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ELEMENTS
OF
GEOLOGY
CHARLES LYELL
ELECBOOK CLASSICS
Elements of
Geology
Charles Lyell
ISBN 1 84327 115 X
The Student’s
Elements of Geology
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S.
Fourth edition revised by P.Martin Duncan F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in King’s College London, etc.
ElecBook
London
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Born at Kinnordy, in Forfarshire, Charles Lyell was the eldest son of a Scottish
father and an English mother. The family moved to Hampshire when he was
a child, and in 1816 he went up to Oxford to study Classics. There, he attended
lectures on geology by William Buckland, and his burgeoning interest in the
subject led him to make geological tours of England and Scotland in 1817, and
mainland Europe in 1818. In 1819, Lyell began to study law, but was hindered
in his perusal of legal papers by weak eyesight (at least, that was his excuse).
He became increasingly active as a geologist, and was made Secretary of the
Geological Society in 1826.
Lyell’s great work, Principles of Geology, was published in three volumes
in 1830, 1832 and 1833; it established the principle of uniformitarianism,
which holds that the only forces needed to explain the present appearance of
the Earth’s surface are the same forces at work today (notably earthquakes and
volcanism) operating over an immense period of time.
Lyell became a leading figure in Victorian science. He was the first
Professor of Geology in King’s College, London, and was knighted in 1848.
Ironically, he never came to terms with Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
by natural selection, which was, as Darwin acknowledged, partly inspired by
Lyell’s uniformitarian ideas.
John Gribbin
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
BETWEEN the years 1838 and 1865 I published six editions of the ‘Elements
of Geology’, beginning with a small duodecimo volume, which increased with
each successive edition, as new facts accumulated, until in 1865 it had become
a large and somewhat expensive work.
When a seventh edition was called for, I was strongly urged by my friends
to attempt to bring the book back again to a size more approaching the original,
so that it might be within the reach of the ordinary student. In order to do this
I resolved, in the first place, to omit some theoretical discussions which
belonged more properly to my ‘Principles of Geology’, and further to confine
myself to examples of British rocks, wherever this could be done only seeking
foreign illustrations when, as in the case of the Upper Miocene or Falunian
Tertiaries, no good representatives were to be found in this country.
I therefore published in 1871 what was substantially a new work under the
title of ‘The Student’s Elements of Geology’, and the success of the attempt
has been proved by the steady demand which has exhausted an unusually large
edition in less than three years.
The present work has been carefully revised and corrected, with the addition
of such new matter as the plan of the volume permitted.
I have also added a new and very important table illustrative of the
successive appearance and development in time of the different forms of
animal and vegetable life throughout the British fossiliferous rocks. This table
has been compiled for me by Mr. ETHERIDGE, of the London School of
Mines, from materials which he has been collecting for many years.
Among the numerous scientific friends who have rendered me valuable
assistance in different parts of this new edition, I should wish especially to
mention Mr. SEARLES WOOD, Mr. DAVID FORBES, Mr. JUDD, and the
Rev. T. G. BONNEY, of St. John’s, Cambridge.
CHARLES LYELL.
73 HARLEY STREET:
Fcbruary 1874.
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P. MARTIN DUNCAN.
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CONTENTS
Page
Chapter I. On the Different Classes of Rocks. 8
Chapter II. Aqueous Rocks—Their Composition and
Forms of Stratification. 18
Chapter III. Arrangement of Fossils in Strata
—Freshwater and Marine. 31
Chapter IV. Consolidation and subsequent alterations of
Strata and Petrification of Fossils. 47
Chapter V. Elevation of Strata above the Sea.
—Horizontal and Inclined Stratification. 58
Chapter VI. Denudation. 89
Chapter VII. Joint action of Denudation, Upheaval, and
Subsidence in remodelling the earth’s crust. 97
Chapter VIII. Chronological Classification of Rocks. 106
Chapter IX. Classification of Tertiary Formations. 124
Chapter X. Recent and Pleistocene Periods. 132
Chapter XI. Pleistocene Period continued.
— Glacial conditions. 155
Chapter XII. Pleistocene Period continued.
—Glacial conditions concluded. 164
Chapter XIII. Pliocene Period. 179
Chapter XIV. Miocene Period. 209
Chapter XV. Oligocene. 220
Chapter XVI. Eocene Formations. 242
Chapter XVII. Eocene Formations continued. 265
Chapter XVIII. Upper Cretaceous Group. 271
Chapter XIX. Lower Cretaceous or Neocomian Formation. 300
Chapter XX. Jurassic Group.—Purbeck beds and Oolites. 315
Chapter XXI. Jurassic Group continued.—Lias. 347
Chapter XXII. Trias, or New Red Sandstone Group. 361
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Elements of Geology 7
Appendix 616
Table of British Fossils 639
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 8
STUDENT’S
ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF ROCKS.
