Core 2: Factors affecting Performance

How does training affect performance? alactacid system (ATP/PC) Creatine phosphate Energy systems: lactic acid system Carbohydrates in the form of glucose in the blood -provides ATP quickly -but requires large quantities of glucose aerobic system Carbohydrates, then fat, then protein as a protein as a last resort -Extremely efficient: can produce much more energy (from glucose) that the other systems - enabling us to continue sustained work for longer 1 hour and more (unlimited) -activity after an hour can result in glycogen depletion, causing body to tire. -the point at which the body tires is called hitting the wall Source of fuel

Efficiency of ATP production

-can occur without oxygen present -ATP is more readily available -Supply of ATP is limited if demand is too high 10-12 secs of high intensity activity at 100% max effort -At max effort, fatigue is caused due to the inability of the system to continually resynthesise ADP from CP as CP stores are quickly exhausted

Duration that the system can operate Cause of fatigue

30 seconds to 2 minutes -Fatigue occurs when lactic acid builds up in the muscles. -High levels of lactic acid prevents muscle fibres contracting and in turn, a rapid deterioration in performance. -Tolerable levels can be used as a fuel Lactic Acid (can hinder performance if not trained to use as a fuel) After 10-12 secs CP supplies are exhausted. By using immediate sugar supplies in the blood (Blood-sugar glucose) so that ATP can still be produced to provide energy. (using a new energy system)

By-products

None

Process

An explosive movement causes ATP to split, providing energy for muscular contraction. Further muscular work relies on Creatine phosphate breaking down and releasing energy to drive free phosphates back to ADP to form ATP. Once reformed, it can break down again for more energy. 2 mins (50% after 30 secs and 100% after 2 mins)

Rate of recovery

30 minutes to 1 hour

Example

100m sprint, long jump, high jump

200m sprint, gymnastics routine, 100m freestyle

Carbon dioxide and water (does not hinder performance) Physical activity lasting more than a few minutes requires the presence of oxygen to ensure the continuation of muscular contraction. The aerobic pathway becomes the dominant supplier of ATP. (by breaking glucose and fat in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP) (following glycogen depletion) takes 24-48 hours- to replenish glycogen stores Marathon, triathlon, 1500m swim, 5000m run

Glycogen sparing: training to save some glycogen for a sprint finish.

Types of Training and training methods

Aerobic: increases the efficiency of the aerobic energy system and increases the ability of the body to deliver and use oxygen. Continuous: continual effort for 20 mins with no rest. Heart rate must rise above the aerobic training threshold and maintained in the aerobic training zone. Fartlek (speed play/training): adding bursts of speed to a continuous training session. No rests Aerobic interval: alternating periods of work and recovery. Rest allowed, but shorter than work time so maintain stress on the aerobic system and not allow full recovery. Circuit: moving from one station to another performing different exercise at each station. Can train certain skills needed for a specific sport e.g. soccer. Can be both aerobic and anaerobic. Work period more than rest period. Anaerobic: uses the ATP/PC system and Lactic acid systems. Where training activities that require max effort for less than two mins, where oxygen is not a limiting factor. Anaerobic interval: Same as anaerobic, however rest periods are longer than work time Flexibility: is the range of movement or motion about a joint. An athletes level of flexibility can be affected by age, gender, temperature, exercise history. Static: muscle is stretched and held in a fixed position for 10-20 secs Ballistic: muscle is stretched beyond its normal range of motion. characterised by bouncing. PNF: muscle is stretched and held in a static position, followed by an isometric contraction, followed by another static stretch. Dynamic: uses movement, speed and momentum to warm up muscle fibres to extend them. Strength training: Free weights: are unrestrained or non-fixed, e.g. barbels. Fixed weights: are pin-operated and offer a wide range of safe movements Elastic: a resistance tube of elastic rubber Hydraulic machines/cylinders: is where the resistance is delivered by hydraulics. Principles of training: Progressive overload: gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is progressively increased. Once the body has adapted to the new load, the workload should be increased to gain further improvements. Gains will not be made if the load is too high or too low. Specificity: greatest gains are made when the game or activity resembles the training program because the body adapts to stresses in a specific way. Reversibility: Just as the body can adapt and improve with training, the reverse can happen in the absence of training. (detraining effect) If big gains are made during training, greater losses will follow. Variety: athletes require a variety in their training methods to avoid boredom and maximise enjoyment. Training threshold: improvements begin after a certain point. (aerobic threshold: is the minimum level of exercise intensity to cause an aerobic training effect- at 70% of max. heart rate) (anaerobic threshold: when levels of lactate start accumulating) Working between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds they are working in the aerobic training zone. Warm up and cool down: a warm up helps reduce the risk of injury, increases body temperature, stimulates the cardiorespiratory system and mentally prepares the athlete for training. A cool down follows the session aiming to minimise stiffness, soreness and disperse lactic acid.

