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SCS National Engineering Handbook

Section 15

IRRIGATION
Chapter 3

PLANNING FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Soil Conservation Service United States Department of Agriculture

SCS NATIONAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK SECTION 15 IRRIGATION CHAPTER . 3 PLANNING FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Contents Page .

0 Introduction.......................................................
Proper planning permits conservation irrigation Preliminary considerations What the irrigator should h o w What the planner should h o w Planning procedure Select method Layout Application 0 &lively Dispssal @ Factars in planning Sails Intake rates Wa-ter-hclding capacity Depth Other characteristics

3-1 ............... 3-1 .................................... 3-3 ........................... 3-3 ............................. 3-3 ............................................ 3-4 ........................................... 3-4 ................................................... .............................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................................ ......................................................... ............................................. ................................... .................................................... .................................... Drainage................................................. Erasion.................................................. Saline or alkali conditions.............................. Topography.................................................... Sprinkler irrigation..................................... Surface irrigation....................................... Subirrigation............................................ Supply lines............................................. Conservation practices ................................... Water supply.................................................. Water rights............................................. Quantity................................................. Quality .................................................. ' m e of supply........................................... Location of supply....................................... Climate....................................................... 3-25 Precipitation............................................ 3-25
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Temperature

............................................ 3-26

Interceptor drains Relief drains 0 Wells Outlets @ water measurement

............................................... 3-26 .................................................... 3-26 .................................................... 3-27 3-27 Field arrangement ............................................. Farm equipment available...................................... 3-27 Available power ............................................... 3-28 Existing facilities.................go...................e....3-28 0 Field road system............................................. 3-28 Finances...................................................... 3-28 Physical features............................................. 3-28 @ Adapted methods of water application............................... 3-29 Sprinkler irrigation.......................................... 3-29 Sprinkler method ......................................... 3-30 Surface irrigation............................................ 3-35 Graded-border method ..................................... 3-35 Level-border (basin) method .............................. 3-36 Contour-levee method ..................................... 3-37 Contour-ditch method ..................................... 3-39 Graded-furrow method ..................................... 3-40 Contour-furrow method .................................... 3-41 Level-furrow method ...................................... 3-43 Corrugation method ....................................... 3-44 0 Subirrigation ................................................. 3-45 Subirrigation method ..................................... 3-46 0 Irrigation water conveyance........................................ 3-47 Ditches....................................................... 3-48 Unlined ditches.......................................... 3-48 Lined ditches............................................ 3-49 Conveyance structures.....................................3-54 Grade-control structures................................. 3-57 Distribution-control structures.......................... 3-58 Application-control structures........................... 3-62 Hpelines..................................................... 3-73 Low-pressure pipelines................................... 3-74 High-pressure pipelines .................................. 3-74 Inlet structures......................................... 3-77 3-78 .................................................... Vents 0 Control structures....................................... 3-80 Outlets .................................................. 3-83 0 water disposal..................................................... 3-87 Surface-water disposal........................................ 3-87 8 7 ' Effect of irrigation method .............................. 3 3-88 Design considerations.................................... Subsurface-water disposal..................................... 3-88
Farm enterprise
Crops Labor

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....................................... 3-88 3-88 ............................................ .................................................... 3-88 ....................................................... 3-89 .................................................. 3-89

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@ Irrigation guides Area covered Content Soils Crops Irrigation specifications Use

.................................................. 3-90 .................................................. 3-90 ....................................................... 3-90 ....................................................3-90 .................................................... 3-90 ................................ 3-91 ........................................................... 3-91
FIGURES
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Figure

Constructing concrete ditch lining by alternate-panel method Timber-supported metal flume Section of a concrete inverted siphon Five drop structures Headgate equipped to measure water directly from an irrigation canal to a farm ditch Pump stilling basin and division box Division box with four chambers Combination drop and check Portable plastic check Portable canvas check
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3-2 ................................... 3-16 Water loss in an irrigation reservoir...................... Off-stream storage reservoir............................... 3-18 Ground-water storage reservoir............................. 3-22 Regulating reservoir....................................... 3-22 Sprinkler irrigation....................................... 3-30 Hand-mow sprinkler........................................ 3-31 Big-gun sprialer.......................................... 3-31 Rotating-boom sprinkler.................................... 3-32 Side-roll sprinkler........................................ 3-32 Two-lateral sprinklsr...................................... 3-32 Self-propelled sprinkler................................... 3-33 Solid-set sprinkler........................................ 3-33 Perforated-pipe sprinkler.................................. 3-33 Graded-border irrigation................................... 3-35 Level-border irrigation.................................... 3-36 Contour-levee irrigation................................... 3-38 Contour-ditch irrigation................................... 3-39 Graded-furrow irrigation................................... 3-40 Contour-furrow irrigation.................................. 3-42 Level-furrow irrigation.................................... 3-43 Corrugation irrigation..................................... 3-44 Subirrigation.............................................. 3-46 Placing concrete ditch lining by slip-form method .......... 3-51

A farm irrigation system

..................................................... 3-51 ............................... 3-56 ...................... 3-57 ....................................... 3-59

........................... 3-60
3-63

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............................ ................................. .....................................

....................... 3-61 3-61

3-63 3-63

Figure Canvas check with a d j u s t a b l e sack o u t l e t Metal windless check Adjustable metal check i n a l i n e d d i t c h Permanent concrete check. I n s t a l l i n g a metal check Metal-pipe turnout i n a l i n e d d i t c h Tw2-inch g a t e turnout Ccncrete-block turnout i n a l i n e d d i t c h Metal turnout Turnout boxes i n background Concrete turnout with a f l a s h board g a t e Concrete-pipe turnout I n s t a l l i n g a concrete-pipe turnout Two-inch siphon tubes i r r i g a t i n g furrows Eight-inch siphon tubes i r r i g a t i n g a border Large metal siphon and pump f o r priming Gated pipe f o r furrow i r r i g a t i o n of corn Closeup of g a t e i n pipe F l e x i b l e gated pipe; sacks prevent erosion and clothespins r e g u l a t e flow Installing p l a s t i c pipeline I n s t a l l i n g 15-inch concrete i r r i g a t i o n pipe Removing i n s i d e form from concrete p i p e l i n e c a s t i n place Pouring concrete p i p e l i n e using sheet-metal s l i p form Low-head open stand f o r concrete pipe Capped high-head s t e e l stand Gravity i n l e t f o r buried low-pressure p i p e l i n e Typical concrete-pipe sand t r a p Typical t r a s h s c r e e n D e s i l t i n g box and t r a s h screen Typical capped vent Section of a capped vent Closeup of a i r - r e l e a s e valve on r i g h t and a l f a l f a valve on left Section of a concrete pipe g a t e stand used t o c o n t r o l flow i n t o two l a t e r a l s Section of concrete-pipe overflow s t a n d Concrete-pipe overflow stand Section of a f l o a t - v a l v e stand Section of a l f a l f a valve mounted on concrete pipe m d r a n t a t t a c h e d t o a l f a l f a valve f o r gated p i p e Section of an orchard valve Orchard valve Open-pot o u t l e t with an orchard valve and s l i d e - g a t e control Section 3f capped r i s e r o r pot o u t l e t I r r i g a t i o n guide f o r a l l i r r i g a t e d s e c t i o n s of Kansas

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SCS NATIONAL ENGINEERING EANDBOOK

SECTION 15

CHAPTER 3--FLANNING FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

I'raper Planning Permits - Conservation -Irrigation Cmaervatian i r r i g a t i o n i s t h e use af i r r i g a t e d s o i l s and i r r i g a t i s n water i n a way t h a t i n s u r e s high p r o d u c t i m withcut wasting e i t h e r water g r s c i l . It means using c r ~ p p i n g , i r r i g a t i m , and c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t maintain t h e land i n permanent a g r i c u l t u r e . To a n i r r i g a t o r cons e r v a t i o n i r r i g a t i o n can mean saving water, c o n t r o l l i n g erosion, b e t t e r c m p y i e l d s , lower productisri c a s t s , and continued p r o d u c t i v i t y of h i s i r r i g a t e d land. One of the maj3-r f a c t o r s i n conservation i r r i g a t i o n i s a properly planned ccnservation farm i r r i g a t i o n system. A conservation farm i r r i g a t i o n system i s t h e complete arrangement of t h e d e l i v e r y and a p p l i c a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s needed t o d i s t r i b u t e i r r i g a t i o n water e f f i c i e n t l y t o a l l land served by t h e system.
A farm i r r i g a t i o n system c o n s i s t s of t h r e e p a r t s - - d e l i v e r y , a p p l i c a t i o n , and d i s p o s a l ( f i g . 1). The d e l i v e r y p a r t c o n s i s t s of t h e f a c i l i t i e s

needed t o c3r~vzyi r r i g a t i o n water from t h e s m r c e 3f supply t a i n d i v i d u a l f i e l d s and includes supply d i t c h e s and p i p e l i n e s , valves, hydrants, flumes, measuring devices, t u r n o u t s , and checks. For t h e a p p l i c a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n of water on a f i e l d , head d i t c h e s , d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p e l i n e s ( b u r i e d a r s u r f a c e ) , valves and hydrants, gated pipe, siphon tubes, s p r i n k l e r l i n e s , and s p r i n k l e r nozzles and equipment mst be planned. Tail-water 3r c a l l e c t i c n d i t c h e s , sumps, and any o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s needed t o c o l l e c t and safely dispose o f , o r recover f o r f u r t h e r i r r i g a t i o n , any waste water and starm runoff make up t h e d i s p o s a l p a r t of t h e system. Few, i f any, farm operating u n i t s have i d e n t i c a l p h y s i c a l , economic, and managerial c m d i t i o n c . Careful and adequate planning i s necessary i f t h e i r r i g a t i o n system i s t o meet t h e requirements of t h e farm o p e r a t i n g u n i t on whicn i t i s t o be used. I t must f i t t h e s o i l s , crops, climate, water supply, and farming operations. To be adequate, a system must have t h e c a p a c i t y t o meet the peak-use requirements of t h e crops t o be grown (chap. 1) and t o d e l i v e r water a t t h e r a t e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r r i g a t i o n method used. I t should be planned and designed t o operate a t high e f f i ciency t o conserve i r r i g a t i o n water.

Figure 3-1. --A farm i r r i g a t i o n system.

Preliminary Considerations For an irrigation system to function as planned both irrigator and planner must know and agree on some things before they spend much time in planning. What the Irrigator Should Know Conservation irrigation, like other farm ~perations,must be undertaken only if it can be done successfully and at a profit. In other words, the benefits from irrigation must increase farm income enough to cover all costs of purchasing, installing, operating, and maintaining the irrigat i m system and prwide a reasonable return from the owner's investment. Water is only one of several limiting factors in producing high yields of any crop. An irrigator should know the capability of his land under irrigation. He should know the soil management practices necessary to maintain good tilth and fertility. He should be willing to use the best adapted crop variety and the plant population that will produce the best yields and to have an adequate system for controlling plant diseases and insects. He should understand and be willing to practice irrigation water management. Irrigation Water Management.--Conservation irrigation water management means controlling 3r regulating water application in a way that insures high crop yields without wasting water, soil, or plant nutrients. It means applying water according to crop needs in amounts that can be held in the soil available to crops and at rates consistent with the intake characteristics of the soil and the erosion hazard of the site.
A n irrigatcr must have a reasonably good understanding of the basic principles of conservation irrigation. He must have a general idea of how water is held in the soil and released to plants and how much water his soils hold. He needs to b o w how to determine when to irrigate and how much water to apply. He needs to have a general understanding of soil-intake characteristics and of the adjustments in stream size and time of water application needed to fit the intake characteristics of his soils (chap. 1 ) .

What the Planner Should Know It is impossible to design an effective conservation irrigation system without complete understanding by both irrigator and planner. There should be mutual understanding of the water supply needed. The planner must h o w the farmer's wishes. He must consider the entire farm even if only one field is to be planned for irrigation at any one time. Adequacy of Water Supply.--The first things to consider are availability, quality, and adequacy of the farm water supply. If there is no adequate supply or no possibility of developing one, further planning is a waste of time for both farmer and planner. Successful irrigation is not possible without a water supply adequate for the crops to be grown.

Farmer's Preferences.--Each farmer has a preference a s t o t h e kind of farm e n t e r p r i s e he wishes, which may d i c t a t e t h e kind of i r r i g a t i o n system and a p p l i c a t i o n method. H e may have s t r o n g f e e l i n g s about one a p p l i c a t i o n method over another. He may a l s o be r e s t r i c t e d by finances, a v a i l a b i l i t y of labor, and a v a i l a b i l i t y 3f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s and equipment. The d e s i g n e r should know how many hours per day t h e system i s t o be operated s i n c e t h i s a f f e c t s i t s design. No matter how technic a l l y sound a p l a n i s , it cannot be e f f e c t i v e i f t h e farmer does n o t have confidence i n t h e p l a n o r t h e a b i l i t y o r d e s i r e t o put it i n t o operation. Consider E n t i r e Farm.--Seldom can a l l t h e i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s f o r an e n t i r e farm be e s t a g l i s h e d a t one time. Usually s p e c i f i c f i e l d s o r a r e a s a r e planned i n d i v i d u a l l y , and establishment of an e n t i r e system takes s e v e r a l y e a r s . F i e l d s o r a r e a s planned without considering t h e surrcundi n g f i e l d s o r a r e a s may n o t f i t i n with f u t u r e expansion. When t h e s e new a r e a s a r e develcped, i t may be necessary t o rework e x i s t i n g a r e a s t o make them a p a r t of t h e o v e r a l l system. This i s c o s t l y and can be avoided i f t h e planner s t u d i e s t h e e n t i r e farm before planning any p a r t of it. Locate t h e high p o i n t s i n a f i e l d and determine t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n and drainage. Determine t h e s o i l boundaries, probable crop r o t a t i o n s , and f e a s i b i l i t y 3f land l e v e l i n g . Locate f i e l d boundaries and farm roads. From t h i s preliminary p l a n it should be p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r mine t h e b e s t d e l i v e r y p o i n t f o r t h e water. Planning Procedure A f t e r a preliminary plan has been made, s t u d i e d , and discussed with t h e farmer, d e t a i l e d plans f o r any a r e a on t h e farm can then be prepared. F i r s t , s e l e c t a method of water a p p l i c a t i o n f o r each f i e l d and prepare a layout. Then design t h e d e l i v e r y , a p p l i c a t i o n , and d i s p c s a l f a c i l i t i e s a s w e l l a s t h e necessary access roads. S e l e c t Method Determine t h e method o r methods of water a p p l i c a t i o n b e s t s u i t e d t o each a r e a o r f i e l d . Several methods of a p p l i c a t i o n can be used on some s i t e s and only one method on o t h e r s . If more t h a n one method can be used, s t u d y and evaluate each a s t o e f f i c i e n c y of water a p p l i c a t i o n and arrangement of i r r i g a t i o n u n i t s and o t h e r necessary f a c i l i t i e s . I n t h i s way t h e method t h a t b e s t f i t s t h e f i e l d s and crops and i s agreeable t o t h e farmer can be used. Layout Planning a g e n e r a l layout f o r subdividing and i r r i g a t i n g t h e a r e a i n u n i t s of s u i t a b l e dimensions is t h e next s t e p . Areas d e l i n e a t e d according t o s l o p e and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s provide a b a s i s f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t f i e l d arrangement and f o r l o c a t i n g f i e l d d i t c h e s . Here again consider a l t e r n a t e layouts. Some l a y o u t s a r e more expensive t h a n o t h e r s and some a r e more s u i t a b l e t h a n o t h e r s . Some d e s i r a b l e but

3-5

c o s t l y layouts may not be j u s t i f i e d because of t h e f a r m e r ' s f i n a n c i a l resources o r because of t h e low-value crops t h a t a r e a p a r t of t h e farm enterprise. Application Next design t h e a p p l i c a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . You can determine t h e amount of water t h a t must bk-applied i n a normal i r r i g a t i o n , t h e time allowed f o r a p ~ l y i n gi t , and t h e r a t e a t which i t can be applied from t h e l o c a l irr i g a t i o n guide. Then determine t h e amount of water t h a t must be d e l i v ered t o a f i e l d . Plan f o r land l e v e l i n g i f it i s needed. Lccate and des i g n t h e head d i t c h o r p i p e l i n e t o f i t t h e method of i r r i g a t i o n used. Locate and design d i t c h e s , pipes, levees, and t h e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s water t~ t h e f i e l d i n t h e amount and r a t e required by needed t o a p ~ l y t h e crop and s o i l . Delivery Plan t h e d e l i v e r y f a c i l i t i e s sc t h a t they permit d e l i v e r y cf water t o t h e d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s i n t h e volume m d r a t e required by t h e method cf a p p l i c a t i o n previously s e l e c t e d . S e l e z t and design t h e method of conveyance, e i t h e r d i t c h 3r p i p e l i n e . Locate and design a l l t h e necessary grade-contrcl and d i s t r i b u t i o n - c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e c , including measuring devices.

Disposal Fian f o r xhe d i s p o s a l of any i r r i g a t i c n waste water and excess r a i n f a l l prornp-cly and s a f e l y . i o n s i d e r recovery of waste water f o r reuse. Include a l l r1ecessar.y d i s p o s a l f a z i l i t i e s - - d i t c h e s , pipe, t i l e , s t r u c t u r e s , and pumps. Factors i n Planning
A well-designed conservation i r r i g a t i o n system d e l i v e r s t h e required a m o u t of water t o a l l p a r t s of t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d a t t h e required r a t e without damage t o t h e s o i l o r excessive l o s s of water. It i s access i b l e and easy t o o ~ e r a t e without o b s t r u c t i n g o+,her farming operations. To plan such an i r r i g a t i o n system you must h o w t h e many f a c t o r s that a f f e c t design i n t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d . Study such f a c t o r s as s o i l s , topcgraphy, c r o p tc be i r r i g a t e d , water supply, e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s , and a v a i l a b l e c o n s r r u c t i m and farm e q u i ~ m e n t .

Soils S o i l i s t h e foundation an which a conservation i r r i g a t i o n system must be b u i i t . It m i l s t be i r r i g a b l e , t h a t i s , capable of s u s t a i n i n g y i e l d s high encugh t o pay t h e c o s t s of development plus %hose af farming c p e r a t i o n s and maintenance. A farmer must be a b l e t o g e t a p r o f i t from i r r i g a t i o n without s o i l d e t e r i c r a t i o n .
A s o i l survey i s e s s e n t i a l t o i r r i g a t i o n planning. It i s t h e b a s i s f o r d e t e r n i n i n g i f t h e s o i l s a r e i r r i g a b i e and i s used by t h e planner t o f i t t h e system t o t h e s o i l . Tne l o c a t i o n and ex-Lent of s o i i s t h a t d i f f e r

widely must be considered i n deciding how an a r e a can be subdivided, i f necessary, s o t h a t s u i t a b l e a p p l i c a t i o n methods aqd required amounts of water can be determined. The most important s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s i t s a b i l i t y t o t a k e up and r e t a i n water. Other s o i l conditions t h a t a f f e c t planning of i r r i g a t i o n should be noted, such a s high water t a b l e , r e s t r i c t i o n s t o drainage, erosion hazard, plowsoles and compacted areas, and high s a l t content. To e v a l u a t e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a knowledge of t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l and how they a f f e c t t h e design and o p e r a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n systems i s needed. Soil-plant-water r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e discussed i n chapt e r 1. I n t a k e Rates You must know t h e r a t e a t which water e n t e r s a s o i l under t h e varying land u s e and cropping conditions t h a t may occur during t h e period when i r r i g a t i o n water i s t o be applied; Surface s e a l i n g , compaction, s o i l and water s a l t s , sediment i n i r r i g a t i o n water, s o i l erosion, land l e v e l i n g , t i l l a g e p r a c t i c e s , and o t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e i n t a k e r a t e of any s o i l . Any one o r a combination may b e p r e s e n t . These f a c t o r s must be evaluated i n determining t h e design i n t a k e r a t e . The i n t a k e r a t e of a s o i l a f f e c t s t h e method of water a p p l i c a t i o n , l e n g t h of run, and time of a p p l i c a t i o n , which i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e c o s t of a system. You must h o w t h e r a t e a t which water passes through a s o i l t o e v a l u a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r leaching and subsurface drainage. The r a t i o of l a t e r a l movement of moisture t o downward movement i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t i n s e l e c t i n g and designing some methods of water a p p l i c a t i o n . Water-Holding Capacity You must know t h e amount of water a s o i l can hold a v a i l a b l e t o p l a n t s . The water-holding c a p a c i t y l i m i t s t h e amount of water t h a t can b e app l i e d a t any one i r r i g a t i o n . For a given crop a s o i l w i t h low waterholding c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e s s m a l l e r and more f r e q u e n t i r r i g a t i o n s than a s o i l w i t h high water-holding c a p a c i t y . This i s one f a c t o r i n determining t h e number of days t h a t can be allowed f o r applying i r r i g a t i o n water and hence i s one b a s i s f o r c a p a c i t y and equipment design. The i r r i g a t i o n system must be designed s o t h a t water can be applied over t h e e n t i r e f i e l d b e f o r e a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e s t o r e d moisture i n any p a r t of t h e f i e l d i s used by a crop (chap. 1). Depth For i r r i g a t i o n s o i l depth i s t h e depth from which a p l a n t e x t r a c t s moisture. A s o i l t h a t permits normal r o o t development and p e n e t r a t i o n provides maximum water s t o r a g e . R e s t r i c t i n g l a y e r s , such a s rock, s e v e r e l y compacted l a y e r s , sand l e n s e s , o r a h i g h water t a b l e , a f f e c t t h e moisturestorage capacity. Other C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s The depth t o and t h i c k n e s s of l a y e r s having important t e x t u r a l o r s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e important i n design. Texture i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d

with workability and f e a s i b i l i t y of using a s o i l f c r c o n s t r u c t i n g e a r t h works such a s d i t c h e s and dikes. S o i l permeability i s important i n l o c a t i n g and b u i l d i n g canals and r e s e r v o i r s . Impermeable o r very slowly permeable m a t e r i a l a f f e c t s c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s and t h e t y p e of construct i o n used. Natural d e n s i t y of s o i l m a t e r i a l and response t o compaction i s used i n estimating t h e adjustments needed t o balance c u t s and f i l l s f o r land l e v e l i n g and i n s e l e c t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r t h e e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s t h a t m a y be required t o support loads o r r e s t r a i n water movement.

It i s h i g h l y important i n land l e v e l i n g t o h o w t h e s o i l p r o f i l e condit i o n s and t h e m a x i m cut t h a t can be made without s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l production. I f l e v e l i n g w i l l expose l a r g e a r e a s of i n f e r t i l e s u b s o i l , i t may not be advisable t o l e v e l t h e land f o r s u r f a c e methods of water a p p l i c a t i o n and s p r i n k l e r s may be needed i n s t e a d . &posing a small amount of i n f e r t i l e s u b s o i l i n a few small a r e a s g e n e r a l l y i s perm i s s i b l e i n l e v e l i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e improvement of an e n t i r e f i e l d depends on t h i s exposure. The f e a s i b i l i t y of r e s t o r i n g exposed s u b s o i l t o an economic l e v e l of p r o d u c t i v i t y should be ccnsidered. Some s ~ b s o i l s respond quickly t o needed soil-management treatments and o t h e r s do not. B u t exposing a few nonproductive s p o t s by grading u s u a l l y i s outweighed by t h e advantages of having a f i e l d properly l e v e l e d f o r e f f i c i e n t water a p p l i c a t i o n . I f it i s necessary t o remove much t o p s o i l i n l e v e l i n g , it may be advantageous t o s t o c k p i l e it and respread it on t h e exposed subsoil

Drainage Good drainage, both s u r f a c e and i n t e r n a l , i s e s s e n t i a l t o s u c c e s s f u l i r r i g a t i o n . I f t h e land i s n o t n a t u r a l l y w e l l drained, a r t i f i c i a l d r a i n age must be e s t a b l i s h e d before o r a t t h e same time t h e i r r i g a t i o n system i s i n s t a l l e d . To plan a s a t i s f a c t o r y i r r i g a t i o n system you must have a working knowledge of drainage. I n humid areas subsurface drainage i s h i g h l y important i f t h e s o i l s a r e permeable enough f o r subsurface d r a i n s t o be e f f e c t i v e i n lowering t h e water t a b l e t o t h e depth required f o r good growing conditions. Surface drainage i s always needed t o remove excess runoff. Wet s o i l s t h a t delay p l a n t i n g i n t h e spring, impede crop growth, and delay harv e s t i n g cannot be i r r i g a t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y . In a r i d a r e a s removing excess i r r i g a t i o n water, p a r t i c u l a r l y ground water, i s a primary f u n c t i o n of drainage. Water l o s t through deep perc ~ l a t i o ni n c r e a s e s t h e amount of ground water i n a s o i l and may cause t h e water t a b l e t o r i s e t o a l e v e l a t which crops a r e damaged. Subsurf a c e d r a i n s are then necessary. b n o f f from p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y small i n a r i d and semiarid regions, and d i s p o s a l d i t c h e s f o r any irrig a t i o n waste water a r e o f t e n adequate f o r disposing cf any s u r f a c e runoff from t n e low p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Subsurface drainage may be needed t o prevent o r modify s a l i n e - a l k a l i c o n d i t i o n s i n a s o i l by leaching.

Seepage from i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s can damage land and waste water. I f s i t e conditions r e q u i r e conveying water across gravelly, sandy, o r o t h e r exc e s s i v e l y permeable areas, t h e i r r i g a t i o n system design must provide f o r p i p e l i n e s , flumes, o r l i n e d d i t c h e s a s needed t o prevent l o s s of water by seepage i n t o t h e s o i l . Proper seepage c o n t r o l reduces t h e need f o r drainage. For a d d i t i o n a l information on drainage s e e s e c t i o n 16 of t h e National Fhgineering Handbook. Erosion Erosion, by e i t h e r i r r i g a t i o n water o r r a i n , can be a hazard ts t h e operation and maintenance of an i r r i g a t i o n system. Furthermore, high y i e l d s of i r r i g a t e d crops cannot be maintained on eroding land. I r r i g a t i o n should n o t be planned f o r land s u b j e c t t o erosion u n t i l erosion contzol measures have been e s t a b l i s h e d o r a r e provided f o r i n t h e farm i r r i g a t i m system. Erosion c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s and t h e i r r i g a t i c n system need t o be f i t t e d t o g e t h e r f o r ease of operation and uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of water. Some s o i l s a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o erosion than e t h e r s . You must know 'the e r o d i b i l i t y of t h e s o i l s t o be i r r i g a t e d and then evaluate t h e f a c t o r s t h a t cause erosion and allow f o r them i n planning t h e i r r i g a t i o n system. Water erosion may b e caused by t h e i r r i g a t i o n stream, runoff from adjacent areas, o r water t h a t f a l l s d i r e c t l y on t h e i r r i g a t e d area, e i t h e r as r a i n f a l l o r from s p r i n k l e r s . You must provide f o r conveying and d i s t r i b u t i n g i r r i g a t i o n water without damaging erosion. A l l unlined d i t c h e s must be located on nonerosive grades. I f water must be c a r r i e d down slopes s t e e p enough t o cause an excessive flow velociy, you must provide f o r erosion c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s , such a s drops, chutes, buried p i p e l i n e s , a r e r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t d i t c h l i n i n g s i n t h e design. Where flumes, chutes, o r p i ~ e l i n e sdesigned f o r high-velocity flows discharge i n t o unlined d i t c h e s , you must plan s t i l l i n g basins o r other energyd i s s i p a t i n g devices.