OF what materials is the earth composed, and in what manner are these
materials arranged? These are the first inquiries with which Geology is
occupied, a science which derives its name from the Greek γε, ge, the earth,
and λογοζ, logos, a discourse. Previously to experience we might have
imagined that investigations of this kind would relate exclusively to the
mineral kingdom, and to the various rocks, soils, and metals, which occur upon
the surface of the earth, or at various depths beneath it. But, in pursuing such
researches, we soon find ourselves led on to consider the successive charges
which have taken place in the former state of the earth’s surface and interior,
and the causes which have given rise to these changes; and, what is still more
singular and unexpected, we soon become engaged in researches into the
history of the animate creation, or of the various tribes of animals and plants
which have, at different periods of the past, inhabited the globe.
All are aware that the solid parts of the earth consist of distinct substances,
such as clay, chalk, sand, limestone, coal, slate, granite, and the like; but
previously to observation it is commonly imagined that all these have remained
from the first in the state in which we now see them—that they were created
in their present form and in their present position. The geologist soon comes
to a different conclusion, discovering proofs that the external parts of the earth
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 9
were not all produced, in the beginning of things, in the state in which we now
behold them, nor in an instant of time. On the contrary, he can show that they
have acquired their actual configuration and condition gradually, under a great
variety of circumstances, and at successive periods, during each of which
distinct races of living beings have flourished on the land and in the waters,
the remains of these creatures still lying buried in the crust of the earth.
By the ‘earth’s crust’ is meant that small portion of the exterior of our planet
which is accessible to human observation. It comprises not merely all the parts
of the earth which are laid open in precipices, or in cliffs overhanging a river
or the sea, or which the miner may reveal in artificial excavations; but the
whole of that outer covering of the planet on which we are enabled to reason
by observations made at or near the surface. These reasonings may extend to
a depth of perhaps twenty miles, a very fractional part of the distance from the
surface to the centre of the globe. The remark is just; but although the
dimensions of such a crust are, in truth, insignificant when compared to the
entire globe, yet they are vast, and of magnificent extent in relation to man and
to the organic beings which people our globe. Referring to this standard of
magnitude, the geologist may admire the ample limits of his domain, and
admit, at the same time, that not only the exterior of the planet, but the entire
earth, is but an atom in the midst of the countless worlds surveyed by the
astronomer.
The materials of this crust are not thrown together confusedly; but distinct
mineral masses, called rocks, are found to occupy definite spaces, and to
exhibit a certain order of arrangement. The term rock is applied indifferently
by geologists to all these substances, whether they be soft or stony, for clay
and sand are included in the term, and some have even brought peat under this
denomination. Our old writers endeavoured to avoid offering such violence to
our language, by speaking of the component materials of the earth as consisting
of rocks and soils. But there is often so insensible a passage from a soft and
incoherent state to that of stone, that geologists of all countries have found it
indispensable to have one technical term to include both, and in this sense we
find roche applied in French, rocca in Italian, and felsart in German. The
beginner, however, must constantly bear in mind that the term rock by no
means invariably implies that a mineral mass is in an indurated or stony
condition.
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 10
The most natural and convenient mode of classifying the various rocks
which compose the earth’s crust is to refer, to a certain extent, to their origin
and relative age, but mainly to their physical structure and chemical
composition. A useful classification which refers to the origin of the rocks, or
to the different circumstances and causes by which they have been produced,
separates the rocks, firstly, into those which are the products of aqueous or
watery action; secondly, those which are aërial in their method of production
and accumulation; and, thirdly, those which are volcanic, and the result of
igneous action near the surface of the earth. A fourth group contains plutonic
rocks, or deeply-seated masses which had an igneous origin; and a fifth group
contains rocks which have undergone chemical and mechanical alterations,
and are called metamorphic.
Aqueous rocks.—The aqueous rocks, sometimes called the sedimentary,
or fossiliferous, cover a larger part of the earth’s surface than any others, and
they have been formed under water. Some consist of mechanical deposits
(pebbles, sand, and mud), and others are of organic origin, especially the
limestones. A few are of chemical origin like calc-sinter. These rocks are
usually stratified, or divided into distinct layers, or strata. The term stratum
means simply a bed, or anything spread out or strewed over a given surface;
and we infer that these strata have been generally spread out by the action of
water, from what we daily see taking place near the mouths of rivers, or on
the land during temporary inundations. For, whenever a running stream
charged with mud or sand has its velocity checked, as when it enters a lake or
sea, or overflows a plain, the sediment, previously held in suspension by the
motion of the water, sinks by its own gravity to the bottom. In this manner
layers of mud and sand are thrown down one upon another.
