ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have taken efforts in this Assignment. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. We take this opportunity to thank all those who have assisted to us and guided, encouraged in numerous ways in our course and Assignment Department of Quantity surveying of the British College of Applied Studies., for helping us to obtain the information to carry out this Assignment Successfully. I extend my most grateful and sincere to thanks to our lecturer Mr.MM.Mubeen for guiding us throughout our Subject Duration and for all valuable suggestions given to us during the Subject time to complete the Assignment. I would like to express my gratitude towards my family of for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.

Thank you

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ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY CONTENTS

Acknowledgement.........1 Contents .....2

01.Task-1.1
A. Introduction..3 B. Truss.4 - 7 C. Spans....8 -10 D. Conclusion...11 E. Truss Manufacturer......12 - 13 02.Task -1.2 A. Concrete Casings..14 B. Board Casings...15 - 16 C. Prayed Coatings........17 - 18 D. Intumescent Paint..19 - 20 03.Task -1.3 A. Beam -Beam Connections.........21 B. Beam - Column Connections22 - 23 C. Column - Beam Connections ...24 D. Column Concrete base Connections .25 - 26 E. Bolting and Riveting 27 - 28 F. Welding..29 - 31 04.Task -1.4 A. Introduction...32 B. Advantages of Prestressing...33-34 C. Source of Prestressing force.........35 D. External or Internal...36 E. Pre-tensioning or Post tensioning.37 F. Linear or Circular Prestressing.....38 G. Multiaxial Prestressing.....39 Conclusion..40 Reference.41

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1.1 Propose a suitable steel roof truss with sketches and Discuss different type of steel roof trusses to be proposed in different spans.

Introduction A truss, or lattice structure, is a structural assembly of small interconnected elements. Trusses are formed by an interconnected assembly of relatively small elements, which create a lattice arrangement. The overall form, size and shape of the truss is as important as the strength of the individual components, and a wide variety of design options is available. A truss acts like a beam, with bending resisted by the couple created by forces in the top and bottom members. When an I-shaped beam is subjected to simple bending it can be seen that the bulk of resistance to bending moment is offered by a couple consisting of the forces in the flanges multiplied by the distance between them. Accepting that little error is involved in assuming that all resistance to bending is offered in this way, the most efficient system will be one in which the flange forces are reduced to a minimum to save material, and the distance between increased accordingly.

Figure 1.11 Shear forces are resisted by the internal members. This, however, leaves the problem of accommodating shear forces which, in the case of the Ibeam, were absorbed by the web. To continue to provide a solid web would waste a lot of material. As an alternative, discrete members running diagonally, and sometimes vertically, are used to carry the shear. The resulting system, given the generic name of a truss, will carry loads over large spans with great economy. Trusses are structurally efficient and particularly popular for long span roofs. Trusses are highly efficient, able to span considerable distance, and they are visually light. The economy in use of materials has led to the use of truss systems in preference to beams in a large number of situations, both in the vertical and horizontal planes. They became popular solutions to the problem of roofing in large clear areas such as factories, workshops and railway stations. In these situations the increased structural depth inherent in truss structures was not unduly punitive. In contrast, their use as floor support systems was hampered by their increased depth.
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1.11 Truss

In Architecture and Structural Engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torsional forces) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes.

In this article, we are going to discuss the various types of roof trusses in wood and steel and their uses in various kinds of construction.

Different types of Steel Roof Trusses Pitched roof trusses Pratt trusses Howe trusses Fink trusses Fan trusses Fink and Fan Truss Mansard trusses Parallel chord trusses Floor Girder Warren Truss lattice girders

1.111 Pitched roof trusses Most common types of roof trusses are pitched roof trusses wherein the top chord is provided with a slope in order to facilitate natural drainage of rainwater and clearance of dust/snow accumulation. These trusses have a greater depth at the mid-span. Due to this even though the overall bending effect is larger at mid-span, the chord member and web member stresses are smaller closer to the mid-span and larger closer to the supports. The typical span to maximum depth ratios of pitched roof trusses are in the range of 4 to 8, the larger ratio being economical in longer spans. Pitched roof trusses may have different configurations

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Pratt Trusses

Figure 1.12 Pratt truss In Pratt trusses web members are arranged in such a way that under gravity load the longer diagonal members are under tension and the shorter vertical members experience compression. This allows for efficient design, since the short members are under compression. However, the wind uplift may cause reversal of stresses in these members and nullify this benefit Howe Trusses

Figure 1.13 Howe truss The converse of the Pratt is the Howe. This is commonly used in light roofing so that the longer diagonals experience tension under reversal of stresses due to wind load. Fink trusses

Figure 1.14 Fink truss Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high pitch roof, since the web members in such truss are sub-divided to obtain shorter members.

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Fan trusses

Figure 1.15 Fan truss Fan trusses are used when the rafter members of the roof trusses have to be sub-divided into odd number of panels Fink and Fan Truss

Figure 1.16 Fink and fan truss A combination of fink and fan can also be used to some advantage in some specific situations requiring appropriate number of panels. Mansard trusses

Figure 1.17 Mansard truss Mansard trusses are variation of fink trusses, which have shorter leading diagonals even in very long span trusses, unlike the fink and fan type trusses.