The r a t e a t which water is applied must be controlled so t h a t it does n o t cause erosion. Some movement of s o i l p a r t i c l e s a l i a y s occurs when water flows over l o o s e b a r e s o i l . If stream s i z e i s a f j u s t e d t o t h e slope, erosion can be kept t o a minimum f o r s u r f a c e i r i a t i o n . In some a r e a s it i s r a i n f a l l amount and i n t e n s i t y and not irrigation stream s i z e t h a t governs t h e c o n t r o l measures used.

I'

If s p r i n k l e r s a r e t o be used, you must design t h e r a t e of a p ~ l i c a t i o n so t h a t it does n o t cause runoff t h a t adds t o t h e erosion hazard. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n humid a r e a s where a heavy rainstorm immediately a f t e r an i r r i g a t i o n may cause excessive runoff. S i z e of t h e drops from t h e s p r i n k l e r s a l s o i s important. Large drops dislodge p a r t i c l e s of s o i l t h a t can e a s i l y be c a r r i e d away by runoff water. On bare f i e l d s , new seedings, and row crops, r a i n o r s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n may compact and s e a l t h e s o i l surface. This reduces water absorption and i n c r e a s e s t h e erosion hazard. A crop cover o r mulch d i s s i p a t e s t h e energy of f a l l i n g water, and t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no s u r f a c e s e a l i n g o r erosion. In a r e a s where t h e r a t e of p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o exceed a s o i l ' s i n t a k e r a t e ,

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runoff and e r o s i o n may b e a problem. This problem u s u a l l y can b e handled by i n s t a l l i n g conservation p r a c t i c e s such a s changing land cover, degree of slope, o r l e n g t h of slope. I f runoff from a d j a c e n t a r e a s i s l i k e l y t o cause erosion o r flooding, p l a n s must be made f o r e i t h e r t h e d i v e r s i o n o r c o n t r o l l e d conveyance of t h e runoff water. Winds damage crops, s o i l , topography, and i r r i g a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s and may a f f e c t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water. I n a r e a s where s t r o n g winds blow during t h e growing season, it i s o f t e n necessary t o e s t a b l i s h r e medial measures. Winds m a y remove s u r f a c e s o i l o r d e p o s i t s o i l m a t e r i a l on o t h e r a r e a s . S o i l rernwal can u s u a l l y be reduced by vegetation, wind s t r i p s , t i l l a g e , o r s h e l t e r b e l t s . But t h e s e measures may lead t o s o i l accumulation i f a d j a c e n t a r e a s a r e n o t s i m i l a r l y p r o t e c t e d . Therefore, you must n o t only determine t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of wind erosion on t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d b u t a l s o consider c o n d i t i o n s on a d j a c e n t a r e a s b e f o r e s e l e c t i n g an i r r i g a t i o n method. Since canals, d i t c h e s , and ~ t h e r open s t r u c t u r e s may be r a p i d l y f i l l e d by windborne m a t e r i a l s , c c n s i d e r using closed conduits where t h i s hazard e x i s t s . Earth embankments, such a s dams, c a n a l banks, and border r i d g e s o r levees, may be damaged by wave a c t i o n i f long open reaches are p a r a l l e l t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind d i r e c t i o n . This hazard can b e cvercome by l o c a t i n g t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s s3 a s t o reduce t h e f e t c h o r by using r i p r a p and ~ther p r o t e c t i v e measures such a s f a l s e berms o r b a f f l e s . S a l i n e o r Alkali Conditions S a l i n e o r a l k a l i s o i l r r e q u i r e s p e c i a l i r r i g a t i o n planning. S e l e c t i o n of crops, f e r t i l i z e r requirements, and t h e need f o r leaching and s o i l amendments must be considered. There may be some l i m i t a t i o n s on water-applic a t i o n methods t h a t can be used. S a l i n e and a l k a l i s o i l s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o a r i d r e g i o n s where t h e r e i s n o t enough r a i n f a l l t o l e a c h s a l t from t h e s o i l . But i n a r e a s where b r a c k i s h water i s used f o r i r r i g a t i c n , t h e s o i l s may a l s o show e f f e c t s of s a l t accumulation. S a l i n e s o i l s o r d i n a r i l y a r e s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e i n r e a c t i o n (PH 7.0 t o 8 . 5 ) b u t contain very l i t t l e adsorbed sodium. They can o f t e n be recognized i n t h e f i e l d by white s a l t c r u s t s on t h e s u r f a c e , by a damp o i l y looking s u r f a c e devoid of vegetation, by s t u n t e d crop p l a n t s t h a t vary considerably i n s i z e and have deep blue-green f o l i a g e , and sometimes by t i p b u r n and f i r i n g of l e a f margins, To a s s e s s s o i l s a l i n i t y , however, chemical and e l e c t r i c a l - c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements must be made.

An a l k a l i s c i l may be h i g h l y a l k a l i n e b u t n o t contain excessive amounts of s o l u b l e s a l t s . These s o i l s correspond t o % l a c k a l k a l i 1 ( s o i l s and o f t e n occur i n s m a l l i r r e g u l a r a r e a s c a l l e d I f s l i c k Sodium u s u a l l y i s t h e dominant c a t i o n i n a l k a l i s o i l s .

A s a l i n e - a l k a l i s o i l contains excessive amounts of both s o l u b l e s a l t s and adsorbed sodium. A s long a s t h e y contain excess s a l t s , t h e s e s o i l s u s u a l l y a r e s i m i l a r i n appearance and p r o p e r t i e s t o s a l i n e s o i l s . I f t h e excess s o l u b l e s a l t s a r e leached out, t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s may change markedly and become s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of a l k a l i s o i l s . They become s t r o n g l y a l k a l i n e , s o i l p a r t i c l e s d i s p e r s e , and t h e s o i l s become unf a v o r a b l e f o r t h e e n t r y and movement of water and gases and f o r t i l l a g e . A high s a l t concentration i n t h e s o i l s o l u t i o n i n t e r f e r e s with t h e a b i l i t y of a p l a n t t o absorb both moisture and p l a n t n u t r i e n t s from t h e s o i l . If t o o high i n t h e r o o t zone, it i s d e t r i m e n t a l t o p l a n t growth r e g a r d l e s s of t h e kind of s a l t p r e s e n t . Small q u a n t i t i e s of some s a l t s may reduce y i e l d s of s e n s i t i v e crops and only s l i g h t l y l a r g e r amounts may prevent crop growth. Some a l k a l i s a l t s cause u n d e s i r a b l e changes i n t h e p h y s i c a l condition of s o i l s , reducing p e r m e a b i l i t y and i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t y of c u l t i v a t i o n .

S a l i n e s o i l s can b e improved by leaching--applying e x t r a water t o a f i e l d and allowing i t t o soak through t h e s o i l , d r a i n i n g t h e s a l t s away. Alkali s o i l s can b e improved by adding chemicals such a s gypsum o r s u l f u r , leaching t h e s o i l , and then using p r a c t i c e s t h a t b u i l d s o i l s t r u c t u r e . S a l i n e - a l k a l i s o i l s can be improved i n t h e same way. Usually it i s b e s t to ap~ly t h e chemicals b e f o r e leaching. Topography Topography i s a major f a c t o r i n determining t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of i r r i g a t i o n , s e l e c t i n g t h e method of i r r i g a t i o n , e s t i m a t i n g t h e number and kind of water-control s t r u c t u r e s needed, and determining t h e need f o r land l e v e l ing. The r e l a t i v e e l e v a t i o n of t h e water source, t h e land s u r f a c e between t h e water source and t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d , t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e a r e a t o b e i r r i g a t e d , and t h e drainage o u t l e t s a r e t h e important topographic f e a t u r e s t h a t must be known t o p r o p e r l y plan a farm conserv a t i o n i r r i g a t i o n system. You may b e a b l e t o l e a r n enough by a simple inspection, o r you may need t o make a survey. Detailed surveys a r e gene r a l l y needed t o design a system. The kind of topographic survey needed depends on t h e i r r i g a t i o n method t o be used and i r r e g u l a r i t y of t h e ground s u r f a c e . Since d e t a i l e d topographic surveys a r e time consuming and expensive, g e t only enough i n f o r mation t o permit sound and a c c u r a t e planning. Any topographic survey begins with a base map t h a t shows boundaries and dimensions of t h e f i e l d s t o be i r r i g a t e d and l o c a t i o n of t h e water supply. Such a map can be made by t r a c i n g an enlarged a e r i a l photo, u s u a l l y a t a s c a l e of 50 t o 200 f e e t t o t h e inch. The g e n e r a l topographic information needed f o r planning most i r r i g a t i o n systems and methods of a p p l i c a t i o n i n c l u d e s a s a minixnun t h e following:
1. Source and e l e v a t i o n of t h e water supply f o r t h e a r e a under consideration

2. Landscape f e a t u r e s , such a s fences, buildings, roads, and s h e l t e r b e l t s , t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e l a y o u t and design of t h e system 3. Present f i e l d boundaries 4. Drainage p a t t e r n of t h e farm, including o u t l e t s

Additional topographic information needed depends on t h e method of water application. Sprinkler I r r i g a t i o n For planning s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n systems, t h e following a d d i t i o n a l topographic information i s g e n e r a l l y needed:
1. Direction of land s l o p e t o l o c a t e l a t e r a l s and main l i n e s 2. Changes i n e l e v a t i o n along l a t e r a l - l i n e s e t t i n g s t o design a system t h a t c o n t r o l s v a r i a t i o n s i n s p r i n k l e r discharge 3 . Maximum d i f f e r e n c e s i n e l e v a t i o n along t h e main l i n e and between t h e i r r i g a t e d a r e a and t h e water source

If s l o p e s a r e g e n t l e and f a i r l y uniform, checking t h e e l e v a t i o n a t a few l o i n t s along p o s s i b l e p o i n t s along t h e s i d e cf t h e f i e l d , a t c o n t r ~ p main-line l o c a t i o n s , and a t t h e water source i s enough. On r o l l i n g land o r i f crop rows must be on -the contour, o r on i e v e l land where s u r f a c e drainage i s a problem, a more d e t a i l e d survey i s needed, including a contour map of t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d . Surf ace I r r i g a t i o n For s u r f a c e methods not r e q u i r i n g land l e v e l i n g , a l e s s d e t a i l e d survey w i l l s u f f i c e . Generally about a l l t h a t i s needed i s t h e e l e v a t i o n of n a t u r a l ridges, depressions, and o t h e r f e a t u r e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e l o c a t i o n of contour d i t c h e s , f i e l d supply d i t c h e s , and drainage d i t c h e s . If water i s t o be applied by graded borders, furrows, o r o t h e r s u r f a c e methods r e q u i r i n g land l e v e l i n g , a complete topographic survey i s r e quired. It must show t h e s l o p e and s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s needing c o r r e c t i o n by land l e v e l i n g a s well a s t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n . Subirrigation I f a f i e l d i s t o be s u b i r r i g a t e d , you must know t h e g e n e r a l topography t o l o c a t e water-application conduits and water-level-control s t r u c t u r e s . The i n t e n s i t y of survey needed v a r i e s with l o c a t i o n . For n e a r l y l e v e l uniform f i e l d s you need only those e l e v a t i o n s t h a t show t h e g e n e r a l slope, ridges, and depressions. For o t h e r f i e l d s a topographic map may be needed, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f land l e v e l i n g i s needed t o keep t h e water t a b l e a t t h e same depth between d i s t r i b u t i o n d i t c h e s o r t i l e l i n e s . Supply Lines I f open d i t c h e s o r permanent buried p i p e l i n e s a r e t o c a r r y water from t h e source t o t h e f i e l d supply d i t c h e s , determine t h e i r l o c a t i o n by standard route-type survey. You need a p r o f i l e of each proposed centerl i n e and, t o compute t h e amount of excavation needed, a cross s e c t i o n also.

Conservation P r a c t i c e s If t e r r a c e s a r e t o be used with s p r i n k l e r s o r contour furrows, you need enough topographic information t o - l a y o u t t h e t e r r a c e s and t o l b c a t e and plan t h e t e r r a c e o u t l e t s . If contour bench l e v e l i n g i s proposed f o r r e ducing grade on a f i e l d where s t e e p s l o p e s make s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n d i f f i c u l t and hazardous, you need d e t a i l e d topographic information (chap. 12, Land Leveling )

Water Supply A supply of water adequaie f o r t h e needs of t h e crops t c be i r r i g a t e d must be a v a i l a b l e when needed. Water supply i s o f t e n $he c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r i n i r r i g a t i o n f e a s i b i l i t y and t h e number of acres t h a t can be i r r i g a t e d . Make a d e t a i l e d inventory b e f o r e planning t o make s u r e t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e water supply i s adequate. Find out he p o s s i b l e sources and t h e r a t e , q u a i i t y , and q u a n t i t y of water a v a i l a b l e a t each l o c a t i o n . Determine seasonal v a r i a t i o n s i n suppiy a s well as those during t h e growing season. You may need t o study t h e supply by months o r s h o r t e r periods i n r e l a t i o n t o crop requirements. The i r r i g a t o r ' s water r i g h t s should a l s o be known. Water Rights Water r i g h t s a r e t h e l e g a l means by which water can be used. In a r e a s covered by l e g i s l a t i v e codes, t h e procedures f o r acquiring water r i g h t s have been devised p r i m a r i l y t o p r o t e c t t h e i r owners. In a r e a s n o t covered by l e g i s l a t i v e codes, i t i s advisable f o r a water u s e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i n i t i a l d a t e and amount of appropriation, t h e p o i n t of diversion, and t h e period of use by witness a f f i d a v i t i n a form acceptable t o a c o u r t o r j u r i s d i c t i o n i n t h e event of water l e g i s l a t i o n cr suits cont e s t i n g water r i g h t s . The e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e United S t a t e s i s n o t covered by i e g i s l a t i v e codes, but water u s e i s based upon t h e r i p a r i a n p r i n c i p l e . Under t h i s p r i n c i p l e , owners of land touching a stream have equal r i g h t s t o use of t h e water. Other landowners do not have such r i g h t s . The riparian owner has t h e r i g h t t o have a stream flow p a s t h i s land s u b s t a n t i a l l y unimpaired i n q u a l i t y and undiminished i n q u a n t i t y by water u s e r s above him. Each r i p a r i a n landowner, however, m a y make reasonabie use of t h e water f o r domestic o r o t h e r purposes. A l l domestic uses must be s a t i s f i e d bef o r e any water can b e taken f o r nondomestic uses. What i s reasonable use depends on supply, kind and means of use, and o t h e r circumstances a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r time and place. Because r i p a r i a n r i g h t s a r e n o t w e l l def i n e d , investments i n water development based on r i p a r i a n r i g h t s a r e n o t a s dependable a s they should be. Ground-water r i g h t s a r e based on both court d e c i s i o n s and l e g i s l a t i v e a c t s . Ground-water r i g h t s vary by S t a t e do n o t o f f e r much p r o t e c t i o n . and ~ f t e n

All t h e 1 7 Western S t a t e s have p r i o r - a p p r o p r i a t i o n laws. Under t h i s p r i n c i p l e t h e f i r s t o r e a r l i e r u s e r of water f o r a b e n e f i c i a l purpose has t h e b e s t r i g h t . His r i g h t i s s p e c i f i c a s t o time, place, and amount. The r i g h t of o t h e r s t o use water from a source i s s u b j e c t t o t h e r i g h t

of t h e p r i o r u s e r . In times of shortage any reduction t o u s e r s i s i n t h e reverse- order by which water r i g h t s were obtained. Therefore i n t h e West, i f an i r r i g a t o r has a water r i g h t , it i s u s u a l l y good t o t h e e x t e n t of h i s p r i o r i t y and most water r i g h t s a r e w e l l defined. Procuring o r e s t a b l i s h i n g water r i g h t s i s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e water user. mantity The q u a n t i t y of i r r i g a t i o n water required f o r any p a r t i c u l a r period should equal o r exceed t h e gross i r r i g a t i e n requirement f o r t h a t period. To t h i s amount must be added any water required f o r leaching, temperature control, o r f r o s t c o n t r o l . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e t o t a l amount of water required, r a t e of d e l i v e r y i s an important f a c t o r i n designing and operating an i r r i g a t i o n system. S o i l moisture must be replaced before crop prcduction i s reduced by t h e l a c k of a v a i l a b l e moisture i n t h e s o i l . The r a t e cf d e l i v e r y p e r u n i t of a r e a must be equal t o t h e g r o s s a p p l i c a t i m p e r i r r i g a t i o n f o r t h e speci f i e d operating time. Rate of d e l i v e r y "an be computed by t h e e q u a t i ~ n

where Q = r a t e of d e l i v e r y i n g a l l o n s per minute

A = acreage of design area

d = g r o s s depth of a p p l i c a t i o n i n ax-e-inches per a c r e

F = number of days allowed f o r completion of one i r r i g a t i o n

H = number of a c t u a l operating hours per day

Fac-tors ( d ) and ( F ) can be obtained from t h e l o c a l i r r i g a t i o n guide. F a c t ~ r s(A) and ( d ) a r e s e t , b u t F and H can be varied according t c a f a r m e r ' s wishes. The guide gives t h e maximum number of days t h a t can be allowed f o r completing one i r r i g a t i o n ( F ) . The number of a c t u a l operating hours p e r day (H) must be t h e f a r m e r ' s decision. H e may wish t o i r r i g a t e h i s acreage i n l e s s than t h e allowable number of days o r he may have l a b o r a v a i l a b l e f o r only p a r t of a day. Delivery may be continuous, on demand o r modified demand, o r a t f i x e d i n t e r v a l s ( r o t a t i o n ) . Demand o r modified demand schedules of d e l i v e r y a r e p r e f e r r e d . Continuous and f i x e d schedules of d e l i v e r y do not g i v e encugh consideration t o v a r i a t i o n s i n r a i n f a l l and consumptive use. But f o r some crops and i r r i g a t i o n systems demand d e l i v e r y may be t h e same a s continuous f o r most of t h e i r r i g a t i o n season.

In determining t h e n e t i r r i g a t i o n requirement, c a l c u l a t e consumptive u s e f o r t h e crops t o be grown. The n e t i r r i g a t i o n water requirement f o r a crop i s t o t a l consurrrptive use of t h e crop l e s s e f f e c t i v e growingseason r a i n f a l l , carry-over s o i l moisture from winter r a i n s , and any moisture from ground water. By applying t h e expected f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y t o t h e n e t i r r i g a t i o n water requirement you a r r i v e a t t h e g r o s s f i e l d requirement. To t h i s f i g u r e add expected water l o s s e s from t h e source t o t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n and any amount needed f o r leaching, temperature control, e t c . , t o g e t t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y of i r r i g a t i o n water needed. Consumptive use, e f f e c t i v e r a i n f a l l , carry-over s o i l moisture, and i r r i g a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y a r e discussed i n d e t a i l i n o t h e r chapters of s e c t i o n 15 of t h e National Engineering Handbook. Getting a dependable water supply cannot be based on t h e average r e q u i r e ment s i n c e t h e supply would be adequate approximately h a l f t h e t i n e . It i s common p r a c t i c e , t h e r e f o r e , t o e s t i m a t e water needs on a p r o b a b i l i t y b a s i s . High-value crops may j u s t i f y a water supply t h a t i s adequate 9 y e a r s i n 10. On the o t h e r hand f o r a low-value crop, such as hay o r pasture, i t may n o t be economical t o provide an adequate supply more than 5 years i n 10. Each case must be analyzed i n d i v i d u a l l y . Quality Quality i s important i n evaluating i r r i g a t i o n water supply. Unless water q u a l i t y has been determined previously, have an a n a l y s i s made and evaluated b e f o r e recommending t h e water f o r i r r i g a t i o n . Generally i m p u r i t i e s c a r r i e d i n s o l u t i o n determine water q u a l i t y . But those i n suspension may have important e f f e c t s on q u a l i t y . Whether water of a c e r t a i n q u a l i t y i s s u i t a b l e depends on l o c a l conditions--climate, s o i l s , crops grown, and depth of water applied. R a i n f a l l and snowmelt p i c k up s o l u b l e s a l t s and s i l t p a r t i c l e s a s they flow along t h e ground s u r f a c e t o streams. Water flowing i n stream chann e l s p i c k s up a d d i t i o n a l i m p u r i t i e s . Runoff water and excess i r r i g a t i o n water t h a t i n f i l t r a t e i n t o a s o i l p i c k up s o l u b l e compounds as they p e r c o l a t e through e a r t h formations t o streams o r t o underground r e s e r v o i r s , Percolating water commonly d i s s o l v e s more s a l t s than s u r f a c e water. Unless s u r f ace water flows over exposed beds of s o l u b l e m a t e r i a l , i t seldom has a high s a l t concentration. B u t stream flows during lowwater periods, when discharge i s maintained by ground-water runoff, cont a i n higher concentrations of s a l t s than stream flows during high-water periods. S a l t concentration i n streams flowing through i r r i g a t e d regions o f t e n i n c r e a s e s during summer and f a l l a s water moves downstream because of h e a v i l y charged r e t u r n flows of excess i r r i g a t i o n water. In g e n e r a l t h e proportion of s a l t s i n i r r i g a t i o n water i s g r e a t e r (1)i n groundwater runoff than i n s u r f ace runoff, ( 2 ) during low stream flow than during high-stream flow, ( 3 ) downstream than upstream, and ( 4 ) i n underground r e s e r v o i r s than i n s u r f a c e r e s e r v o i r s . Stream p o l l u t i o n from i n d u s t r i a l wastes and t i d e and wind conditions a f f e c t t h e q u a l i t y of i r r i g a t i o n water. S p e c i a l s t u d i e s and a d d i t i o n a l water-analysis d a t a a r e necessary t o e v a l u a t e q u a l i t y fully.

Brackish water i s contaminated by acids, b a s i c s a l t s , o r organic matter, whereas s a l i n e water contains only dissolved s a l t s . Sea water i s t h e chief contaminant of brackish water. S a l t s may accumulate i n s o i l s i n humid a r e a s i f b r a c k i s h water is used f o r i r r i g a t i o n . But because of r a i n f a l l and t h e u s u a l l y l i g h t a p p l i c a t i o n s of i r r i g a t i o n water, s a l t accumulation i s u s u a l l y confined t o t h e upper f o o t of s o i l . In a r e a s of high r a i n f a l l , winter r a i n s u s u a l l y leach s a l t s out of t h e r o o t zone i f i n t e r n a l drainage i s good.

The amount of brackish water t h a t can be used depends on i t s s a l t conc e n t r a t i o n , number of i r r i g a t i o n s between leaching r a i n s , s a l t t o l e r a n c e of t h e crop, and s a l t content of t h e s o i l before i r r i g a t i o n . You should determine t h e s a l t content of t h e i r r i g a t i o n water, check t h e accumulat i o n of s a l t i n t h e s o i l , and know t h e s a l t - t o l e r a n t crops t h a t can be grown on t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d . Type of Supply The b a s i c source of water f o r i r r i g a t i o n i s p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Sources of supply a r e u s u a l l y considered i n two g e n e r a l c l a s s e s , s u r f a c e and subs u r f ace. A t h i r d miscellaneous c l a s s includes c i t y water, sewage, and i n d u s t r i a l wastes. The type of supply, p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s r a t e of d e l i v e r y , has some bearing on method of water a p p l i c a t i o n and layout of an i r r i g a t i o n system. Various types of water supply a r e discussed i n t h e following paragraphs. In g e n e r a l water f o r i r r i g a t i o n i s obtained from one primary source, b u t i n some p l a c e s an a d d i t i o n a l supply i s required from a supplemental source. Surface Water.--Surface water i s a p r i n c i p a l source of water f o r irrig a t i o n . Surface s u p p l i e s include water d i v e r t e d o r pumped from streams; water r e l e a s e d from l a k e s o r r e s e r v o i r s d i r e c t l y i n t o a farm i r r i g a t i o n system o r i n t o canals leading t o a farm; water pumped from lakes, r e s e r v o i r s , and canals, o r obtained from o t h e r s u r f a c e sources. Excess irrig a t i o n water t h a t reaches streams through s u r f a c e drainage, flow through drainage d i t c h e s , o r p e r c o l a t i n g r e t u r n flow from i r r i g a t e d land and a v a i l a b l e f o r r e d i v e r s i o n is g e n e r a l l y considered a s u r f a c e supply. Streams.--Streamflow i s g e n e r a l l y t h e cheapest source of water f o r irrig a t i o n . I t i s a l s o t h e l e a s t dependable supply. I n t h e East where water r i g h t s follow t h e r i p a r i a n d o c t r i n e , i t s use i s l i m i t e d t o farms a b u t t i n g t h e streams. Year-round streams, u s u a l l y r i v e r s and l a r g e creeks, gene r a l l y a r e a good source of water. Smaller streams t h a t a r e dependent almost e n t i r e l y on r a i n f a l l have t h e i r lowest flow during t h e long d r y periods when water needs a r e g r e a t e s t .
A p e r e n n i a l stream i s a dependable source only a s long a s t h e acreage t o b e i r r i g a t e d needs no more water than t h e stream produces during drought periods. If t h e acreage t o be i r r i g a t e d r e q u i r e s more water than t h e dry-weather flow, t h e water must be impounded t o i n s u r e a n adequate source. Smaller p e r e n n i a l streams and i n t e r m i t t e n t streams a r e n o t dependable sources u n l e s s t h e i r water can be impounded.

