Engineering Complete Notes

Engineering Notes
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE KETTLE
Date Kettle Description Effect of Innovation
1880s Cast Iron and
copper kettle
Good thermal properties Safer and more convenient wa of
!oiling water
1"#0 $erosene %ess energ re&'ired to start
('mes emitted which are dangero's
)ore efficient heating
1"*8s Earl Electric kettle Chrome plated steel
(lat !ottom
+ad overload c't o't and ins'lated ,cotton-
cord
)ore simple to 'se and emits no
smoke or f'mes
.apid !oil electric kettle allows more
time
1"/" Ceramic kettle )ore efficient heating
Cord ins'lated with cotton

1"00s1
1"20s
Ceramic kettle 3histles and c't o't feat'res
Gla4ing waterproof
3histle indicating !oiling ens're more
safet
1"80s 5olmer kettle )ore d'ra!le
3histle and c't o't feat'res
5ower cord ins'lated with 56C ,5olmer
chloride ins'lation-
C't o't feat'res means 'se did not
have to ret'rn to stop kettle from
!oiling over
1""0s 5olmer kettle Swivel detacha!le !ase can !e po'red
safet awa from cord
Swivel !ase increase safet less
chance of cord fraing or splitting and
less 'npl'gging cord
#000 1
present
Stainless steel kettle 5olmer handle and stainless steel !od
7etacha!le !ase
C't o't switch a'tomaticall t'rns off
when kettle is detached
)ost vertical !odied kettles show
water saving time from opening lid
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LANMOER
Date Kettle Description Effect of Innovation
18*0 8ohn (erra!ee C'tting clinder ! gear drive
.oller for reg'lating height
(ront mo'nted catcher
)a9or step from 'sing a scthe
1"00 (ollows and :ate Catcher !ehind main !od
;im!er handles
Gear drive enclosed which is safer
1"*< .oal 5etrol engine
Chain drive and front mo'nted catcher
.eel mower ,reel doing c'tting-
Chain drive well covered to ens're
safet
1"00s 6icta #1stroke No catcher
Started ! 'sing a rope ,tiresome-
Earl recoil stater
Cost and weight red'ced

1"<0s 6icta # stroke Self1propelled
('el tank and imp'lse starter
5olethlene catcher
.ed'ced 'ser effort in starting the
motor

1"2/ S'n!eam #1stroke 1<0cc #1stroke motor
Imp'lse starter and f'el tank
5ipes e=ha'st down into grass
)ore safer as f'mes are not directl in
face
7eposited to the gro'nd
Cleaner for environment
Engineering Complete Notes
#000 6icta m'lching
mower
Grass clippings are c't finer
/1stroke motor
.ed'ced mowing time ! /0>
Saves mone? time and effort
)ore leis're time
#000 .over /1stroke
)'lch n Catch
/1stroke motor
)'lch and@or catch mower

Either m'lches or catches
Saves time and effort for owner
.eccles them into lawn aid lawn
growth witho't artificial fertilisers
%ess chance of r'n off algae !looms

Ot!er Lan"scape pro"#cts
)'lchers .ed'ces plant material
Garden waste wo'ld not !e tipped in ref'se tip ,with other ho'sehold waste-
.eccles them into lawn aid lawn growth witho't artificial fertilisers
%ess chance of r'n off algae !looms
Sprinkler sstem Efficient? long lasting
Allows time for gardener to do other tasks
)a ca'se r'n1offs
Not environmentall !eneficial