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1.112 Parallel chord trusses Floor Girder The parallel chord trusses are used to support North Light roof trusses in industrial buildings as well as in intermediate span bridges. Parallel chord trusses are also used as pre-fabricated floor joists, beams and girders in multistory buildings.

Figure 1.18 Warren Truss Warren configuration is frequently used in the case of parallel chord trusses. The advantage of parallel chord trusses is that they use webs of the same lengths and thus reduce fabrication costs for very long spans. Modified Warren is used with additional verticals, introduced in order to reduce the unsupported length of compression chord members.

Figure 1.19 lattice girders The saw tooth north light roofing systems use parallel chord lattice girders to support the north light trusses and transfer the load to the end columns. The economical span to depth ratio of the parallel chord trusses is in the range of 12 to 24. The total span is subdivided into a number of panels such that the individual panel lengths are appropriate (6m to 9 m) for the stringer beams, transferring the carriage way load to the nodes of the trusses and the inclination of the web members are around 45 degrees.

Figure 1.2

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1.12 Spans This article seeks to give some current indicative cost ranges for structural steel frames for three key building types: 1. Low rise and short span buildings, typically 2 to 4 storeys 2. High rise and longer span buildings, typically 10 to 15 storeys plus basement 3. Industrial buildings, split into low eaves of 6-8m and high eaves of 10-13m

The rates have been developed from cost models of the different building types and for each the average weight of the structural frame has been given. As already highlighted, before using such standard ranges it is important to confirm the anticipated frame weight and variables such as the floor to floor heights with the design team to determine whether they are above or below the average and to adjust the rate used accordingly.

Similarly, all of the other key cost drivers of complexity, site conditions, location, function, logistics, programmed and procurement strategy should be considered in turn.

Low Rise and Short Span Buildings

Low rise buildings with a regular, short span structural grid are typical features of business park offices and teaching facilities. A key feature of these buildings is flexibility, particularly for speculative business park developments that need to appeal to as many potential occupiers as possible. The buildings often need to be easily subdivided into smaller units and have large floor plates, typically are two to four storeys and have floor to floor heights of 3.75-4m These buildings will typically have a uniform grid of 6 to 9m that provides largely column-free space and relatively high floor to floor heights. The lack of complex steel structures needed to construct the regular grid contributes to keeping the average steel frame weight down, typically 50-60kg/m2 including fittings, but this category can cover a lot of building types and functions and this central assumption therefore needs to be reviewed with the design team.

Due to the low rise nature of these buildings, the fire protection requirements are not as onerous as for high rise developments and 30 to 60 minute fire protection would be considered standard.

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High Rise and Longer Span Buildings

High rise construction (10 to 15 storeys) is a typical feature of city centre construction and particularly commercial buildings. These buildings will often have a requirement for longer structural grid spans to achieve more open space in the lettable floor areas, increasing the weight of the steel frame.

To maximise floor to ceiling heights non-standard steel sections may also be adopted, with cell beams used to increase stability, distribute services and increase flexibility in the building fit out. These heavier sections will also increase the weight of the frame.

City centre buildings are generally constructed on existing confined or irregular sites, which influence the building form and is likely to prevent the use of a regular column grid and may result in alterations to floor plates on the upper storeys.

In mixed use schemes, transfer structures may also be utilised to reduce the wider grids of office or retail areas at lower levels to a more rationalised residential grid on upper floors. All of these factors contribute to a higher average weight of the steel frame, typically 7585kg/m2 including fittings, and along with the increased complexity result in significantly higher structural frame ranges than for the simpler, more regular low rise buildings.

The rate range given in figure 3 is generally applicable for buildings up to around 15 storeys; tall buildings above 15 storeys start to have less comparables in terms of benchmarks and are likely to have a much higher proportion of complex elements, non-standard sections and complicated logistics, especially when constructed on tight city centre sites. The rate range for tall buildings can be 15-20% higher than the top of the standard range.

Figure 1.21 Longer Span Buildings

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Industrial Buildings

Industrial buildings can cover a range of uses, for example warehouses, non-food retail, science parks and distribution centres. The most common building form is a single storey warehouse with varying proportions of office space in a first floor mezzanine level. The traditional structural frame for an industrial building is a steel portal frame, as flexibility of the internal space is a priority, which necessitates regular column spacings and long spans for a clear internal area.

There can however be variants on the standard frame design, for example a steel portal frame incorporating north lights, and this would be a project specific factor that would need consideration as part of the adjustment of the standard cost ranges. The use of a north light frame, for example, can increase the frame cost by as much as 30%.

Another factor that must be considered as part of industrial building frame costs is the fire protection requirements. Commonly fire protection is only required in single storey buildings to satisfy boundary conditions and this is a project specific factor that will need some liaison with the design team.

Another key factor in determining the frame cost of industrial buildings is the storey height of the warehouse space. While the gross internal floor area may be the same, the weight of the steel frame of a high eaves single storey industrial building will be higher than for a low eaves building, resulting in a higher overall frame cost per m2.