Unless a stream i s l a r g e enough t h a t i t s adequacy a s a supply i s obvious, it is necessary t o determine t h e dependable dry-weather flow. The U.S. Geological Survey o r some o t h e r Federal o r S t a t e agency may have gaged t h e stream and can f u r n i s h d a t a f o r determining i t s d e p e n d a b i l i t y . If not, i t i s necessary t o measure t h e flow during a prolonged d r y period. Storage Supplies.--Storage s u p p l i e s i n c l u d e water held i n n a t u r a l l a k e s and s u r f a c e r e s e r v o i r s . Reservoirs s t o r i n g water f o r i r r i g a t i o n range from small impounding o r excavated farm ponds t o l a r g e impounding mainstream r e s e r v o i r s . Usually l a r g e r e s e r v o i r s a r e b u i l t t c f u r n i s h water t o a group o r groups of farmers through some kind of l e g a l organization, such as an i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t o r conservancy d i s t r i c t . Small farm ponds u s u a l l y a r e b u i l t f o r use on s i n g l e farms. The watershed y i e l d f o r an impounding i r r i g a t i o n r e s e r v o i r mst be enough t o provide t h e necessary supply during y e a r s of low y i e l d . A study of r a i n f a l l and runoff records o r stream gaging m a y be necessary t o determine t h i s y i e l d . In a d d i t i o n t o c a p a c i t y f o r s t o r i n g the g r o s s i r r i g a t i o n - w a t e r requirements, allowance must. be made f o r l o s s of water by evaporation and seepage and c a p a c i t y l o s s through s i l t a t i o n ( f i g . 3 - 2 ) . Depth of t h e water t h a t may be l o s t through evaporation can be estimated by procedures given i n s e c t i o n 4 of t h e National b g i n e e r i n g Handbook. Seepage depends on permeability of s o i l and rock m a t e r i a l s a t t h e r e s e r v o i r s i t e , e l e v a t i o n of t h e water t a b l e i n t h e surrounding formation, h y d r o s t a t i c head produced by s t o r e d water, embankment m a t e r i a l , and cons t r u c t i o n methods. N o l a r g e r e s e r v o i r should be constructed without thorough geologic i n v e s t i g a t i o n and approval of a competent engineering geologist.

Figure 3-2.--Water

l o s s i n an i r r i g a t i o n r e s e r v o i r .

The c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e d f o r sediment s t o r a g e depends on geologic, topographic, and hydrologic c o n d i t i o n s throughout t h e d r a i n a g e a r e a above a r e s e r v o i r s i t e . Conservation p r a c t i c e s should b e e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e watershed b e f o r e t h e r e s e r v o i r i s b u i l t t o hold sediment production t o a m i n i m . Loss of c a p a c i t y by s i l t a t i o n i n small farm r e s e r v o i r s can o f t e n be estimated by studying t h e e f f e c t on s i m i l a r r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e i m mediate a r e a having l i k e topographic and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s . For l a r g e r r e s e r v o i r s o r where t h e r e a r e no comparable r e s e r v o i r s , a d e t a i l e d s t u d y must be made of t h e l i k e l y sediment problem. Natural l a k e s a r e a good s o u r c e of i r r i g a t i o n water, b u t o f t e n withdrawal of water f o r i r r i g a t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d . More and more of our n a t u r a l l a k e s a r e being developed f o r r e c r e a t i o n and r e s i d e n t i a l use, and everything p o s s i b l e i s being done t o maintain l a k e l e v e l s . Unless a l a k e i s l a r g e o r a f a r m e r l s land completely surrounds it, o r he h a s l e g a l r i g h - t t o u s e t h e water, he may n o t have a dependable source of i r r i g a t i o n water. Offs5ream s t o r a g e should b e considered i f streamflow i s n o t enough t o p r c v i d e t h e r e q u i r e d amount of i r r i g a t i o n water c r i f damming a stzeam i s n o t p o s s i b l e c r f e a s i b l e . Floodflow i n t h e s t r e a m nan be d i v e r t e d through a p i p e o r open d i t c h o r pumped i n t o an o f f s t r e a m r e s e r v o i r . The water t h u s s t o r e d can then be used during t h e low dry-weather streamflow. This method a l s o h a s t h e advantage of n o t i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h low streamflow, which i s important i n a r e a s governed by r i p a r i a n r i g h t s . I f floodflow i s t o be impounded, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y t h e f loodflow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s t r e a m t o d e t e r x i n e i f floodflow provides enough water i n y e a r s of low r a i n f a l l o r snowmelt. Reservoir c a p a c i t y should b e enough -to supply i r r i g a t i o n needs when streamflow i s t o o low t o meet them.

A t some s i t e s i t may be p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t an e a r t h e n embankment across a g u l l y o r small v a l l e y t h a t contributes t o t h e stream i f t h e watershed above t h e embankment i s n o t l a r g e enough t o f u r n i s h t h e nece s s a r y i r r i g a t i m water. Some runoff can be s t o r e d and it i s n e c e s s a r y only t o pump enough water t o f i l l t h e r e s e r v o i r b e f o r e t h e i r r i g a t i o n season begins (fig. 3-3).
Supply Canals.--Canals a r e used t o f u r n i s h water t o grcups of i r r i g a t o r s . Water for t h e c a n a l can come f r m a r e s e r v o i r , s t r e a m d i v e r s i o n , pumping, o r some o t h e r source. The supply i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e grcup o r i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t . The time and amount of d e l i v e r y can be continuous, on demand, o r a t scheduled i n t e r v a l s . Location of t h e c a n a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a r e a t c be i r r i g a t e d and time of d e l i v e r y of t h e i r r i g a t i o n water has c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t cn layout, design, and o p e r a t i o n of a farm i r r i g a t i m system. Return Flow.--Return flow from an i r r i g a t e d a r e a i s p a r t of t h e d i v e r t e d water t h a t f i n d s i t s way back t o a s t r e a m zhannel. I t i n c l u d e s s u r f a c e runoff during i r r i g a t i o n , d r a i n a g e from c a n a l seepage, leakage a t c a n a l s t r u c t u r e s , waste-water d i s c h a r g e d u r i n g conveyance, discharge a t t h e

Figure 3-3.--0ff-stream

storage reservoir.

lower end of t h e canal, and drainage from exsess percolation during irr i g a t i o n . Return flow can be used t o i r r i g a t e land below t h e serviced a r e a o r it can be captured f o r use a s supplemental water. The amount of r e t u r n flow depends on t h e amount and timing of water diverted, conveyance and i r r i g a t i o n efficiency, subsurface s o i l formations, s u r f a c e s o i l texture, and drainage f a c i l i t i e s . It i s sometimes p o s s i b l e t o impound out-of-season r e t u r n flow i n r e s e r v o i r s f o r use during t h e next i r r i g a t i o n season. Tail-Water Recovery. --To obtain high e f f i c i e n c y i n graded-border o r furrow i r r i g a t i o n , it may be necessary t o permit some surf ace runoff a t t h e lower end of a f i e l d . In some areas of shallow s o i l s o r s t e e p grades, i t may not be p r a c t i c a l t o l e v e l land properly. If t h e water supply i s limited, it i s often economically f e a s i b l e t o recover t h i s waste water o r t a i l water and pump it back i n t o t h e d e l i v e r y system o r s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r f o r reuse, e i t h e r on t h e same f i e l d cr adjacent f i e l d s . The s t r u c t u r e s required usually c o n s i s t of a pickup d i t c h t h a t d i r e c t s water t o a sump or storage basin and a pump and p i p e l i n e s t o d e l i v e r water t o t h e desired elevation f o r reuse. Pickup d i t c h e s should be l a r g e enough f o r both i r r i g a t i o n water and runoff from r a i n f a l l . Sumps and pumps should have adequate capacity t o i n s u r e e f f i c i e n t use of t h e pump-back stream i n t h e i r r i g a t i o n system. If t h e capacity of t h e sump o r storage p i t i s low i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e volume of runoff t h a t can be expected, automatic c o n t r o l s on t h e pump a r e recommended.

Tail-water recovery f a c i l i t i e s should n o t be i n s t a l l e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r good i r r i g a t i o n water management but a s a supplement t o i n c r e a s e i r r i g a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . For furrow i r r i g a t i o n , a t a i l - w a t e r recovery system a l s c can be used t o e l i m i n a t e t h e l a b o r required f o r cutback streams while maintaining high e f f i c i e n c y . Drainage Recovery.--The amount of water t h a t can be recovered by d r a i n ing an i r r i g a t e d a r e a depends on s o i l s , l o s s e s and waste during conveyance, and excess water d e l i v e r e d t o i r r i g a t e d f i e l d s . It i s n o t economi c a l t o d r a i n i r r i g a t e d land f o r t h e s o l e purpose of recovering water. The main purpose of drainage i s t o r e c l a i m seep a r e a s and prevent f u r t h e r damage t o t h e land. The water recovered may be of lower q u a l i t y and i s g e n e r a l l y a supplemental supply t h a t can be used on lower l y i n g land. In some p l a c e s adequate drainage can be obtained by pumping deep w e l l s near i r r i g a t i o n canals and l a t e r a l s . The water can be pumped i n t o a canal o r l a t e r a l t o provide an a d d i t i o n a l supply. For t h i s method t o be f e a s i b l e t h e underground formation must be porous, extend t o considerable depths, and be continuous through a l a r g e a r e a s o t h a t t h e water can be drawn from a long d i s t a n c e . Subsurface Supplies.--Subsurface water i s cbtained by pumping porous o r cavernous formations, using flowing a r t e s i a n wells, o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e flow from l a r g e n a t u r a l s p r i n g s o r seepage areas. Ground water has t h e advantage of being f r e e from weed seeds and debris, which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n . Subsurface water s u p p l i e s a r e u s u a l l y developed and cperated by i n d i v i d u a l farmers o r by a few landowners working t o g e t h e r . The b e s t source of information about a v a i l a b i l i t y of ground water i s u s u a l l y a S t a t e g e o l o g i s t o r a Federal ground-water survey. Local w e l l d r i l l e r s can a l s o g i v e h e l p f u l information. Wells.--Most i r r i g a t i o n water from subsurface sources comes from w e l l s . A n i r r i g a t i o n w e l l c o n s i s t s of a hole, with o r without a supporting casing, extending from t h e ground s u r f a c e t o o r i n t o a water-bearing formation. I f t h e w e l l i s properly constructed and developed, t h e maximum amount of water t h a t t h e water-bearing formation can supply can be pumped. I n a r e a s where ground water i s p l e n t i f u l , w e l l s can u s u a l l y be located near t h e c e n t e r of t h e i r r i g a t e d a r e a f o r convenience and econo q of pumping. The requirements f ~ an r i r r i g a t i o n well a r e :
1. The l i f t should be a s small as possible. 2. The w e l l should have a long l i f e . 3 . The water pumped must be reasonably f r e e of sand.

Three general kinds of water-bearing formations r e q u i r e pumping plants-sandstone formations, gyp o r limestone caverns, and unconsolidated sand and g r a v e l formations.

For sandstone formations, w e l l s a r e d r i l l e d through t h e water-bearing sandstone, b u t t h e casing i s s e t only from t h e ground s u r f a c e t o t h e upper limits of t h e sandstone except i n formations t h a t tend t o cave. For t h o s e wells, t h e casing extends through t h e u n s t a b l e formation. In limestone and gypsum formations t h a t contain numerous holes o r caverns, w e l l s a r e d r i l l e d from t h e s u r f a c e through t h e limestone o r gypsum i n t o t h e cavern, and t h e casing i s s e t from t h e s u r f a c e down t o and bedded i n t h e rock. In unconsolidated sands o r gravels, w e l l s a r e d r i l l e d through t h e waterbearing formation, and t h e casing i s s e t t h e e n t i r e depth of t h e well. The lower end of t h e casing c o n s i s t s of e i t h e r a p e r f o r a t e d s e c t i o n o r a w e l l screen t h a t permits water t o pass from t h e water-bearing sands o r g r a v e l s i n t o t h e well.
A group o f . w e l l s d r i l l e d i n one of t h e s e formations has c e r t a i n general group c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , but each w e l l must be i n d i v i d u a l l y analyzed, designed, and constructed. N o two water-bearing formations a r e e x a c t l y a l i k e , and no w e l l should be d r i l l e d and developed e x a c t l y l i k e a nearby w e l l without f i r s t determining t h e b e s t d.evelopment procedures.

Wells a r e dug, driven, o r d r i l l e d depending on t h e depth t o which they must go, n a t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l s through which they must pass, r a t e a t which water i s t o be removed, and e l e v a t i o n of t h e ground-water t a b l e .
Dug o r open-pit w e l l s a r e u s u a l l y excavated by hand i n t o t h e waterbearing s t r a t a . Before modern w e l l - d r i l l i n g equipment was a v a i l a b l e , most wells were dug. They a r e most p r a c t i c a l f o r (1) developing shallow t h i n water-bearing s t r a t a t h a t r e q u i r e large-diameter wells and ( 2 ) ins t a l l i n g a pumping u n i t c l o s e t o t h e ground-water t a b l e .

Driven w e l l s a r e constructed by f o r c i n g a p i p e i n t o t h e ground u n t i l it p e n e t r a t e s t h e water-bearing s t r a t a . They a r e l i m i t e d t o depths of l e s s than 50 f e e t i n s o f t material.

If t h e water-bearing m a t e r i a l s a r e n e a r t h e s u r f a c e but a r e n o t deep enough t o supply enough water through a s i n g l e well, a b a t t e r y of sandp o i n t wells can be connected t o a pumping u n i t by a manifold. In planning a well-point system it i s important t o space i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s s o t h a t t h e i r a r e a s of i n f l u e n c e overlap only s l i g h t l y o r n o t a t a l l . Although it i s seldom p r a c t i c a l t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s i z e and shape of t h e a r e a s of i n f l u e n c e because of t h e c o s t of making t h e t e s t s needed t o measure t h e drawdown curve, some g e n e r a l r u l e s based on judgment and experience can be followed i n spacing t h e wells.

A spacing of 25 t o 50 f e e t between sand p o i n t s g e n e r a l l y has worked n i c e l y . Wells can be c l o s e r t o g e t h e r i n f i n e sand formations and where t h e a q u i f e r i s t h i n . They can be f a r t h e r a p a r t i f t h e a q u i f e r i s deep enough and t h i c k enough t o permit i n s t a l l i n g long w e l l screens (10 f e e t o r more) i n t h e w e l l s .

3-21 D r i l l e d wells a r e put down by percussion d r i l l s o r r o t a r y d r i l l s o r some modification of t h e s e t o o l s . They can be d r i l l e d t o any d e s i r e d diameter t o about 36 inches, through almost any m a t e r i a l , and t o any p r a c t i c a l depth. For t h e s e reasons d r i l l e d w e l l s a r e t h e most cammon i r r i g a t i o n wells. A casing i s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e d r i l l e d h o l e down t o t h e waterbearing s t r a t a and a w e l l screen i s attached t o t h e bottom of t h e casing. I f t h e a q u i f e r i s predominantly sand, a perforated casing with a graded g r a v e l pack i s g e n e r a l l y used i n s t e a d of a w e l l screen. Artesian Water Supplies.--Water from flowing a r t e s i a n w e l l s o r pumped from a r t e s i a n a q u i f e r s can be used f o r i r r i g a t i o n . S u b s t a n t i a l amounts of water can be obtained from a r t e s i a n a q u i f e r s t h a t u n d e r l i e l a r g e a r e a s and c a r r y water under r e l a t i v e l y high pressure. Annual withdrawal should n o t exceed annual recharge continuously. Otherwise a r t e s i a n p r e s s u r e decreases, flowing wells soon cease t o discharge, and pumping i s necessary. Eventually t h e supply of water i s n o t adequate f o r proper i r r i g&ion. Springs.--Natural s p r i n g s near t h e land t o be i r r i g a t e d can be used as a water source f o r i r r i g a t i o n water i f they discharge appreciable flows during t h e i r r i g a t i o n season. Usually t h e discharge i s n o t enough t c provide an adequate i r r i g a t i o n stream, and some kind of s t o r a g e b a s i n i s required. If t h e r e i s a s e r i e s of s p r i n g s i n a given area, i t may be p c s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t t h e discharge i n t o one channel. A perched o r cont a c t s p r i n g i s u s u a l l y t h e l e a s t dependable because .of t h e l i m i t e d flow a v a i l a b l e . A n a r t e s i a n spring u s u a l l y i s t h e most dependable. Dependab i l i t y of s p r i n g s i s d i f f i c u l t t o estimate because of t h e many v a r i a b l e s t h a t a f f e c t t h e source of supply. me kind of spring, conditions found during e x ~ l o r a t o r yexcavation, and l o c a l information on p a s t behavior of the spring are a l l f a c t ~ r s t h a t must be considered. The capacity of s p r i n g s can o f t e n be improved by excavating, cleaning, zapping, o r providing c o l l e c t i o n and s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s . Sound judgment must be used t o avoid expensive development of s p r i n g s t h a t may soon go dry. See~age.--Underground seepage water can be i n t e r c e p t e d and s t o r e d i n excavated r e s e r v o i r s i n some l o c a l i t i e s and used f o r i r r i g a t i n g small a r e a s ( f i g 3-4 ) Reservoirs u s u a l l y a r e excavated i n lowllying l e v e l a r e a s where l a t e r a l movement of water underground r e p l e n i s h e s t h e s u p p l y . Dependability a s a source r e q u i r e s a high n a t u r a l water t a b l e under adjacent land and a highly permeable l a y e r t h a t permits rapid l a t e r a l movement of water within a p r a c t i c a l excavating depth, u s u a l l y 12 t o 20 f e e t . The success of t h e s e r e s e r v o i r s depends on t h e r a t e of recharge because most of them a r e small. The most s u c c e s s f u l r e s e r v o i r i s one l a r g e enough t o provide a f u l l d a y ' s i r r i g a t i o n from s t o r a g e and inflow and i s r e f i l l e d by seepage during t h e n i g h t . In some p l a c e s a d d i t i o n a l water can be captured frcm springs, t i l e l i n e s , o r surf ace runoff.

Regulating Storage Reservoirs.--If economically a t t a i n a b l e flow i s toc small f o r i r r i g a t i n g d i r e c t l y from a w e l l o r spring, r e g u l a t i n g r e s e r v o i r s can b e used t o advantage ( f i g . 3-5). Continuous small flow can b e s t o r e d i n a r e g u l a t i n g r e s e r v o i r , thus providing enough flow a t a r a t e

Figure 3-4.--Ground-water

storage reservoir.

t o operate t h e required s i z e of i r r i g a t i o n system t o make an i r r i g a t i o n application. In other words, flow i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r i s continuous but t h e i r r i g a t i o n equipment i s operated i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . The timing depends on s i z e of t h e i r r i g a t i o n system, storage capacity of t h e reservoir, and inflow r a t e . Regulating r e s e r v o i r s a r e b u i l t e i t h e r by excavating a p i t and using t h e s p o i l m a t e r i a l t o build a levee around it o r by building an earthen dam across a low area. Size i s generally determined by t h e amount of water needed f o r one d a y ' s operation. The r e s e r v o i r should be l a r g e enough t o s t o r e a l l inflow while t h e i r r i g a t i o n system i s not i n operat i o n . For example, i f t h e source of water i s a small well pumping 24 hours a day a t 200 gallons per minute and t h e i r r i g a t i o n system uses 400 g a l l o n s per minute, t h e system can be operated 12 hours a day i f t h e r e s e r v o i r i s l a r g e enough t o s t o r e water f o r 12 hours of pumping. The r a t e of discharge should be determined f o r t h e period of lowest flow s o t h a t enough water can be stored f o r law-flow periods. A regulating r e s e r v o i r can a l s o be used t o s t o r e continuous small d e l i v e r i e s from canals and l a t e r a l s . Often i t i s called an overnight-storage r e s e r v o i r . Miscellaneous Sources.--Minor sources of water a r e c i t y water, e f f l u e n t from sewage-treatment plants, and waste water from i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s . The quantity of water a v a i l a b l e frcm these sources i s u s u a l l y small and only enough f o r i r r i g a t i n g small areas near t h e p o i n t of disposal. City Water. --City water can be used f o r i r r i g a t i n g suburban land. Water from c i t y mains, although u s u a l l y t o o expensive and i n a c c e s s i b l e f ~ r general farm use, has been used on some small areas of high-value crops near towns. Although water c o s t s a r e high compared t o those f o r other supplies, f o r small systems water pressure i n t h e c i t y mains i s enough f o r i r r i g a t i n g small areas without using booster pumps, thus avoiding pumping costs. Size of t h e main and water pressure a f f e c t s r a t e of del i v e r y and consequently design of t h e i r r i g a t i o n system. Sewage Water.--Effluent from sewage-treatment p l a n t s can be used f o r irr i g a t i n g nearby small areas. Sewage discharge i s r e t u r n flow from domestic and i n d u s t r i a l uses. Since it o f t e n amounts t o two-thirds o r more of t h e water delivered t o consumers, sewage flow from l a r g e c i t i e s can be an important source of water f o r i r r i g a t i o n . In considering t h e use of sewage e f f l u e n t f o r i r r i g a t i o n , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of contaminating crops and p o l l u t i n g ground water must be investigated. Many S t a t e s have regulations governing t h e use of sewage e f f l u e n t f o r i r r i g a t i o n . Check t h e S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s before doing any i r r i g a t i o n planning t h a t considers using sewage e f f l u e n t as t h e water supply. Sewage e f f l u e n t is more s u i t a b l e f o r use on coarse-textured sandy s o i l s than on fine-textured s i l t and clay s o i l s . The f i n e sediments i n sewage flows may improve t h e s t r u c t u r e of sandy s o i l s . Deposition of these sediments on t h e s o i l s u r f a c e can decrease t h e ~ e r r n e a b i l i t vof s i l t and clay s o i l s .

I n d u s t r i a l Waste Water.--Waste water from food processing and canning p l a n t s can be used f o r i r r i g a t i o n i f t h e r e i s a supplemental supply t h a t can be used during t h e p a r t of t h e season t h e p l a n t is n o t i n operation. Continuous flow from o t h e r kinds of i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s may be a good source of water i f it does n o t contain harmful chemicals and sediments. In any case t h e water should be analyzed t o determine i f i t s use w i l l have harmful e f f e c t s on t h e crop o r s o i l s . k s t of t h i s waste water c a r r i e s sediments i n suspension t h a t may a f f e c t t h e type and design of an irrig a t i o n system. Location of Supplx Location of t h e water supply has considerable e f f e c t on t h e layout, design, and operation of an i r r i g a t i o n system. I n many places l o c a t i o n i s f i x e d by c ~ n d i t i o n sbeyond your c o n t r o l a s a planner. You must then f i t t h e i r r i g a t i o n system a s b e s t you can t o t h e f i x e d l o c a t i o n . If t h e r e i s a choice, l o c a t e t h e supply a t t h e p o i n t t h a t w i l l g i v e t h e lowest e s t i mated c o s t of d e l i v e r y t o each p a r t of t h e i r r i g a t i o n system. Consider t h e following general points.
1. A c c e s s i b i l i t y f o r operation and s e r v i c e 2. Length of d e l i v e r y f a c i l i t i e s t o each f i e l d i n t h e system 3. Erosion p r o t e c t i o n f o r supply d i t c h e s 4. Possible use of g r a v i t y flow from t h e point of supply 5 . Location of temporary s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s i f needed

The l o c a t i o n of n a t u r a l l a k e s i s f i x e d and t h e r e i s g e n e r a l l y l i t t l e opportunity f o r choice i n t h e l o c a t i o n of impounding o r excavated rese r v i o r s . If t h e water supply i s t o be pumped f o r s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n , it i s u s u a l l y located a t t h e highest p o i n t i n the f i e l d or near t h e h i g h e s t point, which may o r may n o t be t h e b e s t l o c a t i o n . Often it i s d e s i r a b l e t o l o c a t e t h e supply somewhat below t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t of t h e f i e l d and t o c a r r y t h e required amount of water necessary t o i r r i g a t e t h e higher a r e a t o t h e top of t h e s l o p e i n a p i p e l i n e . This i s t h e b e s t plan i f t h e high a r e a i s a k n o l l c o n s t i t u t i n g only a small p a r t of t h e f i e l d and t h e remainder of t h e i r r i g a t e d a r e a i s s e v e r a l f e e t lower. If t h e source i s a w e l l a t t h e high p o i n t of t h e f i e l d , a l l t h e water f o r i r r i g a t i n g t h e e n t i r e f i e l d must be pumped t o t h i s elevation. I t i s then c a r r i e d back down t h e slope t o t h e p o i n t of use i n a pipe o r through a s e r i e s of d i t c h checks t h a t c o n t r o l v e l o c i t y . Since pumping c o s t i s d i r e c t l y proport i o n a l t o pumping l i f t , it i n c r e a s e s i n proportion t o any added l i f t . If t h e source i s a group o r d i s t r i c t canal, i t s l o c a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y fixed a t o r near t h e high p o i n t of t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d and t h e r e i s l i t t l e choice i n l o c a t i o n of t h e p o i n t of takeout. Wells g e n e r a l l y o f f e r t h e most f l e x i b i l i t y i n l o c a t i o n . In some places l o c a t i o n i s f i x e d because of a v a i l a b i l i t y of an adequate a q u i f e r . I f t h e

a q u i f e r i s extensive, t h e well g e n e r a l l y can b e l o c a t e d a t t h e most advantageous p o i n t . I f a s p r i n k l e r system i s planned, u s u a l l y t h e w e l l should b e near t h e c e n t e r of t h e land t o be i r r i g a t e d . The saving obtained through proper l o c a t i o n can amount t o s e v e r a l hundred d o l l a r s through t h e smaller p i p e and s h o r t e r main l i n e t h a t can b e used. For s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n using e i t h e r s u r f a c e o r underground pipe, t h e w e l l should be l o c a t e d where t h e s h o r t e s t and s m a l l e s t (diameter) p i p e l i n e can be used t o s e r v i c e t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d . This l o c a t i o n depends on topography of t h e f i e l d and design of t h e water-application system. Wells a r e o f t e n l o c a t e d c l o s e t o a farmstead merely f o r convenience i n s e r v i c i n g . In a d d i t i o n t o any e x t r a pumping c o s t s caused by t h i s locat i o n and t h e c o s t of e x t r a p i p e and d i t c h e s , t h e w e l l o f t e n i n t e r f e r e s w i t h o r may even d r y up domestic w e l l s on t h e farmstead. Convenience i n s e r v i c i n g well pumps and motors i s important i n chosing t h e l o c a t i o n . Access l a n e s from t h e farmstead t o t h e well should always be provided. Generally, t h e r e i s l i t t l e choice i n l o c a t i o n of t h e takeout i f i r r i g a t i n g from n a t u r a l streams. I f t h e stream flows through t h e a r e a t o be i r r i g a t e d , it may b e p o s s i b l e t o a d j u s t t h e p o i n t of takeout t o f i t i n with t h e o v e r a l l l a y o u t of t h e farm i r r i g a t i o n system. It may be advantageous t o consider more than one takeout from t h e stream. Topography and stream l o c a t i o n a r e t h e major f a c t o r s t o consider i n s e i e c t i n g t h e p o i n t of takeout. Climate Climate i s a f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g i r r i g a t i o n f o r an e n t i r e area. For i r r i g a t i o n i t s c l a s s i f ication--humid, semiarid, and arid--generally i s based on p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Humid r e g i o n s r e c e i v e more than 30 inches of p r e c i p i t a t i o n , semiarid 1 5 t o 30 inches, and a r i d l e s s than 1 5 inches. Climate d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e growth h a b i t s and requirements of p l a n t s (chap. 1). Therefore a conservation i r r i g a t i o n system must be designed s o t h a t it works i n t h e e x i s t i n g c l i m a t i c conditions. Precipitation Annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n determines t h e amount of water a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n storage. R a i n f a l l during t h e growing season, p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n , a f f e c t s t h e amount and frequency of i r r i g a t i o n needed. Land r e c e i v i n g an appreciable amount of r a i n f a l l during t h e growing season may need only a small amount of i r r i g a t i o n water, depending upon r a i n f a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n . In some y e a r s of adequate r a i n f a l l w e l l d i s t r i b uted, i r r i g a t i o n may n o t be needed a t a l l . Land t h a t r e c e i v e s enough r a i n i n t h e s p r i n g t o f i l l t h e r o o t zone may n o t r e q u i r e i r r i g a t i o n u n t i l t h e crops have a t t a i n e d considerable growth. Land t h a t r e c e i v e s only small amounts of r a i n during t h e s p r i n g and summer months r e q u i r e s t h e most i r r i g a t i o n water, and t h e i r r i g a t i o n system must be designed t o supply t h e f u l l amount of water needed f o r good crop production.