$ stro%e (o'r strokesB Intake? compression? power? e=ha'stC
& stro%e 1 Intake com!ined with e=ha'stC Compression com!ined with powerC
MASS AND FORCE
Newtons 3 Laws of motion
'
st
La(
An o!9ect will travel at a constant velocit or remain at rest 'nless acted 'pon ! a net 'n!alanced forceC
&
n"
La(
A !od acted 'pon ! an e=ternal 'n!alanced force will accelerate in proportion to the magnit'de of this force in the
direction in which it actsC
F = mo
)
r"
La(
;o ever action? there is an e&'al and opposite reactionC
Definitions*
MASS ;he composition of matter contained in a !od
FORCE A p'sh? p'll or twist on a !od
+RAVIT, A force of attraction that depends on the mass of the o!9ects and the distance !etween themC
EI+HT (orce of gravit acting on a mass
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Ele-ents
)ade 'p of one tpe of atom
Cannot !e separated into simpler s'!stances
)ost dont e=ist nat'rall as elements
Sol#tions
A mi=t're where one s'!stance dissolves into another
)etals will dissolve into one another to form sol'tions
Co-po#n"s
;wo or more elements chemicall !onded together in a fi=ed proportion
Can !e !roken down into simpler s'!stances
Engineering Complete Notes
Mi.t#res ;wo or more s'!stances mi=ed together that can !e separated phsicall
Metals & Non-metals
METALS NON/ METALS
Ds'all solid at room temp Solid? li&'id or gas at room temp
%'stro's ,when freshl c't- Ds'all d'll as solid
Good mallea!ilit and d'ctilit Generall !rittle
Good thermal and electrical cond'ctivities Ds'all thermal and electrical ins'lators
Ds'all form allos )a form compo'nds !'t not allos
Ceramics
S0nt!etic cera-ic 1 An ceramic material that needs p'rification? mi=ing or firing
+ard with good thermal properties
Can also occ'r nat'rall as cla
Concrete mi=ed with ceramics for increased strength
Dsed in t'r!ine and diesel engines !eca'se the haveB
1 +igh temperat're sta!ilit
1 %ow thermal e=pansion
1 Improves f'el efficienc
Classifications of cera-ics*
Cla0 1o"0 cera-ics
)o'ld wet cla to desired shape
(ired to cement the remaining material
.es'lt is a glass matri= with solid particles
+lass cera-ics*
Inorganic f'sion prod'cts that have cooled to rigidit witho't crstallising
Refractories*
)aterials that displa sta!ilit at ver high temperat'res
Polymers
)ade 'p of long molec'lar chains
Created ! adding monomers together
Classified as Eorganic as car!on is primar constit'ent
A""ition pol0-erisation ;wo or more monomers that share the same link 9oin together to form a monomer
Con"ensation pol0-erisation 3hen a monomers 9oin together and form a ! prod'ct

Pol0-er str#ct#re
T!er-osettin2 T!er-oplastic


Fnce heated and set to shape? it cannot !e reheated and
reshaped
)a !e reheated and reshaped several times
Engineering Complete Notes
;he rigid str'ct're cannot !e softened as the energ re&'ired
to !reak it wo'ld !'rn it
;he weak secondar !onds can !e !roken allowing the
polmer to !ecome visco's

Biological
)aterial that is prod'ced as a res'lt of the life ccle of a plant or animal
Nat'rall occ'rring materials incl'de wood? leather and limestone
)an'fact'red forms incl'de paper and seasoned tim!er
Composite
)ade of different materials com!ined together to capitalise desira!le properties from each
E=amples fi!re glass? car!on fi!re? concrete and cemented t'ngsten car!ide
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Mechanical Properties
7etermined ! mechanical tests to determine a materials resistance to a mechanical loading
Stren2t!
A!ilit to withstand applied loads witho't fail're
Strength varies according to tpe of load? tensile? compressive? shear or torsion
Har"ness
A!ilit to resist scratching? a!rasion or indentation
Elasticit0
;he a!ilit of a material to ret'rn to its original shape after !eing s'!9ected to a load
Stiffness
A!ilit of a material to resist elastic deformation 'nder a load
Plasticit0
A!ilit of a material to 'ndergo some degree of permanent deformation witho't r'pt're
Mallea3ilit0
A!ilit of a material to !e hammered and rolled into a thin sheet
D#ctilit0
;he a!ilit of a material to !e drawn into a thin wire
Chemical Properties
Infl'encing the !ehavio'r of the material in some chemical reactions
7etermines !ehavio'r of material
Physical Properties
Densit0
;he amo'nt of matter packed in a given vol'me
p =
m
I

