The optic camera

-Historical factsThe word photograph, spoken or written, can be understood everywhere in the world, as it represents a universal mode of communication. Its very first applied research was the study of solar eclipses, and the first mention about the so-called obscure chamber can be found in the studies of a scholar named Ibn Al aitan !"#$ -%&'(). *ubse+uently, the physician and mathematician ,irolamo -ardano !%#&% -%#.$) proposed the use of a conve/ lens in the obscure chamber, thus getting a clearer and a brighter light. It followed other improvements as 0aniel 1arbaro2s suggestion in %#$( to cover the borders of the lens, keeping 3ust a narrow orifice in centre 4nowadays stopping down procedure- in order to obtain clearer pictures. The obscure chamber was a very dark space and the image could have been seen only by the people inside the room. In the long run, the obscure chamber became smaller and smaller, particularly in order to e/ecute topographical works, and turned into a portable camera, liable to be installed into a tent. *ir enry 5attson described the tent that the famous ,erman astronomer 6ohn 7epler !%#.% -%$'&) used to utili8e in order to create an accurate and detailed panoramic landscape. elped by a telescope, the image was blueprinted on the paper and 7epler reproduced it by drawing all the forms. Afterward the tent was rolled around its a/le and the operation continued until the hori8ontal tour was completed. owever, the process of reduction and portability of the optic chamber was going further. 7aspar *cott !%$&( -%$$$) published 4in its book 9agical optic !%$#()- the first description of a small obscure chamber composed of two bo/es, a smaller one introduced into a larger one in order to obtain the e/pected clarity. 9ore, it was ad3usted with a pipe consisting on two conve/ lenses, which served at seeing the image inside without entering the obscure chamber. :bscure chambers of all forms and dimensions turned out to be widespread and used in topography for both civil and military purposes, for precise reproduction of drawings, maps and engravings at different scales, and also in medicine in order to reproduce anatomical sketches as accurate as possible. 0escriptions of real application of the obscure chamber in optical studies, encyclopedias, painting treaties and books for high society games, were fre+uently published. In the middle ;<III century the machine was very known and common. It had almost all essential elements= the ob3ective !ob3ect lens) more and more evaluated and from different focal distances, a mirror fi/ed at ># degrees for refle/, the option for setting the clarity and frosted and fine glass for a perfect picture. A single element was missing= the perpetuation of the image, the possibility of

making it permanent with the help of some chemical processes. ?ntil the day there were discovered completely new principles, the cameras had been made of ' essential parts= The opening space through which the rays of lights enter into the camera@ A dark cavity 4the proper obscure chamber@ A plane surface -on which the image is pro3ected - or other system which makes the image visible. Arom the point of view of the material the obscure camera is made of, it is created by black plastic and it forms a common body with the whole machine. In order to diminish the inner refle/es, the obscure camera has some striations arranged perpendicular on the optic a/le. The striations are chosen taking into consideration the material used. The e/pose window - the rectangular frame in which the film is settled- ensure a standard dimension for the picture, namely B>;'$. Cven if the obscure chamber is very well protected from the e/ternal agents is recommended to be carefully dialed with as it is very sensible at dust and film pieces that could come off the film and could sometime make useless important pictures. 9ore, these pieces of dust could deposit on the lens diminishing the +uality of the image. The fundamental working principle for the camera was discovered even from the times of the inventor and the architect Deonardo da <inci, who demonstrated that it is sufficient to have a narrow orifice the light to pass through, in order to blueprint an image. The smaller the orifice is, the clearer the light will be. Eractically this simple machine 4the obscure chamber- e/isted from the early ;<II century. The difficulty consisted in finding an appropriate photo-sensible material for registering the image. This problem was hardly solved in %(B$ when 6oseph Fiepce discovered that the light-sensible bitumen could be made by using silver chloride. Anyhow, in order to function, this machine needs four essential elements= The body: a perfect opa+ue bo/ in which the film is fi/ed in order to be e/posed@ The objective (object lens): a device which focus the light rays on the film@ The diaphragm: a control device for the +uantity of the light@ The shutter: a machine that controls the period of time the film is e/posed at the light@ The sight: a piece used for framing the image in the appropriate dimension@ The transportation system: a mechanism used for carrying the film. The e/istence of a broad range of cameras and a diversity of the domains in which they are used, in our epoch, re+uires a very rigorous classification of our ob3ect of discussion. owever this categori8ation can and must not be made 3ust taking into consideration only one element. Thus, a classification can not be considered after the main element one camera has. Are+uently, there are taking into consideration three of the most important elements= B