Physiological adaptations in response to training

 Resting heart rate: is the number of heart beats per minute while the body is at rest. The trained athlete has a lower resting heart rate than the untrained as training decreases resting heart rate. Stoke volume: is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle of the heart during a contraction. Measured in mL/beat. Cardiac output: is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It is determined by multiplying the heart rate and stroke volume. Oxygen uptake: is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered. Maximal Oxygen uptake or VO2 max levels improve as a response to training, becoming more efficient after training. Lung capacity: is the amount of air that the lungs can hold. Lung volumes and capacities change little with training. Vital capacity (amt. of air expelled after maximal inspiration) increases slightly. Residual volume; (air that cannot be moved out of the lungs) slight decrease. Following training tidal volume (air breathes in and out during normal respiration) is unchanged at rest; however appears to increase at max levels of exercise. Haemoglobin level: is the substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body. Haemoglobin levels increase with training, and substantially at high altitude. Muscle hypertrophy: refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells. Occurs when the training program stimulates activity in, muscle fibres causing them to grow. Without this the opposite can occur (atrophy) Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres: - Slow twitch: or red fibres contract slowly for long periods of time, required for endurance-type activities like marathons. - Fast Twitch: or white fibres reach peak tension quickly, required for power and explosive movements such as throwing and lifting. The best physiological adaptation is when their muscle fibres types must match their activity How can psychology affect performance? Motivation Positive: where an individuals performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviours. Positive motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement or reinforcement by others such as the coach, friends and family. Negative: an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations. Athletes may be punished if they fail. Athletes will perform well due to fear of failure. Intrinsic: is motivation that comes from within the individual. It is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity. Extrinsic: motivation that occurs when the individuals state is modified by sources originating from outside the person such as parents and coaches. It focuses more on the product rather than the process. Seen in the form of praise, material rewards and financial remuneration. Anxiety and Arousal Trait Anxiety: a general level of stress. It is how we respond to daily situations. State Anxiety: is characterised by heightened emotions that develop in response to fear or danger. Sources of stress: - Personal pressure - Competition pressure - Social pressure (includes the coach, family and peers) - Physical pressure Optimum Arousal:

