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Problems with the Rutherford model of the atom led to the search for a model that would better explain the observed phenomena
Discuss the structure of the Rutherford model of the atom, the existence of the nucleus and electron orbits
Geiger and Marsden investigated the scattering of alpha particles on very thin metal foils to confirm Thomsons plum pudding model whereby negatively charged electrons were considered to be distributed throughout sphere of positive charge Predicted only small scattering because atom had no large concentrations of charge or mass to deflect massive and fast moving alpha particles They were shocked to find approx. one alpha particle in every 8000 was deflected by the thin gold foil through angles greater than 90 degrees
Rutherford model of the atom: Hypothesised that for alpha particles to be deflected, massive but tiny, positively charge centre must exist within a set of orbiting electrons (like planets orbing the Sun) Predicted then the tiny, positive charge in the centre contained 99.9% of mass and atom is mostly empty space Rutherford proposed electrical attraction provides centripetal force to keep electrons in orbit and the electrons could be anywhere (like planets around the Sun) o However, orbiting electrons are accelerating, which should radiate away energy (predicted by Maxwells classical EM theory), and spiral into nucleus
Analyse the significance of the hydrogen spectrum in the development of Bohrs model of the atom
Bohrs model of the atom was quite similar to Rutherfords but with two important differences: o There are assigned positions to the electrons o Electron energy levels are quantised The Balmer Series helped Niels Bohr in proposing a model of the atom. Bohr understood that atoms produce the radiation, which formed the characteristic spectrum for each element. After being introduced to the Balmer series and the Balmer equation, Bohr connected the energy emitted by the hydrogen atom (when excited electrons fall back to the second lowest energy state (n=2)) to the emitted spectral lines. He used the Balmer series to explain that emission lines are due to electrons in excited states falling back to their original energy levels.
Describe how Bohrs postulates led to the development of a mathematical model to account for the existence of the hydrogen spectrum:
Balmer series: visible emission spectrum of hydrogen emitted when an electron in energy level ( ) falls to level 2 Balmer originally devised the Rydberg equation empirically by examining the lines in the hydrogen spectrum and creating a formula to fit them Rydberg used Bohrs postulates and manipulated them to create the same formula o Major accomplishment and provided strong support for the Rutherford Bohr atomic model of the hydrogen atom
Perform a first hand investigation to observe the visible components of the hydrogen spectrum
Method
Glass tube containing hydrogen gas (hydrogen spectral tube) and two electrodes were attached to an induction coil in a darkened room o Induction coil was attached to a power supply and the tube began to glow A hand spectroscope was used to examine the light from the glow and four lines in the visible spectrum was observed Apparatus Hydrogen spectral tube Power supply Hand spectroscope Risk Induction coil produces harmful X rays. This was addressed by standing at least 3 4 metres away from the experiment
Process and present diagrammatic information to illustrate Bohrs explanation of the Balmer series
According to Bohr, Balmer series was caused by electrons changing energy levels When an excited electron in a stationary state of jumps down to the stationary state , a photon is emitted o Energy of this photon is equal to energy difference between these two stationary states Balmer series is formed by successive transitions to the 2nd shell o Transitions to other shells produce additional lines, named after their discoverers
The diagram shows the energy of the stationary states in which an electron can exist in an atom o The lower the horizontal line, the lower the energy of that state
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Lower the energy gap between horizontal line, lower the energy emitted when electrons transition between those two states Length of vertical arrow gives the energy of photon emitted when an electron falls from an initial state ( ) to a final state ( ) n is the principle quantum number
Analyse secondary information to identify the difficulties with the Rutherford Bohr model, including its inability to completely explain:
the spectra of larger atoms the relative intensity of spectral lines the existence of hyperfine spectral lines the Zeeman effect
Not possible to calculate wavelengths of spectral lines of all other atoms
The spectra of larger atoms Bohr and his colleagues were unable to develop an arrangement of stationary states that matched the experimental observations of spectral patterns Atoms larger than hydrogen have more than one electron and these interact with each other in a complex manner o Bohrs simple quantised planetary model explained only the hydrogen atom, helium ion ( and the lithium ion ( all have single electrons orbiting the nucleus The relative intensity of spectral lines Spectra of hydrogen atom and larger atoms all displayed three identifiable types of spectral lines based upon their width categorised as: o Sharp (s) lines o Primary (p) lines o Diffuse (d) lines Intensity of individual lines varied also The model and Bohrs postulates provided no explanation for these observations The existence of fine and hyperfine spectral lines Using interferometry, Michelson observed that some even finer spectral lines (hyperfine) existed o Bohrs model did not provide any explanation for this observed phenomena The Zeeman effect When a gas is excited while in a magnetic field, emission spectrum produced shows a splitting of spectral lines (Zeeman Effect) o Bohr model could not account for this