Ekcessive p r e c i p i t a t i o n o r h i g h - i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l produces runoff t h a t may r e s u l t i n erosion and make drainage necessary. I r r i g a t i o n planning must t a k e i n t o consideration drainage and erosion c o n t r o l measures. Temperature Temperature d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s water requirements f o r crop production and the design of an i r r i g a t i o n system. Growth of most p l a n t s i s slowed o r a r r e s t e d a t low temperatures. Since evaporation and t r a n s p i r a t i o n a r e rapid a t high temperatures, s o i l moisture i s soon depleted. Length of t h e growing season and temperatures during t h e growing season determine t h e kinds of crops t h a t can be grown p r o f i t a b l y . It i s p o s s i b l e t o lengthen t h e growing season f o r some crops by i r r i g a t i n g . Strawberries have been protected s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t l a t e - s p r i n g f r o s t s . Cranberries and low-growing vegetable crops, such a s tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, beans, and squash, have been provided time t o mature near t h e end of t h e season by i r r i g a t i n g . Chapter 1 1 of s e c t i o n 15 o u t l i n e s design informat i o n on s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n f o r f r o s t p r o t e c t i o n . I r r i g a t i o n can be used t o c o n t r o l high daytime temperatures t h a t otherwise reduce t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of f r u i t . Sprinkler i r r i g a t i o n during t h e h e a t of t h e day can reduce f i e l d ' t e m p e r a t u r e s around a p l a n t a s much a s 15O t o 20 F. and i n c r e a s e humidity by 15 t o 25 percent. The s p r i n k l e r s must be designed t o apply a s near a f i n e mist a s p o s s i b l e over t h e e n t i r e f i e l d ( a s i n a f r o s t - c o n t r o l system). They a r e turned on when high temperatures t h a t s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t a p l a n t a r e reached and a r e operated u n t i l t h e temperature has dropped below t h e danger stage. Inclusion of f r o s t p r o t e c t i o n o r temperature c o n t r o l i n an i r r i g a t i o n system a f f e c t s t h e s e l e c t i o n of a p p l i c a t i o n method a s w e l l a s t h e planning, design, layout, and operation of t h e system. Farm a t e r p r i s e Before planning a farm i r r i g a t i o n system, you must know t h e type of farm enterprise--livestock, cash crops, o r a combination--as w e l l a s t h e farm operation schedule planned and t h e labor a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i n g . All t h e s e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e choice of water-application method, layout and operation of t h e i r r i g a t i o n system, and i n t e n s i t y of i r r i g a t i o n . The kind of crops t o be grown dnd a v a i l a b l e l a b o r a r e t h e most important items t o consider. Crops Some crops need more water f o r high y i e l d s than others. Some u s e more water (peak u s e ) during t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e growing season and others, l a t e r i n t h e season. Crops t h a t mature during t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e growing season g e n e r a l l y have a lower peak-period use r a t e than those maturing i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t . The moisture-extraction p a t t e r n of shallow-rooted and deep-rooted crops v a r i e s considerably, which a f f e c t s t h e amount of water t o be applied a t each i r r i g a t i o n and frequency of i r r i g a t i o n (chap. 1).

3-27

Know t h e acreage and f i e l d boundaries f o r each kind of crop and t h e r o t a t i o n planned. Consider t h e cover and soil-inrproving crops t o be grown i n t h e r o t a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e row crops. Any i r r i g a t i o n system designed f o r a f i e l d must meet t h e requirements f o r conservation irrig a t i o n of a l l t h e crops t o be grown. The kind of crop t o be grown usua l l y determines t h e choice of water-application method. Lab o r I r r i g a t i o n u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s e x t r a farm l a b o r . The amount depends on t h e type of s y s tem, water-application method, and labor-saving devices i n s t a l l e d with t h e system. Even f o r n e a r l y automatic systems, it i s neeessary t o have someone watch t h e operation c l o s e l y i f high e f f i c i e n c y i s t o be a t t a i n e d . Get a c l e a r p i c t u r e of farm schedules t o know how much time can be devoted each day t o i r r i g a t i o n without neglecting o t h e r work. From t h i s information you w i l l know i f f u l l - t i m e i r r i g a t o r s a r e needed during t h e growing season o r i f r e g u l a r farm l a b o r can be used a t d i f f e r e n t times of t h e day o r n i g h t . Plan t h e i r r i g a t i o n system with t h e f a r m e r ' s l a b o r supply i n mind. I f he has p l e n t y of labor, it i s gene r a l l y p o s s i b l e t o provide a system of lower i n i t i a l c o s t because laborsaving devices a r e n o t needed. I f he does n o t have much help, various degrees of automation can be b u i l t i n t o t h e system but t h i s i n c r e a s e s t h e i n i t i a l c o s t over t h a t f o r a hand-operated system. Field Arranpement Having f i e l d s of workable s i z e and shape is important t o s u c c e s s f u l i r r i g a t i o n farming. Often both s i z e and shape must be changed t o provide an e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n system. Unless a system i s c a r e f u l l y planned, some a r e a s may n o t r e c e i v e i r r i g a t i o n water o r some s m a l l a r e a s may be v i r t u a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e o r u s e l e s s t o t h e farm e n t e r p r i s e . Sharp t u r n s o r a c u t e farming angles d i f f i c u l t o r impossible t o farm with modern farm equipment must be avoided. To have f i e l d s t h a t can be farmed economically and i r r i g a t e d with one o r m r e uniform s e t s , use t h e following c r i t e r i a f o r s i z e and shape.
1 . Base l e n g t h on t h e maximum allowable run f o r t h e method s e l e c t e d . I t

can b e i n even m u l t i p l e s of t h e proper design length. 2. Base width on t h e cropping system, o p e r a t i o n s schedule, and type of equipment 3 . Base f i e l d d i v i s i o n s on ownership boundaries, o b s t r u c t i o n s , s o i l boundaries, land slopes, and land use o r cropping system. 4. Plan f i e l d s as n e a r l y r e c t a n g u l a r i n shape a s p o s s i b l e . a. Plan l e n g t h of run t o be uniform t o permit a workable operating schedule. b. Avoid sharp t u r n s o r block corners. 5. Remember t h e importance of good a c c e s s i b i l i t y .

Farm Quipment Available

A f a r m e r ' s p r e s e n t equipment f o r planting, t i l l a g e , and h a r v e s t i n g may have some bearing on s e l e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n method and layout of t h e

system. It m y be b e t t e r and more economical f o r some i r r i g a t o r s t o g e t d i f f e r e n t farm equipment t o have a b e t t e r and more e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n system. The question of farm equipment should be s e t t l e d b e f o r e t h e f i n a l planning s o t h a t t h e system i n s t a l l e d i s compatible with t h e farm equipment t o b e used. Available Power Determine and compare t h e sources of power a v a i l a b l e f o r operating t h e i r r i g a t i o n system. I f e l e c t r i c i t y , n o t e t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e n e a r e s t transformer and o t h e r f e a t u r e s , such a s phase, voltage, and horsepower l i m i t a t i o n s . Pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o power r a t e s and standby charges. Existing F a c i l i t i e s
I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n planning t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of an irrig a t i o n system t o f i n d ways of using t h e p r e s e n t f a c i l i t i e s b e f o r e cons i d e r i n g d y changes i n method o r system l v o u t t h a t n e c e s s i t a t e abandoning o r r e l o c a t i n g permanent s t r u c t u r e s . If possible, make some use of any equipment a l r e a d y on a farm i f it i s i n good condition. But under no circumstances should you plan f o r a l e s s e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n method n o t s u i t e d t o t h e s i t e merely t o use such f a c i l i t i e s .

Field Road System The need f o r a f i e l d road system i s o f t e n overlooked i n planning with t h e r e s u l t t h a t some of t h e farm i s i n a c c e s s i b l e t o farm machinery, t h e i r r i g a t i o n system i s damaged by t r a v e l of farm machinery, o r t h e roads a r e impassable a f t e r an i r r i g a t i o n . Provide roads above i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s and below f i e l d d r a i n s t h a t are r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e f o r working t h e farm. Consider t h e following p o i n t s i n planning a farm road system.
1. 2. 3. 4.

Ease of operating t h e w a t e r - d i s t r i b u t i o n system Ready access t o a l l a r e a s of t h e farm f o r farm equipment Transportation of farm produce from t h e f i e l d s Dryness and u s a b i l i t y of roads

Finances Financing an i r r i g a t i o n system i s t h e f a r m e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . But t e l l him t h e probable c o s t of t h e system s e l e c t e d b e f o r e doing any d e t a i l e d planning. H e may n o t r e a l i z e t h e c o s t involved and may f i n d t h a t he cann o t f i n a n c e t h e proposed plan. I f so, plan t o i r r i g a t e a smaller acreage a t f i r s t , i n c r e a s i n g t h e acreage a s f i n a n c e s permit. Be c e r t a i n t h a t t h e i n i t i a l development w i l l f i t i n with t h e complete i r r i g a t i o n p l a n f o r t h e farm without c o s t l y a l t e r a t i o n s . Physical Features Permanent s u r f ace f e a t u r e s , such a s power l i n e s , p i p e l i n e s , conservation measures, e t c . , must be considered. Since power l i n e s g e n e r a l l y a r e expensive t o move, plan t o b u i l d t h e system around them. Determine l o c a t i o n

3-29

and depth of p i p e l i n e s o r buried cables. Often they a r e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s i n land l e v e l i n g or d i t c h build-ing. If they a r e r e l a t i v e l y shallow, they may be damaged o r destroyed during construction. Maintenance of pipel i n e s o f t e n damages an i r r i g a t i o n system by blocking borders o r d i s r u p t i n g benches. Windbreaks, orchards, fences, farmsteads, diversions, t e r r a c e s , and s i m i l a r o b s t r u c t i o n s g r e a t l y influence t h e layout. Usually fences can be changed, b u t o t h e r o b s t r u c t i o n s g e n e r a l l y a r e f i x e d and t h e system must be b u i l t around them. I f you do not allow f o r t h e s e f e a t u r e s i n planning, you may s t a r t t h e layout only t o f i n d t h a t p a r t of a f i e l d i s s o i s o l a t e d it cannot be f i t t e d i n t o t h e i r r i g a t i o n system. This is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e when i r r i g a t i o n systems a r e planned and i n s t a l l e d on a piecemeal b a s i s . Adapted Methods of Water Application I r r i g a t i o n water a p p l i c a t i o n i s commonly designated according t o t h e manner i n which water i s applied t c t h e s o i l . The t h r e e b a s i c ways of applying i r r i g a t i o n water a r e
1. Sprinkler i r r i g a t i o n - - t h e s o i l s u r f a c e i s wetted much a s i t i s by

rainfall. 2. Surface irrigation--water i s applied by complete flooding o r i n f u r rows, wetting only p a r t of t h e surface. 3. Subirrigation--water i s applied beneath t h e surface, wetting t h e surface l i t t l e i f a t a l l . Methods of applying i r r i g a t i o n water vary with topography, s o i l cond i t i o n s , amount of l a n d preparation p r a c t i c a l , crops t o be grown, value of crops, c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , and a v a i l a b l e water supply. Each method has c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s . Most can be adapted t o a f a i r l y wide range of n some s i t e s s e v e r a l methods of water a p p l i c a t i o n a r e conditions. O s u i t a b l e . On o t h e r s i t e s only one method can be used. In some areas farmers have become accustomed t o p a r t i c u l a r methods of applying water and continue t o use them even though o t h e r s a r e more d e s i r a b l e and economical. Sound planning must a l s o consider f o r each s u i t a b l e method t h e c o s t and ease of i n s t a l l a t i o n , maintenance required, cost, labor and s k i l l required f o r operation, and ease with which it can be f i t t e d i n t o t h e farm e n t e r p r i s e . To g e t acceptable i r r i g a t i o n efficiency, s k i l l of t h e operator and f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e system must be considered along with t h e i r r i g a t o r ' s wishes i n s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t method. Sprinkler I r r i g a t i o n Water i s sprayed i n t o t h e a i r through a s p r i n k l e r nozzle and allowed t o f a l l on t h e land s u r f a c e i n a uniform p a t t e r n a t a r a t e l e s s than t h e i n t a k e r a t e of t h e s o i l .

Sprinkler Method

Figure 3-6.--Sprinkler

irrigation.

Description.--Irrigation water i s pumped from t h e source through pipes t o t h e s p r i n k l e r s and sprayed i n t o t h e a i r ( f i g . 3 - 6 ) . T w o types of sprinkler systems a r e used t o i r r i g a t e 'farm crops. In one, r o t a t i n g sprinkler heads a r e spaced equally along t h e l a t e r a l l i n e s . In t h e other, t h e l a t e r a l l i n e s a r e perforated pipe. The l a t e r a l l i n e s remain i n one place u n t i l t h e required amount of water has been applied and a r e then moved t h e same distance f o r each successive s e t t i n g . Perforatedpipe s p r i n k l e r s deliver water through very small, closely spaced o r i f i c e s i n the pipe, provided f a i r l y uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n along both s i d e s of the pipe. Sprinkler systems can be semipermanent, having fixed main l i n e s and portable l a t e r a l s , o r be filly portable i n which both mains and l a t e r a l s can be moved. I n a s o l i d - s e t system the e n t i r e f i e l d i s served simultaneously by l a t e r a l s l i n e s . The main and l a t e r a l s can be e i t h e r located on t h e ground surface o r buried f o r a t o t a l l y permanent system. Different kinds of sprinklers are shown i n figures 3-7 t o 3-14. Design c r i t e r i a f o r sprinkler i r r i g a t i o n systems are discussed i n chapter 1 1 .

IDA-5048

F i g u r e 3-7.--Hand-move

sprinkler.

Figure 3-8.--Big-gun

sprinkler,

Figure 3-9.--Rotating-boom

sprinkler.

Figure 3-11,--Two-lateral

sprinkler.

Figure 3-12.--Self-&ropelied sprinkler,

NEB-2142

Figure 3-L3.--Solid-setsprinkler.

TEX-42802

Figure 3-14.--Perforated-pipe sprinkler.

3-34
Adaptability.--All crops except r i c e can be s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t e d . S p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n i s s u i t e d t o a l l s o i l s having an i n t a k e r a t e higher than t h e r a t e of a p p l i c a t i o n . It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o sandy s o i l s t h a t have a high i n t a k e r a t e . S o i l s t o o shallow t o be leveled properly f o r o t h e r methods can be i r r i g a t e d s a f e l y by s p r i n k l e r s . S p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n can be used on any topography s u i t a b l e f o r farming. It i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r s t e e p s l o p e s o r i r r e g u l a r topography without extensive land p r e p a r a t i o n and f o r s o i l s t h a t cannot be l e v e l e d . I f s o i l erosion i s a hazard, s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n can be used i n conjunction with mulching, t e r r a c i n g , and s t r i p cropping. Important Features.--Land l e v e l i n g i s not required. Some smoothing o r grading i s advisable i f s u r f a c e drainage i s a problem o r t o provide a more uniform s u r f a c e f o r seeding, t i l l a g e , and harvesting. Land t o o s t e e p f o r e f f i c i e n t use of o t h e r methods can be i r r i g a t e d s a f e l y . The c o s t of land l e v e l i n g can be eliminated o r g r e a t l y reduced. Small streams of i r r i g a t i o n water can be used e f f i c i e n t l y , and well-designed s p r i n k l e r s d i s t r i b u t e water b e t t e r than o t h e r methods. Surface runoff of i r r i g a t i o n water can be eliminated. The amount of water can be cont r o l l e d t o meet crop needs, and l i g h t a p p l i c a t i o n s can be made e f f i c i e n t l y on s e e d l i n g s and young p l a n t s . Soluble f e r t i l i z e r s , h e r b i c i d e s , and fungicides can be applied i n t h e i r r i g a t i o n water economically and w i t h l i t t l e e x t r a equipment. Penetrat i o n of f e r t i l i z e r s i n t o t h e s o i l can be c o n t r o l l e d by applying t h e f e r t i l i z e r a t s e l e c t e d times during t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of water. S p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n can be used t o p r o t e c t crops a g a i n s t f r o s t and a g a i n s t high temperatures t h a t reduce t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of h a r v e s t . It i s t h e most e f f i c i e n t method f o r such p r o t e c t i o n , It may be necessary t o add l a t e r a l l i n e s and s p r i n k l e r s f o r adequate temperature c o n t r o l . Labor c o s t s high i n t a k e systems can of t h e farm a r e u s u a l l y l e s s than f o r s u r f a c e methods on s o i l s having a r a t e and on s t e e p and r o l l i n g land. S p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n be moved once o r twice a day as a r e g u l a r l y scheduled p a r t operation.

Limitations.--Wind d i s t o r t s s p r i n k l e r p a t t e r n s and causes uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n of water. Ripening s o f t f r u i t m u s t be p r o t e c t e d from t h e spray. A s t a b l e water supply i s needed f o r t h e most economical use of t h e equipment. The water must.be c l e a n and f r e e of sand, d e b r i s , and l a r g e amounts of dissolved s a l t s . Unburied mains and l a t e r a l s may i n t e r f e r e with c u l t i v a t i o n , spraying, and o t h e r farm operations. The s p r i n k l e r method u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s t h e h i g h e s t i n i t i a l investment of any method except where extensive land l e v e l i n g i s necessary f o r s u r f a c e o r subsurface i r r i g a t i o n . More s p e c i a l equipment s u b j e c t t o d e p r e c i a t i o n i s needed. Power requirements a r e u s u a l l y high s i n c e s p r i n k l e r s operate with a water p r e s s u r e of 15 t o more t h a n 100 pounds p e r square inch. Fine-textured s o i l s t h a t have a slow i n t a k e r a t e cannot be i r r i g a t e d e f f i c i e n t l y i n hot windy a r e a s , If water i s applied a t t h e low r a t e r e quired f o r t h e s e s o i l s , t h e percentage l o s t by evaporation and wind

d r i f t increases. Cost of labor o r equipment may be higher on f i e l d s t h a t remain muddy f o r some time a f t e r an i r r i g a t i o n . Surface I r r i g a t i o n Water i s applied d i r e c t l y t o t h e s o i l surface e i t h e r by controlled flooding o r i n some kind of furrow. In controlled flooding t h e water applied t o t h e surface i s controlled by dikes and ditches. Gradedborder, level-border, contour-levee, and contour-ditch methods a r e d i f f e r e n t types of controlled-flooding i r r i g a t i o n . In the furrow method, water i s applied through regularly spaced large furrows, furrows between crop rows, or closely spaced small furrows o r corrugations. In general, flooding methods a r e used f o r close-growing crops and furrow methods f o r row crops. Graded-Border Method Description.--Graded-border i r r i g a t i o n i s a form of controlled surface flooding. The f i e l d t o be i r r i g a t e d i s divided i n t o s t r i p s by p a r a l l e l dikes o r border ridges ( f i g . 3-15), and each s t r i p i s i r r i g a t e d independently. The border s t r i p s should have l i t t l e o r no cross slope but should have some slope i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n . Each s t r i p is i r r i g a t e d by turning i n a stream of water a t the upper end. The stream must be large enough t o spread over the e n t i r e width between the border ridges without overtopping them. Usually the stream s i z e should be such t h a t the desired volume of water i s applied t o the s t r i p i n a time equal t o o r s l i g h t l y l e s s than t h a t needed f o r the s o i l t o absorb t h e net amount required. Adaptability.--This method i s s u i t a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i n g a l l close-growing, noncultivated, sown o r d r i l l e d crops, except r i c e and any other crops grown i n ponded water. Legumes, grasses, small grains, and mint commonly are i r r i g a t e d by t h i s method. Graded borders a l s o a r e used f o r i r r i g a t i n g orchards and vineyards. Graded-border i r r i g a t i o n can be used on most s o i l s . It i s best s u i t e d t o s o i l s t h a t have a moderately low t o moderately high intake r a t e . Usually it i s not used f o r coarse sandy s o i l s t h a t have a very high intake r a t e because of the s t r i n g e n t l i m i t a t i o n s on design. Nor i s it well

Figure 3-15.--Graded-border

irrigation.

s u i t e d t o s o i l s having a very low i n t a k e r a t e s i n c e , t o provide adequate i n t a k e time without excessive s u r f a c e runoff, t h e i r r i g a t i n g stream may be t o o s m a l l t o completely cover t h e border s t r i p s . This method i s b e s t s u i t e d t o slopes of l e s s t h a n 0.5 p e r c e n t . I f erosion from r a i n f a l l i s n o t a hazard, it can be used s u c c e s s f u l l y on s t e e p e r slopes i f t h e s o i l i n t a k e r a t e i s n o t t o o low. For nonsodforming crops, t h i s method i s seldom used on s l o p e s of more t h a n 2 percent, but it can be used on s l o p e s a s s t e e p a s 4 percent f o r sod crops. I n humid a r e a s t h e maximum s l o p e t o be i r r i g a t e d by t h i s method i s about 2 percent f o r sodforming grasses and 0.5 percent f o r o t h e r crops. Important Features.--Good t o e x c e l l e n t f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y can be obtained i f t h e borders a r e w e l l designed and i n s t a l l e d . Labor r e quirements a r e among t h e lowest f o r a l l a p p l i c a t i o n methods, and s t r i p width can be designed t o accommodate t h e farm machinery used f o r t i l l a g e , p l a n t i n g , and harvesting. I f s u r f a c e drainage i s c r i t i c a l , t h e method i s an e x c e l l e n t means f o r r a p i d d i s p o s a l of excess s u r f a c e water. Limitations.--Topography must be r e l a t i v e l y smooth o r s o i l s deep enough f o r adequate l e v e l i n g . I n some a r e a s , land-leveling c o s t s may be high enough t o exclude using t h e graded-border method. The a v a i l a b l e i r r i g a t i o n stream must be l a r g e enough t o i r r i g a t e a border s t r i p of p r a c t i c a l s i z e . Young crops may be damaged o r e x t r a t i l l a g e required on s o i l s t h a t bake o r c r u s t a f t e r wetting. A l i g h t i r r i g a t i o n of l e s s than about 2 inches i s d i f f i c u l t t o apply e f f i c i e n t l y . Level-Border a as in) Method Description.--This method i s based on t h e r a p i d a p p l i c a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water t o a l e v e l o r n e a r l y l e v e l a r e a enclosed by dikes t h a t r e t a i n t h e water a t a uniform depth u n t i l it has been taken i n t o t h e s o i l ( f i g . 3-16). Level borders a r e s i m i l a r t o b a s i n s , but basins g e n e r a l l y a r e as wide a s t h e y a r e long and l e v e l borders a r e s e v e r a l times longer t h a n wide.
An o v e r a l l f a l l of 0.2 f o o t i n t h e l e n g t h of t h e border s t r i p i s o f t e n

d e s i r a b l e a s c o n s t r u c t i o n t o l e r a n c e t o avoid r e v e r s e grades. The stream of water turned i n t o each border should be a t l e a s t twice t h a t required f o r t h e average i n t a k e r a t e of t h e s o i l . I f t h e border i s l e v e l , t h e
I

Figure 3-16.--Level-border

irrigation.