Arousal is a specific level of anxiety. It is a physiological process rather than a psychological one. The individual performs a skill most successfully when the level of arousal is optimal. Factors that affect anxiety, such as motivation can increase or decrease arousal. Low arousal may result from distraction, disinterest or a depressed level of motivation. A state of over-arousal can make the athlete unable to perform the required movement with precision, as he/she is excessively tense and unable to concentrate. (see inverted U hypothesis): states if arousal is too low or too high, performance will be affected. Arousal needs to be optimal. However some sports like Ruby League needs a high level of arousal and aggression. And some need a lower level of arousal such as golf. (for precision.) Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety Concentration/attention skills (focusing): the athlete should focus on doing rather than thinking about doing the task. However, total focus can contribute to over-arousal. The athlete should focus on the process, not the outcome as it can create stress from pressure to achieve high standards Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery: is the technique of picturing the performance or skill before executing it. Involves the mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the minds familiarity with the desired motion. Mental rehearsal helps improve concentration, usually used in gymnastics, weight lifting and diving. Relaxation techniques: are a series of techniques that seek to control the bodys response to stress. Helps improve concentration by relieving stress. Techniques commonly used includes: - Progressive muscular relaxation - Mental relaxation: (gain a floating feeling) - Self-hypnosis - Mental rehearsal: concentrating on the task rather than how you feel about it. - Meditation: narrowing thoughts - Centred breathing Goal-setting: are targets that we direct our effort towards. When an athlete sets their own goals, they are more likely to attempt to fulfil it seriously. Goals provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training. Goals provide focus, give direction and help athletes realise their aspirations.

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance? Nutritional considerations: Pre-performance: foods consumed prior to activity are useful if digested and its energy made available when required. Eat foods that complex carbs (breads pasta cereals) as they have a slow energy release. Avoid foods high in fat, protein and fibre as they can lead to discomfort. Liquid meals recommended. If undertaking an endurance activity, more kilojoules, therefore more quantity of food required. Only eat a normal meal 3-4 hours before competition to allow digestion. Drink adequate fluids leading up to competition. Drink 500-600ml in 2-3 hrs before competition and 250300ml in the last quarter. Carbohydrate loading: - Technique requires loading up the muscles with glycogen in preparation for high intensity endurance activities lasting more than 90 mins. - Technique requires a balanced diet high in carbohydrates and a tapering phase. - Tapering refers to a period immediately before competition where the volume and intensity of training is reduced. This process allows glycogen stocks to be maximised. During performance: the need for carbohydrate and fluid replacement during an event depends on the intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type, and an individuals sweat rates. Nutritional consideration aims to maintain blood glucose levels therefore carbohydrate supplementation is

required. For e.g. a carbohydrate sports drink can delay glycogen depletion for 30 mins. To ensure adequate hydration and prevent thermal distress athletes need to: - hydrate before (drink water or low carbohydrate concentration sports drinks) - consume fluids every 15-20 mins during activity - train to acclimatise - wear clothes that breathe - be able to recognise heat stress symptoms - dont exercise if sick/fever Post-performance: aims to reduce the body to its pre event state a.s.a.p. enabling resume of training in preparation for the next phase of training. Recovery should begin immediately and continue for 8-12 hrs. Recover should follow the 4R-Rule >REFUEL: high GI carbs within 30 mins of activity. >REHYDRATE: replace 125-150% of total fluid loss during the 2-4 hours after competition. >REPAIR: prolonged activity causes breakdown of muscle protein. Dietary protein (10- 12 grams) is taken up more effectively than protein consumed in the hours after. >REVITALISE: consuming carbohydrates during or after high intensity exercise reduces any problems with the immune system, (that tends to be supressed in the hours after exercise) thus reducing infections. Supplementation Vitamins: are inorganic compounds that are essential to maintaining bodily functions. A well balanced diet is the main source of vitamins. Excessive quantities are potentially dangerous. Supplementation does not improve performance and should only be considered because of special needs. Does not provide energy. Minerals: do not provide energy, but are important for the body to function adequately. Iron is found in haemoglobin, diminished levels will affect performance. People most at risk of iron deficiency include endurance athletes, females, vegetarians and adolescent males, therefore may need supplementation. Protein: is important for growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue. Protein supplements in the form of powders and fluids have few benefits for athletes. Excess protein can contribute to osteoporosis, kidney problems and density. Caffeine: does not improve performance in short duration, high intensity activity. High doses should be avoided due to its diuretic effect, as it contributes to dehydration especially in hot and humid conditions. However caffeine has properties for those undertaking endurance sports. It has the ability to mobilise fat, making it a usable source promoting glycogen sparing. Creatine Products: is produced by body cells, and assists with the resynthesis of ATP. Creatine is marked for increasing strength and burning fat, however our body cannot store excess creatine so supplementation has little effect or benefit, if adequate protein is consumed. Creatine helps achieve muscle hypertrophy with training.