Impact: Significant impact in the scientific community as it provided an alternative way of describing the nature of matter Initiated the revolution in which Heisenberg, Schrodinger, Dirac, Born, Pauli and others developed a detailed theory called quantum mechanics Led to physical understanding of stationary states in Bohrs model of the atom and gave model credibility it required to be accepted and developed upon by the scientific community
Define diffraction and identify that interference occurs between waves that have been diffracted
Diffraction bending of waves around obstructions such as an edge, narrow opening or slit o Diffraction of light occurs when light passes through a very finely ruled grating o Diffraction occurs when waves meet an opening/edge which acts as a point source of coherent circular waves Interference interaction between two or more waves travelling through the same medium o Interference occurs between waves that have been diffracted o Constructive interference - when crest of one wave meets the crest of another (or trough trough), they combined to give an even greater crest (or greater trough) o Destructive interference when a crest meets a trough, they cancel each other
Explain the stability of the electron orbits in the Bohr atom using de Broglies hypothesis
De Broglie proposed that the electrons in atoms behave like standing waves, which wrap around the nucleus in an integral number of wavelengths electron waves o Standing waves waves that do not propagate but vibrate between two boundaries: points that they do not vibrate are called nodes and points that vibrate between max and min positions are known as anti nodes Electron wave model of the model explained the stability of electron orbits in the Bohr atom o Bohrs first postulate can be explained as electrons are now standing waves, they are no longer moving charges and hence will not emit radiation standing waves do not propagate, and therefore are stable and will not lose any energy De Broglies hypothesis enables mathematical derivation for Bohrs third postulate quantisation of angular momentum o Circumference of electron orbit is and there has to be a number fitting in the circumference:
Correlation between de Broglies matter wave equations with Bohrs third postulate in relation to the quantisation of angular momentum reinforces the suitability of the matter wave concept to explain the Bohr model If non integer values for the standing waves occurred (e.g. a Bohr radii of for a quantum shell), then the vibrations would be forced and attenuate rapidly, that is, not be sustainable. Only when , does this stability function=
Gather, process, analyse and present information and use available evidence to assess the contributions made by Heisenberg and Pauli to the development of atomic theory
Werner Heisenberg Heisenberg developed matrix mechanics in 1925 which successfully explained and predicted electron energy levels in the Bohr atom o Purely mathematical In 1927, he proposed the uncertainty principle that states there are pair of quantities that cannot be determined simultaneously o The pair he identified was position and momentum it is impossible to know both these quantities simultaneously calculated that product of uncertainty in position and uncertainty in momentum is never less than amount involving Uncertainty principle arises due to impossibility of measuring the position of a particle without causing a disturbance in the moment (vice versa) Contributions: Added further dimension to electrons inside the atom His uncertainty principle has changed the way science view atomic structure and is now regarded as one of the most important and central principles of quantum mechanics Brought change in which scientists approach quantum physics Wolfgang Pauli Applied Heisenbergs quantum mechanics and applied it to the hydrogen atom was able to derive Balmers equation and Rydbergs constant o Able to do this solely with quantum mechanics and not as a mix of classical and quantum physics as Bohr had done previously Validated quantum mechanics, the new atomic theory The first three quantum numbers are the principle quantum number ( ), angular momentum quantum number ( ) and the magnetic quantum number ( ) o Pauli introduced the fourth quantum number the magnetic spin quantum number ( ) Pauli proposed his exclusion principle that states no two electrons in the same atom can have all four quantum numbers the same o Introduction of fourth quantum number and his exclusion principle showed there were maximum combinations of quantum numbers for electrons in each shell used this to explain the max number of electrons that could exist in each shell Explained position of first 20 elements in periodic table Contributions: Explained the maximum number of electrons in each shell o Provided a quantum explanation for the structure of the periodic table Most electron behaviours can now potentially be explained by Paulis exclusion principle and quantum numbers Proposed existence of the neutrino, a significant subatomic particle Therefore contributed significantly to development of atomic theory