- -

i r r i g a t i o n stream can be turned i n a t any p o i n t o r p o i n t s around t h e border and a t both ends i f d e s i r e d . I f t h e border has a s l i g h t grade, t h e i r r i g a t i o n stream i s applied a t t h e upper end. Adaptability.--This method i s b e s t s u i t e d t o s o i l s having a moderate t o slow i n t a k e r a t e (2.0 i n t a k e family o r l e s s ) and a moderate t o high a v a i l a b l e water holding c a p a c i t y . Although an e f f i c i e n t system f o r water a p p l i c a t i o n can be designed f o r s o i l s t h a t have a higher i n t a k e r a t e and a lower a v a i l a b l e water holding c a p a c i t y , t h e borders a r e s o small t h a t t h e y i n t e r f e r e with c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and t h e l o c a t i o n of d e l i v e r y laterals. Smooth, g e n t l e , uniform land s l o p e s a r e b e s t s u i t e d t o t h i s method and give t h e b e s t f i e l d layouts. One major advantage of t h i s method is t h a t it can be used t o i r r i g a t e many d i f f e r e n t kinds of crops r e g a r d l e s s of p l a n t i n g p a t t e r n . Crops such as c a r r o t s , which a r e adversely a f f e c t e d by flooding, can be planted i n beds and i r r i g a t e d with l i g h t a p p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e intervening furrows. R o w crops l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o flooding can be f l a t - p l a n t e d o r bedded. Sown crops, d r i l l e d crops, and sod crops can be i r r i g a t e d by using border furrows t o guide t h e water. These wide v a r i a t i o n s can be accomplished without b a s i c changes i n layout o r r a t e of a p p l i c a t i o n and s t i l l give high e f f i c i e n c y . Important Features.--Many d i f f e r e n t kinds of crops can be grown i n s e quence without making major changes i n design, layout, o r o p e r a t i n g procedures. Leaching can be accomplished without changing e i t h e r layout o r method of operation. Provisions f o r d i s p o s a l o r reuse of t a i l water a r e not needed although removal of excess r a i n f a l l may be necessary. Maximum use can be made of r a i n f a l l . N o i r r i g a t i o n water i s l o s t by runoff. This method can be adapted t o automation e a s i l y o r it can be operated e f f i c i e n t l y by inexperienced l a b o r . High a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y can be obtained. Limitations.--Accurate land l e v e l i n g i s g e n e r a l l y required. Border dikes must be high enough t o keep t h e i r r i g a t i o n stream from overtopping t h e r i d g e s . Border ridges may i n t e r f e r e with movement of farm machinery i n border s t r i p s . O n s t e e p s l o p e s r e q u i r i n g benching, drop s t r u c t u r e s , l i n e d d i t c h e s , o r p i p e l i n e s may be required f o r adequate water c o n t r o l . I n some areas s p e c i a l provisions must be made f o r s u r f a c e drainage. I n a r e a s where wind v e l o c i t y exceeds 15 t o 20 miles p e r hour, it may be d i f f i c u l t t o apply i r r i g a t i o n water i f t h e wind d i r e c t i o n i s opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of water flow i n t h e border s t r i p . S e t s must be changed o f t e n . Maintenance of a l e v e l s u r f a c e is e s s e n t i a l t o e f f i c i e n t operat i o n , which may r e q u i r e changing t i l l a g e operations o r using s p e c i a l t o o l s , o r both. Contour-Levee Method Description.--This method i s a modification of t h e contour-border o r b a s i n method. Areas bounded by small contour levees and c r o s s levees a r e completely flooded ( f i g . 3-17). Water applied a t a r a t e considerably i n excess of t h e i n t a k e r a t e of t h e s o i l spreads r a p i d l y over t h e

Figure 3-17.--Contour-levee

irrigation.

area and is allowed t o remain u n t i l it has i n f i l t r a t e d the s o i l t o t h e desired depth. I f t h e i r r i g a t i o n i s f o r soil-moisture replenishment, the excess water i s then drained off immediately. I f the i r r i g a t i o n i s f o r weed control on riceland, t h e water i s impounded a t a minimum depth of 3 inches and a maximum depth of 8 inches or l e s s f o r several weeks. Size of t h e u n i t area depends on the s i z e of t h e available i r r i g a t i o n stream, s o i l intake c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and topography of the f i e l d . Gene r a l l y a stream of 1 cubic foot per second i s required f o r each 2 acres f o r rapid flooding. Drainage i s provided by placing pipe culverts i n t h e drainageways through each levee. Water i s held a t the desired l e v e l by small weir-type spillways i n the levees, allowing excess water from one area t o s p i l l over i n t o the area immediately below. Adaptability.--For successful contour-levee i r r i g a t i o n , s o i l s should be medium t o f i n e textured ( 0 . 5 intake family o r l e s s ) . For r i c e t h e s o i l should have a saturated permeability r a t e of 0.01 inch o r l e s s per hour or have a r e s t r i c t i n g layer of t h i s r a t e just below the crop's root zone. The surface should be smooth and reasonably uniform and have a maximum slope of 1 percent, but slopes of l e s s than 0 . 5 percent a r e preferred. The contour-levee method i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o r i c e and can be used f o r i r r i g a t i n g cotton, corn, soybeans, small grains, pasture grasses, and hay crops. The crop t o be i r r i g a t e d must be able t o stand i n water f o r 12 hours or more without damage. I r r i g a t i o n water must be available a t a r a t e t h a t permits rapid flooding of the areas enclosed by t h e levees. A minimum stream of 0.5 cubic foot per second per acre f o r the l a r g e s t of t h e areas should be available. Important Features.--Uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water i s e a s i l y obtained. A f i e l d application e f f i c i e n c y of 8 0 percent o r more can be obtained with a well-planned and well-operated system. Although excess water must be drained, there i s usually opportunity t o reuse it on areas of lower elevation. Tail-water o r runoff losses are limited t o the water removed from the lowest a r e a i n the f i e l d . Since maximum use can be made of any r a i n f a l l , seasonal i r r i g a t i o n requirements a r e reduced t o a minimum.

Adequate surface drainage f a c i l i t i e s a r e an e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h i s system, and they can be provided a t l i t t l e e x t r a expense. Generally t h e same f a c i l i t i e s are used t o apply water and t o remove it. The mount of l a b o r required i s low compared with t h a t required f o r most other methods. The c o n t r o l s a r e simple and e a s i l y operated, and i r r i g a t o r s with l i t t l e experience can handle l a r g e i r r i g a t i o n streams. I f only a moderate amount of land smoothing o r l e v e l i n g i s needed, t h e i n i t i a l cost i s low compared with t h a t of most other acceptable methods. The c o s t of waterc o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s i s comparable t o t h a t of t h e l e a s t expensive s t r u c t u r e s used i n other surface methods. Limitations.--This method i s not generally s u i t a b l e f o r use on s o i l s of moderate t o very rapid permeability. I r r i g a t i o n s of l e s s than 2 inches a r e d i f f i c u l t t o apply. Large i r r i g a t i o n streams a r e required. I r r i g a t i o n water must be of good t o e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t y s i n c e t h e slowly permeable s o i l s t o which t h e method i s s u i t e d accumulate s a l t s r a p i d l y and a r e d i f f i c u l t t o leach. Land smoothing o r l e v e l i n g i s usually required f o r uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water, drainage, and operation of farm equipment. Many crops cannot be s u c c e s s f u l l y i r r i g a t e d i f they a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o damage by flooding a t any s t a g e of growth. Levees may be damaged extensively by waves i f water must be applied before vegetation is e s t a b l i s h e d . Contour-Ditch Method Description.--Contour-ditch i r r i g a t i o n i s a form of c o n t r o l l e d surface flooding. I r r i g a t i o n water i s d i s t r i b u t e d from d i t c h e s running across t h e slope approximately on t h e contour ( f i g . 3-18) Water i s diverted from t h e d i t c h e s by temporary dams. As t h e water r i s e s , it is d i s charged through controlled openings i n t h e d i t c h bank, by siphon tubes, o r over a uniformly graded lower l i p of t h e d i t c h . Water flows a s an unconfined sheet down t h e slope from one contour d i t c h t o t h e next, and runoff i s c o l l e c t e d i n lower d i t c h e s f o r reuse. Water i s applied t o successive s t r i p s between d i t c h e s u n t i l t h e f i e l d has been i r r i g a t e d . The width covered by each s e t t i n g of t h e dams depends on t h e stream s i z e a v a i l a b l e . A stream of 1 cubic foot per second usually covers a s t r i p about 100 f e e t wide. The spacing between contour d i t c h e s ( 8 0 t o 300 f e e t ) is governed by topography, s o i l i n t a k e r a t e , and average n e t i r r i g a t i o n application.

Figure 3-18.--Contour-ditch

irrigation.

Adaptability.--This method is suitable for irrigating all close-growing, noncultivated crops except those grown in ponded water. Legumes, grasses, and small grains are the crops commonly irrigated by this method. Contour-ditch irrigation can be used for soils in the 0.1 to 3.0 intake families. Slowly permeable soils permit the widest spacing between ditches, and the application efficiency for a low net irrigation is high. Light-textured soils require close spacing of contour ditches, and the application efficiency is low. This method is suited to slopes ranging from 0.5 to 15 percent. If erosion from rainfall is a hazard, the maximum slope is 4 percent. If soils and topography permit land leveli'ng, contour ditches are seldom used on slopes of less than 1 percent. The maximum slope for moderately light to coarse textured soils is 4 percent. On slopes of 2 to 4 percent, if erosion from rainfall is a hazard, this method can be used only for sodforming crops. Important Features.--Installation costs are among the lowest for all application methods. Little surface preparation is required on irregular topography. For annual crops the ditches can be easily filled to facilitate harvesting. Limitations.--Irrigation efficiency is generally low. With careful management an application efficiency of 50 to 65 percent is possible. Small streams are not easily used. The spacing between ditches may vary considerably, causing different lengths of run. Extra labor is required for adjusting sets to get the proper depth of application and to reuse waste water. The close and irregular spacing between ditches hampers harvesting, especially of hay crops. Young crops may be damaged on soils that bake or crust. If rainfall erosion is a hazard, ditches cannot be installed until a crop is established, which eliminates the possibility of preplant irrigations. Graded-Furrow Method Description.--Graded furrows are small channels having a continuous, nearly uniform slope in the direction of irrigation (fig. 3-19). They are used in irrigating cultivated crops planted in rows. There are one or more furrows between crop rows except for bedded crops, in which the

Figure 3-19.--Graded-furrow irrigation.

3 -41

furrows a r e along each p a i r of rows. S i z e and shape of t h e furrows depend on t h e crop grown, equipment used, and spacing between crop rows. Water flowing i n t h e furrows soaks i n t o t h e s o i l and spreads l a t e r a l l y t o i r r i g a t e t h e areas between furrows. The length of time t h a t water must be run i n t h e furrows depends on t h e amount of water required t o r e f i l l t h e r o o t zone, i n t a k e r a t e of t h e s o i l , and r a t e of l a t e r a l spread of water i n t h e s o i l . For most s o i l s t h e i n i t i a l i r r i g a t i n g streams must g r e a t l y exceed t h e i n t a k e r a t e t o advance r a p i d l y . Therefore, when water reaches t h e lower end of t h e run, t h e streams must be adjusted o r c u t back t o prevent excessive waste from s u r f a c e runoff o r provisions must be made t o recover t a i l water. But f o r low-intake-rate s o i l s t h a t crack when dry, it i s not u s u a l l y necessary t o c u t back t h e streams. Adaptability.--The graded-furrow method can be used t o i r r i g a t e a l l c u l t i v a t e d crops planted i n rows, including orchard and vineyard crops a s w e l l a s a l l f i e l d and t r u c k crops. Graded furrows can be used on a l l s o i l s except sands t h a t have a very high i n t a k e r a t e and provide very poor l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of water between furrows. But t h e y must be used with extreme c a r e on s o i l s t h a t have high concentrations of s o l u b l e s a l t s . To keep excessive amounts of t o x i c s a l t s from accumulating i n t h e a r e a s between furrows, it may be necessary t o use some surface-flooding method t o leach s a l t s from t h e r o o t zone before t h i s method can be used successfully. This method i s b e s t s u i t e d t o s i t e s where t h e furrow grade does not exceed 1 percent. But i n a r e a s where e r o s i o n from r a i n f a l l i s not a problem, t h e grade can be a s much a s 3 percent. In a r e a s of i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l , t h e furrow grade may need t o be reduced t o 0.5 percent o r l e s s t o minimize t h e e r o s i o n hazard. O n smooth, uniformly sloping f i e l d s , crops can be planted across t h e slope t o reduce t h e furrow grade. Furrows a l s o a r e used on graded benches b u i l t across t h e slope. Important Features.--Both l a r g e and small i r r i g a t i n g streams can be used by a d j u s t i n g t h e number of furrows i r r i g a t e d a t any one time t o f i t t h e a v a i l a b l e flow. Therefore any type of water d e l i v e r y , from continuous flow t o f u l l demand, can be used. F i e l d e f f i c i e n c y i s high i f water management i s good. I n a r e a s where s u r f a c e drainage i s necessary, t h e furrows can be used t o dispose of runoff from r a i n f a l l r a p i d l y . Limitations.--Labor requirements f o r t h e graded-furrow method a r e high. Flow i n t o each furrow must be c a r e f u l l y regulated f o r uniform water d i s t r i b u t i o n and minimum waste. F i e l d s must be w e l l leveled and f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o l l e c t i n g and disposing of s u r f a c e runoff must be i n s t a l l e d . Also, t h e method i s not s u i t a b l e f o r applying t h e very l i g h t i r r i g a t i o n s needed f o r seed germination o r f o r very shallow rooted crops grown on s o i l s with a high i n t a k e r a t e . Contour-Furrow Method Description.--The contour-furrow method i s s i m i l a r t o t h e graded-furrow method i n t h a t i r r i g a t i o n water i s applied by furrows, but t h e n e a r l y

l e v e l furrows carry water across a sloping f i e l d r a t h e r than down slope ( f i g . 3-20). The contour furrows a r e curved t o f i t t h e land surface. They have j u s t enough grade t o c a r r y t h e i r r i g a t i o n stream. Head ditches o r pipelines a r e run downhill o r s l i g h t l y across t h e slope t o feed t h e individual furrows. Adaptability.--This method can be used on most sloping s o i l s except l i g h t sandy s o i l s and s o i l s t h a t crack. The ridges between furrows i n s&dy s o i l s may break and wash out, overloading-the furrow below, which a l s o breaks. This may continue a l l t h e way down t h e slope, causing heavy erosion damage. S o i l s t h a t crack provide channels f o r water, causing s i m i l a r downslope a r r o w breaks. This method i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o f i e l d s of uniform slope i n both directions because most of the furrows can run completely across t h e slope and t h e r e need be few point rows. The contour-furrow method can be used f o r nearly a l l c u l t i v a t e d crops planted i n rows. In a r i d sections deep-furrowed row crops grown on medium- and fine-textured s o i l s can be i r r i g a t e d i f t h e slope does not exceed 6 percent. O n light-textured s o i l s , t h e slope must not exceed 4 percent because of the danger of furrow breaks. For shallow-furrowed crops, t h e slope must not exceed 3 percent. For c i t r u s and deciduous f r u i t s , cane b e r r i e s , vineyards, and nut t r e e s , t h e slope can be steeper since t h e furrows are not disturbed by c u l t i v a t i o n . Important Features.--The contour-furrow method can be used t o i r r i g a t e s a f e l y land too s t e e p f o r downhill furrows, thus reducing t h e erosion hazard. Good d i s t r i b u t i o n of water i s possible because large i r r i g a t i n g streams can be used i n t h e nearly l e v e l furrows and water reaches t h e end of the furrows quickly. This a l s o reduces the time of i r r i g a t i n g . Good e f f i c i e n c y can be a t t a i n e d i f t h e system i s properly l a i d out and good water management p r a c t i c e s a r e followed. Limitations.--This method must be watched c a r e f u l l y t o guard against furrow overflow and washout. In areas of intense r a i n s t o m , r a i n f a l l probably causes more breakthroughs than i r r i g a t i o n water. The runs should be short enough t o dispose of t h e runoff s a f e l y without breaking t h e furrow. Grassed waterways and s t r u c t u r e s are usually needed t o c a r r y

Figure 3-20.--Contour-furrow

irrigation.

s u m l u s water down t h e slope. For a crop l i k e corn, a l l furrow breaks musi be repaired by hand a f t e r t h e c o r n i s l a i d by. Contour-furrow i r r i g a t i o n used i n conjunction with p a r a l l e l t e r r a c e s provides a d d i t i o n a l insurance against breakthroughs. Head and t a i l - w a t e r d i t c h e s must be protected because they run downslope and g e n e r a l l y t h e grade i s erosive. Considerable time i s necessary t o l a y out a f i e l d , and p l a n t i n g and t i l l a g e must be done very c a r e f u l l y . Equipment used i n planting, c u l t i v a t i n g , and harvesting must t u r n on t h e crop a t t h e end of point rows. Level-Furrow Method Description.--Level furrows a r e small channels without grade formed by farm equipment and used t o i r r i g a t e crops planted i n o r between t h e furrows ( f i g . 3-21). The level-furrow method of water a p p l i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e rapid introduction of i r r i g a t i o n water. A stream a s l a r g e as t h e furrow can contain i s turned i n t o the furrow u n t i l t h e gross applicat i o n has been made. The water, which i s a t uniform depth throughout t h e furrows, stands u n t i l absorbed by t h e s o i l . L a t e r a l o r c a p i l l a r y movement of water through t h e s o i l d i s t r i b u t e s t h e water t o areas between furrows. Adaptability.--The level-furrow method i s best s u i t e d t o s o i l s having a moderate t o slow intake r a t e (2.0 intake family o r l e s s ) and a moderate t o high a v a i l a b l e water holding capacity. The b e s t f i e l d layouts f o r l e v e l furrows a r e on smooth uniform slopes. R o w crops a r e t h e crops most e a s i l y i r r i g a t e d by l e v e l furrows, but d r i l l e d o r sown crops can be i r r i g a t e d e f f e c t i v e l y i f t h e s o i l has been furrowed and ridged before p l a n t i n g . I n areas where rainstorms occur i n such i n t e n s i t y and durat i o n t h a t t h e water-storage capacity of t h e furrow may be exceeded, border dikes a r e a l s o needed. Important Features.--The amount of water applied can be adjusted t o meet seasonal v a r i a t i o n s by changing duration of a p p l i c a t i o n o r s i z e of furrow stream, o r both. N o change i n layout i s needed. High a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y can be obtained with t h i s method i f it i s properly designed and operated. N o i r r i g a t i o n water need be l o s t through runoff.

Figure 3-21.--Level-furrow

irrigation.

Unless winds of high v e l o c i t y a f f e c t t h e advancing stream, t h e f i e l d d i t c h e s o r o t h e r conveyance s t r u c t u r e s can be spaced a t twice t h e design furrow length s i n c e water can be introduced a t both ends of t h e furrows. This reduces c o s t of constructing and maintaining t h e d e l i v e r y system, and farm machinery can t r a v e l f a r t h e r before turning. Maximum use can be made of r a i n f a l l even i f storm i n t e n s i t y exceeds t h e i n t a k e r a t e . Provisions f o r d i s p o s a l o r reuse of t a i l water a r e not needed. Leaching can be e a s i l y accomplished. This method can be automated e a s i l y . Limitations.--In a r e a s where wind v e l o c i t y exceeds 15 t o 20 miles p e r hour, it i s d i f f i c u l t t o apply i r r i g a t i o n water i f t h e wind d i r e c t i o n i s opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of water flow i n t h e furrow. Since wind erosion i s u s u a l l y a problem i n such a r e a s , row and furrow length should be normal t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind d i r e c t i o n i f p r a c t i c a l . I f t h e furrow length i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind d i r e c t i o n , water should be applied a t t h e upwind end of t h e furrows. Furrow capacity must be l a r g e enough t o c o n t r o l stream flow. Furrows should be able t o contain approximately one-half t h e volume of t h e n e t i r r i g a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n . S e t s must be changed o f t e n . For e f f i c i e n t operat i o n of a system using t h i s method of water a p p l i c a t i o n , it i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t i l l a g e operations maintain t h e s u r f a c e topography and t h e furrow shape and cross s e c t i o n . Corrugation Method Description.--Corrugation i r r i g a t i o n i s a p a r t i a l s u r f a c e flooding method. I r r i g a t i o n water does not cover t h e e n t i r e f i e l d but i s applied i n small channels o r corrugations evenly spaced across t h e f i e l d ( f i g . 3-22). Water flowing i n t h e corrugations soaks i n t o t h e s o i l and spreads l a t e r a l l y t o i r r i g a t e t h e a r e a s between corrugations. The corrugations should be spaced t o permit an adequate l a t e r a l spread by the time t h e desired amount of water has i n f i l t r a t e d t h e s o i l . The length of time t h a t water must be run i n t h e corrugations depends on t h e amount of water required t o r e f i l l t h e root zone and on t h e i n take r a t e of t h e s o i l . I n i t i a l i r r i g a t i n g streams must g r e a t l y exceed t h e i n t a k e r a t e of t h e s o i l i n order t o advance r a p i d l y . Therefore, when water reaches t h e lower end of t h e run, t h e streams must be adjusted

Figure 3-22.--Corrugation

irrigation.

o r cut back t o prevent excessive waste from s u r f a c e runoff o r provisions must be made t o recover t a i l water. Adaptability.--Corrugation i r r i g a t i o n i s b e s t s u i t e d t o areas of low r a i n f a l l and smooth f i e l d s t h a t have slopes between 1 and 8 percent. It can be used on i r r e g u l a r l y sloping s i t e s , but t h e corrugations must have a continuous slope i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n and t h e cross slope must be such t h a t breakthroughs from both i r r i g a t i o n water and r a i n f a l l runoff a r e held t o a minimum. The cross slope u s u a l l y should be cons i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e slope i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n . The use of corrugations i n humid areas u s u a l l y c r e a t e s a s e r i o u s erosion hazard.

A l l close-growing, noncultivated sown o r d r i l l e d crops except r i c e and o t h e r crops grown i n ponded water can be i r r i g a t e d by t h i s method. Legumes, grasses, and small g r a i n s a r e commonly i r r i g a t e d by t h i s method, which i s used a l s o f o r i r r i g a t i n g noncultivated orchards and vineyards having g r a s s o r legume cover crops.
Corrugations a r e b e s t used on f i n e t o moderately coarse textured s o i l s . They a r e not s u i t a b l e f o r coarse-textured high-intake-rate s o i l s n r s a l i n e so.ils. The method i s e s p e c i a l l y good f o r i r r i g a t i n g s o i l s t h a t bake or c r u s t . Since only a small p a r t of t h e s o i l surface i s wetted, c r u s t i n g i s g r e a t l y reduced. Corrugations o f t e n a r e used i n est a b l i s h i n g crops t o be i r r i g a t e d by t h e graded-border method l a t e r . Important F e a t u r e s . - - I r r i g a t i n g streams can be l a r g e o r small s i n c e t h e number of corrugations i r r i g a t e d a t one time i s simply adjusted t o f i t t h e a v a i l a b l e flow. L i t t l e iand preparation need be- done, -and o f t e n new land can be cleared and put i n t o production t h e f i r s t year. O n wellleveled f i e l d s reasonably high e f f i c i e n c y can be obtained e a s i l y i f proper water management p r a c t i c e s a r e followed. Limitations.--Labor requirements a r e high. I r r i g a t i o n streams must be c a r e f u l l y regulated f o r uniform water d i s t r i b u t i o n and minimum waste. F i e l d s must be corrugated a t l e a s t once every year and i n many cases, more than once. Equipment operating c o s t s a l s o a r e high. The rough f i e l d surface i s d i f f i c u l t t o cross with equipment and causes excessive damage from v i b r a t i o n . In addition, t h e method i s not w e l l s u i t e d t o g e n t l e slopes. Seldom should it be attempted on slopes of l e s s than 1 percent. Therefore it i s not g e n e r a l l y s u i t e d t o areas t h a t have high r a i n f a l l during t h e i r r i g a t i o n season.

Water is applied beneath t h e ground surface t o c r e a t e an a r t i f i c i a l o r perched water t a b l e over some n a t u r a l b a r r i e r t h a t r e s t r i c t s deep perc o l a t i o n . Moisture then reaches t h e p l a n t r o o t s through c a p i l l a r y movement.

S u b i r r i g a t i o n Method Description.--Irrigation water i s introduced through open ditches, t i l e drains, o r mole drains ( f i g . 3-23). The water t a b l e i s maintained a t some predetermined depth below the ground surface, usually 12 t o 24 inches, depending on t h e rooting c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e crop grown. Open ditches are probably most widely used. Feeder d i t c h e s a r e excavated on t h e contour and spaced close enough t o insure c o n t r o l of t h e water t a b l e . They a r e connected t o a supply d i t c h t h a t runs down t h e predominant f i e l d slope and has control s t r u c t u r e s a s needed t o maintain t h e desired water l e v e l i n t h e feeder ditches. A t i l e system i s expensive and generally i s used only f o r high-value crops. P a r a l l e l t i l e l i n e s a r e l a i d 24 inches t o 40 inches deep a t a nearly l e v e l grade t h a t approximately p a r a l l e l s t h e ground surface. They are spaced close enough t o insure almost complete c o n t r o l of t h e water t a b l e . I n general t h e upper ends of these feeder l i n e s a r e connected t o a supply l i n e i n t o which water i s introduced. The lower ends a r e connected by an o u t l e t t i l e which i s used t o c a r r y excess i r r i g a t i o n water and storm water t o a s a t i s f a c t o r y o u t l e t . Controls a r e placed i n each feeder l i n e t o regulate t h e water-table l e v e l . Mole drains have been used successfully as feeder l i n e s only i n organic s o i l s . They are formed by p u l l i n g a bullet-nosed cylinder through t h e s o i l a t a minimum depth of 30 inches t o prevent closure of t h e holes by compaction during farming operations. The l i n e s a r e 12 t o 15 f e e t apart and a r e connected by an open d i t c h t h a t serves both t o introduce i r r i g a t i o n water i n t o t h e mole drains and t o remove water from them f o r drainage. Well-constructed moles i n s u i t a b l e s o i l s give e f f e c t i v e servi c e f o r 5 t o 8 years. Adaptability.--The s u b i r r i g a t i o n method i s s u i t e d t o s o i l s having reasonably uniform t e x t u r e and permeable enough f o r water t o move r a p i d l y both h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y within and f o r some distance below t h e c r o p ' s root zone. The s o i l p r o f i l e must a l s o contain a b a r r i e r against excessive losses through deep percolation, e i t h e r a nearly impermeable layer i n the substratum o r a n a t u r a l l y high water t a b l e on which a perched o r a r t i f i c i a l water t a b l e can be maintained throughout

Figure 3-23.--Subirrigation.

t h e growing season. Topography must be smooth and nearly l e v e l o r t h e slopes very gentle and uniform. The s u b i r r i g a t i o n method i s s u i t e d t o i r r i g a t i n g vegetables, most f i e l d crops, small grains, pasture grasses, most forage crops, and flowers. Important Features.--This method can be used f o r s o i l s having a low water-holding capacity and a high intake r a t e where surface methods cannot be used and t h e cost of s p r i n k l e r s i s excessive. The water l e v e l can be maintained a t optimum depths f o r crop needs a t d i f f e r e n t growth stages. Water l o s s by evaporation from t h e s o i l can be held t o a minimum. Weed seeds a r e not carried over the surface by i r r i g a t i o n water. The s u b i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n system can a l s o be used as t h e drainage system. T i l e feeder l i n e s generally provide b e t t e r drainage than opend i t c h feeder l i n e s . Labor requirements a r e l e s s than f o r any other irr i g a t i o n method. Labor i s required only f o r regulating stream flow i n t o t h e system, regulating water-level control s t r u c t u r e s , and tending t h e pump i f pumping is required. Limitations.--Since t h i s method requires an unusual combination of n a t u r a l conditions, it can be used i n only a few areas. Water having a high s a l t content cannot be used. I n some a r i d areas s o i l s become s a l i n e unless adequately drained. Choice of crops i s limited i n some areas. Deep-rooted crops such as deciduous orchard t r e e s and c i t r u s t r e e s generally cannot- be subirrigated

I r r i g a t i o n Water Conveyance I r r i g a t i o n water must be made available t o each p a r t of t h e farm i r r i g a t i o n system a t a r a t e and elevation t h a t permits proper operation of t h e selected methods of water application. I r r i g a t i o n water should be conveyed as economically, e f f i c i e n t l y , and s a f e l y as possible. The delivery p a r t of t h e farm i r r i g a t i o n system must be l a r g e enough t o furnish t h e required i r r i g a t i o n water t o meet crop demands during peak-use periods. I f t h e water i s delivered on a r o t a t i o n o r t u r n b a s i s , t h e system must be large enough t o allow delivery of t h e water i n t h e time a l l o t t e d . Plans should provide f o r future needs and expansion. The type of conveyance f a c i l i t i e s v a r i e s with t h e method of application. Sprinklers require pressure pipe, mains, and l a t e r a l s , and s u b i r r i g a t i o n uses e i t h e r ditches o r t i l e . The contour-levee method generally uses a head d i t c h and levees, and t h e furrow and border methods require e i t h e r ditches o r pipelines with siphon tubes, gated pipes, o r other forms of takeouts. Conveyance f a c i l i t i e s generally a r e e i t h e r surface ditches with a l l t h e necessary grade-stabilization and water-control s t r u c t u r e s o r pipelines. They must be accessible f o r operation and maintenance. They must be able t o provide water t o every p a r t of an i r r i g a t e d area. They should be located s o t h a t they i n t e r f e r e with farming operations as l i t t l e as i s practical.

