FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE How does training affect performance?

energy systems anaerobic Alactacid (ATP/PC) Process An explosive movement causes the ATP to split, providing energy for muscular contraction Creatine phosphate Rapidly, but limited time and for a Lactic acid Anaerobic glycolysis degradation of glucose without using oxygen Carbohydrate Quickly, but requires large amount of glucose Duration is dependant on the intensity. 30 seconds to 3 minutes at high intensity (7095% max effort) Aerobic Aerobic metabolism breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP Carbohydrate, fat and protein Slowly, but glycogen efficiently uses more

Source of fuel ATP production

Duration intensity

ATP supplies exhausted after 2 seconds of high intensity (95-100% max effort), CP supplies exhausted after a further 10-15 seconds Limited ATP and CP supplies

Cause of fatigue

Accumulation of lactic acid (pyruvic acid that has not received sufficient oxygen) Lactic acid

Depletion of glycogen, and reliance on fat which requires more oxygen Carbon dioxide and water

By-products

No fatiguing byproducts, but heat is produced during muscular contraction ATP and CP supplies fully restored within 2 minutes 100m sprint, shot put, discus, high jump

Recovery

30 minutes to an hour

Dependant on duration of used, but can be up to 48 hours triathlon, 1500m swim, marathon

Examples of use

400m and 800m run, 100m and 200m swim

 principles of training progressive overload gains in fitness will be made when the training load is greater than normal and gradually increased as improvements occur. specificity greatest gains will be made when the activity in the training program resembles the movements, energy systems used and skills in the game or activity being trained for. reversibility a decrease or ceasing of training will cause a decrease in fitness. variety frequent change in activities will cause interest and challenge for athletes. training thresholds Aerobic threshold is about 70% MHR, anaerobic threshold is about 885% MHR; working between these (in the aerobic training zone) will result in performance gains. warm-up/cool down essential for body preparation and prevention of injury.

types of training aerobic uses aerobic system as main source of energy; training types include: continuous, fartlek, interval, circuit, and aerobics. strength fundamental to improvements in most sports. Strength (resistance) programs divided into three categories: isotonic (contraction and lengthening of muscle fibres), isometric (force is applied, but muscle length does not change), and isokinetic (elaborate machines used to ensure that resistance applied in is uniform through the full range of movement). flexibility (static, ballistic, PNF) muscles require not just strength but also length; this can be enhanced by a flexibility program. A flexibility program: helps prevent injury, improves muscular coordination, relaxes muscles, decreases soreness and tightness following exercise, and increases range of movement. Flexibility is affected by age, sex, temperature, exercise, and specificity. Static slowly stretched to a position then held, ballistic repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing, and PNF proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation static, isometric, static.

How does the body respond to aerobic training?

the basis of aerobic training pre-screening assessment of the health status of the individual before they undertake an aerobic training program. application of FITT principle Frequency how often, adequate to needs, Intensity how hard (HR), Time how long (min. 20 minutes), Type what kind of work.

 immediate physiological response to training heart rate HR with training resting heart rate will decrease and heart rate will level off during protracted exercise (steady state). ventilation rate depth and rate of breathing breaths per minute; increases in response to physical activity. stroke volume SV amount of blood ejected from left ventricle in a contraction; increases with training. cardiac output CO=HRxSV increases with training, in the same way as stroke volume. lactate levels amount of lactic acid accumulating during anaerobic activity; increase during intense training.

physiological adaptations in response to aerobic training resting heart rate decreases stroke volume and cardiac output SV increases, CO remains relatively unchanged oxygen uptake increased lung capacity little change (if any) haemoglobin level increases blood pressure decreases

How can psychology affect performance?

motivation positive performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviours and negative inspired to perform from a fear of consequences of performing poorly. intrinsic internal motivation and extrinsic external motivation, internal state is modified by external sources. reinforcement: social from other people, arises from social contact and develops in an atmosphere of interaction, teamwork and cooperation, material tangible items such as trophies and medals and internal often called covert or disguised, can result from any situation, e.g. player feeling proud of achievement is motivated to achieve again.