The work of Chadwick and Fermi in producing artificial transmutations led to practical applications of nuclear physics
Define the components of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) as nucleons and contrast their properties
Protons and neutrons are both nucleons particles found in the nucleus and are slightly different o Both have masses on the same order (measured in amu) o Neutron is slightly heavier than proton o In terms of charge, proton has same charge as electron but positive while neutron has no charge at all Protons affected by magnetic and electric fields / neutrons are not Therefore neutron is harder to detect
Chadwick applied the conservation of energy and conservation of momentum to the interaction of a neutral particle with a proton. He made measurements of the recoil of nuclei of hydrogen after interactions with his proposed neutron
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Measurements were difficult but led to the mass of a neutron being calculated to be 1.15 times that of a proton After a month, submitted for publication paper entitled possible existence of a neutron Chadwick was able to produce extremely convincing evidence, not only of the neutron, but also for the idea of protons and neutrons making up the nucleus of atoms, with mass energy being involved in the binding of the particles into a nucleus
Alpha decay: Usually occurs with large unstable nuclei o Remember: helium has no electrons and is therefore positively charged Beta decay: Beta minus decay occurs when ratio of neutrons to protons is too high o Transformation of a neutron into a proton, an electron an antineutrino
Beta plus particle is identical to an anti electron, commonly called a positron o Transformation of a proton into a neutron, positron and a neutrino
Electron capture process in which an electron from an inner shell is captured by the nucleus o Gamma radiation: After emission of alpha or beta particle, daughter nucleus sometimes left in excited state o Change in energy from excited energy state to ground state result in emission of a very high energy photon called a gamma ray o Gamma radiation does not change the atomic number or mass, therefore not an example of transmutation
Discuss Paulis suggestion of the existence of neutrino and relate it to the need to account for the energy distribution of electrons emitted in - decay
In alpha decay energies of ejected alpha particles have well defined values of kinetic energy whereas in beta particle decay, ejected beta particles have a broad spectrum of kinetic energies By 1930s, experiments clearly showed spectra of kinetic energies of ejected beta particles when graphed were a smooth and continuous curve ranging from just above zero to a max. value dictated by parent nuclei o slow beta particles were missing kinetic energy violating conservation of energy o sum of momentums before and after beta decay was not equal Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 proposed that a new particle was also emitted during the beta decay process o New particle had no charge and would only very weakly interact with matter o Energy released during a decay could be shared between beta particle and neutrino in any ratio Allows distribution of energies to be explained Fermi formally proposed a theory for beta decay whereby a neutron in the nucleus of an atom was transformed into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino o Theory also proposed fourth force of nature weak nuclear force Detection of neutrinos can be extremely difficult: o Neutrinos have no charge and do not cause ionisation cannot be detected by conventional detectors (cloud chambers) o Neutrinos have a mass of virtually zero o Neutrinos are invisible Properties of neutrinos: o Neutral o Extremely small mass o Travel at speed of light o Possess both momentum and energy o Have an intrinsic spin
Evaluate the relative contributions of electrostatic and gravitational forces between nucleons
Both the gravitational and electrostatic forces are inverse square forces o Both should become large at small separation of nucleons in a nucleus Force of gravity will provide an attractive force between proton proton, proton neutron and neutron neutron, but there must be electrostatic repulsion between pairs of protons
Account for the need for the strong nuclear force and describe its properties
New model of nucleus posed a problem what forces held the protons and neutrons together to form a stable nucleus? o Electrostatic repulsion is far stronger than gravitational force, therefore third fundamental force of nature was required to explain stability of nucleus Strong nuclear force include: o An independence of charge all nucleons bind together with the same force
Acts over short distances of about ( ), the diameter of a nucleus and within this range, force is much stronger than electrostatic forces o Strong nuclear force between nucleons acts only between adjacent nucleons, not on entire nucleus At extreme short distances, strong nuclear force becomes repulsive, then it becomes attractive as distance increases, then increasingly weaker at large distances
Explain the concept of a mass defect using Einsteins equivalence between mass and energy