Ditches I r r i g a t i o n ditches a r e open channels used t o c a r r y i r r i g a t i o n water t o i t s point of use. They a r e used more than any other type of conduit. Small inadequate d i t c h e s without proper c o n t r o l struc,tures and maintenance probably a r e t h e source of more t r o u b l e i n operating a n i r r i g a t i o n system than any o t h e r cause. Ditches t h a t c a r r y i r r i g a t i o n water from t h e source of supply t o one o r more farms a r e known as canals and l a t e r a l s . They a r e generally l a r g e and should always be permanent i n s t a l l a t i o n s . Field ditches convey water from t h e farm source of supply t o a f i e l d o r f i e l d s within the farm u n i t . They a l s o should be permanent i n s t a l l a t ions

Head ditches a r e used t o d i s t r i b u t e water i n a f i e l d f o r surface i r r i g a t i o n . They a r e l a i d out a t t h e high end of t h e i r r i g a t i o n run and a r e generally perpendicular t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n f o r furrows and borders. In contour-ditch i r r i g a t i o n and i n s u b i r r i g a t i o n where water i s d i s t r i b u t e d through open d i t c h e s , t h e head d i t c h runs down t h e slope and water i s released on one s i d e o r bdth. Head d i t c h e s can be permanent o r constructed each i r r i g a t i o n season. The water surface i n head d i t c h e s should be above t h e ground l e v e l , 0.5 t o 1 foot higher than t h e ground t o be i r r i g a t e d . I f possible, t h e d i t c h e s should be n e a r l y l e v e l ( l e s s than 0 . 1 foot f a l l per 100 f e e t ) s o t h a t water can be backed up f o r a maximum distance, thus requiring a minimum of check dams and labor t o c o n t r o l i r r i g a t i o n flow. Ditches work best i n clay o r loam s o i l s since seepage i s usually l e s s and d i t c h banks a r e more s t a b l e than those i n sands o r sandy l o w . Open d i t c h e s can c a r r y l a r g e volumes of water and have t h e advantage of low cost per volume of water c a r r i e d . O n s o i l s where seepage i s not a problem, they a r e easy t o build. Ditches have some l i m i t a t i o n s . Losses from seepage and evaporation can be high, and weeds and burrowing animals can cause t r o u b l e . Ditches take up valuable space and may hinder farm operations. Their maintenance requirements a r e higher than those f o r p i p e l i n e s . Unlined Ditches Unlined ditches a r e t h e most commonly used method of carrying i r r i g a t i o n water, but many a r e not e f f i c i e n t . Small ditches can be e a s i l y b u i l t and maintained with farm equipment, They can be b u i l t before t h e i r r i g a t i o n season s t a r t s and be removed before harvest, o r they can be r e moved a f t e r each i r r i g a t i o n and new ones b u i l t f o r t h e next i r r i g a t i o n . I n porous s o i l s unlined ditches l o s e considerable q u a n t i t i e s of water by seepage. S o i l permeability probably i s t h e most important f a c t o r . Losses are g r e a t e r i f t h e water is c a r r i e d a long distance and a r e proportional t o t h e wetted perimeter and depth of water flow i n t h e d i t c h . Vegetation along a d i t c h , p a r t i c u l a r l y along permanent d i t c h e s ,

contributes to water loss through transpiration. Rodents and insects cause losses by burrowing in ditch embankments. In addition to the loss of irrigation water, seepage also damages adjoining land by raising the water table. Grade-control structures are required in ditches if the design flow develops an erosive velocity. On slopes where drop structures must be closely spaced, it may be more economical to use a lined ditch, chute, or buried pipeline. Where ditches cross roads or waterways, it is necessary to install some type of crossing structure. Lined Ditches Ditch lining is an effective way to control seepage. Erosion-resistant linings can be used also to control ditch-bottom and bank erosion. For any given flow, lined ditches can be smaller than unlined ditches, which reduces the amount of land they take up. Lining also provides some protection against damage by rodents. Lining protects land against waterlogging and salinity. Depending on the kind, a lining reduces cost of maintenance, insures against interruption in water deliveries, and helps control weeds. Selecting a lining should be governed by availability of the material and equipment needed to install it, ditch size, climatic and foundation conditions, and whether the irrigation stream is continuous or intermittent. Freezing and thawing damage some kinds of linings as does trampling by livestock and a fluctuating water table. Vegetation will damage some linings 'unless growth is controlled.

Many kinds of materials are used. Concrete is probably the most popular, but asphaltic materials, membranes, metals, chemical sealants, and impermeable earth materials are also used. Any of these materials make good linings if they are properly selected and are installed according to site conditions.
Concrete Lining.--Portland cement concrete is one of the most widely used materials. If site conditions are favorable, a well-constructed concrete lining gives long service with minimum repair and maintenance costs. Nonreinforced concrete is generally used. Thiclmess ranges from 1-1/2 to 3 inches, depending on climate and the expected water velocity in the ditch. Concrete linings withstand high stream velocities and therefore are particularly suitable for erosion control as well as seepage prevention. They are superior to most other linings in resistance to mechanical damage. They are limited to nonexpanding soils where it is possible to get good internal drainage. If concrete linings are to be installed on poorly drained sites, in areas subject to severe frost heaving, or in soils having a high sulfate-salt concentration, they must be specially designed and protected.

I f good concrete i s a v a i l a b l e l o c a l l y , slip-form-placed portland cement concrete i s probably t h e most economical l i n i n g ( f i g . 3-24). I n t h i s method concrete i s placed by a s p e c i a l l y designed machine. The s l i p form r i d e s on and i s guided by t h e subgrade as it i s pulled forward by a t r a c t o r o r winch. Freshly mixed concrete i s poured through a hopper s o t h a t t h e s l i p form d i s t r i b u t e s concrete t o t h e s i d e s and bottom of t h e d i t c h . The r e a r s e c t i o n of t h e s l i p form i s a s t r i k e - o f f o r screening mechanism. Thickness of t h e concrete l i n i n g i s determined by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n height between t h e bottom of t h e r e a r s e c t i o n and t h e bottom of t h e f r o n t s e c t i o n . Ready-mixed concrete i s probably b e s t t o use because i t s q u a l i t y i s easy t o c o n t r o l and s u f f i c i e n t volume can be a v a i l a b l e a t a l l times t o keep t h e form i n operation a s continuously a s possible. For a farmer who wishes t o d i g and l i n e h i s own d i t c h e s , panel-formed l i n i n g has advantages. After digging t h e d i t c h t o grade, he s e t s guideform panels about 10 f e e t long and pours concrete i n every o t h e r panel, skipping a 10-foot s e c t i o n ( f i g . 3-25). When t h e concrete i s s e t , he moves t h e guides and pours t h e skipped panels. The bottom i n each s e c t i o n i s poured f i r s t , and t h e n t h e f r e s h concrete i s screeded up t h e s l o p e . Pneumatically applied mortar lmown as s h o t c r e t e i s sometimes used t o l i n e and resurface old concrete and rock c u t s . S p e c i a l machines a r e r e quired, and t h e concrete mix must be c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d . It i s poss i b l e t o g e t a s t r o n g durable l i n i n g but, except f o r very t h i n l i n i n g s , it i s more c o s t l y than slip-form concrete. Asphalt Lining.--Asphalt can be used f o r seepage-control l i n i n g s , e i t h e r a s a sp h a l t i c concrete o r i n s h e e t s , planks, o r membranes. Asphaltic conc r e t e c o n s i s t s of sand and g r a v e l bound together with a s p h a l t i c cement. It i s s i m i l a r t o portland cement i n many r e s p e c t s , but it does not l a s t a s long and withstands lower v e l o c i t i e s . Asphaltic concrete i s not s o hard a s portland cement concrete and i s t h e r e f o r e more s u b j e c t t o mechanical damage. I n many places t h e subgrade must be s t e r i l i z e d t o prevent vegetation from growing through t h e l i n i n g and causing d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Hot-mix a s p h a l t i c concrete has given f a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , but s p e c i a l equipment i s needed t o blend and place it. It can be placed by a s l i p form o r heated sereed moved slowly along t h e d i t c h by winch o r t r a c t o r . Prefabricated a s p h a l t planks a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r l i n i n g d i t c h e s . They a r e 2 t o 4 f e e t wide by 8 t o 12 f e e t long and one-fourth t o oneh a l f inch t h i c k . They should be l a i d i n warm weather s o t h a t they s o f t e n enough t o conform t o t h e shape of t h e d i t c h . Generally t h e y a r e i n s t a l l e d t r a n s v e r s e l y . But i f they a r e lapped, t h e l a p i s downstream s o t h a t water puts no s t r e s s on t h e j o i n t s . I f t h e s h e e t s a r e butted, a cap s t r i p i s used t o cover t h e j o i n t s . P l a n k should be buried i n t h e berm f o r anchorage. Unless t h e l i n i n g i s w e l l anchored, it sags on t h e slope and wrinkles.

WYO-648

Figure 3-24.--1Placing

concrete ditch lining by slip-form method.

Figure 3-25.--Co~istructingc c n c r e t e ditch l i n i n g by alternate-panel method.

Bn-12711

P r e f a b r i c a t e d asphalt-membrane l i n i n g s can be i n s t a l l e d i n small i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s by u n s k i l l e d labor. The l i n e r s a r e one-eighth t o onef o u r t h inch t h i c k and come i n r o l l s 40 inches wide. They a r e designed t o be handled and placed i n much t h e same manner a s r o l l e d roofing with lapped and cemented j o i n t s . These l i n i n g s a r e u s u a l l y covered with e a r t h and g r a v e l , but i f t h e i r r i g a t i o n stream i s t o have a high v e l o c i t y , t h e y can be covered with s h o t c r e t e o r macadam, The l i n e r i s buried i n a t r e n c h on t h e berm p a r a l l e l i n g t h e d i t c h t o hold t h e l i n e r i n place. Various kinds of asphalt-membrane l i n i n g s a r e a v a i l a b l e , such as a s p h a l t coated j u t e , asbestos f i b e r with a s p h a l t coating, f i b e r - g l a s s mat f i l l e d with a s p h a l t , o r o t h e r organic m a t e r i a l s s a t u r a t e d and coated with asphalt. Asphalt l i n i n g can be sprayed on. The c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e d i t c h i s made l a r g e r than required. The a s p h a l t i s t h e n sprayed over the d i t c h and covered with 6 t o 9 inches of p r o t e c t i v e e a r t h covering. Sprayed-on l i n i n g can be used only i n d i t c h e s having a stream v e l o c i t y of 3 f e e t p e r second o r l e s s . S p e c i a l equipment i s required f o r spraying t h e hot a s p h a l t . I f properly i n s t a l l e d , sprayed-on l i n i n g w i l l give reasonably good s e r v i c e f o r a t l e a s t 10 years. Flexible-Membrane Lining.--Strips of a s p e c i a l l y formulated film i n s h e e t form, u s u a l l y rubber o r p l a s t i c , can be joined with an adhesive and used a s a d i t c h l i n i n g . The subgrade should be firm, smooth, and f r e e of vegetation. A l l s t i c k s , clods, and d e b r i s should be removed t o p r o t e c t t h e l i n i n g a g a i n s t punctures. I n permanent d i k h e s t h e membrane g e n e r a l l y i s buried, which lengthens i t s usable l i f e . The d i t c h i s overexcavated, and t h e l i n i n g i s placed and t h e n covered with s o i l o r gravel. The covering m a t e r i a l must be c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d and placed on t h e membrane s o t h a t t h e r e i s no damage during c o n s t r u c t i o n . F l e x i b l e membranes can be used only i n d i t c h e s i n which t h e stream v e l o c i t y does not exceed 3 f e e t per second. The e a r t h covering, 6 t o 9 inches t h i c k , s e r v e s t o weight t h e l i n e r and hold it i n p l a c e when t h e d i t c h i s not f i l l e d with water a s w e l l a s t o minimize mechanical damage. Since weeds may p i e r c e a p l a s t i c l i n i n g , a s t e r i l i z i n g agent i s used on t h e subgrade before t h e membrane is placed. Butyl rubber r e s i s t s d e t e r i o r a t i o n due t o exposure, b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y , and r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n . Maintenance work must be done very c a r e f u l l y t o keep membrane l i n i n g s from being damaged. P r e f a b r i c a t e d Metal Lining.--Prefabricated metal l i n e r s can a l s o be used t o c o n t r o l seepage and e r o s i o n i n i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s . They come i n convenient lengths f o r easy handling. The s e c t i o n s a r e battened t o g e t h e r , and a s p e c i a l s e a l a n t i s used t o make a l l j o i n t s w a t e r t i g h t . These l i n e r s have an advantage i n i s o l a t e d areas where it i s d i f f i c u l t t o b r i n g i n o t h e r kinds of l i n i n g m a t e r i a l . They should provide many years of t r o u b l e - f r e e s e r v i c e , and c o n s t r u c t i o n and maintenance c o s t s a r e low. But they should not be i n s t a l l e d i n a r e a s i n which t h e water has a high concentration of s a l t o r o t h e r chemicals i n j u r i o u s t o t h e metal without a coating s p e c i f i c a l l y formulated t o p r o t e c t them from t h e s e chemicals,

They a r e s u i t e d t o small d i t c h e s t h a t have a bottom width of no more t h a n 3 f e e t . The bank of t h e d i t c h should be high enough f o r the top edge of t h e l i n i n g t o be firmly anchored i n t h e d i t c h bank. Weeds a r e no problem, and t h e l i n e r s a r e r e s i s t a n t t o t u n n e l i n g by burrowing rodenbs. I f f r e e z i n g temperatures a r e common, t h e foundation must have adequate drainage t o re vent water accumulating under t h e l i n i n g . Chemical Sealants.--Chemical s e a l a n t s can be used t o make d i t c h subgrades n e a r l y impermeable t o seepage. They a r e e f f e c t i v e i f the di-t;ch perimeter is moist most of t h e y e a r but a r e l e s s e f f e c t i v e i f t h e d i t c h d r i e s out;. Cracking of t h e s o i l breaks t h e membranes formed by t h e s e a l a n t arid provides channels f o r seepage. Chernizal sealarltc can be used on any soil. but a r e not p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o sandy s o i l s , Some a r e riot s a t i s f a c t o r y because of s h o r t L i f e , Iiigl; c o s t , o r t o x i c i t y t o animals and crops. These s e a l a n t s a r e waterborne and t h e r e f o r e must be put in t h e d i t c h water, u s u a l l y a t a poini; of d i s t u r b a n c e such a s a drop s t r u c t u r e t o f a c i l i t a t e nixing t h e s e a l a n t with t h e w a t e r . Some supplemental mixing may be r e q u i r e d . One a p p l i c a t i o n method i s t o put t h e s e a l a n t i n t o a flowing d i t c h w i t h the water checkeci a t a d i t c h s t r u c t u r e t o reduce the v c l o c i t y of flow. This allows more time f o r t h e s e a l a n t to a c t on t h e subgrade i n a given reach than i s p o s s i b l e under normal flow. Ponding i s another m e thud. Treated water i s allowed t o s t a n d i n s u c c e s s i v e ponds formed i n a d i t c h by temporarily z e a l i n g d i t c h s t r u c t u r e s o r by p l a c i n g temporary dams between s t r u c t u r e s . ' h e water i s allowed t o remain i n each pond long enough f o r the s + a i a n t t o a c t on "the soiL. i.lthough t h i s method may be more itostly, ?he s e a l i n g e f f e c t i s somewhat b e t t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e flowing-water method. Bentorrite. --Bentmi tc i s a low-ilost m a t e r i a l s i m i l a r i n appearance t o o r d i n a r y ground c l a j . I t swell; 12 t o 15 times its d r y s i z e when wes and f i l l s t h e voids Arough which water s e e p s . The t h r e e g e n e r a l methods of using b e n t o n i t e for s e a l i n g d i t c h e s a r e by membrane l i n i n g , soil-mix l i n i n g , and sedimenling, I n t h e f i r s 5 method b e n t o n i t e i s spread a s a membrane, 1 t o 2 inches o r more t h i c k , over t h e c a n a l subgrade and t h e n covered with a 6- t o 12inch p r o t e c t i v e blanket of & a b l e e a r t h o r g r a v e l . If p r o p e r l y placed, t h e membrane l i n i n g c o n t r o l s seepage f o r many y e a r s ,

Ir, t h e soil-mix method, b e n t o n i t e is spread evenly over the perimeter of t h e d i t c h and t h e n mixed with t h e upper 3 t o G, inches of s o i l by d i s k , s p i k e d - t o o t h harrow, o r rake. The t r e a t e d s o i l i s then r o l l e d o r tamped u n t i l n good s o i l d e n s i t y i s obtained. I n some places a prot e c t i v e cover of s t a b l e e a r t h o r g r a v e l i s a p p l i e d .
I n t h e sedimeriting method, b e n t o n i t e i s applied i n one of' t h r e e ways. I t can be s c a t t e r e d over the s u r f a c e of t h e water, dumped i n t o t h e d i t c h a t i n t e r v a l s before t h e water is turned i n , o r put i n t o t h e d i t c h water

3-54 a s s l u r r y . The bentonite s w e l l s , and t h e r e s u l t a n t g e l f i l l s t h e voids along t h e s i d e s and bottom of t h e d i t c h , Since i t does n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e s o i l t o any depth, i t forms a t h i n coating on t h e wetted perimeter of t h e d i t c h , which reduces seepage. But s i n c e b e n t o n i t e s h r i n k s on drying and i s eroded by flowing water, t h e coating does not l a s t very long. Earth Linings.--Linings of n a t u r a l o r processed s o i l s o f t e n prove economical f o r reducing seepage and s t a b i l i z i n g s e c t i o n s i f s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s a r e a v a i l a b l e from t h e d i t c h excavation o r from nearby borrow a r e a s . Compacted e a r t h l i n i n g s a r e e a s i l y damaged i n d i t c h cleaning and by vegetation, but under o r d i n a r y circumstances t h e i r i n i t i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t i s l e s s t h a n t h a t of o t h e r types of l i n i n g s . There a r e t h r e e g e n e r a l kinds of e a r t h l i n i n g s : Thick compacted e a r t h , t h i n compacted e a r t h , and m a t e r i a l compacted i n place. For t h i c k o r t h i n compacted e a r t h l i n i n g s t h e porous e a r t h i n t h e d i t c h must be removed and t h e n replaced by m a t e r i a l more s u i t a b l e f o r d i t c h e s .

A t h i c k compacted e a r t h l i n i n g g e n e r a l l y i s 2 t o 3 f e e t t h i c k , measured normal t o t h e s i d e s l o p e , and 1 t o 2 f e e t t h i c k on t h e d i t c h bottom. Because of t h e c o s t , t h i c k compacted l i n i n g s g e n e r a l l y a r e used f o r l a r g e canals and d i t c h e s , but i n some p l a c e s they a r e economical f o r medium-size and small d i t c h e s .
A t h i n compacted e a r t h l i n i n g g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s of a 6- t o 12-inch l a y e r of thoroughly compacted cohesive s o i l s . The l i n i n g commonly i s covered with a 6- t o 12-inch l a y e r of coarse s o i l o r g r a v e l . Thickness of both l i n i n g and cover v a r i e s with t h e kind of s o i l used and t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e water t o be conveyed. S o i l s used f o r t h i n compacted l i n i n g s are gravels with sandy c l a y binder, c l a y g r a v e l s , sand with c l a y binder, and clayey sands.

In some p l a c e s it i s p o s s i b l e t o compact s o i l s i n t h e d i t c h banks and bottom enough t o reduce seepage l o s s e s appreciably. M a n y f i n e s o i l s and well-graded coarse s o i l s and f i n e s can be compacted i n p l a c e . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i f s o i l s have a f r a c t u r e d s t r u c t u r e . Compaction i s accomplished by s c a r i f y i n g , adding moisture, and compacting t o t h e r e quired d e n s i t y by sheepsfoot r o l l e r s , f l a t r o l l e r s , o r o t h e r a v a i l a b l e equipment. The s o i l should be t e s t e d i n a l a b o r a t o r y t o determine moisture and d e n s i t y requirements and t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of compaction t o eliminate seepage.
Conveyance S t r u c t u r e s Flumes, i n v e r t e d siphons, elevated d i t c h e s , road c u l v e r t s , and bridges a r e used t o c a r r y water across swales, draws, and roads and along s t e e p h i l l s i d e s . These s t r u c t u r e s a r e necessary t o t r a n s p o r t i r r i g a t i o n water efficiently. Flumes. --Flumes a r e a r t i f i c i d channels supported by s u b s t r u c t u r e s , which c a r r y water across a r e a s where d i t c h e s a r e n o t p r a c t i c a l , such a s draws o r swales o r along s t e e p o r rocky h i l l s i d e s . They must be b i g

3-'15

enough t o c a r r y t h e f u l l discharge of a d i t c h , and t h e substructures must be s t r o n g enough t o support t h e channel when it i s f i l l e d with water. Timber, metal, o r concrete o r d i n a r i l y a r e used f o r open flumes. Pipes can be u ~ e df o r closed flumes, Metal o r concrete flumes g e n e r a l l y a r e p r e f e r r e d over Limber flumes (fig. 3-26). They can be made almosf, w a t e r t i g h t and remain s o during t h e i r usable l i f e i f the supporting s t r u c t u r e i s well designed t o prevent any sagging o r s h i f t i n g of t h e channel. Reinforced-concrete flume channels a r e t h e most n e a r l y permanent as well a s t h e most c o s t l y . They a l s o r e q u i r e concrete subs t r u c t u r e s . Metal pipe flumes a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o small flows. They can be i n s t a l l e d quickly, and some of t h e dangers of overflow p o s s i b l e i n open flux-ies a r e eliminated. A pipe flume has t h e disadvan-tage t h a t it may be plugged by f l o a t i n g d e b r i s . Substructures commonly a r e b u i l t of timber, s t e e l , o r m n c r e t e . Timber substructures should be t r e a t e d with a preservative t o extend t h e i r l i f e . Concrete o r s t e e l substructures generally have a longer s e r v i c e l i r e , need l e s s maintenance, and a r e not e a s i l y damaged by f i r e . Inverted Siphons. --Inverted siphons a r e closed conduits with each end r a i s e d , forming a U-shaped sxructure, t h a t a r e used t o c a r r y water across depressions and d r a i n s o r under roads and o t h e r obstructions ( f i g . 3-27). They a r e u s u a l l y made of corrugated o r smooth metal pipe, concrete pipe, o r reinforced concrete poured i n place. They a r e part i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o L,onveying water under roads i f t h e water i n t h e d i t c h i s c a r r i e d above ground. They a r e o f t e n used i n place of flumes, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r crossing s t e e p wide depressions, They d i f f e r from c u l v e r t s i n t h a t t h e Lop of the pipe is lower than t h e water surface and t h e pipe i s always under some pressure. The amount of water they can c a r r y depends on t h e s i z e and kind of conduit and on t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between t h e water surface a t t h e i n l e t and a t t h e o u t l e t . Velocity i n the pipe should be a t l e a s t a s high as t h a t i n t h e d i t c h leading t o t h e s t r u c t u r e t o prevent sedimentation a t t h e bottom of t h e siphon. Trash racks a r e needed t o keep t h e siphon open. Properly i n s t a l l e d inverted siphons r e q u i r e l i t t l e maintenance. Since they a r e underground, they a r e well protected, e s p e c i a l l y against flood damage. Elevated Ditches.--Elevated d i t c h e s a r e open channels b u i l t on compacted e a r t h f i l l t o convey water across shallow depressions o r t o d e l i v e r water by open d i t c h t o a high p a r t of a f i e l d . The f i l l mat e r i a l must compact r e a d i l y but not crack when dry. Elevated d i t c h e s generally a r e used f o r carrying l a r g e flows o r i n places where they a r e l e s s c o s t l y than flumes, siphons, o r p i p e l i n e s . The major problems a r e seepage l o s s , dry-weather cracks through t h e d i t c h bank, d i f f i c u l t y of c o n t r o l l i n g weeds and rodents, and d i f f i c u l t y of maintenance. For these reasons it is generally b e s t t o use pipe conduits i f t h e d i t c h must be elevated more than 2 or 3 f e e t , Careful and timely maintenance i s necessary because a break i n t h e bank may

Figure 3-26.--Timber-supported metal f l u m e .