Recovery strategies Physiological strategies: focuses on two elements. 1. Removing by-products (an effective cool-down is recommended) and 2. A nutritional plan to replace lost fluid and energy-rich nutrients. -cool down: purpose is to gradually reduce heart rate, body temperature and metabolism to preexercise state. A cool down also helps remove waste products (lactic acid), and prevent muscle spasms, cramps, blood pooling and maybe prevent DOMS. (delayed onset muscle soreness). -hydration: Thirst is not a good indicator of dehydration, though urine that is dark in colour is. Weight difference before and after exercise represents fluid loss; if more than 2% of body weight is

lost, 600mLs for every a kilogram lost is recommended. Severe dehydration may require 24-48 hrs for full fluid replacement. Neural strategies: aim to relax muscle that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high-intensity exercise. Strenuous exercise impacts on the CNS, which may contribute to fatigue. Neural strategies are popular in collision sports such as rugby league. -hydrotherapy: involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery. Water provides support for movement and prevents jarring and straining movements. Examples include: spas, steam rooms, underwater massage (with jets) and heated swimming pools. -massage: focuses on body and mental relaxation; Massage is important as exercise induced tension can cause stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscle. Post-event massage helps relieve swelling, muscle tension, and helps eliminate by-products promoting flexibility. Rehabilitation massage focuses on injury treatment, like cramps, muscle damage, ligament repair, and general discomfort. Depending on sport and the stress it imposes, different muscle groups needs to be addressed. Massage can improve recovery time. Tissue damage strategies: involves the use of cooling to help with minor tissue damage, such as soreness or long term, such as bruising or muscle tear. RICER or ICER can also be used. -cryotherapy: is when ice is used as it slows down the tissue inflammatory process preventing the build-up of waste, otherwise leading to muscle stiffness and soreness. Ice-baths are popular in sports like rugby league and endurance racing. Decreased temperature contracts blood vessels, on emerging from the bath, the body warms and blood vessels enlarge allowing oxygen-rich blood flow into the muscle stimulating recovery. Psychological strategies: target both the body and the mind. Following hard training and demanding performances athletes may experience lack of motivation, low concentration and anxiety. -relaxation: techniques reduce tension and relax the mind e.g. reading, listening to music or watching movies are helpful. Debriefing sessions and performance evaluations are necessary, though feedback must be positive focusing on the process, not the outcome. (Important for adequate sleep and recovery) Other techniques are: -progressive muscular relaxation -meditation -visualisation -centred breathing -positive self-talk How does the acquisition of skill affect performance? Stages of skill acquisition Cognitive: The planning stage, where the learner is introduced to a skill and needs to see, feel and experience the movement. The learner focuses on conceptualising (generate a clear mental picture of the task). The learner will experience errors and must receive continuous feedback. Rates of progression will differ due to motivation levels and the complexity of the task. Associative: Where emphasis is on practice and the correct sequencing of movement and skills. Skills are more refined, few errors are made, and the learner can recognise errors and correct technique. Internal and external feedback is important. The learner may never progress to the next stage. Autonomous: or the automatic stage where the athlete is characterised by few errors and a consistent skilful performance. Athletes are able to detect and correct errors and have a kinaesthetic feel for the skill or

movement. Practice is still important during this stage so athletes adopt the skills to real performances by focusing on tactics, strategies and reading the game. Characteristics of the learner