Mass defect difference between mass of a nucleus and the total mass of its constituent nucleons o Total mass of a stable nucleus is less than total sum of mass of protons and neutrons When nucleus forms, some energy is radiated away and since , loss of energy reduces mass of nucleus o Unstable nucleus of a large atom splits the combined mass of daughter nuclei is less than the mass of parent nucleus Loss of mass is caused by some of original parent mass being transformed into kinetic energy of the fragments Binding energy how much energy needed to separate the nucleus of the atom back into separate protons and neutrons Stability of nucleus is indicated by average binding energy per nucleon measure of how strongly an average nucleon is bound to a particular nucleus o Fusing light nuclei together will increase binding energy per nucleon, thus energy would be realised fusion o If nucleus of a heavy atom splits, binding energy per nucleon will increase fission
Perform a first hand investigation or gather secondary information to observe radiation emitted from a nucleus using Wilson Cloud Chamber or similar detection device
An understanding of the nucleus has led to large science projects and many applications
Explain the basic principles of a fission reactor
Fission reactor uses a nuclear reaction to generate electricity o Heat from nuclear reaction is used to produce steam which turns turbine The reactor must meet several requirements for a controlled reaction. Firstly it must ensure a reaction takes place and secondly that the reaction doesnt go out of control There are several components of a fission reactor o Core: houses the fuel rods, control rods, a coolant system and moderator material o Fuel rods: Tubes filled with enriched uranium to provide the critical mass required o Control rods: usually made from cadmium or boron are located between the fuel rods. They absorb neutrons and are adjusted so that the chain reaction proceeds at a constant rate (can be moved in and out to control reaction rate) o Moderators: Entire reactor is immersed or surrounded by a moderator to slow down neutrons, improving chance of neutron capture by a nucleus. Commonly moderators consist of either heavy water, graphite or other organic compounds o Coolants: required to extract heat from the reaction and prevent reactor from melting. IT flows through the reactor then out into a heat exchange that takes heat extracted from coolant and uses it to boil water o Radiation shielding: Reactor core emit large quantities of gamma radiation and neutrons. Lead and graphite are used to absorb and reflect radiation, which protects the containment walls of the reactor vessels Designed to protect people and environment and prolong working life of the reactor facility
Describe how neutron scattering is used as a probe by referring to the properties of neutrons
Neutrons has several advantages as a probe o Neutron scattering is used to probe materials Neutrons, being neutral are not affected by electric fields and unlike X rays are able to deeply penetrate matter, through electron clouds, to then scatter and form interference patterns that can reveal important structural detail o Interference patterns can be used to determine the arrangement of atoms in molecules and have proved valuable in determining the structure of various organic molecules and the structure of viruses o Energies of neutrons scattered from various materials can be measured using sensitive detectors Information can provide very important detail on chemical composition and structural characteristics of complex molecules Neutron scattering is particularly useful in identifying protons and small nuclei which is very difficult with other techniques o Have a very short de Broglie wavelength making them able to resolve very small objects, and reveal detail regarding the location and structure of nuclei Magnetic moment of the neutron makes it useful for studying magnetic materials o E.g. superconductors Neutrons have an energy similar to the vibrational energy of atoms in solids and liquids which enable neutrons to be used to study the motion of atoms in molecules in detail Neutrons interact strongly with nuclei as they both have comparable size o Strength of interaction varies for different nuclei which makes it possible to study isotopes of light elements Disadvantages: Nuclear reactor is required to produce the neutrons which presents problems associated with wastes and social issues
Identify ways by which physicists continue to develop their understanding of matter, using accelerators as a probe to investigate the structure of matter
Linear accelerator
Charged particles are fired through a long evacuated tube (can reach a few kilometres) Charged particles pass through one cylindrical electrode and are accelerated by an electric field as they pass through a gap before encountering another electrode o Process repeated and particles increase their energy As velocity of particle increase, the alternating accelerating potential has to keep in step with the particles and this requires the cylindrical electrodes to become longer and longer
Cyclotron
Cyclotron, a particle accelerator gives a charged particle many kicks as it passes through the electric fields between the dees of the cyclotron Whole apparatus lies between the poles of a large magnet. Therefore the particles experience magnetic force while inside the hollow Dee and move in circular paths, with radii of circular path increasing each time the particle gains energy as it passes through the gap between the dees
