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SENSORY SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures, eye tunics, lens, and humors of the eye. 2. Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina. 3. Describe the events involved in the stimulation of photoreceptors by light, and compare and contrast the roles of rods and cones in vision. 4. Describe the sensory pathway of vision from the photoreceptors to the occipital cortex. 5. Compare and contrast convergence, binocular vision, depth perception and accommodation. 6. Describe the location, structure, and sensory pathways of taste and olfactory receptors, and explain how these receptors are activated. 7. Describe the structure and general function of the outer, middle, and inner ears. Include Eustachian tube. 8. Describe the sound conduction pathway to the fluids of the inner ear, and follow the auditory pathway from the organ of Corti to the temporal cortex. Distinguish between sensorineural and conduction deafness. 9. Explain how the balance organs of the semicircular canals and the vestibule help to maintain dynamic and static equilibrium. Trace the sensory pathways of equilibrium to appropriate brain centers.

I. VISION A. Accessory structures 1. Eyebrows and eyelids protect eye 2. Lacrimal gland produces tears to clean and moisten eye surface 3. Conjunctiva mucus membrane on eyelid prevents eye from drying out 4. Extrinsic eye muscles a. skeletal muscles that move eyeball b. controlled by oculomotor, abducens, trochlear nerves B. Eyeball anatomy 1. Tunics tissue layers making up eye a. Fibrous tunic - outermost layer made of dense avascular connective tissue 1. Sclera a. posterior portion whites of the eye b. protects and shapes eyeball

c. anchors extrinsic eye muscles d. optic nerve exits here 2. Cornea transparent anterior portion a. allows light to enter b. refracts (bends) light b. Vascular tunic 1. Choroid a. highly vascular, pigmented posterior portion b. pigments absorb light preventing reflection 2. Ciliary body a. ring of tissue surrounding lens in anterior choroid b. contains ciliary muscles which control lens shape c. also secretes aqueous humor 3. Iris a. anterior part that is visible colored portion of eye b. regulates amount of light entering eye by controlling size of pupil 4. Pupil hole in iris where light enters retina c. Sensory tunic (Retina) 1. outer layer a. pigmented to absorb light b. stores vitamin A for photoreceptors 2. inner layer contains nervous tissue a. Photoreceptors where graded potentials occur 1. Rods a. respond to dim light very sensitive b. abundant on edges (peripheral vision) c. have poor resolution fuzzy images 2. Cones a. respond to bright light (low sensitivity) b. contain pigments for color vision c. sharp(high acuity), detailed (high resolution) images b. Bipolar cells 1. photoreceptors on dendrites generate graded potential 2. graded potential carried to next neuron: c. Ganglion cells 1. generate AP 2. become optic nerve

d. Optic disc 1. where optic nerve exits eye 2. blind spot no photoreceptors present e. Fovea 1. lateral to blind spot 2. contains only cones highest visual acuity here 2. Lens a. biconvex structure that can change shape to focus light on retina b. divides eye into anterior and posterior chambers 1. Anterior chamber a. filled with aqueous humor produced by ciliary body b. nourishes lens and cornea c. replenished throughout life 2. Posterior chamber a. filled with vitreous humor b. holds retina in place c. not replenished C. Physiology of Vision 1. Image formation focusing of light on retina a. Accommodation 1. change focus by changing lens shape 2. controlled by ciliary muscles 3. lens becomes less accommodating with age b. Pupil constriction limits light entering eye to improve focus c. Convergence medial rotation of eyes to focus on object being viewed d. Depth perception visual fields from both eyes (binocular vision) overlap to produce 3-D vision 2. Photoreceptors generate impulses in response to light a. Graded potentials produced here b. Photopigments in retina change when they absorb light 1. Rhodopsin a. found in rods b. responsible for dark adaptation

2. Opsins - 3 different pigments for color vision found in cones 3. Retinal (vitamin A derivative) found in both light absorbing pigment 3. Visual pathway a. through eye 1. cornea refracts (bends) most light 2. aqueous humor continues refraction to 3. lens a. also refracts light b. image is inverted (upside down) and reversed when sent to retina c. can change shape for focus 1. distance vision lens flattens 2. close vision lens bulges 4. light passes through vitreous humor to posterior retina to photoreceptors b. through retina 1. light changes chemicals in photopigments in rods and cones (photoreceptors) which generate graded potentials 2. impulse travels to bipolar cells to ganglion cells which generate action potential 3. ganglion cells become optic nerve 4. optic nerve fibers from medial aspect of eye crosses at optic chiasm 5. impulses carried on optic nerve to thalamus to visual center in occipital lobe