Typical structural steel frame weights for low eaves buildings (6-8m high) are around 40kg/m2 overall of GIA, including fittings and are around 50kg/m2 for high eaves buildings (1013m high). However, ranges for high eaves buildings are generally wider than for low eaves buildings as they can have a much higher proportion of upper floor areas, across as many as 3 mezzanine levels; the frame rates for these buildings therefore need to be looked at carefully on a building by building basis.

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Conclusion A very large proportion of all industrial and commercial single storey buildings utilise a steel structure, which demonstrates the cost-effectiveness of a steel solution. Im this Single storey buildings propose Fan trusses .The small section steel member of the truss can be cut and grilled with simple tools. Each 5 meter one truss. Total building length 50m. Anyway I proposed total 11 no of truss. The considerable depth of the roof frames at mid spans provides sufficient strength in supporting loads. The span of the structure is 10m. Make a decision for depend these futures low structural weight minimum construction dimensions a short construction time flexibility in use

Figure 1.22 propose the building

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Specifying a Truss When specifying a roof system with a truss manufacturer, the builder/developer should include the span of the roof, area or roof/attic mounted HVAC equipment. Typical stresses in a roof system show some members under compression and others under tension. Inputs Required to Truss Manufacturer Truss Type. Determines whether there will be storage or living space. Also defines architectural details such as soffit, overhang, fascia heights and tail length. Location. Determines the building codes and loads that apply. For example, in western California, seismic requirements may drive the design and cost of the truss. In coastal Florida, its wind that drives the design. Wind Exposure Category. Determines the amount of wind the structure will be susceptible to. Building Category. Determines the type of structure such as a hospital, school, residential, etc. Span(s). Determined by the building plans. If special requirements are needed, they need to be noted on the plans. Desired Roof Slope (Pitch). Pitch influences many of the design parameters and consequently has an impact on the overall truss weight. Open Category and Wind Exposure are optional inputs. The truss manufacturor will determine these if not provided based on the building location and description.

Manufacturing Steel roof trusses are typically assembled on large metal or wood tables. The tables are fitted with pins and clamp fixtures that hold the truss pieces in place. Chords and webs are placed in the jig, and then drilled using self-tapping hexagonal screws. After the jig has been completed, it typically takes two experienced workers a short time to lay out the material attach them with screws. Ideally, the truss is loaded directly on the delivery truck. However, when this is not possible, the completed trusses are stacked, banded and stored in the truss yard, either vertically or horizontally. When hauling steel trusses, they are stacked along their bottom chord and secured at the top with additional pieces of light gauge track or stud.

Step 1. Truss material comes off the assembly line cut to length and machinelabeled. The material for each truss is stacked and staged on movable carts and staged for assembly.

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Figure 1.23 Step 2. Machine-labeled stock is placed in the jig

Figure 1.24

Step 3. Webs are screwed to the top and bottom chords.

Figure 1.25

Step 4. Trusses are loaded onto trucks directly from the assembly stations. This assembly station, located in Freeport, FL has a built in crane/boom assembly to place trusses directly onto waiting trucks.

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Figure 1.26

1.2 How do you apply different fire resisting systems in the above steel portal frame.
In buildings, fire protection entails a series of measures that lead to the provision of escapes, compartments and suppression systems to either prevent or mitigate an outbreak of fire. A wide range of materials and products are available to protect structural steelwork from fire. An appropriate type of protection can be selected based on the needs of the development. The fire protection system can be applied using the profile, box and solid methods. Steel beams that are designed as a composite section with the slab usually require a three-sided protection. Vertical members such as columns usually require a four-sided protection. The materials used for protection of structural steel work may be grouped as. Concrete casings Board casings Sprayed coatings Intumescent Paint

Concrete casings Traditionally, designers would provide the fire protection in accordance to the prescriptive fire code. Concrete encasement or concrete infill of hollow steel sections, is one such method of fire protection for structural steelwork.

Figure 1.27 Concrete casings The advantages of concrete encasement are Durable and robust; used mostly in cases where resistance to impact damage, abrasion and weather exposure are important. Elements can be designed as composite members to enhance the load resistance.

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The disadvantages are: Building weight increases considerably due to thick encasement Time consuming at site to carry out encasement works Overall section size can be quite large for concrete encasement compared to bare steel and other systems.

Board casings Fire- rated board systems that meet the required fire resistance rating are permitted to be used for protection to structural steel beams and columns in buildings. Such boards are usually made from calcium silicate or gypsum plaster and are used for cladding steelworks. The boards may vary from 15 mm to 30 mm thick and can provide up to 4 hours of fire-rating.

Figure 1.28

Fire-Rated Board

Proprietary board systems (including the framing and fixing details) must be installed in accordance with the manufacturers specifications. The fire-rated boards need not be in full contact with the steel element. Gaps between the board and steel element are allowed. However, all board joints should be filled with non-combustible materials such as gypsum or cement grout. The purpose of the joint filling is to provide support to the boards to prevent them from being damaged due to impact. Fire-rated boards can also be used to clad circular steel members and any other non-standard steel members.
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Architectural Treatment a) Corner Reinforcement Corner beads made of rigid vinyl create a rust-proof, dent-resistant finished corner. The exposed nose of the bead helps to prevent damage from impact and provides a screed for finishing. It provides a key for the jointing compound and eliminates shadowing and edge cracking. b) Control Joint The purpose of the control joint is to relieve stresses of expansion and construction across the joint in large wall areas. Materials such as rolled formed zinc with perforated flangers may be used for this purpose. c) Joint Compound All purpose ready-mixed joint compound may be used.

