correct.
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Each frame also has three reservation bits. These can be used by a station to reserve the token for its data transmission. The process to use the reservation bits is as follows: A station must have a data unit to transmit that has a priority greater than zero. When this station receives and retransmits a frame, it sets the reservation bits in the token to the same priority value of the data unit. When the original sending station removes the data unit and generates a free token it checks the reservation bits and the priorities of additional data units it has to send.
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If the reservation bits or the priority of the waiting data have a higher value than the current priority, this original sending station resets the current priority to the higher value. When a priority is reset to a higher value, the station saves the previous priority value and it is responsible for eventually restoring the token priority to that original lower value.
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1 byte
Frame Control
2 or 6 bytes
Destination Address
2 or 6 bytes
Source Address
Variable
4 bytes
1 byte
1 byte
Frame Status
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The Token-ring frame components are responsible for performing the following tasks:
Starting Delimiter
The starting delimiter indicates the start of the data frame. It uses a unique signal pattern that does not correspond to either a 0 or 1 bit. These are known as nondata values and ensure that no data sequence will ever be mistaken for a delimiter.
Address Fields
Each of the address fieldsthe destination address and the source addresscan be either 2 bytes (16-bit addresses) or 6 bytes (48-bit addresses) in length. If universal addressing is used, the addresses must be 6 bytes each. But if local addressing is used they may be either 2 or 6 bytes long. Both destination and source addresses must be of the same length for all devices on a given network. The source address must be for an individual device. The destination address can be an individual address, a group address or a broadcast address.
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Information Field
The information field contains the actual data packet to be transmitted. This can be either a protocol data unit being passed from the logical link control sublayer or control information supplied by the media access control sublayer. Its length is variable anywhere from 0 to 17800 bytes in length.
Ending Delimiter
This identifies the end of the frame by containing nondata values. It also contains bits used to identify whether or not it is the last frame in a multiframe transmission and if an error has been detected by any station.
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CONTENTS
Overview .................................................................................. 1
LAN communications defined....................................................... 1 Communications terminology ....................................................... 2
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ............... 6 OSI Model ......................................................................................... 6 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) .......... 7 IEEE Project 802 ............................................................................... 7
TABLE
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OF
CONTENTS
TABLE
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OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
Purpose of the OSI model ............................................................ 18 Using the OSI model ..................................................................... 19 The hardware level .......................................................................... 19 The transport level .......................................................................... 19 Transport-level protocols............................................................... 20
IPX/SPX ............................................................................................................ 20 NetBEUI ............................................................................................................ 20
TABLE
OF
The application-to-transport level ................................................... 21 The application level ....................................................................... 21 Applying the OSI model in the LAN environment ................... 22
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
Physical layer overview ................................................................ 28 Data Link layer overview .............................................................. 29 Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer recommendations ................. 29 Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer recommendations ............ 30
Medium Access Management ........................................................................... 30 Framing ............................................................................................................. 30 Addressing ........................................................................................................ 30 Error Detection.................................................................................................. 30
TABLE
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS TABLE
Definition of CSMA/CD ................................................................. 32 Carrier sensing ................................................................................ 33 Collision detection ........................................................................... 33 CSMA/CD functions ...................................................................... 34 Data encapsulation/decapsulation .................................................. 34 Data encapsulation........................................................................ 34 Data decapsulation........................................................................ 35 Media access management ............................................................. 35 Data encoding/decoding .................................................................. 36 Data encoding ............................................................................... 36 Data decoding ............................................................................... 36 CSMA/CD transmission frame .................................................... 37
Preamble ........................................................................................................... 38 Start Frame Delimiter ....................................................................................... 38 Address Fields .................................................................................................. 38 Length Count ..................................................................................................... 39 Information Field ............................................................................................... 39 Pad Field ........................................................................................................... 39 Frame Check Sequence ................................................................................... 39
OF
OF
TABLE
65
CONTENTS
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
OF
Token-bus options ......................................................................... 50 Broadband Token-bus ..................................................................... 50 Carrierband Token-bus .................................................................... 51 Optical fiber Token-bus ................................................................... 51
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Chapter 3 - LAN Communications Standards 1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
CONTENTS
TABLE
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Chapter 3 - LAN Communications Standards 1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
Figure 3.1: Figure 3.2: Figure 3.3: Figure 3.4: Figure 3.5: Figure 3.6:
The OSI model .................................................... 15 The OSI model and LAN communications ....... 22 Project 802 layers and sublayers ..................... 27 CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3) frame format .............. 37 Token-bus frame format ..................................... 46 Token-ring frame format ..................................... 58
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Chapter 3 - LAN Communications Standards 1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1