II. OLFACTION A. Olfactory receptors 1. part of bipolar neuron 2. located on epithelium in superior nasal cavity 3. has low threshold only few molecules needed to

generate AP 4. smell must be soluble in water 5. very sensitive recognizes wide range of odors 6. adapt quickly 50% of receptors adapt in first second 7. only neurons that undergo mitosis through life declines with age B. Olfactory pathway - physiology of smell 1. olfactory receptors extend through olfactory foramina in ethmoid bone into nasal cavity 2. olfactory nerve carry impulse to olfactory bulb (inferior to cerebrum, lateral to crista galli of ethmoid bone) 3. impulse travels on olfactory tracts to olfactory area in temporal lobe, limbic system and hypothalamus

III. GUSTATION A. Gustatory receptor inside taste bud 1. most taste receptors located in oral cavity on papilla of tongue 2. basic taste sensations sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umame (meaty) 3. threshold varies bitter is lowest 4. less sensitive than smell 5. adapts quickly 1 to 5 seconds 6. chemical must be dissolved in water and contact taste bud to generate AP B. Gustatory pathway physiology of taste 1. gustatory receptors in taste buds found on 3 cranial nerves: a. Facial anterior 2/3 of tongue b. Glossopharyngeal and Vagus posterior 1/3 of tongue, also pharynx and epiglottis 2. cranial nerve cell bodies located in medulla 3. impulse travels up to thalamus to gustatory center in parietal lobe 4. lose 80% of taste if olfactory receptors blocked

IV. HEARING A. Anatomy 1. Outer ear a. Pinna (Auricle) 1. outer elastic cartilage structure 2. directs sound waves into external auditory canal b. External auditory canal (acoustic meatus) 1. directs sound waves to tympanic membrane 2. contains cerumen (ear wax) to trap foreign substances c. Tympanic membrane 1. sound waves makes membrane vibrate 2. vibrations transfer energy to middle ear bones 2. Middle ear air filled chamber inside temporal bone that contains: a. Ossicles (bones) a. Malleus attached to ear drum b. Incus middle bone c. Stapes attached to oval window of vestibule b. Eustachian tube (Pharyngotympanic) a. links middle ear with nasopharynx b. equalizes pressure between atmosphere and middle ear 3. Inner ear fluid filled chamber that contains receptors for hearing (cochlea) and balance (semicircular canals and vestibule) a. Vestibule 1. egg-shaped bony cavity that connects with semicircular canals and cochlea 2. contains receptors for static equilibrium b. Semicircular canals 1. 3 canals positioned in 3 planes of space 2. contain receptors for dynamic equilibrium c. Cochlea 1. spiral conical chamber containing the organ of Corti 2. Organ of Corti receptor organ for hearing

B. Auditory pathway 1. sound enters external auditory canal 2. sound waves strike tympanic membrane cause it to vibrate 3. vibrations transferred from membrane to ossicles to oval window on vestibule 4. vibrations create fluid waves in cochlea which stimulate hair cells (receptors) in organ of Corti 5. AP generated in organ of Corti transmitted to cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve 6. impulse travels to midbrain to thalamus to auditory cortex in temporal lobe C. Deafness 1. Conduction deafness result of damage to structures which conduct sound waves (tympanic membrane, degeneration of ossicles) 2. Sensorineural deafness result of damage to neural conductors (hair cells, cochlea, cochlear nerve) V. EQUILIBRIUM A. Mechanisms 1. Static equilibrium a. sensory receptors in vestibule b. monitors position of head in space controls posture c. responds to linear acceleration force 2. Dynamic equilibrium a. sensory receptors in semicircular canals b. responds to rotational (angular) changes B. Equilibrium pathways 1. impulses from vestibule or semicircular canals carried on vestibular branch of vestibulocochlear nerve to: a. Brainstem activates reflexes in body and extrinsic eye muscles b. Cerebellum coordinates skeletal muscle activity, also maintains balance

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