Developing the Standard Model Particle accelerators has been instrumental in providing experimental evidence that led to the development and then support for, the Standard Model of matter By smashing particles into targets or other particles travelling in opposite directions, particles formed could be studied (properties and nature) by using known physical laws to analyse tracks and trailed collected by detectors/sensors e.g. bubble chamber
Discuss the key features and components of the standard model of matter, including quarks and leptons
In 1930s, list of identified sub nuclear particles comprised the electron, the proton and the neutron; the positron and neutrino had been proposed by Pauli
Quarks: 1964 Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig proposed existence of quarks which was later recognised as fundamental particles smallest particles that could not be broken down further o Carries the properties of mass, charge and colour There are six varieties (flavours) of quarks o Anti quarks also exist Quarks possess charges that are either or of the charge of an electron All quarks act through strong nuclear force
Hadrons: Quarks do not usually exist by themselves as they are unstable o They exist in more stable forms by combining with one or two other quarks Combination of quarks is known as hadrons o There are two types of hadrons: baryons (three quark combinations) and mesons (two quark combinations) Baryons: o Make up everyday matter as they form the nucleons Protons consist of two up quarks and one down quark Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks o Have half integer spin Mesons: o Meson consists of a quark and anti quark o Have zero or integer spins Leptons: Another type of fundamental particle that have either very little or no mass o Single elementary particles that exist by themselves and are not affected by the strong nuclear force Most commonly known lepton is the electron These leptons has an associated neutrino that is named accordingly Every lepton has a corresponding anti lepton All leptons interact through weak nuclear force and charged leptons interact through electromagnetic force
Bosons: There are four fundamental forces in the Universe and using the standard model of matter, these four forces are thought to act through the exchange of force particles bosons o Forces are mediated by bosons Bosons are force carrying particles
Electromagnetic force acts through photons Strong nuclear force acts through gluons Weak nuclear force acts through weakons Gravity acts through gravitons Has not been proved. Included in the model for sake of completeness Attraction forces is by having matter pulling on the force particles as they are exchanged whereas repulsion forces are conveyed by having force particles being pushed away as they are exchanged
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Generation: As generation number increases, mass of particles increase Second generation particles are less stable and quickly decay to form the first generation particles and the third generation particles are even less stable and decay rapidly to form the second generation particles Conclusion: Scientists have come a long way from the most primitive model of the atom suggested by Thompson, to the idea of the quant and Bohrs and eventually to the more sophisticated quantum mechanics, based upon which de Broglie, Wolfgang and Heisenberg further advanced the model of the atom
Gather, process and analyse information to assess the significance of the Manhattan Project to society
The Manhattan Project was the code name used by the US army to describe the project to develop atomic bombs during World War II The impact of the production of the atomic bomb has been immense and far reaching and still impacts on our society today
The dropping of two atomic bombs led to deaths of many Japanese people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however this brung a swift end to the war, avoiding a long process of invasion with even more casualties. It set up a political cold war that maintained for some forty years, however USA and Russia never broke out into conflict as either side was concerned that aggressive action would result in nuclear warfare o Peace was maintained due to the Manhattan Project and its development of nuclear weaponry In modern times however, nuclear power is proving to be a dangerous bargaining chip for rogue states such as North Korea and Iran which are using nuclear weapons as leverage in negotiations with the Western world o They provide a constant threat to global security However the project accelerated the development of nuclear technologies, leading to nuclear medical applications in the treatment of such conditions as cancer and other malignant tumours. It has also offered an alternative way to produce power, decreasing fossil fuel consumption
Assessment: Although the Manhattan Project led to the deaths of many people and resulted in a build up of nuclear arsenals across many nations, in the end, it allowed a nuclear stalemate between the USSR and USA preventing several wars and averting possible deaths. The Manhattan project has also led to the acceleration of nuclear medicine technologies that are benefiting those with conditions that can now be treated. Therefore, the Manhattan Project has had an overall positive impact on society.