 The dimension of the negative image the camera is taking@ The fi/ing-distance system@ The shutter, with the help of which is achieved the the e/posing time. -onsidering the first element 4the dimension of the negative image formed on the sensible surface of the film, plan-film or record -the cameras are mainly part of one of the following four groups= -ameras which take large negative images 4over $;" cm- as *inar, Toyo, Dinhof. -ameras able to make medium negative images 4 $;" cm, $;. cm, $;$ cm, $;>,# cm as Golleifle/, Ale/aret, Diubitel-B. -ameras capable of making small negative images -B>;'$ mm, B>;B> mm, B>; %.,# mm- the most important names from this category being :ri8ont, Horky, Aed, Eraktica, Fikon, :lympus. -ameras able to make very small negative images, of mino/ type -%$;( mm, (/( mm, >;( mm- as Agfamatic $&&(. The destinations of the first category cameras are considered special destinations because they are professional. Actually these domains, in which the cameras with possibility of taking very large photographs are used, are multiple and very strict= works of photographic art, scientific researches, commercial publicity, fine +uality replicas. This kind of cameras can be met in the very large studios, where the negative images are usually transformed into e/tremely enlarged photographs. 1ecause of the comple/ity these photos imply in their manipulation and because of their weight, they are totally uncomfortable to deal currently with. Cven their law price is not a stimulus for the amateur photographer. The cameras that achieve negative image of medium format are using the roll film of the $;" cm type for the amateurs too. These images of a medium format offer the possibility of magnifying the image !%&&;%&& cm) at a good +uality. 9ore, all these cameras en3oy of an e+uilibrate weight, some accessories that enlarge the activity area and also a very good system for fi/ing the distance. Thus, the medium cameras are recommended for portraits, reportages and also for the pretentious amateur photographers. Ainally, the cameras achieving negative images of small type, often called cinematographic images, are using the film with peripheral perforations, the so-called Deica films. ?ndoubtedly, this type of camera is the most widespread category at the moment, the number of marks and the films in circulation being remarkable. Actually, these cameras are so convenient and handy as they could satisfy all contemporary world pretensions. They posses an e/cellent optics, reduced dimensions and a lot of accessories, in other words they are perfect and comfortable. The negative images with e/tremely small dimensions, which use the special compartmented film, offer obviously the advantage of an e/ceptionally dimensions and weights, and they are also discrete and simple to manage with. Fevertheless, the accessories 4very useful nowadays- are almost ine/istent, the +uality cameras are very rare and the processing of the film is made in special laboratories. As it was mentioned above, the second element taken into consideration for cameras classification was the system for measuring the distance, because of its importance in achievement of a high +uality photograph. The producers lasting concern for a permanent improvement of cameras technical performance was obvious this time too. Fowadays we have mechanisms and systems capable of ensuring e/cellent conditions for the sub3ect observation and for the establishment of proper parameters in order to create very good photographs. There are four categories of cameras, regarding the system for fi/ing the distance= '

-cameras having a direct system of visuali8ation, giving an e/act distance or not@ -cameras embedding a system for visuali8ation with a mirror or a frosted glass@ -cameras enclosing the direct visuali8ation system through the ob3ect lens, having a mobile mirror and prism with a frosted glass@ The direct visuali8ation system is the most widespread mechanism, and it could be seen almost to all cheap cameras. This system lacks the possibility of measuring and fi/ing the distance between the camera and its sub3ect. The fact that this type of cameras is usually marketed at low prices does not

