Atomic Number: 13 Atomic Radius: 143.

1 pm
Atomic Symbol: Al Melting Point: 660.32 �C
Atomic Weight: 26.98154 Boiling Point: 2519 �C
Electron Configuration: [Ne]3s23p1 Oxidation States: 3

History
(L. alumen: alum) The ancient Greeks and Romans used alum as an astringent and as a mordant
in dyeing. In 1761 de Morveau proposed the name alumine for the base in alum, and Lavoisier,
in 1787, thought this to be the oxide of a still undiscovered metal.
Wohler is generally credited with having isolated the metal in 1827, although an impure form
was prepared by Oersted two years earlier. In 1807, Davy proposed the name aluminum for the
metal, undiscovered at that time, and later agreed to change it to aluminum. Shortly thereafter,
the name aluminum was adopted to conform with the "ium" ending of most elements, and this
spelling is now in use elsewhere in the world.
Aluminium was also the accepted spelling in the U.S. until 1925, at which time the American
Chemical Society officially decided to use the name aluminum thereafter in their publications.
Sources
The method of obtaining aluminum metal by the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in cryolite was
discovered in 1886 by Hall in the U.S. and at about the same time by Heroult in France. Cryolite,
a natural ore found in Greenland, is no longer widely used in commercial production, but has
been replaced by an artificial mixture of sodium, aluminum, and calcium fluorides.
Aluminum can now be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at
present. Aluminum is the most abundant metal to be found in the earth's crust (8.1%), but is
never found free in nature. In addition to the minerals mentioned above, it is also found in
granite and in many other common minerals.
Properties
Pure aluminum, a silvery-white metal, possesses many desirable characteristics. It is light, it is
nonmagnetic and nonsparking, stands second among metals in the scale of malleability, and sixth
in ductility.
Uses
It is extensively used for kitchen utensils, outside building decoration, and in thousands of
industrial applications where a strong, light, easily constructed material is needed.
Although its electrical conductivity is only about 60% that of copper, it is used in electrical
transmission lines because of its light weight. Pure aluminum is soft and lacks strength, but
alloyed with small amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, or other elements impart
a variety of useful properties.
These alloys are of vital importance in the construction of modern aircraft and rockets.
Aluminum, evaporated in a vacuum, forms a highly reflective coating for both visible light and
radiant heat. These coatings soon form a thin layer of the protective oxide and do not deteriorate
as do silver coatings. They are used to coat telescope mirrors and to make decorative paper,
packages, and toys.
Compounds
The compounds of greatest importance are aluminum oxide, the sulfate, and the soluble sulfate
with potassium (alum). The oxide, alumina, occurs naturally as ruby (Al2O3), sapphire,
corundum, and emery, and is used in glassmaking and refractories. Synthetic ruby and sapphire
are used in lasers for producing coherent light.

Lead
Description
Lead is a highly toxic metal found in small amounts in the earth’s crust. Because of its
abundance, low cost, and physical properties, lead and lead compounds have been used in a wide
variety of products including paint, ceramics, pipes, solders, gasoline, batteries, and cosmetics.
Since 1980, federal and state regulatory standards have helped to minimize or eliminate the
amount of lead in consumer products and occupational settings. Today, the most common
sources of lead exposure in the United States are lead-based paint in older homes, contaminated
soil, household dust, drinking water, lead crystal, and lead-glazed pottery. While extreme lead
exposure can cause a variety of neurological disorders such as lack of muscular coordination,
convulsions and coma, much lower lead levels have been associated with measurable changes in
children’s mental development and behavior. These include hyperactivity; deficits in fine motor
function, hand-eye coordination, and reaction time; and lowered performance on intelligence
tests. Chronic lead exposure in adults can result in increased blood pressure, decreased fertility,
cataracts, nerve disorders, muscle and joint pain, and memory or concentration problems.