If we drain a lake which has been fed by a small stream, we frequently find
a series of deposits at the bottom, disposed with considerable regularity, one
above the other; the uppermost, perhaps, may be a stratum of peat, next below
is a more dense and solid variety of the same material; still lower a bed of
shell-marl, alternating with peat or sand, and then other beds of marl, divided
by layers of clay. Now, if a second pit be sunk through the same continuous
lacustrine formation at some distance from the first, nearly the same set of
beds is met with, yet with slight variations; some, for example, of the layers
of sand, clay, or marl, may be wanting, one or more of them having thinned
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 11
out and given place to others, or sometimes one of the layers first examined
is observed to increase in thickness to the exclusion of other beds.
The term ‘formation,’ which I have used in the above explanation, expresses
in geology any assemblage of rocks which have some character in common,
whether of origin, age, or composition. Thus we speak of stratified and
unstratified, freshwater and marine, aqueous and volcanic, ancient and
modern, metalliferous and non-metalliferous formations.
In the estuaries of large rivers, such as the Ganges and the Mississippi, we
may observe, at low water, phenomena analogous to those of the drained lakes
above mentioned, but on a grander scale, and extending over areas several
hundred miles in length and breadth. When the periodical inundations subside,
the river hollows out a channel to the depth of many yards through horizontal
beds of clay and sand, the ends of which are seen exposed in perpendicular
cliffs. These beds vary in their mineral composition, colour, and in the fineness
or coarseness of their particles, and some of them are occasionally
characterised by containing drift wood. At the junction of the river and the sea,
especially in lagoons, nearly separated by sand bars from the ocean, deposits
are often formed in which brackish and saltwater shells are included.
In Egypt, where the Nile is always adding to its delta by filling up part of
the Mediterranean with mud, the newly deposited sediment is stratified, the
thin layer thrown down in one season differing slightly in colour from that of
a previous year, and being separable from it, as has been observed in
excavations at Cairo, and other places.1
1
See Principles of Geology, by the Author, Index, ‘Nile,’ ‘Rivers,’ &c.
When beds of sand, clay, and marl, containing shells and vegetable matter,
are found arranged in a similar manner in the interior of the earth, we ascribe
a similar origin to them; and the more we examine their characters in minute
detail, the more exact do we find the resemblance. Thus, for example, at
various heights and depths in the earth, and often far from seas, lakes, and
rivers, we meet with layers of rounded pebbles, composed of flint, limestone,
granite, or other rocks, resembling the shingles of a sea-beach, or the gravel
in a torrent’s bed. Such layers of pebbles frequently alternate with others
formed of sand or fine sediment, just as we may see in the channel of a river
descending from hills bordering a coast, where the current sweeps down at
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 12
one season coarse sand and gravel, while at another, when the waters are low
and less rapid, fine mud and sand alone are carried seaward.2
2
See p. 20, fig. 7.
substances which have often been entirely eroded by atmospheric action and
sometimes by water. Soils and thick deposits, like the laterite of Hindostan,
are the result of aërial changes upon the rocks. The collection of organic
remains, both vegetable and animal, in masses, is often without the intervention
of an aqueous agency, and coal and plant remains, and some collections of
bones, were former examples. Volcanic ash is wafted far and wide by wind,
and forms important deposits, many of which occurred on dry land. Frost
destroys the rocks, and the relics are not aqueous in their origin. Moraine
matter, the product of land glaciers, and the blocks carried by ice, or simply
remaining as the relics of sub-aërial denudation, are considered under this
group of aërial rocks. Many of these rocks assume the stratified form, and
contain organic remains.
Volcanic rocks.—The third division of rocks which we may next consider
are the volcanic, or those which have been produced at or near the surface,
whether in ancient or modern times, by the action of subterranean heat, by
water, and pressure, and these rocks are for the most part unstratified, and are
devoid of fossils. They are more partially distributed than aqueous formations,
at least in respect to horizontal extension. Among those parts of Europe where
they exhibit characters not to be mistaken, I may mention not only Sicily and
the country round Naples, but Auvergne, Velay, and Vivarais, now the
departments of Puy-de-Dôme, Haute-Loire, and Ardèche, towards the centre
and south of France, in which are several hundred conical hills having the
forms of modern volcanos, with craters more or less perfect on many of their
summits. Besides the parts of France above alluded to there are other countries,
as the north of Spain, the south of Sicily, the Tuscan territory of Italy, the lower
Rhenish provinces, Hungary, and many parts of Western America and
Australia, where spent volcanos may be seen, still preserving, in many cases,
a conical form, and having craters and often lava-streams connected with them.