Figure -3-27.--Section

of a c o n c r e t e i n v e r t e d siphon.

cause s e r i o u s washouts t h a h i l l damage t h e s i r u ( . t u ~ c and : t h e surrounding a r e a . I'he h i g h e r the f i l l , the g r e a t e r the poterlCial damage from breaks o r h a l e s made by burrowing animals. The d i tchcs can be l i n e d t o l e s s e n t h i s hazard and t o reducp seepage. I f an e l e v a t e d d i t c h c r o s s e s a drninageway, a c u l v e r t i s needed. Road-Crossing Struc:ures.--Culverts, i n v e r t e d s i p h o n s , o r bridges a r e used to c a r r y w a t e r across r o a d s , C u l v e r t s a r e used most o f t e n under farm roads because they a r e g e n e r a l l y t h e l e a s t expensive. Corrugated metal, smooth m e t a l , and c o n c r e t e a r e used most commonly f o r c u l v e r t s i n farm d i t c h e s . The c u l v e r t s should be long enough to m a i n t a i n a roadway of adequate w i d t h and m u s t have enough covering t o p r o t e c t t h e p i p e from c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s . I n v e r t e d siphons a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o c r o s s i u g c :it which $he water s u r f a c e i n the d i t c h i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e road. Bridges can be used f o r road cbrossings over d i t c h e s r e g a r d l e s s of the e l e v a t i o n of t h e water i n the dit-h. They can be b u i l t s o t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no l a s s ot-' head thr1oXh t h e s t r u c t u r e . Grade-Control Sidructures Some i r r i g a t i o n ditches a r e b u i l t w i t h enough grade t o produce erosive v e l o c i t i e s . Surh v e l o c i t i e s s c o u r the d i t c h arid may cause t h e banks to slough. The eroded m a x r i a l i s d e p o s i t e d downstrsnm, t h e r e b y reducing

3-58

d i t c h c a p a c i t y and i n c r e a s i n g t h e maintenance needed. Some p r o t e c t i v e measures t h e r e f o r e must be used, such a s drops and chutes t o c o n t r o l grade and l i n i n g s t o p r o t e c t t h e banks. But i n some p l a c e s it may be b e t t e r t o use a p i p e l i n e i n s t e a d of a d i t c h . Drops.--Drop spillways o r pipe drops c o n t r o l d i t c h v e l o c i t y by lowering t h e water a b r u p t l y from one l e v e l t o a lower l e v e l . A drop spillway i s a weir. Water flows through t h e weir opening i n t h e headwalls, drops t o a n e a r l y l e v e l apron s p i l l i n g b a s i n o r t o a lower l e v e l , and then flows i n t o t h e downstream s e c t i o n of t h e channel. For small drops, a simple apron u s u a l l y i s adequate. For higher drops o r bigger streams, some type of energy d i s s i p a t e r must he provided. D i f f e r e n t kinds of drop s t r u c t u r e s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 3-28. Large open drops a r e u s u a l l y b u i l t of r e i n f o r c e d concrete. Reinforced concrete, concrete block, rock masonry, o r r o t - r e s i s t a n t lumber, such a s redwood, cedar, f i r , o r creosoted p i n e , can be used f o r s m a l l e r s t r u c t u r e s . P r e f a b r i c a t e d s t r u c t u r e s made of s t e e l o r aluminum a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e . Metal drops should be t r e a t e d a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n . S p e c i a l cement o r a l l o y s may be r e q u i r e d i f t h e chemical c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s o i l i s high enough t o cause r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n . A pipe drop is a s e c t i o n of p i p e with a r i s e r equal t o t h e r e q u i r e d drop. A f i l l must be b u i l t a c r o s s t h e d i t c h t o d i r e c t water through t h e p i p e . Corrugated-metal p i p e drops a r e commonly used and a r e a v a i l a b l e commercially. Smooth s t e e l , p r e c a s t concrete, o r c l a y p i p e can a l s o be used. Pipe drops a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d t o small d i t c h e s . The f i l l a c r o s s t h e d i t c h can be widened by adding e x t r a p i p e t o provide a road c r o s s i n g i f needed, which i s an important f e a t u r e . Pipe drops a r e more e a s i l y plugged by t r a s h than weirs a r e . The e a r t h f i l l should be inspected f r e q u e n t l y ts p r o t e c t a g a i n s t damage by burrowing rodents. Chutes.--Chutes a r e paved o r l i n e d , high-velocity, open channels. They can be used a s s h o r t d i t c h s e c t i o n s on s t e e p s l o p e s o r where drop s t r u c t u r e s would be s o c l o s e t o g e t h e r t h a t a paved d i t c h i s more p r a c t i c a l , The paving o r l i n i n g m a t e r i a l f o r t h e chute must be a b l e Lo withstand h i g h - v e l o c i t y flow. Chutes a r e u s u a l l y b u i l t of concrete. High v e l o c i t y i s a problem i f it i s necessary t o d i v e r t some of t h e flow i n t o farm d i t c h e s . If a chute empties i n t o an e a r t h d i t c h , some kind of s p i l l i n g b a s i n i s needed t o slow down and smooth out t h e flow t o p r o t e c t t h e d i t c h . Chutes a r e expensive and must be designed i n dividually. Distribution-Control Structures D i s t r i b u t i o n - c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r easy and a c c u r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water t o t h e various f i e l d s on a farm. Good water c o n t r o l permits e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n and r e duces l a b o r requirements. s e l e c t i n g t h e c o r r e c t kind of water-control s t r u c t u r e and l o c a t i n g it p r o p e r l y i s an important p a r t of planning a farm i r r i g a t i o n system,

Headgate.--Farm headgates are used to divert ihe required amount of irrigation water from the farm source of supply to the farm fie1d ditches. Headgates may include a weir measuring device that determines flow into a field ditch (fig. 3-29). They may be culvert-type diversion structures equipped with a measuring well or submerged orifices with measuring gages. Division Box.--Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more ditches. Water enters the box 5hrough an opening on one side and flows out through openings on the other sides equipped with gates of a size to furnish the necessary flow to the field ditches. Division boxes are also used at pumps to control the flow of water from the pump outlet into one of two or more field ditches (figs. 3-30 and 3-31), Concrete or concrete block are the materials generally used for division boxes. Prefabricated metal panels that can be bolted together to form a box quickly and easily are also available.

NEB-2143

Figure 3-29.--Headgate equipped to measure water directly from an irrieation canal to a farm ditch.

NEB-2156

Figure 3-32.--Amp

s t i l l i n g b a s i n and d i v i s i o n box.

COLO-11178

Figure 3-31.--Division

box with f o u r chambers.

3-62 Checks.--Checks a r e s t r u c t u r e s placed i n a d i t c h t o form a d j u s t a b l e dams t o c o n t r o l t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e water s u r f a c e u ~ s t r e a ms o t h a t water can be d i v e r t e d from t h e d i t c h . Checks can be permanent o r p o r t a b l e . D i f f e r e n t kinds of checks a r e shown i n f i g u r e s 3-32 through 3-39.
L

A permanent check i s a headwall with a weir opening equipped with

grooves f o r f l a s h boards o r with metal s l i d e g a t e s f o r a d j u s t i n g t h e upstream e l e v a t i o n of t h e water s u r f a c e . Boards can be used a s s t o p s , By changing t h e number o r height of t h e boards, t h e upstream e l e v a t i o n can be c o n t r o l l e d a s w e l l a s t h e degree of o v e r p o u . I f s l i d e g a t e s a r e used, t h e upstream e l e v a t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by r a i s i n g t h e g a t e so t h a t t h e excess water flows under t h e g a t e , Permanent checks used i n t h e more n e a r l y permanent d i t c h e s g e n e r a l l y a r e made of concrete, wood, o r s t e e l . Checks can a l s o be combined with drops. Permanent o v e r f a l l checks i n unlined d i t c h e s should have an apron f o r t h e overflow t o prevent scouring t h a t might wash out t h e check. Portable checks can be removed a f t e r t h e y have served t h e i r purpose f o r i r r i g a t i n g a given a r e a and r e s e t downstream f o r i r r i g a t i n g another a r e a . They a r e g e n e r a l l y made of canvas, ' p l a s t i c , rubber, o r metal. Metal checks a r e forced i n t o t h e s i d e s and bottom of a d i t c h , t h e o t h e r s a r e dug i n and then b a c k f i l l e d s o t h a t t h e y do not wash out. P o r t a b l e checks can a l s o be used i n concrete- o r a s p h a l t - l i n e d d i t c h e s . Portable metal checks u s u a l l y a r e l a i d on a s l a n t i n l i n e d d i t c h e s and a r e held i n place by t h e weight of t h e water. % l i f t s . - - R e l i f t s a r e used t o l i f t water by pumping from a d i t c h t o a d i t c h a t a higher e l e v a t i o n . A pump sump i s b u i l t i n t h e lower d i t c h where t h e pump is t o be located. A pump discharge bay of concrete, concrete block, lumber, o r metal i s g e n e r a l l y needed i n t h e upper d i t c h t o prevent damage from t h e pump discharge. R e l i f t s a r e used i f t h e farm water supply i s not high enough t o reach a l l a r e a s of t h e farm by g r a v i t y flow. Application-Control S t r u c t u r e s The amount and r a t e of flow of i r r i g a t i o n water applied t o a f i e l d must be adjusted t o t h e water-holding c a p a c i t y and i n t a k e r a t e of t h e s o i l s , thus saving both l a b o r and water. Various kinds of s t r u c t u r e s a r e a v a i l able f o r c o n t r o l l i n g and a d j u s t i n g t h e flow of water from f i e l d head d i t c h e s t o i n d i v i d u a l furrows, corrugations, border s t r i p s , contour d i t c h e s , and s u b i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s . Turnouts.--Turnouts a r e boxes o r o r i f i c e - t y p e s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e bank of a head d i t c h t h a t provide and c o n t r o l t h e flow of water from t h e head d i t c h i n t o border s t r i p s , contour levees, and contour d i t c h e s . They u s u a l l y have some type of silnple s l i d e g a t e t o r e g u l a t e t h e flow. Wooden boxes and concrete o r metal pipe a r e g e n e r a l l y used f o r t u r n o u t s

Figure 3--32.--Combination d r c p and check.

Figure 3-33. - - P o r t a b l e p l a s t i c check,

OKLA-11150

Figure 3-34.--Portable

canvas check.

NEB-1617

Figure 3-35.--Canvas

check with a d j u s t a b l e sack o u t l e t .

Figure 3-37.--Adjustable

metal check i n a l i n e d d i t c h .

WO-10166

F i g u r e 3-42.--Concrete-block turnout in a l i n e d ditch.

NEB-2146

Figure 3-43,--Metal t u r n o u t .

Fi~ure 3-44.--Turnout boxes i n background.

TE X-42667

Figure _3-i+6.--Conere te-pipe turnout.

Figure 3 - 4 ' i . - - I n s t a l l i n g a concrete-pipe t u r n o u t .

IDA-45359

3 -70

Concrete- o r metal-pipe t u r n o u t s must be long enough t o extend through t h e d i t c h bank. They should be equipped with an a n t i s e e p c o l l a r and a s l i d e g a t e . I n l i n e d d i t c h e s t u r n o u t s should be l o c a t e d c a r e f u l l y and be i n s t a l l e d a t t h e time t h e d i t c h i s l i n e d . Siphon Tubes.--Siphon tubes a r e small curved pipes t h a t d e l i v e r water over t h e head-ditch bank t o corrugations, furrows, and borders ( f i g s . 3-48 and 3-49). Water flows through t h e tube by t h e f o r c e of atmospheric p r e s s u r e on t h e water i n t h e d i t c h , One end of t h e tube i s placed i n t h e d i t c h and t h e o-ther end o u t s i d e t h e d i t c h on t h e ground s u r f a c e , which must be lower t h a n t h e water l e v e l i n t h e d i t c h . The tube must be completely f i l l e d f o r flow t o s t a r t . P l a s t i c , metal, o r rubber siphon tubes a r e a v a i l a b l e commercially. They come i n many s i z e s , having a flow c a p a c i t y from as l i t t l e a s 1 g a l l o n p e r minute t o more than 1,000 g a l l o n s p e r minute. Capacity v a r i e s with tube s i z e and t h e head on t h e siphon. Often two o r more small tubes a r e used f o r each furrow u n t i l t h e water reaches t h e lower end, then one ( o r more) i s removed t o cut back t h e stream. Flow through siphon tubes can be r e g u l a t e d by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e o r i f i c e a t t h e o u t l e t o r by changing t h e head. Large siphon t u b e s , 4 t o 8 inches i n diameter and 5 t o 12 f e e t long, can be used i n place of t u r n o u t s . Siphon tubes a r e used because t h e y can be moved, thus reducing c o s t of m a t e r i a l , but t h e c o s t of l a b o r f o r moving and priming i s increased. Another advantage i s t h a t d i t c h e s a r e open f o r cleaning. Siphon tubes are p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o t a k i n g water out of a r a i s e d d i t c h . One g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n using l a r g e tubes i s priming. It i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n l a r g e siphons with a d j u s t a b l e g a t e s on t h e discharge end, which can be primed by pumping a i r out of t h e tubes with a pump on t h e valve a t t h e t o p ( f i g . 3-50). Gated Pipe.--Gated pipe i s p o r t a b l e metal p i p e , u s u a l l y aluminum, with a number of small g a t e s along one s i d e through which water can be run i n t o corrugations, furrows, o r borders ( f i g s . 3-51 and 3-52). The pipe can be furnished with g a t e s spaced t o match furrow spacing, and t h e g a t e s can be a d j u s t e d t o c o n t r o l flow i n t o t h e furrows. The g a t e s provide p o s i t i v e c o n t r o l and a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y good i f cutback streams a r e required. The p i p e i s made.in light-weight s e c t i o n s , u s u a l l y 4 t o 12 inches i n diameter, t h a t a r e coupled t o g e t h e r e a s i l y . Gated pipe can be used i n p l a c e of a head d i t c h a t t h e top of a f i e l d o r it can be used i n conjunction with t h e head d i t c h . It i s w e l l s u i t e d t o use i n place of an intermediate head d i t c h on f i e l d s t o o long t o be i r r i g a t e d i n one l e n g t h of run. This permits c u l t i v a t i o n through s e v e r a l lengths of run s i n c e t h e pipe can be uncoupled and l a i d p a r a l l e l t o t h e rows o r be removed from the field during c u l t i v a t i o n . Gated pipe is used e s p e c i a l l y t o d e l i v e r water t o benches and cross-slope o r contour f u r rows. I t a l s o provides good c o n t r o l of water on slopes t o o s t e e p f o r e f f e c t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n from an open d i t c h .

TEX-49881

Figure 3-43.--Two-inch siphon t u b e s i r r i g a t i n g furrows.

Bn-29651

Figure 3-50.--Large metal siphon and pump f o r priming,

OKLA-11898

Figure 3-53.--Flexible eated pipe; sacks prevent erosion and c l o t h e s p i n s regulate flow.

3-73
F l e x i b l e Gated P i p e . - - F l e x i b l e g a t e d p i p e , sometimes known a s s u r f a c e hose o r l a y - f l a - t t u b i n g , can be made of p l a s t i c , r u b b e r , o r canvas w i t h o u t l e t t u b e s spaced a c c o r d i n g t o t h e furrow s p a c i n g ( f i g . 3 - 5 1 ) , There a r e v a r i o u s means of a d j u s t i n g flow through t h e o u t l e t t u b e s , f o r example, a d j u s t a b l e clamps. F l e x i b l e p i p e o r hose can be r o l l e d up f o r e a s y moving and s t o r a g e and can be used i n -the same p l a c e s a s g a t e d metal pipe. I n i t i a l c o s t is l e s s t h a n t h a t f o r gated metal pipe. P l a s t i c and canvas p i p e s have t h e disadvantage of s h o r t l i f e and must be handled c a r e f u l l y . Rubber p i p e h a s a l o n g e r l i f e b u t i s heavy. S p i l e s . - - S p i l e s a r e p i p e s , 1 t o 4 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r , used t o d i s t r i b u t e watcr from a d i t c h i n t o c o r r u g a t i o n s o r furrows. They a r e s e t permanently i n t h e bank of t h e head d i t c h and must be long enough t o extend through t h e bank. They a r e used a t p l a c e s where t h e head d l t r h i s n e a r l y f l a t . The w a t e r e l e v a t i o n i n each d i t c h s e c t i o n can then bc c o n t r o l l e d by a check. I t should be h i g h enough above t h e c e n t e r of t h e s p i l e opening t o d e l i v e r t h e maximum nonerosive s t r e a m u n t i l t h e w a t e r r e a c h e s t h e end o f t h e run. 'Then t h e w a t e r can be lowered t o a p o i n t :hat, d e l i v e r s t h e

I r r i g a t i o n p i p e l i n e s a r e a means o f conveying water through c l o s e d cond u i t s . Since p i p e l i n e s a r e c o s t l y , c a r e f u l planning i s required f o r l o c a t i o n , c a p a r i t y requirement, s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t m a t e r i a l , and good c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t ; i c e s . I r r i g a t i o n p i p e l i n e s can be used f o r t h e same purposes o r i n p l a c e of open c h a r u ~ e l s . p i p e l i n e s c a n be e i t h e r on t h e s u r f a c e o r underground. P o r t a b l e s u r f a c e p i p e has an advantage over underground p i p e i n t h a t i t can be moved and used i n more t h a n one l o c a t i o n , b u t i t has a disadvantage i n t h e l a b o r r e q u i r e d t o move i t . Underground l i n e s a r e p l a i n c o n c r e t e , r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , asbestos-cement, s t e e l , wrapped aluminum, f i b e r , o~ p l a s t i c p i p e ( f i g . 3-h) . S u r f a c e p i p e i s made o f aluminum, 2 t e e l , r u b b e r , p l a s t i c o r canvas. Fhe c h o i c e of m a t e r i a l depends on t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which the p i p e i s Lo be used, c o s t , and t h e f a r m e r ' s p e r s o n a l preference. Pipe c o n d u i t s can be used i n most p l a c e s . They a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o a r e a s where seepage l o s s e s a r e h i g h . P i p e can be used t o advantage i n p l a c e s d i f f i c u l t t o excavate and t o c a r r y water down s t e e p s l o p e s . P i p e l i n e s a r e a l s o good i n a r e a s where w a t e r s u p p l y i s l i m i t e d and l o s s e s must be kept t o a minimum. P i p e l i n e s almost e l i m i n a t e l o s s e s from e v a p o r a t i o n and seepage. Weed c o n t r o l and farming o p e r a t i o n s a r e e a s i e r , and l e s s t i l l a b l e l a n d i s t a k e n up. Maintenance work i n g e n e r a l i s l e s s t h a n t h a t f o r open d i t c h e s , and w a t e r c o n t r o l i s e a s i e r . Cost i s p r o b a b l y t h e main l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n u s i n g p i p e t o c a r r y i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r . Even though t h e i r l i t i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t f o r comparable open-ditch systems, t h e o v e r a l l annual c o s t o f t e n i s less.

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Two general kinds of p i p e l i n e a r e used--low pressure and high pressure. Low-pressure p i p e l i n e s a r e open t o t h e atmosphere and a r e usually used with operating heads of l e s s than 20 pounds p e r square inch. Highpressure p i p e l i n e s a r e closed t o t h e atmosphere and are used where ope r a t i n g heads of more than 20 p s i a r e required. Valves are used i n l i e u of open vents and stands. Low-Pressure Pipelines Low-pressure p i p e l i n e s a r e used p r i m a r i l y with surface i r r i g a t i o n methods. They can be permanent, semiportable, o r portable. Permanent farm systems usually c o n s i s t of buried supply and d i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e s . I n semiportable systems buried pipe is used f o r f i e l d supply l i n e s , and some kind of quick-coupling metal pipe o r f l e x i b l e pipe is l a i d on t h e ground surface t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e water. A f u l l y portable system uses metal o r f l e x i b l e surface pipe f o r both f i e l d supply and d i s t r i b u t i o n . Concrete generally i s used f o r low-pressure buried l i n e s , but s t e e l , wrapped aluminum, f i b e r , asbestos-cement, o r p l a s t i c pipe can be used. Concrete p i p e l i n e s are e i t h e r precast ( f i g . 3-55) o r c a s t i n place ( f i g s . 3-56 and 3-57). Concrete pipe i s made with tongue and grooved j o i n t s , which are sealed with rubber gaskets o r f i l l e d with cement mortar.

It i s very important t h a t a p i p e l i n e be large enough t o convey t h e flow needed i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s under present and f u t u r e conditions. I t must be l a r g e enough t o supply t h e water required during t h e period of peak crop use even though t h i s f u l l capacity may be needed i n only a small p a r t of t h e t o t a l i r r i g a t i n g season.
Specialized s t r u c t u r e s a r e needed on p i p e l i n e s t o c o n t r o l water and t o p r o t e c t them against damage. Pipelines on sloping land may develop excessive pressure heads t h a t must be controlled by standpipes o r r e g u l a t ing valves. Lines fed d i r e c t l y from pumps a l s o must have s t r u c t u r e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e maximum pressure automatically. High-pressure Pipelines High-pressure p i p e l i n e s generally a r e used t o convey water f o r s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n . Since s p r i n k l e r s u s u a l l y require a pressure of 40 pounds p e r square inch o r more f o r e f f i c i e n t water d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e p i p e l i n e must be designed a s a high-pressure system t o withstand t h i s pressure. The supply l i n e o r s p r i n k l e r main l i n e may be a permanent buried l i n e o r a portable metal surface p i p e l i n e . Buried l i n e s cost more t o i n s t a l l , but t h e i r maintenance and operating c o s t s a r e lower than those f o r surface pipe. Buried l i n e s do not i n t e r f e r e with farming operations and a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o be damaged by farm machinery and v e h i c l e s ,
A buried main l i n e may extend from t h e water source t o individual f i e l d s , and surface pipe i s used f o r t h e f i e l d main and l a t e r a l s . This permits moving t h e f i e l d main and l a t e r a l s t o o t h e r f i e l d s . O r a buried main l i n e can extend i n t o t h e f i e l d s t o be t h e f i e l d main and have r i s e r s and valves a t t h e l o c a t i o n of each l a t e r a l l i n e .

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Figure 3-56.--Removing- i n s i d e form from concrete p i p e l i n e c a s t i n place.

Figure 3-57.--Pouring concrete p i p e l i n e using sheet-metal s l i p form.

37 ' 7

A b u r i e d main l i n e i s e i t h e r metal, asbestos-cement, o r p l a s t i c p i p e . P o r t a b l e s u r f a c e l i n e s a r e aluminum p i p e i n 20-, XI-, o~ 40-foot l e n g t h s w i t h q u i c k c o u p l e r s , p l a s t i c p i p e , o r hose. If t h e w a t e r i s from an open s o u r c e where d e b r i s can c o l l e c t ? t t r s h s c r e e n s should be i n s t a l l e d a t %he pump inle-t;. 'rhe s c r e e n s should be f i n e enough t o remove weed s e e d s and o t h e r s m a l l p a r t i c l e s t h a t may c l o g s p r i n k l e r n o z z l e s . Chapter 1 1 c o n t a i n s informatiorl on s e l e c t i n g and d e s i g n i n g s p r i n k l e r systems.

Inlet Structures A n i n l e t s t r u c t u r e i s o f t e n needed t o p r e v e n t damage from e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e , t o develop t h e f u l l flow c a p a c i t y of a p i p e l i n e . and t o keep i r a s h from e n t e r i n g the p i p e , The kind of' s t r u c t u r e 3epends on t h e w a t e r s o u r c e s i n c e w a t e r e n t e r s by g r a v i t y flow from a d i t c h o r pumped i n t o a l i n e from a s t r e a m o r w e l l .
$:%

Pump Stands.--A pump s-Land i s a v e r t i c a l p i p e e x t e n d i n g above ground from a b u r i e d p i p e l i n e ( f i g . 3-56). I t c a r r i e s flow from t h e pump i n t o t h e p i p e system and must be l a r g e enough t o l e t t h e a i r e n t r a i n e d by t h e h i g h - v e l o ~ i t ys t r e a m escape.
The s t a n d must be h i g h enough t o p r e v e n t overflow a t t h e u s u a l operacing p r e s s w e y e t permit overflow a t e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e , High pump s t a n d s can b e capped and vented w i t h a p i p e of s m a l l diameter ( f i g . 3 - 5 9 ) . To p r e v e n t damage from v i b r a t i o n , t h e pump should be connected t o t h e s t a n d by a f l e x i b l e c o u p l i n g . Purnp s t a n d s a r e u s u a l l y used f o r low-pressure pipelines.

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Figure 3-58.--Low-head open s t a n d f o r concrete pipe.

Figure 3-59.--Capped high-head s t e e l stand.

sand t r a p , d e b r i s screen, o r t r a s h rack i s needed t o develop f u l l pipe flow and keep t r a s h out. The t o p should be covered t o keep t r a s h from blowing i n and t o prevent a c c i d e n t s . Sand Traps.--A sand t r a p i s a s e t t l i n g b a s i n used t o remove sand o r s i l t c a r r i e d i n i r r i g a t i o n water. It can be b u i l t i n t o t h e pump s t a n d o r g r a v i t y i n l e t by s e t t i n g t h e bottom of t h e stand some d i s t a n c e below t h e bottom of t h e p i p e l i n e ( f i g . 3-61). The stand should be l a r g e enough t o keep water v e l o c i t y low and t o permit cleaning. Debris Screens.--Debris screens a r e used t o remove t r a s h , weed seeds, and o t h e r d e b r i s c a r r i e d i n i r r i g a t i o n water from open d i t c h e s , r i v e r s , o r l a k e s . This i s e s p e c i a l l y important i f s p r i n k l e r s a r e used. I f water i s pumped i n t o a p i p e l i n e from an open source, t h e end of t h e s u c t i o n pipe can be f i t t e d with a f i n e screen. Water e n t e r i n g by g r a v i t y flow should f a l l through a f i n e screen, which must be cleaned f r e q u e n t l y . A h o r i z o n t a l s e l f - c l e a n i n g screen can be i n s t a l l e d i f t h e water source i s high enough t o provide a drop of 1 f o o t o r more a t t h e pipe i n l e t ( f i g s . 3-62 and 3-63). The f a l l i n g water washes t h e t r a s h t o one s i d e o r comp l e t e l y o f f t h e screen. Vents Vents t o r e l i e v e pressure and r e l e a s e a i r a r e used a t a l l high p o i n t s of a p i p e l i n e , a t p o i n t s where i t s s l o p e s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow, a t sharp t u r n s , a t t h e end, and d i r e c t l y below any s t r u c t u r e t h a t e n t r a i n s a i r i n t h e flowing water. A l l vents must extend above t h e hydraulic grade l i n e t o prevent overflow when t h e l i n e i s operating normally. By allowing a i r t o escape, vents permit a p i p e l i n e t o c a r r y more water, r e l i e v e surges and prevent damage t o t h e l i n e when gates o r valves a r e opened o r closed, and keep t h e l i n e from c o l l a p s i n g when it i s drained. S t r a i g h t Vents.--A s t r a i g h t vent i s a pipe extending s t r a i g h t up from a buried p i p e l i n e . The diameter of t h e vent i s t h e same a s t h e diameter of t h e p i p e l i n e . Generally a s t r a i g h t vent i s placed on top a hole c u t i n t h e l i n e a f t e r t h e l i n e i s l a i d . The maximum height m u s t not exceed t h e s a f e working head of t h e p i p e l i n e p l u s freeboard. An anchor should be c a s t around t h e pipe under t h e stand t o maintain alinement. Capped Vents.--A capped vent d i f f e r s from a s t r a i g h t vent i n t h a t a t o r near t h e ground s u r f a c e it i s capped over and a smaller pipe extends through t h e cap t o t h e necessary h e i g h t , g e n e r a l l y 2 f e e t above t h e maximum hydraulic g r a d i e n t . The a r e a of t h e small pipe should not be l e s s t h a n o n e - s i x t i e t h of t h e a r e a of t h e main pipe and t h e diameter should never be l e s s than 2 inches. The cap should have a minimum height of two diameters above t h e crown of t h e p i p e l i n e . The smaller pipe i s g e n e r a l l y made of s t e e l , s h e e t metal, o r asbestos cement. Capped vents can be used i n place of s t r a i g h t vents b u t commonly a r e used i f

Figure 3-60.--Gravity inlet for buried low-pressure pipeline.

Figure 3-61.--Typical concrett pipe sand trap.