Zinc (pronounced /ˈzɪŋk/, from German: Zink and also known as spelter) is a metallic chemical
element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a first-row transition metal in group 12
of the periodic table. Zinc is chemically similar to magnesium because its ion is of similar size
and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's
crust and has five stable isotopes. The most exploited zinc ore is sphalerite, or zinc sulfide; the
largest exploitable deposits are found in Australia, Canada and the United States. Zinc production
includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting and final extraction using electricity.
Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century BC.
Impure zinc metal was not produced in large scale until the 13th century in India, while the metal
was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. Alchemists burned zinc in air to form
what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow." The element was probably named by the
alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf is normally given credit for discovering pure metallic zinc in a 1746 experiment. Work
by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by
1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of steel is the major application for zinc. Other
applications are in batteries and alloys, such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are
commonly used, such as zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos),
zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory.
Zinc is an essential mineral of "exceptional biologic and public health importance".[1] Zinc
deficiency affects about 2 billion people in the developing world and is associated with many
diseases.[2] In children it causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection
susceptibility, and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000 children worldwide per
year.[1] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as
alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and
copper deficiency.
Carbon (pronounced /ˈkɑrbən/) is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6.
As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four
electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring
isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about
5730 years.[7] Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity.[8][9] The name "carbon"
comes from Latin language carbo, coal, and, in some Romance and Slavic languages, the word
carbon can refer both to the element and to coal.
There are several allotropes of carbon of which the best known are graphite, diamond, and
amorphous carbon.[10] The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For
example, diamond is highly transparent, while graphite is opaque and black. Diamond is among
the hardest materials known, while graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its
name, from the Greek word "to write"). Diamond has a very low electrical conductivity, while
graphite is a very good conductor. Under normal conditions, diamond has the highest thermal
conductivity of all known materials. All the allotropic forms are solids under normal conditions
but graphite is the most thermodynamically stable.
All forms of carbon are highly stable, requiring high temperature to react even with oxygen. The
most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in
carbon monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of
inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in
organic deposits of coal, peat, oil and methane clathrates. Carbon forms more compounds than
any other element, with almost ten million pure organic compounds described to date, which in
turn are a tiny fraction of such compounds that are theoretically possible under standard
conditions.[11]
Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and
oxygen. It is present in all known lifeforms, and in the human body carbon is the second most
abundant element by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.[12] This abundance, together with the
unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-forming ability at the
temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical basis of all
known life.

Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys) (acid, literally "sharp,"
from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter) is the element with
atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the
periodic table, and is a highly reactive nonmetallic period 2 element that readily forms
compounds (notably oxides) with almost all other elements. At standard temperature and
pressure two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless, odorless, tasteless
diatomic gas with the formula O2. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe by
mass after hydrogen and helium[1] and the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust.[2]
Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9% of the volume of air.[3]
Chlorine (pronounced /ˈklɔərin/, from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' (khlôros, meaning
'pale green'), is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a
halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17 (formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb). As the
chloride ion, which is part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in
nature and necessary to most forms of life, including humans. In its common
elemental form (Cl2 or "dichlorine") under standard conditions. Chlorine is a
powerful oxidant and is used in bleaching and disinfectants. As a common
disinfectant, chlorine compounds are used in swimming pools to keep them clean
and sanitary. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing molecules have been
implicated in the destruction of the ozone layer.

Silicon (pronounced /ˈsɪlɨkən/ or /ˈsɪlɨkɒn/, Latin: silicium) is the most common

metalloid. It is a chemical element, which has the symbol Si and atomic number 14.
The atomic mass is 28.0855. A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its
chemical analog carbon. As the eighth most common element in the universe by
mass, silicon very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature, but is more
widely distributed in dusts, planetoids and planets as various forms of silicon
dioxide (silica) or silicates. On Earth, silicon is the second most abundant element
(after oxygen) in the crust,[4] making up 25.7% of the crust by mass.

Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, is the most stable form of aluminium in normal

conditions. It is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite)
and its three, much more rare, polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and nordstrandite.
Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide,
Al2O3, differing only by loss of water. These compounds together are the major
components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide
forms gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium salts as flocculants in
water purification. This gel crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be
dehydrated (e.g., with the utility of water-miscible non-aqueous solvents like
ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder, which is readily
soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium hydroxide powder is known as activated
alumina and is used in gas purification, as a catalyst support and an abrasive.

Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as burnt lime, lime or quicklime, is a widely used
chemical compound. It is a white, caustic and alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature. As a
commercial product, lime often also contains magnesium oxide, silicon oxide and smaller
amounts of aluminium oxide and iron oxide. The name lime (native lime) refers to a very rare
mineral of the CaO composition.[citation needed]
Calcium oxide is usually made by the thermal decomposition of materials such as limestone, that
contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3; mineral name: calcite) in a lime kiln. This is accomplished
by heating the material to above 825°C,[1] a process called calcination or lime-burning, to liberate
a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2); leaving CaO. This process is reversible, since once the
quicklime product has cooled, it immediately begins to absorb carbon dioxide from the air, until,
after enough time, it is completely converted back to calcium carbonate.