Porosit0
Amo'nt of voids or pores a material has
Moist#re Content
)eas're of moist're present in the str'ct're of a material
Engineering Complete Notes
Electrical Properties
Electrical con"#ctivit0
;he a!ilit of a material to cond'ct electricit
Thermal Properties
T!er-al con"#ctivit0
A!ilit of a material to cond'ct heat
Heat resistance
7etermined ! the melting point of a material
Magnetic Properties
Dia-a2netic Properties
(o'nd in materials that are ionic and molec'lar materials
Para-a2netic -a2netis-
(o'nd in materials with a single valence electrons
Ferro-a2netic -a2netis-
(o'nd in materials with large amo'nds of 'npaired electronsC
)a !ecome permanent magnets
STR4CT4RE OF MATERIALS
Solis! Li"#is & $ases
;he arrangement of atoms is determined ! stateC
SOLIDS LI54IDS +ASES
Frdered atomic str'ct're .andom atomic arrangement .andom atomic arrangement
%ow energ level +igh energ level 6er high energ level
Incompressi!le Can !e minimall compressed Compressi!le
Slow diff'sion rates (ast diff'sion .apid diff'sion
7isplas definite shape 3ill take shape of container 3ill e=pand to limits of container
5redominatel crstalline

Boning

Ionic Covalent Metallic
Fcc'r when atoms have a !ig
difference in their individ'al amo'nt
of valence electrons
Fcc'rs !etween non1metals where
there is a strong attraction !etween
the n'cle's and valence electrons
Electrons delocalised
;he are the electrostatic force of
attraction !etween oppositel charge
particles
E=hi!it high strengthC Eg diamond Cond'cts electricit d'e to free
electrons
:onds prod'ce electrical ins'lators Ins'lators d'e to free electrons Electrons repel light? making metals
opa&'e

Pol0-orp!s 6allotropes7 1 materials that can e=ist in more than one crstal str'ct're
ECgC graphite and diamond are allotropes of car!on

Engineering Complete Notes


Crystal Str#ct#re
Crstal str'ct're occ'rs when a material is solid
:F7G CEN;.E7 CD:IC ,:CC- (ACE CEN;.E7 CD:IC ,(CC- +EHAGFNA% C%FSE 5AC$E7 ,+C5-


Soft? d'ctile and
mallea!le
Can slip aro'nd
ECgC C'? A'? Ag
+ard
Cant slip
:rittle
+ardest
)ostl ceramic
ECgC t'ngsten
Non Cr0stalline Material 6A-orp!o#s7
No crstalli4ed pattern
Fften 'nsta!le
ECgC glass a li&'id with a high viscosit
Cr0stalline Material
+ave a reg'lar ordered pattern
Can consist of single crstals or polcrstalline ,more than 1 crstal-
Single crstal materials m'st !e achieved to !e polcrstalline
EgC )etals ceramics? polmers
Metals
Ferro#s Non/ferro#s
Contain (e 7oesnt contain (e
)agnetic Non1magnetic
3ill r'st Ds'all does not r'st
Car!on added to improve service properties Alloed to improve service properties
ECgC stainless steel? high and low car!on steel ECgC !ron4e? god? silver
Metall#rgical Methos
Soft Sol"erin2
Dse of tin lead allo to 9oin two pieces of metal
(orms allo ontop of metal which gives the 9oint strength
<0> ;in /0> %ead
.esin called fl'= and is 'sed to wet the 9oin
1ra8in2 9 Silver Sol"erin2
Dses higher temperat'res which pro"#ce stron2er :oints
:rass is melted onto a ferro's metal at 800
o
C
Engineering Complete Notes
Silver allows the allo to flow -ore slo(l0