constitute a stimulus for the people to by them@ even they have the advantage of a very good luminosity. Iet the cameras of this type are still produced by prestigious firms, they are e+uipped with an improved sight, a very precise mechanism for the direct sight, named telemeter. 9ore, for modern cameras was solved the problem with the paralla/ occurring in the cases of the different distances photographs, and also the measurement 4direct through the ob3ect lens- of the +uantity of light which touch the film, became possible too. The process of eyesight is limited to a successive e/amination of the ob3ects around, which is a very important physiological phenomenon. 0ue to this fact, we can orient in the space and we can e/amine an ob3ect without taken into consideration too many details. ,enerally the eyesight process is very complicated one because of the memory, which interferes with. The crystalline lens and the cornea set up an image pro3ected on the retina and than this image is interpreted by the brain through the optic nerve. In order to have clear images is necessary for them to be created on the retina, no matter the distance between the eye and the ob3ect would be. -onse+uently the eye must become habituated with the environment. Eractically we can see the ob3ects in front of us because they are sending the ray lights towards us. Thus, the images are temporary -fleeting - and they evaporate ones their cause disappeared. *crutini8ing carefully nature2s way of resolving such a problem, the people created the camera. If we are e/amining vigilantly one camera we will discover that it is similar with the human eye. In front side, the camera has an open area e+ual with the crystalline, in which are fi/ed the optical lens, namely the ob3ect lens of the camera. This ob3ect lens is responsible for the creation of the images inside the camera. In order to normali8e the light entering inside the camera, the machine is provided with a stop !diaphragm) which enlarges or diminishes the open area in front of the camera 4which is the ob3ect lens- e/actly as the human iris does. The telemeter is not actually a simple device, and the possible flaws are not very easy to fi/. Eractically it is not a very fragile piece@ it rather re+uests a careful handling. The result of a measure made by the telemeter it is the shown in the yellow spot. Thus, if the distance is correctly settled the image will appear clear in the yellow spot .:n the contrary, the errors are registered when the >

distance is not an appropriate one. These kinds of errors, which can take a cut or a doubled form usually, appear as a vertical, hori8ontal or sometimes diagonal cut. The visuali8ation system with a mirror and a frosted glass could be found at the ma3ority of the cameras of a medium si8e. This system offers the photographer a lot of advantages, for e/ample the surface of visuali8ation, which is very bright. The system with a mobile mirror and a prism used to be the most utili8ed camera as it offered a broad range of accessories that could have been changed and adapted easily. The only limits of this type of cameras were the possibility of loosing control of the sub3ect in front of the ob3ect lens. As long as regards the shutters, we could easily say that they represent the most mobile and dynamic part of the machine and they move 3ust for an operation, a multitude of pieces. As in the ma3ority of the domains, the electronics penetrated the area of he photographs too. There were created a lot of completely electronic mechanisms and systems, capable of opening automatically the stop depending on the light value, to fi/ the e/posit time, to e/ecute the e/act measurement of the distance. The development of the photograph in the electronic direction, determined a new element of classification= completely automatic cameras, where is not necessary to fi/ the time, the distance and the opening of the stop@ semiautomatic cameras, where 3ust one system is electronic !for e/ample he stop)@ non automatic cameras, which have some electronic elements but with very restricted actions. 0espite of the technical advance of the photograph, the cameras still have the same base elements= a. The body of the camera 4the obscure chamber@ b. The ob3ective !ob3ect lens)@ c. The diaphragm@ d. The shutter@ e. The sight@ f. The transportation system. a) The body of the camera It is very important for the :bscure chamber to be isolated, in order the light can not enter the camera, e/cepting the light designated to enter the ob3ective !ob3ect lens) to blueprint the film. The body is usually pro3ected in accord with some ergonomic principles, so as to permit an easy and fast access to the camera2s services. b. The Objective (object lens) The ob3ective allows the access of the light into the camera and focuses the image on the film. It is the element that determines in a large measure the clarity and the +uality of the final image. The main #

characteristics of the ob3ectives are the focal distance and the luminosity. The focal distance of an ob3ective is measured in millimeters and determines the champ angle. After the focal distance, the ob3ectives are divided in= *uperangulars, with the focal distance till >& mm. Formal ob3ectives, with the focal distance around #& mm. Teleob3ectives, with the focal distance over .& mm. Those values are valid for a '#mm film and they are increasing once with the dimensions of the film used, thus, for e/ample, for a camera with $;$-cm film an (#mm ob3ective is normal. The luminosity represents the ma/imum opening of the ob3ective diaphragm. *tarting with the first ob3ective, the glass roundness that ,irolamo -ardano had introduced in %##& in the obscure chamber hole till the big variety of nowadays high +uality ob3ectives, hundreds of skilful inventors tried to improve, step by step camera2s performances. 5e can see how ancient is the optic knowledge from the ne/t te/t of the -hin dynasty, dating B milleniums ago= cut an ice ball, lift it to the sun and put some dry grass in the shadow@ fire will be born. It is the description of what we call now the focali8ation of the rays through a conve/ lens. The focal distance is the first and the most important information that we need to have about an ob3ective. It determines= a) the si8e of the sub3ect image that is formed on the film b) the involved angle of the ob3ective c) the format and the kind of camera that can fit d) the depth2s clarity e) the kind of deformation in perspective that are obtained f) the applicability domain g) the artistic effect that it promote The photo cameras with visuali8ation through the ob3ective uses a mirror, a mat glass and a pent prism in order to create the image in the sight of the camera, in accordance with the scheme below= %-the sub3ect to be photographed $-pentaprism B-the camera ob3ective .-the sight lens '-the mirror inclined to >#degrees >-the image on the film #-the image on the mat glass