The advantages of fire-rated boards are: Easy to install in a dry process Easy to finish with decorative materials The disadvantages are: Holes cut into the board (e.g. for services) have to be filled with a compatible fire protection material. Gypsum plasterboard will lose its insulation property after a fire, so replacement is likely to be required.

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Sprayed coatings Cementitious spray applied fireproofing is a form of plaster which requires only addition of Water at site to form a consistent, pumpable slurry. It is then conveyed by pumping and dispersed onto building structures by compressed air at the spray nozzle. All these products are factory-mixed formulations consisting of dry ingredients including aggregates or fibres, gypsum or Portland cement, and other binders. There are a number of spray-applied fire proofing products available in the market. Some products possess fast-setting characteristics that facilitate higher field application efficiency. The fire rating performance of these products is verified through a series of fire tests. Therefore, for the same fire rating requirement, the spray thickness would vary according to the product manufacturers specifications. Environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature and abrasion will affect the working life of the spray-on system, and these points have to be considered by the designer.

Cementitious spray-fire proofing Cementitious spray-fireproofing can be used on structural steel columns, beams, joists, trusses, floor and roof decking. However, for application on columns, the spray-on material will be more susceptible to damage during construction, fitting-out or maintenance. Therefore the site personnel should exercise care to ensure that the applied protection remains in place. The advantages of spray-fireproofing are: Lower cost compared with other passive fire protection system Easy to apply onto complicated detailing and connections Quicker in application through spraying Higher productivity for fast-setting versions

The disadvantages are: Application method is wet, and can be messy when the building is in use Compared to architectural finishes, the resulting textured surface finish is not as aesthetically pleasing Spray-on material needs to be protected from damage during construction, fitting-out or renovations Not suitable for off-site application due to the risk of damaging the protection during transportation and erection

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Applying the spray-fireproofing To prevent damage to the spray-fireproofing, fireproofing to the underside of roof deck assemblies should start only after roofing application is complete and there is no more roof traffic. Similarly, fireproofing application work should be carried out after the completion of concrete work on steel decking.

Installation of trades such as clips, hangars, support sleeves, and other attachments which are required to penetrate the fireproofing should be done BEFORE the application of the ire proofing material. Installation of services such as ducts, piping, equipment or other suspended items should be done AFTER the fireproofing is completed and inspected.

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Intumescent Paint The use of intumescent coating to give fire protection to steel structure is permissible as long as it is applied appropriately and the environment in which the structure is subjected to is nondetrimental to the fire protective properties of the coating. Intumescent paint coatings may be applied to give up to 120 minutes of fire protection. Only intumescent paint products listed in the PLS are acceptable to the Relevant Authority. Generally intumescent paints are applied in three layers primer, intumescent layer and the finishing coat. The thickness of the intumescent layers depends on: (a) Steel size (b) Steel type (c) Steel section used as column or beam (d) Fire rating required (e.g. 60 minutes or 120 minute) (e) Exposure (2, 3 or 4-sided) and so on. For intumescent paints intended for external area, they have to pass a 2- year local weathering test in accordance Part 2, prior to listing in the PLS. One advantage of intumescent paint is that it allows the architects to express the architectural intent of the building through the steel sections. The finish external coats also come in various colours, to suit different designs. The advantages of intumescent paints are: Do not require architectural cladding Allow buildings structure to be expressed architecturally Can be applied off-site The disadvantages are: Require regular inspection and maintenance Fire resistance is limited to 2 hours

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Application Process 1. Application of primer coat

2. Application of intumescent layer

3. Intumescent layer completed

4. Application of finishing coat

5.

The final product

Conclusion Im propose intumescent Paint coating to fire protection to steel structure. Low maintenance, Start up cost benefits, Project life cost benefits, Construction Speed for depend these futures .

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1.3 Brief different steel to steel and steel to concrete member joint connection methods to ensure the different range of joint stiffness Steel Connections Many configurations are used for force transfer in connections. The configuration depends upon the type of connecting elements, nature and magnitude of the forces (and moments), available equipment, fabrication and erection considerations, cost, etc.

Connections Many types based on function Beam-to-Beam Connections Beam-to-Column Connections Column-to-Column Connections Column-to-concrete base Connections Gusset plate connections (truss type, frame type, bracings, ) Beam-beam connections The principles of beam-beam connections are similar to those for beam-to-column connection, although some additional preparation may be necessary if beams are to be connected with the top flanges level as is normal. Beam-beam connections are normally detailed so that the top flanges of the two beams are level. The end of the secondary (supported) beam is therefore often notched to enable attachment to the web of the main (supporting) beam. The simplest concept for a beam-beam connection is to support one beam directly on the top flange of the other. This is often used with the parallel beam system, providing an efficient means of distributing services horizontally and vertically above and between the main beams respectively. For other framing arrangements for floors this is not a common detail since it leads to deep construction zones. It is, however, commonly used in roof construction where purlins, acting as secondary structural beams, are supported directly on the main beam or rafter.