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t h e hydraulic gradient i s more than 8 f e e t above ground s u r f a c e ( f i g s . 3 - @ +and 3-65). Air-Release Valve Vents.--These vents a r e capped vents t h a t have an a i r r e l e a s e valve i n t h e smaller pipe a t some convenient height above t h e ground. They a r e used i n p l a c e s where otherwise extremely high vent pipes would be required ( f i g , 3 - 6 6 ) , When a i r e n t e r s t h e valve, a f l o a t i n g b a l l drops, opening t h e valve u n t i l t h e water r i s e s again, The valve permits a i r t o escape o r e n t e r but does not allow water t o pass. If t h e valve s t i c k s , a gate valve can be placed immediately below t h e r e l e a s e valve f o r use u n t i l r e p a i r s can be made. Control S t r u c t u r e s D i f f e r e n t c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s a r e used on i r r i g a t i o n p i p e l i n e s t o regul a t e t h e flow i n t o branching l i n e s , t o remove entrained a i r , and t o prevent momentary high pressures from damaging t h e p i p e l i n e , Gate Stands.--Gate stands a r e s i m i l a r t o o t h e r types of s t a n d s but must be l a r g e enough t o accommodate t h e g a t e s t o be used and t o permit access f o r maintenance and r e p a i r s . They a r e used t o c o n t r o l flow i n t o l a t e r a l s o r t o i n c r e a s e pressure upstream. The i n c r e a s e i n pressure may be needed t o f o r c e water from hydrants upstream. I f l a t e r a l s t a k e o f f a t t h e stand, t h e g a t e s can be opened o r closed t o d i v e r t water a s desired ( f i g . 3-67). Gate s t a n d s a l s o prevent excessive pressure and a c t a s a i r vents and surge chambers,

A g a t e stand may be concrete p i p e o r a concrete box, and a box stand i s an e x c e l l e n t s t r u c t u r e i n which t o i n s t a l l g a t e s . Gates a r e u s u a l l y s e t on t h e o u t l e t s from t h e stand s o t h a t water pressure i n the stand c l o s e s t h e g a t e s r a t h e r than holding them open. It i s ~ t o substitute line pates i n each l a t e r a l l i n e f o r t h e .' o s s i b l e g a t e s i n s i d e a s t a n d . This i s u s u a l l y done i f high s t a n d s a r e r e q u i r e d . Line g a t e s can be operated from t h e ground i n s t e a d of from t h e t o p of t h e s t a n d . They a r e not d e s i r a b l e i f t h e s t r u c t u r e must a l s o serve as a sand t r a p .
Overflow Stands.--Overflow stands a r e g e n e r a l l y two concrete pipe s t a n d s joined together--one a t t h e p i p e l i n e e l e v a t i o n i n which a g a t e i s i n s t a l l e d and t h e o t h e r a t t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e overpour l i p . The upstream stand must be l a r g e enough t o accommodate t h e g a t e s t o be used and t o permit access f o r maintenance and r e p a i r s , Overflow s t a n d s ( f i g s . 3-68 and 3-69) serve as both checks and drop s t r u c t u r e s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e usual functions of a stand. They a r e not needed on f l a t areas o r on very s l i g h t slopes but a r e used i n a r e a s where slopes a r e s o g r e a t t h a t excessive p r e s s u r e can be developed downstream.

A s checks, t h e y r e g u l a t e pressure t o maintain constant upstream flow from hydrants or i n t o l a t e r a l s . A s drop s t r u c t u r e s , t h e y cause a drop on t h e hydraulic g r a d i e n t , thus l i m i t i n g p i p e l i n e pressure. The g a t e valve i s open i f upstream pressure is not required, If d i v e r s i o n o r

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NEB-2153

Figure 3-64, --Tyy?ic,al capped v e n t .

Figure 3-65.--Section of a capped vent

Figure 3-66.--Closeup of air-release v a l v e on r i g h t and a l f a l f a v a l v e on left,

discharge of hydrants immediately upstream i s required, t h e g a t e valve i s closed enough t o keep t h e head upstream a t about t h e overflow c r e s t but with l i t t l e o r no overflow. Float-Valve Stands.--Float-valve stands a r e s i m i l a r t o other stands except t h a t a f l o a t valve i s attached t o t h e end of t h e pipe through which water e n t e r s t h e stand ( f i g . 3-70). The valve c o n t i o i s i n t h e reach of pipe inmediately downstream from i t . It r e l e a s e s i n t o t h e stand only as much water as hydrants f a r t h e r downstream a r e open t o take. Thus, by opening and closing, t h e valve maintains a n e a r l y constant water l e v e l i n Lhe stand, which i s connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e l i n e o r l i n e s through which water flows downstream. When t h e lower o u t l e t s are closed, t h e f l o a t valve automatically closes and prevents excessive pressure from developing a t t h e lower end. Float-valve stands a r e u s e f u l on s t e e p slopes and a r e usually i n s t a l l e d a t i n t e r v a l s of about 10 f e e t of drop i n t h e l i n e . They a r e e s p e c i a l l y good i f a l i n e i s served d i r e c t l y from storage s i n c e t h e water can be controlled completely from t h e lower end of t h e l i n e . Float-valve stands eliminate t h e need f o r many high overflow stands on s t e e p slopes. They a r e usually made of reinforced concrete pipe having a minimum diameter of 30 inches. Generally about 2 f e e t of freeboard i s desired and 1 foot i s t h e minimum. Outlets Some type of o u t l e t s t r u c t u r e o r hydrant i s necessary i n p i p e l i n e s t o d e l i v e r water t o t h e land o r i n t o some d i s t r i b u t i n g device. Hydrants a r e r i s e r s b u i l t from v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n s of pipe, which a r e saddled over openings i n t h e p i p e l i n e and permanently attached t o it with a waterproof j o i n t . Some kind of valve o r gate i s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e r i s e r t o r e g u l a t e discharge through t h e hydrant. A l f a l f a Valves.--An a l f a l f a valve i s a screw valve grouted t o t h e top of a pipe r i s e r ( f i g . 3-71). A handle and cap p l a t e i s attached t o a threaded rod t h a t moves up o r down as t h e handle i s turned. When t h e valve i s closed, t h e cap p l a t e f i t s t h e c i r c u l a r edge of t h e valve case t o make it w a t e r t i g h t . When t h e p l a t e i s l i f t e d by turning t h e handle, water i s released from a l l s i d e s of t h e valve. A l f a l f a valves a r e used t o d i s t r i b u t e water d i r e c t l y t o border s t r i p s , basins, o r d i t c h e s . The valve top should be 3 t o 4 inches below t h e ground surface t o minimize i n t e r f e r e n c e with farming operations and t o reduce erosion from t h e i r r i g a t i o n stream. A l f a l f a valves can be f i t t e d with hydrants f o r connecting t o surface pipes ( f i g . 3-72). Orchard Valves.--Orchard valves ( f i g s . 3-73 and 3-74) a r e s i m i l a r t o a l f a l f a valves but have a smaller flow capacity and a r e s o designed t h a t they can be placed a t t h e top of t h e r i s e r , a t t h e bottom, or a t almost any^ point between. The prefeEred l o c a t i o n i s near t h e top:

Figure 3-70.--Section of a float-valve stand.

Figure 3-71.--Section of a l f a l f a valve mounted on concrete pipe.

Figure 3-72.--Hydrant attached t o a l f a l f a valve for gated pipe.

--

Orchard valves a r e used i n s t e a d of a l f a l f a valves i f a smaller flow i s acceptable. Because of t h e i r lower capacity, they a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o cause scour around t h e r i s e r , t h e t o p of which should be l e v e l with t h e ground s u r f a c e . It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o place an a d d i t i o n a l l e n g t h of p i p e t h a t has an opening on one s i d e above t h e ground l i n e t o d i r e c t flow from t h e valve. Sheet metal s t a n d s and hydrants can a l s o be f i t t e d t o orchard valves t o d e l i v e r water i n t o s u r f a c e pipe o r d i t c h e s . Open-Pot Outlets.--In open-pot o u t l e t s t h e r i s e r extends above t h e ground s u r f a c e f a r enough f o r two o r more s l i d e - g a t e tubes t o be i n s t a l l e d c l o s e t o t h e ground l i n e . An orchard valve i s placed below t h e s l i d e g a t e s ( f i g . 3-75). This kind of o u t l e t d i s t r i b u t e s water through t h e g a t e s t o furrows and is used p r i n c i p a l l y i n orchard i r r i g a t i o n syst ems

Orchard valves r e g u l a t e flow i n t o t h e pot, and t h e s l i d e g a t e s r e g u l a t e flow i n t o i n d i v i d u a l furrows. Good c o n t r o l can be had by a d j u s t i n g t h e orchard valve t o keep t h e water s u r f a c e only an inch o r two above t h e s l i d e g a t e s . The s l i d e gates a r e placed i n s i d e t h e pot a t ground elevat i o n t o minimize erosion of t h e adjacent s o i l . S i z e of t h e pot depends on t h e number and s i z e of s l i d e g a t e s t o be used. I f l i n e pressure i s low enough t h a t t h e pot w i l l not overflow, an orchard valve i s not needed i n t h e r i s e r . Then a l l t h e flow i s c o n t r o l l e d a t t h e s l i d e g a t e s . Capped Risers o r Pot Outlets.--In t h e s e o u t l e t s ( f i g . 3-76) t h e top of t h e pot i s capped, t h e s l i d e gates a r e i n s t a l l e d on t h e o u t s i d e of t h e r i s e r , and an orchard valve i s not used. Flow i s c o n t r o l l e d by a d j u s t i n g l i n e pressure and by t h e s l i d e gat.es. Capped-pot o u t l e t s a r e used only i n i r r i g a t i n g orchards and permanent crops where small flows a r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l furrows. The main advantage of capped-pot o u t l e t s i s t h a t leaves cannot f a l l i n t o t h e pot and clog t h e s l i d e g a t e s and t h a t an orchard valve is not needed. The disadvantages a r e l e s s c o n t r o l of flow and t h a t , because of t h e p r e s s u r e , t h e j e t of water from t h e s l i d e g a t e may erode t h e adjacent s o i l . S p e c i a l screw valves a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r use i n place of t h e s l i d e g a t e s . These valves a r e designed t o break t h e f o r c e of t h e j e t and give a q u i e t nonerosive flow. Capped-pot o u t l e t s can be used where t h e p r e s s u r e w i l l not be more than 1 o r 2 f e e t above t h e ground s u r f a c e . Surface-Pipe Outlets.--Surface-pipe o u t l e t s a r e r i s e r s extending above ground t h a t a r e equipped with tubes or connections f o r a t t a c h i n g s u r f a c e pipe t o p i p e l i n e s without using hydrants. Water f o r i r r i g a t i n g furrow crops i s g e n e r a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d by s u r f a c e pipe. The r i s e r s must be high enough t o produce t h e required p r e s s u r e i n t h e s u r f a c e pipe. If t h e pressure i n t h e p i p e l i n e i s more t h a n t h a t required f o r t h e s u r f a c e pipe, t h e o u t l e t can be equipped w i t h orchard valves t o keep t h e r i s e r from overflowing. I n some low-pressure i n s t a l l a t i o n s the connecting tube i s equipped with a g a t e o r t h e s l i d e g - a t e s a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l furrows a r e used a s t h e c o n t r o l s .

w
Figure 3-73.--Section of an orchard valve.

Figure 3-74.--Orchard

valve.

Figure 3-75.--Open-pot o u t l e t with an orchard valve and s l i d e - g a t e control.

Figure 3-76.--Section of capped r i s e r o r pot o u t l e t .

Water Disposal The design of a farm i r r i g a t i o n system should provide f a c i l i t i e s of adequate capacity t o remove excess water from t h e i r r i g a t e d land promptly and s a f e l y . The excess water may be waste from i r r i g a t i o n , surface runoff from r a i n f a l l , o r excess percolation of e i t h e r i r r i g a t i o n water o r r a i n f a l l . It may a l s o include leakage o r seepage from p a r t s of the conveyance system. Some waste can be expected i n using any of the graded-surface i r r i g a t i o n methods, but it can be kept t o a minimum by good design and management. There i s always t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of accidentally releasing excess i r r i g a t i o n water t h a t must be controlled and removed. I f you a r e planning t o apply additional water f o r leaching or r i c e culture, you must a l s o plan proper disposal f a c i l i t i e s . Storm runoff must be removed t o protect t h e land, t h e i r r i g a t i o n system, and crop investment. This may require s p e c i a l erosion control measures or modifications i n the design o r layout of an i r r i g a t i o n system. Excess percolation of e i t h e r i r r i g a t i o n water o r r a i n f a l l may lead t o a high water t a b l e t h a t r e s t r i c t s root growth or promotes a s a l i n e o r a l k a l i condition. Seepage from canals, reservoirs, and sumps may waterlog adjacent land, and t i l e o r open drains may be necessary t o control t h e water t a b l e i f n a t u r a l i n t e r n a l drainage i s not adequate. To determine the kind of disposal needed, make a survey of t h e topography, kinds of s o i l , water table, and water sources. You must determine the areas from which water must be removed, t h e amount t o be removed, the best way t o remove it, and t h e points of disposal. Then design t h e water-disposal system according t o approved standards. Surface-Water Disposal Excess surface water from i r r i g a t i o n waste o r storm runoff must be removed f o r good plant growth. Generally open ditches o r grassed waterways a r e used. Their location and capacity depend on t h e application method, r a i n f a l l amount and i n t e n s i t y , l e v e l of protection desired, topography, t ? o d i b i l i t y and i n t e r n a l drainage of the s o i l s , as well as adequacy of t h e n a t u r a l drains. Effect of I r r i g a t i o n Method The application method p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f e c t s layout of t h e disposal system. T a i l or waste ditches a r e needed a t t h e lower end of furrows and borders t o c o l l e c t and remove excess surface water. For the contourfurrow method, grassed waterways a r e needed t o pick up t h e water d i s charged from each furrow. For t h e contour-levee method, a waste d i t c h running downslope and connecting each leveed area i s needed t o remove waste water. O n land leveled f o r contour benches, waterways d r a i n t h e benches and generally some s t r u c t u r e s a r e needed t o c a r r y water between benches. For s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n , excess r a i n f a l l can be controlled and disposed of by t e r r a c e s and diversions leading t o grass waternays. O n

f l a t land where t h e r e i s no erosion hazard, shallow s u r f a c e d r a i n s a r e used. I n s u b i r r i g a t i o n systems, runoff water i s disposed of through water-control s t r u c t u r e s placed i n open d i t c h e s o r t i l e d r a i n s . Pickup d i t c h e s must be provided t o keep water from flowing d i r e c t l y from f u r rows o r borders i n t o i r r i g a t i o n head d i t c h e s . Design Considerations T a i l d i t c h e s g e n e r a l l y a r e shallow open d r a i n s l a r g e enough t o c a r r y away i r r i g a t i o n waste water and storm-water runoff. Storm runoff g e n e r a l l y governs capacity. Grade should be a s uniform a s p o s s i b l e . Design t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n t o maintain an appreciable but nonscouring v e l o c i t y during periods of maximum flow; on s t e e p slopes drop s t r u c t u r e s may be r e quired i n t h e d i t c h e s . Banks of t h e waste-water d i t c h must be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t erosion by surface-water i n l e t s t r u c t u r e s o r by e s t a b l i s h i n g v e g e t a t i o n on f l a t t e n e d s l o p e s . Subsurface-Water Disposal Excess ground water must be removed by deep open d i t c h e s o r t i l e t o provide an e f f e c t i v e root-zone depth. The source of t h e excess ground water, whether seepage from d i t c h e s and r e s e r v o i r s o r a high water t a b l e , has a bearing on t h e kind of subsurface d i s p o s a l and i t s layout. High water t a b l e s m u s t be lowered t o a depth t h a t permits a normal r o o t zone f o r t h e crop t o be grown. I n t e r c e p t o r Drains I n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t o f a s i n g l e t i l e l i n e o r deep open d r a i n s i n s t a l l e d along t h e base of a h i l l , p a r a l l e l t o a leaking-eanal, o r around a leaking r e s e r v o i r t o i n t e r c e p t ground-water flow and prevent movement of water i n t o a problem a r e a . T i l e d r a i n s a r e commonly used as i n t e r c e p t o r s because t h e d r a i n must be located according t o ground-water conditions, which g e n e r a l l y do not correspond t o f i e l d boundaries, fences, o r property l i n e s . Relief Drains Relief d r a i n s a r e used t o lower a high water t a b l e i n areas of s l i g h t o r stagnant ground-water flow t h a t c&ot be i n t e r c e p t e d e f f e c t i v e i y . They a r e u s u a l l y planned a s a s e r i e s of l a t e r a l t i l e l i n e s i n a g r i d i r o n o r herringbone p a t t e r n i n which each l i n e i s connected t o a main t h a t l e a d s t o an open d r a i n . Relief d r a i n s a r e l a i d p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of ground-water flow. Wells A high water t a b l e i n a r e a s i n which t h e s o i l s a r e underlain by porous sand o r g r a v e l a q u i f e r s can be lowered by pumping. Often t h e pumped water can be used f o r i r r i g a t i o n i f it i s of s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y . Det a i l e d subsurface and ground-water s t u d i e s a r e needed t o determine t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u f f i c i e n t l y lowering t h e water t a b l e by t h i s means.

I n s o w a r e a s i n which a r t e s i a n pressure maintains t h e water-table l e v e l a t o r near t h e ground surface, r e l i e f wells a r e used with subsurface d r a i n s . They a r e used i f depth t o t h e a r t e s i a n a q u i f e r i s g r e a t e r than p r a c t i c a l d r a i n depth and i f t h e slowly permeable overlying m a t e r i a l does not permit t h e ground water t o move f r e e l y t o t h e d r a i n . Relief wells a r e connected t o subsurfac.e drains and extend through t h e slowly permeable s o i l l a y e r i n t o more permeable m a t e r i a l s below. The water under pressure r i s e s t o t h e d r a i n and i s c a r r i e d away. I f t h e slowly permeable l a y e r is only a few f e e t lower t h a n t h e usual depth of t h e d r a i n s , r e l i e f w e l l s can be put i n open d i t c h e s by overdigging a t intervals. Outlets S a t i s f a c t o r y o u t l e t s f o r d i s p o s a l conduits must e i t h e r be a v a i l a b l e o r be planned f o r . They must be l a r g e enough t o c a r r y t h e expected maximum amount of water from d i s p o s a l conduits. Typical o u t l e t s a r e l a r g e open d i t c h e s o r n a t u r a l streams. I f topography does not permit d i s posing of waste water by g r a v i t y flow, pumping u n i t s and o t h e r needed appurtenant s t r u c t u r e s must be provided. The water can be drained t o open p i t s o r sumps and t h e n be pumped t o a surface o u t l e t f o r d i s p o s a l . I n some places water c o l l e c t e d i n t h e sump can be used f o r i r r i g a t i n g lower f i e l d s o r it can be pumped back and reused. Water Measurement I r r i g a t i o n water must be measured i f it i s t o be used e f f i c i e n t l y . The p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e of measuring i r r i g a t i o n water i s t o permit e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n . By measuring water, a farmer h o w s how much water i s applied during each i r r i g a t i o n . Plan f o r enough measuring devices. Locate t h e main measuring device a t t h e headgate or farm source of supply. I f a l l t h e i r r i g a t i o n water i s t o be delivered t o one f i e l d a t a time, t h i s main measuring device may be t h e only one needed f o r measuring t h e water supply t o t h e various f i e l d s . But i f t h e supply i s divided between two o r more d i t c h e s , measuring devices a r e needed a t each d i t c h . Generally they can be b u i l t i n t o o t h e r d i t c h s t r u c t u r e s , such as drops, checks, o r t u r n o u t s . I f t h e supply i s delivered by p i p e l i n e s , flow can be measured by various kinds of flow meters. It may be p o s s i b l e a l s o t o i n s t a l l an open-channel measuring device a t the p i p e l i n e i n l e t s t r u c t u r e o r t o i n s t a l l devices i n overflow stand pipes o r c o n t r o l boxes. The various kinds of measuring devices a r e explained f u l l y i n chapter 9, Measurement of I r r i g a t i o n Water, which gives information on cons t r u c t i n g and i n s t a l l i n g various simple measuring devices and t h e nece s s a r y discharge t a b l e s and c h a r t s .

I r r i g a t i o n Guides The i r r i g a t i o n guides used i n t h e S o i l Conservation Service give t h e basic design c r i t e r i a f o r a l l conservation i r r i g a t i o n methods recommended f o r s p e c i f i c combinations of s o i l s , slopes, crops, water supply, and climate. They include groupings of a l l t h e major i r r i g a t e d s o i l s , t h e adapted crops, and t h e appropriate design c r i t e r i a . They a l s o provide some guides f o r conservation i r r i g a t i o n water management. Area Covered I r r i g a t i o n guides generally are prepared on a problem or resource area b a s i s . The primary f a c t o r determining t h e s i z e of t h e area covered i s s i m i l a r i t y i n design c r i t e r i a based on s o i l s , topography, and climate. Usually t h e smallest area included i n a guide i s a s o i l conservation d i s t r i c t and the l a r g e s t area i s a S t a t e . A l l combinations of l o c a l conditions generally are covered i n a guide s o t h a t an i r r i g a t i o n planner knows t h e i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s recommended f o r any conditions i n t h e area. Content I r r i g a t i o n guides do not include a l l t h e technical standards needed f o r o r associated with a complete conservation program on i r r i g a t e d land. They give necessary design information pertaining t o the s o i l i n a given f i e l d , t h e crop t o be i r r i g a t e d , and t h e requirements f o r water application. They do not include technical standards f o r land leveling, d i t c h construction, canal l i n i n g , i r r i g a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s , and other hydraulic design features. The information i n t h e guides is given under t h r e e main headings--soils, crops, and i r r i g a t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Soi 1s S o i l s having s i m i l a r physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r i r r i g a t i o n a r e grouped together. This grouping takes i n t o account depth, t e x t u r e , permeability, water-holding capacity, and intake c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Symbols f o r s o i l s are t h e same as those on the s o i l maps f o r t h e area. The e f f e c t i v e s o i l depth is tabulated by successive l a y e r s o r horizons beneath the surface. These depths are average depths f o r a l l t h e s o i l s i n a group. The a v a i l able water holding capacity is shown f o r each depth o r horizon. Crops The crops usually considered t o be adapted l o c a l l y t o each s o i l group a r e l i s t e d as well as t h e average s o i l depth from which t h e crops ext r a c t moisture. The guide l i s t s the recommended amount of moisture t o be replaced i n a normal i r r i g a t i o n f o r each crop l i s t e d , t h e design consumptive-use r a t e of each crop, and t h e i r r i g a t i o n frequency during t h e period of maximum consumptive use. The i r r i g a t i o n frequency i s t h e recommended maximum number of days t h a t can be allowed between i r r i g a t i o n s during periods of maximum water use without r a i n f a l l .

Irrigation Specifications This s e c t i o n of t h e guide provides t h e information necessary t o determine t h e b e s t i r r i g a t i o n method and t h e basic d a t a f o r i t s design. The cons e r v a t i o n i r r i g a t i o n methods s u i t e d t o each s o i l group and t h e crops t o be grown a r e l i s t e d as well a s t h e intake-family design intake r a t e f o r furrows and corrugations and t h e design a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e f o r s p r i n k l e r s . Stream s i z e s f o r t h e adapted surface methods a r e given f o r t h e design slope groups and t h e maximum length of run, estimated f i e l d e f f i c i e n c y , gross i r r i g a t i o n application, and estimated number of hours required t o apply t h e water.

For good i r r i g a t i o n water management, a farm i r r i g a t i o n system must be designed t o f i t t h e crops and s o i l s t o be i r r i g a t e d . The l o c a l i r r i g a t i o n guide provides t h e basic information needed t o design such a system. After determining t h e kind of s o i l i n t h e f i e l d t o be i r r i g a t e d and s e l e c t i n g t h e crop o r crops, you must choose a method of applying i r r i g a t i o n water. The guide shows t h e method o r methods of water applicat i o n t h a t can be used s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r t h e crop and s i t e conditions i n t h e f i e l d t o be i r r i g a t e d and t h e basic design requirements. The following example shows how t o use an i r r i g a t i o n guide. Figure 3-77 i s a guide f o r a l l i r r i g a t e d s e c t i o n s of Kansas. The s o i l i s Crete s i l t y c l a y loam, t h e slope is 0.2 percent, and t h e crop t o be i r r i g a t e d i s corn. Column 5 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , f o r 0.0 t o 0.25 percent slopes, corn grown on t h i s s o i l has a moisture-extraction depth of 4 f e e t , r e q u i r i n g a n e t a p p l i c a t i o n of 4.3 inches of water f o r a normal i r r i g a t i o n (column 6 ) . The peak-period consumptive-use r a t e o r design r a t e f o r corn i s 0.29 inches per day (column 7 ) , and t h e i r r i g a t i o n frequency f o r t h e period of maximum consumptive use i s 15 days (column 8 ) . Column 9 shows t h a t corn grown on t h i s s o i l can be e i t h e r furrow i r r i g a t e d o r s p r i n k l e r irrigated. N o w assume t h a t t h e farmer p r e f e r s t h e furrow method of water a p p l i c a t i o n and w i l l p l a n t h i s corn on a 40-inch spacing. Find t h e 40inch spacing i n column 12, and note t o t h e l e f t t h a t t h e maximum allow1 ) and t h a t t h e estimated able stream i s 50 gallons per minute (column 1 average intake i s 1.3 gallons per minute p e r 100 f e e t (column 1 0 ) . Follow t h e 40-inch l i n e t o t h e r i g h t . Column 13 shows t h a t t h e maximum length of run is 1,870 f e e t ; t h e estimated e f f i c i e n c y i s 70 percent (column 1 4 ) ) requiring 6.2 inches f o r t h e gross i r r i g a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n (column 1 5 ) . The estimated time required t o make t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n is 14 hours (column 1 6 ) . You must then f i t t h e design information from t h e guide t o t h e f i e l d t o be i r r i g a t e d . I f t h e f i e l d i s considerably longer than t h e maximum permissible length of run, you must use two s h o r t e r lengths of run t o i r r i g a t e t h e f i e l d properly. Other s o i l conditions i n t h e f i e l d may n e c e s s i t a t e f u r t h e r revisions. I f t h e e x t r a c t i o n depth i s l e s s t h a n 4 f e e t because o f s o i l conditions, t h e amount of moisture t o be replaced a t each i r r i g a t i o n i s a l s o l e s s , which i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e gross application) t h e time estimated f o r applying t h e i r r i g a t i o n , and t h e length of run.

SOILS

CROPS

IRRIGATION SPECIFICATIONS

Figure 3-77.--Irrigation guide for all irrigated sections of Kansas.

I

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1980 0-

622-9334299 REGION 3-1