The focal distance of the Aotociar ob3ectives is of >&mm. Det2s try to clear the meaning of that value. The more comple/ cameras have the possibility of the interchangeable ob3ectives, because= a solid ob3ective usually has a focal distance like the diagonal of the format or bigger and being called the normal focal. This kind of ob3ective is capable to gather a certain champ in front of it. Det2s say we want to take a picture of a building= we must go away from the chosen building on the other side-walk and when we try to hint we2ll see that only a part of that building ca be framed. 5e have no other place to go. Aor that kind of situations, the modern cameras have the possibility to replace the ob3ective with another that can contain more. This kind of ob3ective has a smaller focal distance $

and it2s called superangular. Aor the '# mm cameras, named after the breadth of the film they use, it was decided that the normal focal distance to be around #& mm for the B>;'$ mm e/posure format. a) The biggest the focal distance the bigger the sub3ect2s image and vs. b),c) To the normal +ualitative camera, the aria of the circle with ma/imum luminosity and clarity has a diameter e+ual!or bigger) with the focal distance. In the circle with the best +uality it can place a rectangle or s+uare, the diagonal to whom is e+ual with the diameter of the circle so with the focal distance. This is the way it is obtained the dates about the opening angle of the ob3ective and about the proper format of the negative. d) The depth clarity is conversely proportionally with the focal distance e) The perspective modifies only concerning the camera sub3ect distance. The one modifying the perspective is the distance itself not the focal distance. c) The Diaphragm The diaphragm controls the opening of the ob3ective and determines the +uantity of light that enters the film. It is measured with the f-number that is a report between the physical diameter of the opening and the focal distance of the ob3ective, so no matter the ob3ective a certain value of the diaphragm is e+ual to the same +uantity of light entered into the camera. ?sually it is controlled with the help of a ring on the ob3ective. The diaphragm takes from the scale %@ %,>@ B@ B,(@ >@ #,$@ (@ %%@ %$@ BB@ 'B@ $> etc every value representing half of the +uantity of light admitted of the previous value. Aor e/ample a fJ%,> diaphragm admits twice luminosity than fJB. The luminosity of the ob3ective or his capacity of lightening the photographic plate is usually e/pressed through the fJnumber report, which is determined by the focal distance of the lens and of its diameter or the diaphragm2s diameter that is determining the lens aria. *o the fJ>,# sign means that the focal distance of the lens is >,# times bigger than her initial diameter. The smaller fJnumber report, the bigger the diameter for a focal distance and the luminosity on the speed of the lens is higher. The time of the e/posure grows with the +uarter of the fJnumber report.

The diaphragmatic effect The closing of the diaphragm diminishes the diameter of the diffusion spot, like in the picture below. The diaphragm has two important functions= regulates the +uantity of light that enters to the emulsion and modifies the depth clarity of the ob3ective. Fowadays the diaphragm is installed between the groups of lens that are forming the ob3ective. ?sually it is used the Kiris diaphragms, formed by a set of gliding lamellae, that are assembling concentrically, diminishing progressively the diameter of the entering circle of the sun-beams. A pointing arrow shows the value of the diaphragm into the sight, so the photographer can appro/imate the depth that he can use. d)The hutter The shutter is the mechanism that controls the time e/posure of the film to light. *imilar to the diaphragms the control of time e/posure is made in steps, every one of them doubling or diminishing the e/posure time%JB&&&@ %J%&&&@ %J#&&@ %JB#&@ %J%B#@ %J$&@ %J'&@ %J%#@ %J(@ % etc. Aor e/ample a %J%&&&-e/posure time allows passing half of the admitted light in a %J#&& time. The shutter cam is of two types= leaf shutter and focal plane shutter. The number of the lamellae composing that kind of shutter is between ' and $. The simple comple/ shutters have only ' lamellae but their efficiency is low and those with more than ' lamellae have a better efficiency but they are more complicated, harder to reali8e and more e/pensive. To the usual cameras has been developed a single shutter that had the function of a diaphragm. e) The *ight It allows the visuali8ation of the image before being recorded on the film, allowing also controlling the composition and, depending on the type of camera, of clarity. Aor the ma3ority of the photos we need something else besides the camera and the ob3ectives. All these things are called accessories. The most important are= The C/posure 9eter There are two types of e/posure meters= sure and unsure. 5ith the e/posure meter2s help there can be made appro/imate measurements, e/posure calculus for choosing with discrimination and precision to those times that will give a personal note to its own images. aving the possibility to change the batteries when they are finished, the photoelectrical shutters maintain their +uality to a high level. It is better if the including angle to be smaller than the normal ob3ective angle and to offer a possibility of measuring the reflected light and the incidental one too. The Tripod and other Erops The most important thing to a tripod is its head, meaning the part that takes contact with the camera. The entire camera, have in a proper position that assures to e+uilibrate a place where they screwed on the tripod2s head. The best tripod is the one called nut2s 3oint. In case the tripod did not have such 3oint it must be bought. The 3oint usually must allow multiple positions of the camera, even the perpendicular up side down photograph.