Figure 1.31 Beam-to-Beam Connections

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Beam to column connection Beam to column connections are very common and a variety of details can be used.Connections between beams and columns are perhaps the most common structural connection type. A wide range of different types are used, and these include fin plates, end plates, web or flange cleats, and hunched connections. The fin plate connection is simple and allows easy site installation. Fin plate connections are based on a single plate welded to the column. Beams are normally attached using two or more bolts through the web. Where necessary adjustment can be provided using slotted holes (for instance horizontally slotted holes in the web of the section attached to the fin plate). Fin plate connections are suitable for connecting open section beams to any steel column including tubular sections where a simple, principally shear type, connection is required. End plate connections are simple and neat. When the connections are made to hollow section columns it is not possible to install conventional nuts onto the ends of the bolts inside the section. Specially threaded holes or proprietary bolts which incorporate an expanding sleeve should therefore be used. End plate connections may be partial, flush or extended. Partial depth end plates transmit the minimum bending effect into the column; flush end plates provide a neat detail and allow a greater number of bolts; extended plates enable significant transfer of bending between beam and column, but are not frequently used.

Because of the amount of fabrication involved, this is a fairly expensive type of joint. However, for single storey sheds the benefits are significant and overall economies can be realised. For multi-storey buildings, the advantages are much less and simple connections are widely used. Haunched connections are therefore common in portal frames, but are much less common in other buildings. Figure 1.32 Beam-to- column Connections

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Beams can be positioned eccentrically to the column enabling continuity to be achieved. By arranging the line of a beam to be a little eccentric in relation to the column centre line, both the beam and column can be treated as continuous. The beam can be connected to the face of the column using a modified fin plate detail. In practice, main beams are often arranged in pairs either side of the column, and this is referred to as the parallel beam system. Web cleat connections are similar in principle to the fin plate but are now less widely used.

Figure 1.33 Roof Beam-to- column Connections The web cleat connection is similar to the fin plate detail but can be entirely bolted. It is formed by bolting short angle cleats between the web of the beam and the column face. It was popular for rectangular (orthogonal) grids in which the beams and columns all meet at right angles, but is now less common. Flange cleats provide a direct bearing for the beam; they were once popular but are now seldom used. The use of a seating cleat provides a connection which is quick and easy to erect because the beam can be positioned directly onto the support angle. It can be fully bolted, with no welding necessary. A cleat can also be fixed to the top flange to provide additional restraint against twisting of the beam. Figure 1.34 Beam-to- column Connections One disadvantage is that the seating cleat can impact on the ceiling finishes at the column position. Other connection details have become more popular and this connection is now seldom used. A detail suitable for beam-column joints using hollow sections is to use a cut-out at the end of the tube to provide access for bolting.

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Column-to-Column Connections Because of limitations on the size of components which can be transported, columns are typically delivered to site in lengths of not more than three storeys. In multi-storey construction it is therefore necessary to join individual lengths. These connections are referred to as column splices and various details can be used. Column splices are required to transmit compressive stresses between the connected lengths. The structural actions in a column splice involve the transmission of compression stresses from the upper length of column to the lower. A variety of splice details are possible: welding, capping plates, and splice plates. The connection can be achieved by welding in which case the compression forces are transmitted directly from the member above to the member below. A welded connection like this is usually used only in the fabricators shop. Figure 1.35 Column splices An alternative is to use shop-welded capping plates to each column length. These are bolted on site to locate the plates together. A considerable advantage is that different cross-sectional sizes can be accommodated. Splice plates are also common; they require no welding in the fabrication shop and provide some tolerance during erection. Packing plates can be used where the column cross-sections are not the same size. The connections using capping or splice plates are more likely to be used on site because they are quicker to erect, require no weld inspection, and they are therefore cheaper. Tolerance problems between the two shafts are also avoided, as the end plates can be used as spreaders, or packing plates can be inserted under the flange plates and the web if necessary. Splice plates are unlikely to be acceptable as an exposed joint and is not suitable for circular hollow section columns. Welded splices are suitable for use in a truss which is fully fabricated in the shop. It is much better than splice or end plates for exposed roof trusses because there are no obstructions to trap water and cause corrosion.
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Column-to-concrete base Connections Connections between steel and concrete must account for differences in strength and accuracy between the two materials. Connections between steel and concrete are fundamentally different from normal steelwork connections for a number of reasons: Safe working stresses in concrete are typically in the order 1/10 to 1/15 of those for steel; The accuracy with which in-situ concrete can be formed is much less than for factory fabricated steel; Concrete has negligible tensile strength, and so any tensile forces applied to a concrete element must usually be carried back into the reinforcement.