These cones are composed, moreover, of lava, sand, and ashes, similar to those
of active volcanos. Streams of lava may sometimes be traced from the cones
into the adjoining valleys, where they have choked up the ancient channels of
rivers with solid rock, in the same manner as some modern flows of lava in
Iceland have been known to do, the rivers either flowing beneath or cutting
out a narrow passage on one side of the lava. Although none of these French
volcanos have been in activity within the period of human history, their forms
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 14
are often very perfect. Some, however, have been compared to the mere
skeletons of volcanos, the rains and torrents having washed their sides, and
removed all the loose sand and scoriæ, leaving only the harder and more solid
materials. By this erosion, and by earthquakes, their internal structure has
occasionally been laid open to view, in fissures and ravines; and we then behold
not only many successive beds and masses of lava, sand, and porous scoriæ,
but also perpendicular walls or dikes, as they are called, of volcanic rock, which
have burst through the other materials. Such dikes are also observed in the
structure of Vesuvius, Etna, and other active volcanos.
There are also other rocks in almost every country in Europe, which we
infer to be of igneous origin, although they do not form hills with cones and
craters. Thus, for example, we feel assured that the rock of Staffa, and that of
the Giant’s Causeway, called basalt, is volcanic, because it agrees in its
columnar structure and mineral composition with streams of lava which we
know to have flowed from the craters of recent volcanos. We find also similar
basaltic and other igneous rocks associated with beds of tuff in various parts
of the British Isles and also forming dikes, such as have been spoken of; and
some of the strata through which they cut are occasionally altered at the point
of contact, as if there had been an exposure to the intense heat of melted matter.
The absence of cones and craters, and long narrow streams of superficial
lava, in England and many other countries is partly to be attributed to the
eruptions having been sub-marine, just as a considerable proportion of
volcanos in our own times burst out beneath the sea: or the eruption may have
been from fissures in the earth’s surface. But this question must be enlarged
upon more fully in the chapters on igneous rocks, in which it will also be
shown, that as different sedimentary formations, containing each their
characteristic fossils, have been deposited at successive periods, so also
volcanic sand and scoriæ have been thrown out, and lavas have flowed over
the land or bed of the sea, or have been injected into fissures, at many different
epochs; so that the igneous as well as the aqueous and aërial rocks may be
classed as a chronological series of monuments, throwing light on a succession
of events in the history of the earth.
Plutonic rocks.—If we examine a large portion of a continent, especially
if it contain within it a lofty mountain range, we rarely fail to discover two
other classes of rocks, very distinct from either of those above alluded to, and
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER I. 15
υπα, under, and γινοµαιι, or be born, to indicate that the crystalline plutonic
rocks are nether formed rocks, and which have not assumed their present form
and structure at the surface. They never simply repose on volcanic or
sedimentary rocks, and can be traced beneath everything, and they underlie all
other rocks.
But metamorphic rocks of the advanced type of gneiss and mica schist do
not appear to have necessarily been formed at great depths, or under the
conditions which granite required for its genesis. Hence the term hypogene is
hardly applicable to them. The term hypogene action has lately been aptly
employed by Professor A. Geikie4 to express the changes within the earth
caused by original internal heat and chemical action, of which the intrusion of
granites as eruptive rocks and metamorphism on a grand scale are examples.
From what has now been said, the reader will understand that each of the
great classes of rocks may be studied under two distinct points of view; first,
they may be studied simply as mineral masses deriving their origin from
particular causes, and having a certain chemical composition, form, and
position in the earth’s crust, or other characters, both positive and negative,
such as the presence or absence of organic remains. In the second place, the
rocks of each class may be viewed as a grand chronological series of
monuments, attesting a succession of events in the former history of the globe
and of its living inhabitants.
I shall accordingly proceed to treat of each class of rocks; first, in reference
to those characters which are not chronological, and then in particular relation
to the several periods when they were formed.
4
Text book of Geology (1882), p. 196.
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Elements of Geology CHAPTER II. 18
CHAPTER II.
AQUEOUS ROCKS—THEIR COMPOSITION AND FORMS OF
STRATIFICATION.