The <ice Erop It is universal and offers a big stability, is very little and can be made by anything. :n the above and lateral part it weld a screw on the tripod. In those screws it screws, after case, a solid nut 3oint and the prop is ready. 5here it is used a prop for stability, the release it is not made anymore by pushing the releasing button. It is needed a fle/ible release, with the help of whom, the shutter is activated to a certain distance, without being touched by the photographer2s hand that can provoke a movement or a vibration during the e/posure time. It is better to be chosen the long fle/ible releases, that it is better deadening any movement and if there are found those that replace the T position where that is not preview to the shutter !in B times)= a push to open the shutter another one to close it.

The 0iffusion *creens The diffusion screens replace the ob3ectives that are producing a halloing around the clear points of light. This phenomenon is called flou or soft ficus. In order to obtain the distinctions between flou and clear, the diffusion screens are made by thin glass, on the aria of which, to short regulate intervals, are found little elevations or scratches having the concentrically circle shape or the shape of the grids. The closer the scratches the bigger the effect. Through diaphragmation the diffusion effect is minimi8ed.
The Eolari8ation Ailters 5hen ob3ects covered by glass or situated in shop windows must be photographed there are used special filters that eliminate the accidental images reflected by the glass surface. The filters can be used only on the cameras with direct view through the ob3ective, because the effect must be followed while the filter turns and until the reflected image disappeared.

The Dens *hade In order to avoid, especially to the counter light photos, the contact with the powerful beams in the image frame, it is installed on the ob3ective a guard, called lens shade. They are made by thin iron plate and over is dyed black mad dye. They can have the shape of a round or s+uare funnel or of a rectangle bo/. A special attention has to be paid on the depth and opening angle of the lens shades. If they are too deep they can cut a part of the image= what we call a vignettation. The bigger the ob3ective focal distances !a smaller angle), the deeper the lens shade can be, assuring a better protection of the ob3ective. Arom ancient times people tried to find a modality to immortali8e the present reality with the help of a device that capture temporal fragments. All people2s hopes to keep the moments of the life untouched by the flowing of time, turned into material form with the invention of the photo camera. The recent photo cameras have only one descendant, starting with the obscure chambers of 0a <inci until ;;I century that knew lots of transformations regarding its form, weight and especially +uality

The !ilm

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"ny photo sensible negative material having as a prop a thin material li#e the celluloid or the cellulose acetate$ The photographic film is a plastic one, covered with microscopic granulates stratum on which the light create a chemical reaction. In order to make the image to appear the film must suffer a chemical treatment called development. 0epending on the film used it can be obtained slides or negatives= after that it can be made photos on a photographic paper. Dike the eye, the camera records the image of some ob3ects. The film can be formed in different formats! plan film, film pack) in length! '# mm film) or in reel! roll film)= plan film= semi rigid transparent prop, made by synthetic uninflammable material, on which there is a photo sensible emulsion film pack= the package formed by %B negatives cut to a standard distance, that also allows the using of a desired numbers of negatives without the obligation to develop the entire package. roll film= a band of photo-sensible film wrap up on a wooden ,metal or dplastic spool. In orer to be protected by the light the film is covered with a banderole of opa+ue paper, black on the inside part, that also allows the handling of the material in the full light. The rally and the positioning system of the film An advanced camera permits the control of the system, offering the continuous possibility of rallying frame by frame !the camera made several frames per second as long as the release button is pushed) and a multi e/posure !the shutter is armed, but the film is mentioned on position for the e/posure of a supplementary image).

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