The connection between a column base and concrete foundation is detailed to distribute the stresses in the concrete and provide adjustment on site for inevitable inaccuracies. A very common column base connection involves casting holding down bolts into the concrete foundation. The concrete base is poured under typical site conditions, and a high degree of precision is unrealistic. After the concrete has hardened, the top level of the base can be checked, and shims placed so that when the column is erected, it will be placed at the correct level. The bolt boxes allow the bolts to be adjusted sideways to fit into the holes in the baseplate. The bolts serve to locate the column and provide some stability until the frame is braced. They may also be required to resist uplift or bending of the column base, if the building design requires this. Once the column position has been checked, the space under the baseplate can be grouted, and the baseplate can then distribute the high stresses in the steel section over a large area of concrete in bending

Figure 1.36 Column base

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Tensile or shear forces in steel-concrete connections can be accommodated by using expanding bolts or resin anchor bolts. A different type of connection occurs when tension or shear is to be applied to a concrete slab or wall. Expanding bolts can be used to transfer loads into concrete. These bolts have to work at lower stresses and be at much larger centres and edge distances than bolts for connecting steel. Such connections can therefore become very complicated. If fire resistance is not a problem, resin anchors can be used as an alternative to expanding bolts.

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Joining Structural type Riveting Bolts Welding

Bolting and Riveting Bolts are available in standard sizes and a range of lengths. Bolts can act in two ways, namely in tension and shear. The individual parts of a bolt comprise a hexagonal head and a circular section shank, which may be fully or partly threaded. They come in shank diameters from very small (6mm) up to 36mm. Larger diameters may be available to special order. Two standard bolt strengths are commonly used. Two grades of bolt are commonly used. These are grade 4.6 and 8.8. The first digit relates to the ultimate strength of the material, whilst the second is the ratio of yield stress to ultimate strength. Thus grade 4.6 bolts have an ultimate material strength of 400 N/mm2, and the yield (or proof) stress is 60% of the ultimate strength. Similarly grade 8.8 bolts have an ultimate strength of 800 N/mm2 and a ratio of yield/proof stress to ultimate strength of 80%. Simple grade 4.6 bolts without corrosion protection are commonly called 'black bolts'. Other bolt types may be used in special circumstances. Turned and fitted bolts are similar to 'ordinary' grade 4.6 and 8.8 bolts, but are machined on their shanks and installed in reamed holes. This creates a very tightly fitting bolt, slip is negligible, and higher stresses can be used. Due to the high cost of the bolts themselves and the costs of installation, these bolts are not often used. Figure 1.37 Bolting High Strength Friction Grip bolts (HSFG bolts) work in a different way. They are made from a material very similar to grade 8.8 bolts, but have different shaped heads and nuts. The nut is tightened in a carefully controlled manner to put a large pretension into the bolt shank. This has the effect of clamping together the plates between the bolt head and the nut. The mating surfaces are called 'faying' surfaces, and they must be flat and unpainted. Because the tightening requires
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careful supervision, this connection is relatively expensive and generally used only where slip of a connection must be avoided, for example to avoid a connection working loose due to vibration, or where the direction of loading can be reversed due to normal imposed loads. They are not normally essential for reversal due to wind loads only.

Single sided bolting systems such as Flowdrill and Hollobolt are used where it is necessary to make a connection directly to the face of a hollow section. Rivets are no longer a practical method of forming structural connections. Figure 1.38 riveting Rivets used to be a very common method of forming steelwork connections, but they are almost never used now. Before fitting, rivets are rather like unthreaded bolts. They are installed hot in pre-drilled holes, and then the portion of shank protruding from the hole is hammered down to form a second 'head' to the rivet.

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Welding Welded connections are formed by locally heating the surfaces to be connected allowing them to fuse. The common characteristic of all welded joints is that the contact faces are united by fusion due to application of localized heat. Electric arc welding of steel uses an electric current to generate a temperature of about 3500C to melt the two surfaces to be joined. The electrode also melts providing filler metal to the weld. Atmospheric gases must be excluded from the weld zone, since these would otherwise interfere with the weld quality, and this can be achieved in a variety of ways. Welding may be carried out manually or semi-mechanically for long continuous weld deposits. A variety of welding methods are used for structural connections. Figure 1.39 welding Various methods of welding are commonly used to connect structural steels: manual metal arc (MMA), metal inert gas (MIG), and submerged arc. They differ in the degree of automation and the means of protecting the molten weld from atmospheric contamination. Manual metal arc is not automated, but is very versatile. Manual metal arc (MMA) welding employs a hand-held stick electrode which has a core of special steel, surrounded by welding flux. The flux and core are melted by the heat of the electric arc set up between the electrode and the components to be joined. The flux flows around the molten metal as it is placed, and prevents the metal becoming contaminated with harmful gases from the atmosphere. After the molten metal has cooled, the flux forms a glassy covering to the weld metal which must be chipped off. Productivity is also hampered by the need to constantly renew the electrode. M anual metal arc welding is the most versatile process and is widely used for site welding and for difficult access areas where bulky equipment is unsuitable. However, automatic and semiautomatic processes are often more economical for long weld runs (e.g. plate girders) and for butt welds in thick plate. Metal-active gas welding is a semi-automatic process, widely used in fabrication but unsuitable for site work.