-Personality: Coaches tend to recruit those who possess positive learning attributes such as willingness to listen, determination, enthusiasm, dedication, level of motivation, aggressiveness, willing to take risks and learn. Learners who behave in positive ways are more receptive to instruction and advice, cooperative in performing set tasks and are more helpful in creating a productive, learning environment. -Heredity: refers to certain characteristics inherited from our parents. They are unchangeable and limit a learners potential. E.g. the % of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibres means we can be more or less suited to endurance type or anaerobic, explosive type events. A persons somatype (body type or shape) again create suitability for different events. E.g. mesomorphy is favoured for netballers and lightweight boxers, where ectomorphy is favoured for high jumpers. Gender- increased levels of testosterone allow males to have greater strength, power than females. Height can also provide better execution of a skill e.g. shooting in basketball. Conceptual ability (to be able to visualise a movement) is important for learning and skill execution where mental rehearsal is needed. E.g. diving. -Confidence: successive failures can destroy confidence. Confidence develops from experiencing success in learning situations. Confident learners approach skill learning situations with feelings of being able to rise out of challenge. Confidence unlocks the power of belief, where something worthwhile can be achieved through perseverance and effort. Learners should not doubt their ability. -Prior Experience: it is easier to learn a new skill, when similar movements have been acquired. Prior experience can accelerate the learning process -Ability: is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine. Learners with a good sense of acuity grasp key concepts, ideas, and movements easily, and move through the learning stage promptly. E.g. some learners possess the ability to readily comprehend practical tasks; others can have a quick reaction time. Ability incorporates a range of factors: such as sense, acuity (sharpness), perception, reaction time, and intelligence which allows the learner to readily do what is intended. The learning environment

The Nature of the Skill: - Open: a changing and unpredictable environment, due to changing weather, playing surface or unconventional (unpredictable) tactics. E.g. surfing, golf, batting in cricket - Closed: an environment that is stable and predictable, is beneficial to a learner as they are not distracted, or find execution of the skill difficult. E.g. swimming, gymnastics - Gross: a skill or movement involving large muscle groups, commonly found in team games. E.g. football, tennis - Fine: skill movements using small muscle groups, used in activities that require finesse and little movement. The execution of the skill requires precision and exactness. E.g. archery, shooting Discrete: skills that have a distinctive start and finish that can be identified as a start and end. E.g. tennis serve, cartwheel, forward roll, bat in baseball - Serial: where smaller movements are put together to form a whole skill. It is a number of discrete skills put together. A learner needs to focus on each discrete skill. E.g. high/long jump, penalty shoot-out in soccer - Continuous: skills that have no distinct start or finish and appear ongoing. When the length of these skills is unspecified. E.g. running, swimming, cycling, canoeing - Self-paced: is when the timing of the skill is under the control of the performer. E.g. tennis serve, high jump, penalty in soccer, archery,

Externally paced: where the timing of the skill depends on factors outside the control of the performer. E.g. hit in tennis, dancing, goal keeping, dive in swimming.

The performance elements: The game centred approach: aims to focus on the whole game and all components, rather than a sequence of basic skills assembled within a game format. Decision making: is improved when practiced making decision in performance like situations. It is best achieved through; Observation: use of boards, demonstrations and observation of their players. Questioning: highlighting options in that game-like scenario e.g. how do we create a gap between the players? Whole-part-Whole approach: where game strategy is taught as a whole to see it overall. Then learners learn the specific roles (discrete movements). The specific parts are then put together to be executed, and finally practiced with an opposition. Variation: e.g. changing the defence alignment, players will then be able to explore new and imaginative ideas increasing motivation. Creativity: is productive in developing decision making skills. Players can contribute to solve problems making players feel they can make a worthwhile contribution. Strategic and Tactical development: Strategic: refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time and what to do. (e.g. returning the ball in tennis using backhand) Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent, which also matures gradually using mini-games and drills in game-like situations. Players need to develop: technical efficiency (correct execution of movements and strategies for consistency), Understanding options and variations when match is less predictable and skilful execution: strategies work well, when there is gradual pressure to explore creative options and replicate game-situation.