el"in2
METHOD T,PE OF PROCESS DESCRIPTION 4SE
S5F; 3E%7 5ress're 8oin in spots
Electric c'rrent melts metal?
creating 9oin
8oining sheet metal
cases
:D;; 3E%7 5ress're Ends of metal !'tted together
8oined as a!ove
8oining t'!es
SEA) 3E%7 5ress're )etal moved thro'gh rotating
wheels
8oined as a!ove
8oining pipes
FHG1ACE;G%ENE 3E%7 ('sion )etal melted and metal filler is
added
Steel fan cages
:.FNIE 3E%7 ('sion@Alloing :ron4e filler metal added to 9oinJ
filler is !'ilt 'p at 9oin
%ittle@no melting of parent metal
%ow strength
appliances
Dsed in place of o=1
acetlene
E%EC;.IC A.C 3E%7 ('sion )etal melted in electrode
,replaces filler-
Electrode covered in fl'= to
prevent o=idation of weld metal
8oining steel in thick
sections in small r'n
appliances
)E;A% INE.; GAS ,)IG-
3E%7
('sion )IG replaces electrode with
contin'o's feed wire? which makes
)ore a'tomated
than the a!ove
;DNGS;EN INE.; GAS
,;IG- 3E%7
('sion .eplaces contin'o's feed wire with
t'ngsten electrode and filler rod is
fed ! operator
Al'min'm and
stainless steel in thick
sections
Mechanical %oining
1 Dsed instead of metall'rgical 9oining d'e to inc'rring str'ct'ral changes
1 ECgC !olts? n'ts? st'ds and rivets 'sed to fasten metals together
1 Speciall made n'ts and !olts can resist !eing 'ndone as the metal !ites onto each other? creating a sec're hold
1 7isadvantages incl'deB
7rilling holes weaken material
Corrosion aro'nd 9oint d'e to dissimilar metals 9oined
C#ttin2 Met!o"s
1 Involves the removal of 'nwanted material
OPERATION PROCESS MACHINE 4SED COMMONL,
;D.NING 3ork is rotated and a tool removes 'nwanted
material
%athe
G.IN7ING Dnwanted material removed ! an a!rasive wheel Grinder
SA3ING Saw c'ts o't 'nwanted sections +ack? !and and cold c't1off saw
7.I%%ING .emoves 'nwanted metal to prod'ce a whole 7rill press
:F.ING Similar to drilling
A hole is also prod'ced
%athe? !oring mill
.EA)ING .emoves !'rrs or scratches from a drilled or
!ored s'rface
%athe? !oring mill? drill press
IN;E.IF. G.IN7ING Similar to reaming
An a!rasive material is 'sed instead
Clindrical grinder
Engineering Complete Notes

Calc#lations
&esisti'ity (orm#la
o =
nJ
2
4

wcrc o = cross scctionol orco (m
2
)

R = p
l
o

wcrc: R = rcsistoncc ()
p = rcsisti:ity (m)
l = lcngt (m)
o = cross scctionol orco (m
2
)
)hms Law
E = IR
wcrc: E = :oltogc (I)
I = currcnt (A)
R = rcsistoncc ()
Power
P = EI
P = powcr (w)
E = potcntiol Jicrcncc (I)
I = currcnt(A)
Metric Prefi*es
teia T 1uuuuuuuuuuuu
giga u 1uuuuuuuuu
mega N 1uuuuuu
kilo k 1uuu
hecto h 1uu
(none) (none) 1
ueci u u.1
centi c u.u1
milli m u.uu1
micio u.uuuuu1
nano n u.uuuuuuuu1
ELECTRICITY AND MOTORS
+C,-C C#rrent
AC c#rrent
(low from 4ero to positive to 4ero to negative then !ack to 4eroC
Ds'all flows 00 ccles@second ,00 +4-
Engineering Complete Notes
Direct C#rrent
+as constant potential energ ,voltage-
Motors
)agnetic ind'ction 1 whenever a c#rrent passes thro'gh a cond'ctor? a -a2netic fiel" is formedC ;his will make another
cond'ctive material !e attracted or repelledC
1 In the conte=t of motors? it ca'ses the coil to rotate? th's providing torque ,t'rning effort- to the motor shaftC
1 A generator works ! provi"in2 tor;#e to a s!aft of a coil which rotates in a -a2netic fiel" and th's? prod'ces a
c#rrentC
1 )otorsB Electrical energ )echanical energ
1 GeneratorB )echanical energ Electrical energ
AC Motors
T,PE DESCRIPTION
Snchrono's )otor Similar to ind'ction motorJ !'t? rotor travels at the same speed as rotating magnetic field
)agnetic field of rotor not ind'ced
:r'shless )otor .'n on AC power
%ess likel to fall o't of snc 'nder heav load d'e to comm'tator
Ind'ction )otor Safe simple and ro!'st
.el'ctance )otor .o!'st with good efficienc