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Metal-active gas welding (MAG) - sometimes known as metal inert gas welding (MIG) - is a semi-automatic, gas shielded process which is now widely used for fabrication. It is similar to the manual metal arc process, but in this case a machine feeds the electrode continuously through the handpiece, and supplies a shielding gas (often CO2) to protect the arc. Capital and operating costs are higher, but deposition rates are faster, there is no slag to be removed and the incidence of defects is reduced. The equipment used for both MMA and MAG welding is portable allowing it to be transferred easily to different work stations within the workshop. However, for site welding, MMA is almost always used because the MAG gas shield can be dispersed, even by a gentle wind.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an automatic process used in the fabrication of elements requiring long, straight weld runs. Figure 1.4 welding detail In automatic welding the filler material (electrode) is moved automatically by a machine. It is often referred to as the 'submerged arc' process because the arc is shielded by granular flux which is deposited in advance of the welding head, and 'vacuumed' up again after the head has passed. It is particularly suitable for built up members using plate in the form of box or I girders where long continuous runs of weld are necessary. The weld produced is of very high quality with a smooth and uniform bead making it highly suitable for heavy plate fabrication. Single or multiple weld runs can be laid down quickly, but the equipment is not portable and the process is therefore only used in the fabrication shop, not on site. Different types of weld in common use are the fillet weld, which does not develop full strength, and the butt weld, which develops higher strengths but requires special preparation. The most common weld type is the fillet weld, either in a tee or lap configuration. This is normally used where the connection does not need to develop the full strength of the connected components. It is a relatively inexpensive process because plate edges do not need to be prepared (machined), less weld metal is deposited, and inspection is usually less extensive than for butt welds. It is adequate for most applications.

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Full penetration butt welds are used in highly stressed connections. The plates to be joined are 'prepared' - the common surfaces are chamfered to allow the weld metal to be placed across the whole plate thickness. To avoid a stress-raising flaw at the root of the weld, the first runs laid are back-gouged before the runs on the 'back' are laid. A major butt weld may consist of many runs, is correspondingly slow to make and is expensive. Partial penetration butt welds are sometimes used when the weld must be stronger than a fillet weld, but a full penetration butt weld is not required.

Figure 1.41 types of welding joints

Increase welding strength There is no for welded joints subjected to entirely tensile applied loading cycles. If the applied loading is partly or wholly compressive, PWHT will be beneficial, provided residual stresses are fully relieved. The relevant UK standard BS7608:1993 'Code of practice for fatigue design and assessment of steel structures' allows 40% of the compressive part of the cyclic stress range to be ignored in estimating the fatigue design life. However, there is a requirement to demonstrate that stress relief is effective, for example by measuring the residual stress adjacent to the joint of interest after PWHT.

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1.4 Discuss the applications of pre-stressed concrete member in different construction works Introduction The prestressing and precasting of concrete are inter-related features of the modern building industry. Through the application of imaginative design and quality control, they have, since the 1930s, had an increasing impact on architectural and construction procedures. Prestressing of concrete is the application of a compressive force to concrete members and may be achieved by either pretensioning high tensile steel strands before the concrete has set, or by post-tensioning the strands after the concrete has set. Although these techniques are commonplace, misunderstanding of the principles, and the way they are applied, still exists. This paper is aimed at providing a clear outline of the basic factors differentiating each technique and has been prepared to encourage understanding amongst those seeking to broaden their knowledge of structural systems. Prestressed Concrete Prestressing of concrete is defined as the application of compressive stresses to concrete members. Those zones of the member ultimately required to carry tensile stresses under working load conditions are given an initial compressive stress before the application of working loads so that the tensile stresses developed by these working loads are balanced by induced compressive strength. Prestress can be applied in two ways - Pre-tensioning or Post-tensioning.

Pre-tensioning Pre-tensioning is the application, before casting, of a tensile force to high tensile steel tendons around which the concrete is to be cast. When the placed concrete has developed sufficient compressive strength a compressive force is imparted to it by releasing the tendons, so that the concrete member is in a permanent state of prestress.

Post-tensioning Post-tensioning is the application of a compressive force to the concrete at some point in time after casting. When the concrete has gained strength a state of prestress is induced by tensioning steel tendons passed through ducts cast into the concrete, and locking the stressed tendons with mechanical anchors. The tendons are then normally grouted in place.

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Advantages of Prestressing The prestressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional reinforced concrete (RC) without prestressing. A fully prestressed concrete member is usually subjected to compression during service life. This rectifies several deficiencies of concrete. The following text broadly mentions the advantages of a prestressed concrete member with an equivalent RC member. For each effect, the benefits are listed. 1) Section remains uncracked under service loads Reduction of steel corrosion Increase in durability. Full section is utilised Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness) Less deformations (improved serviceability). Increase in shear capacity. Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures. Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading

2) High span-to-depth ratios Larger spans possible with prestressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces) Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in slabs are given below.

Non-prestressed slab Prestressed slab

28:1 45:1

For the same span, less depth compared to RC member. Reduction in self weight More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections More economical sections.

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3) Suitable for precast construction The advantages of precast construction are as follows. Rapid construction Better quality control Reduced maintenance Suitable for repetitive construction Multiple use of formwork Reduction of formwork Availability of standard shapes.