Practice methods: coaches and athletes will have greater success when the practice method is appropriate to the type of skill and the athletes individual performance. Massed practice: involves a continuous practice session with rest intervals shorter than practice intervals. Works best when learner is highly motivated. Distributed practice: where rest periods are longer than practice intervals. Keeps learners from becoming unmotivated or frustrated because of the complexity of the task. E.g. gymnastics skill (otherwise can cause disorientation, dizziness) Whole practice: is applied when a skill is practices as a whole, helps visualise to see it as a whole. E.g. layup in basketball. Part Practice: a skill broken into smaller components and each discrete sub skill is practiced separately. Used for teaching both new and complex skills. (In a basketball layup- shooting, dribbling, stepping, catching, driving up)

Feedback: - Internal feedback: a normal consequence of executing a skill. It embodies feelings, with sensory information such as seeing the ball go off court or hearing the ball hit the bat. - External feedback: includes external information such as suggestions from the coach, video replays, judges scores and race results. (e.g. time taken, or crowd appreciation) - Concurrent feedback: is received during the performance of a skill. Relates to internal feedback in the mind. E.g. a handstand where you aim to regain balance before falling. - Delayed feedback: is received after the skill has been executed. E.g. in netball the result can be seen after the completion of the shot and whether the shot went in or not. - Knowledge of results: is information about the outcome of a movement e.g. score of results, statistical data, to help improve performance for next time, and see areas of success and other areas that need improvement. - Knowledge of performance: coachs feedback, about the pattern of movement during an execution. E.g. batting in cricket, where the coach might say, put your elbows up higher

Assessment of skill and performance

Characteristics of skilled performers: - Kinaesthetic sense: the skilled performer has developed a kinaesthetic sense or feel for the skill being performed. They are aware of any errors occurring while the skill is still being performed and can make necessary adjustments. - Anticipation: the skilled performer is able to predict what is going to happen in game situation, allowing them more time to react to situations in a game and produce smooth coordinated movements. - Consistency: the skilled performer has the ability to successfully perform the skill or movement over and over again. - Technique: skilled performers have mastered the technique of a particular skill, displaying efficient movements with maximum results. Objective and Subjective Performance Measures: Subjectivity: is when the assessors feelings, opinions and personal judgement make up the evaluation. Objective: is when human elements are taken out of the evaluation to some degree. Objectives measurements of a skill occurs when results of a performance is not influenced by the personal decision of a judge e.g. long jump. Subjective is influenced, e.g. when evaluating a boxing match. Many sports include refereeing which have both and objective and subjective elements. To minimise subjective nature of judging, a marking criteria, check lists, rating scales measurement systems and multiple judges are used to increase objectivity. Many sports have introduces rule changes or new technology to increase objectivity: such as (hotspot replays - seen in a negative image) in cricket or a net senor in tennis. Rugby League also has video referee, where replays are seen in slow motion. (Can be a subjective decision though, others quite successful) Validity and Reliability of tests: Reliability: is the ability of the test to produce similar results with similar subjects under similar test condition. E.g. a shooting test for basketball from the half-way mark provides random results, where the ball would occasionally go in due to a large degree of luck. The test does not produce same results for the same person, with the same test, therefore it is reliable and gives misleading information. Validity: is the ability of the test, to test what it says it will. E.g. a test designed to measure basketball skills for the purpose of team selection is not valid. If the test was on shooting ability, the person with the best shooting score may lack dribbling and passing skills. Personal versus Prescribed judging criteria: refers to the standards or quantities that are used for judging the value of a performance. Personal criteria: are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance. These opinions and possible bias may lead to judgements that others believe to be incorrect or unjustified. In top level of competition, prescribed criteria is used to standardise interpretation. This adjusts subjectivity to an area where it is subjective. A judges use of a prescribed criteria such as a checklist, rating scales and degree of difficulty charts, are able to accurately convert the appraisal into meaningful measurements such as a score. During a competition, a judge matches the performance to the criteria to rate the standard of the performance. The skills checklist has predetermined data for assessment and notes the areas which to focus on.