Identify data sources, and gather, process and analyse information to describe the use of: a named isotope in medicine a named isotope in agriculture a named isotope in engineering
Medicine: Technetium 99m This radioisotope is incorporated into some blood serum and injected into a patients bloodstream. It is a gamma emitter and therefore the distribution throughout the body can be measured with a scintillation counter and used to detect blood clots, constrictions and other circulation disorders. It can also be attached to biological carriers to study different areas of the body (e.g. combined with tin compound, it can become attached to blood cells which can be traced to detect abnormalities in the heart) Properties of technetium 99m that make it useful for medical diagnosis are: Its short life of 6 hours long enough for medical investigations and short enough to minimise the patients exposure to radiation It is readily excreted (minimum exposure) Ability to be attached to a range of biological carriers and thus can concentrate in a number of different types of tissues and organs for diagnostic test to be performed Is a gamma emitter penetrative enough so that it can be detected outside the body and also causes least amount of ionisation comparable to beta and alpha emitters, making it safer to use To produce Technetium 99m: Neutron bombardment of Mo 98 o Above process generates Mo- 99(half life 67 hours) Mo -99 decays to form Tc 99m (Mo 99 sent to hospital by a radioisotope generation kit)
Tc 99m can then be separated from the Mo -99 with saline solution at the hospital
Engineering: Strontium 90 A radioactive source and a detector can be used to monitor and control the thickness of materials such as steel sheets, paper, aluminium foil and plastic film as it emerges from the rollers in factories. The amount of radiation passing through the material depends on its thickness; therefore variations in the intensity of radiation detected when passed through the material indicate problems with the thickness. For e.g. thicker material absorbs more radiation and so the signal drops. For this purpose, radioisotopes such as strontium 90 are used. These radioisotopes have fairly low energy emission and a long half-life (28 years). A long half-life is ideal so that the radioisotope does not have to be replaced too frequently. Lower emission intensity also results in a larger proportion of the radiation being absorbed by the sheet, making any changes in absorption more noticeable, thus increasing the sensitivity of the device. It also means that safety precautions are minimal.
Agriculture: Phosphorous 32 Used as a biological tracer to study natural processes such as nutritional uptake by plants in the natural environment and in agricultural settings Phosphorous 32 can be introduced into plants or crops as radioactive phosphate ions o Phosphate is an essential nutrient for the growth of plants and crops o The plants or crops process the radioactive phosphate in the same way as they handle normal phosphate By tracing the radiation (beta emissions) of the phosphorous, biochemical processes such as nutritional uptake, transportation and storage can be studied leading to a better understanding of favourable conditions for plant growth, maximising yield and increasing efficiency of the farming process Properties that make it useful are: o Can be easily introduced into biological systems and can be traced o Compounds formed by phosphorous 32 have same chemical properties compared to those formed by non radioactive phosphorous (phosphorous 31) so they are indistinguishable by plants