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Types of Prestressing Prestressing of concrete can be classified in several ways. The following classifications are discussed. Source of prestressing force External or internal prestressing Pre-tensioning or post-tensioning Linear or circular prestressing Uniaxial, biaxial or multi-axial prestressing

Source of Prestressing Force Hydraulic Prestressing

This is the simplest type of prestressing, producing large prestressing forces. The hydraulic jack used for the tensioning of tendons, comprises of calibrated pressure gauges which directly indicate the magnitude of force developed during the tensioning. Mechanical Prestressing

In this type of prestressing, the devices includes weights with or without lever transmission, geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks with or without gear drives and wire-winding machines. This type of prestressing is adopted for mass scale production.

Electrical Prestressing

In this type of prestressing, the steel wires are electrically heated and anchored before placing concrete in the moulds. This type of prestressing is also known as thermo-electric prestressing.

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External or Internal Prestressing External Prestressing

When the prestressing is achieved by elements located outside the concrete, it is called external prestressing. The tendons can lie outside the member (for example in I-girders or walls) or inside the hollow space of a box girder. This technique is adopted in bridges and strengthening of buildings. In the following figure, the box girder of a bridge is prestressed with tendons that lie outside the concrete.

Figure 1.42 External prestressing of a box girder Internal Prestressing

When the prestressing is achieved by elements located inside the concrete member (commonly, by embedded tendons), it is called internal prestressing. Most of the applications of prestressing are internal prestressing. In the following figure, concrete will be cast around the ducts for placing the tendons

Figure 1.43 Internal prestressing of a box girder

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Pre-tensioning or Post-tensioning Pre-tensioning The tension is applied to the tendons before casting of the concrete. The pre-compression is transmitted from steel to concrete through bond over the transmission length near the ends. The following figure shows manufactured pre-tensioned electric poles.

Figure 1.44 Pre-tensioned electric poles

Post-tensioning

The tension is applied to the tendons (located in a duct) after hardening of the concrete. The precompression is transmitted from steel to concrete by the anchorage device (at the end blocks). The following figure shows a post-tensioned box girder of a bridge.

Figure 1.45 Post-tensioning of a box girder

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Linear or Circular Prestressing Linear Prestressing

When the prestressed members are straight or flat, in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called linear prestressing. For example, prestressing of beams, piles, poles and slabs. The profile of the prestressing tendon may be curved. The following figure shows linearly prestressed railway sleepers.

Figure 1.46 Linearly prestressed railway sleepers

Circular Prestressing

When the prestressed members are curved, in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called circular prestressing. For example, circumferential prestressing of tanks, silos, pipes and similar structures. The following figure shows the containment structure for a nuclear reactor which is circularly prestressed.

Figure 1.47 Circularly prestressed containment structure, Kaiga Atomic Power Station, Karnataka

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Uniaxial, Biaxial or Multiaxial Prestressing Uniaxial Prestressing

When the prestressing tendons are parallel to one axis, it is called Uniaxial Prestressing. For example, longitudinal prestressing of beams.

Biaxial Prestressing

When there are prestressing tendons parallel to two axes, it is called Biaxial Prestressing. The following figure shows the biaxial prestressing of slabs.

Multiaxial Prestressing

When the prestressing tendons are parallel to more than two axes, it is called Multiaxial Prestressing. For example, prestressing of domes.

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ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY CONCLUSION

Steel is a versatile material that allows the architect and engineer to design any type of structure, ranging from orthodox portal frames for industrial use to state of the art buildings with architectural features, unorthodox shapes or any other requirements the stakeholders might have. Structural steel design is familiar and efficient, providing elegant cost effective solutions. Structural steel can be combined with other materials to achieve the desired look, properties or functionality. Fabrication of a steel building is carried out in a workshop, ensuring a high quality product and contributing to a low waste, sustainable solution. Standardized details and forms of construction are available which allow fast erection on site, with minims disruption to the surroundings. Steel has a very high resistance to weight ratio, resulting in a light, attractive solution with minimal intrusion into the working area of the structure. The transportation of highly prefabricated elements reduces deliveries to site, which is especially important in congested areas, such as city centers. The structural efficiency of steelwork results in lower loads being transferred to the foundations, leading to further economy. Long span buildings can easily be designed in steel, resulting in large clear areas. This increases the functionality of the structure, offering flexibility of building use. Steel buildings are adaptable and may be easily extended, making refurbishment of the building a realistic solution for future use, instead of demolition. Steel has excellent sustainability credentials. Steel buildings can easily be dismantled and reused. The steel can always be recycled without any loss of strength, minimizing the amount of raw material required.

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ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY REFERENCE

BARRY The Construction of buildings Volume 3 Fourth Edition

Sustainable Construction - A Guide on Fire Protection and Performance-based Fire Engineering BCA Sustainable Construction Series 2 Best Practice in Steel Construction: Industrial Buildings, Guidance for Architects, Designers and Constructors RFCS project deliverable for Euro-Build Available from the Steel Construction Institute, UK VSL International Ltd. http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching_resources/architectural_studio_
reference/elements/connections/beam_to_column_connections/ 18/8/2012

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/l0510.htm 23/8/2012

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