DC Motors
T,PE Spee" Tor;#e E.tra
Sh'nt 3o'nd Constant speed

%ow starting tor&'e

3ill not r'nawa 'nder no
load conditions
Series 3o'nd Slow speeds

E=cellent tor&'eJ operates at
high speeds at a high load

It will r'n awa so a
reg'lator m'st !e 'sed
Compo'nd
)otor
Constant speed Good starting tor&'e 3ill not r'n awa
:r'shless
)otor
Constant speed Good starting tor&'e :r'shes removed
Electric comm'tator is fitted?
greatl red'cing wear
Tor;#e ;'rning force ,Nm-
Ro3#st .elia!ilit? take in ro'gh and t'm!le
Engineering Complete Notes
FREEHAND SKETCHING
Pictorial -rawings

La3ellin2
%a!el parallel to line
%a!el ontop of line
)rthogonal -rawings
1C 7raw front view ,or side with most information-
#C 5ro9ect lines 'p and cross
*C 7raw the other sides
Note* Arro( points to front vie(






FORCES
Conc#rrent Coplanar Con/linear
Act at 1 point 7ont act at 1 point Act in 1 line
Engineering Complete Notes



Three force &#le for E"#ili.ri#m
If a body is in equilibrium and has three forces acting on it, those forces must be concurrent
Moments of a (orce

M= Fd
H = momcnt o tc orcc (Nm)
F = orcc (N)
J = pcrpcnJiculor Jistoncc o tc orcc to tc pi:ot (m)
It is e=pressed as clockwise ,K- or anti1clockwise ,1- and are vectors
_F l = u
_F - = u
_H = u
Mechanical +'antage
Hcconicol AJ:ontogc =
IooJ
Eort

SIMPLE MECHANISMS
Le'ers




/heel an +*le
Allow motors to t'rn and mowers to !e p'shed
P#lley an $ears
+ears P#lle0s
A"vanta2es ;o change ratios while moving Can !e easil replaced
Disa"vanta2es Needs an idler gear to rotate in same
direction
:elt can easil !e displaced when
spinning at different speeds
6er noisJ oil needs to !e dipped in
oil

E=pensive to replace

Engineering Complete Notes
MODIFICATION OF MATERIALS
;o achieve desired characteristics
/or0 1arening
If a material is worked ,shaped? !ent- at a temperat're !elow its recrstalli4ation temperat're? the metal deforms
! atoms slipping along shear planes
;he metal grad'all hardens !efore it fract'res d'e to the dislocations !ecoming 9ammed 'p against other
dislocations
1eat treatment of steel
+eating to a predetermined temperat're
Dsed for medi'm1high car!on steel ,L0C*>-
,7rill !it? chisel-

Annealin2 < +eat steel 'p to "00
o
C then cool in a f'rnace
Nor-alisin2 +eat a!ove "00
o
C to relieve stress then cooled in airC It prod'cts a finer grain str'ct're than annealingC
Te-perin2 +eated !etween #001<00
o
C to remove stressC .ecrstallisation occ'rsC Dsed to to'ghen harden steelsC

Martensite +ard !rittle steel that forms when steel is heated and &'enched in waterC If it is tempered? the stress is
relievedC

+lloying
Com!ining # or more metals in meas'red &'antities in molten phase ,:rass? !ron4e-
Composites
Com!ining # or more dissimilar materials together to achieve desired properties ,concrete? car!on fi!re-