anxiety trait and state anxiety trait anxiety is a general level of stress (evident in how we respond to daily situations), while state anxiety is more specific (heightened presence of distress in response to a particular situation). sources of stress in a practice and competitive situation: personal pressure, competition pressure, social pressure and physical pressure. optimum arousal inverted U hypothesis.

 managing anxiety concentration/attentional skills (focusing) ability to link movement and awareness; can focus on doing, rather than thinking about doing. Athlete will focus on the process rather than the result, and reorient attention skills to manage anxiety. mental rehearsal mentally picturing a performance/skill before execution. Helps to elevate arousal, provides a clear picture and narrows the athletes thoughts. visualisation incorporates skills of mental rehearsal, but the focus is on a specific aspect of the performance/skill. relaxation series of techniques that help the athlete to control arousal; techniques include: progressive muscular relaxation, mental relaxation, self-hypnosis, mental rehearsal, meditation, and centred breathing. goal-setting setting targets we aspire to achieve; can be short-term, long-term, behavioural, or performance goals.

How can nutrition affect performance?

balanced diet balanced intake of nutrients for growth, repair, maintenance and function of tissues, as well as balance in terms of energy requirements (fuel demand = fuel intake). is it adequate for performance needs? must be tailored to individual athletes needs no single eating plan can meet the nutritional needs of every athlete.

supplementation vitamins inorganic compounds essential to maintaining bodily functions, supplementation may be required but only for special needs such as ill health. minerals inorganic substances found in the body that are necessary for adequate functioning. Supplementation may be used when deficiencies occur (e.g. iron or calcium deficiency). carbohydrate loading technique of loading muscles with glycogen (in preparation for and endurance activity). Training is tapered and complex carbohydrate consumption is increased in the days leading up to competition; in doing this the athlete will have greater stores of glycogen ready for use.

hydration principles of body temperature regulation thermoregulation: process where core body temp is kept within one degree of 37. Heat is gained through metabolism and exercise, while heat is lost through radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation. Vasoconstriction (blood vessels smaller to reduce heat loss), vasodilation (blood vessels bigger to promote heat loss), hypothermia (loss exceeds gain and temp <37), and hyperthermia (heat exceeds loss and temp >37).

 guidelines for fluid replacement before during after increased fluid intake 24 hours prior to performance 500mL water two hours prior 200-300mL 15 minutes prior small, frequent drinks to replace water lost through sweating 200-300mL suggested every 15 minutes is

approx 200-300mL water should be consumed for ever 15-20 minutes of exercise

How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

the learning process a cyclic process (perceiving input (cues) deciding processing acting output feedback)

characteristics of the learner: personality individuals characteristic way of behaving, traits such as motivation and curiosity will generally help the learn skills faster and more effectively, heredity certain characteristics inherited from parents, may be predisposed to specific skills. Hereditary factors include: relative % of fast and slow twitch fibres, somatotype, gender, height, and conceptual ability, confidence belief in own ability; critical to improvements in skill acquisition, prior experience learning process will be made easier if there are similar movement patterns to those already learnt, ability way in which an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills. the learning environment physical environment surrounding conditions in which a skill is being performed; it is ideal if the environment is safe and comfortable. nature of skill (open occur in a dynamic environment, closed occur in a stable and predictable environment, gross use of large muscle groups, fine require only small muscle groups; finesse and limited movement, discrete have distinct beginning and end , serial involve a sequence of smaller movements assembled to make a total skill , continuous have no distinct beginning or end, self-paced speed and timing determined by performer, externally-paced external source controls the timing of execution) practice method (massed continuous practice, rest intervals are shorter than practice intervals, distributed broken practice session, intervals of rest or alternate activities are longer than practice intervals, whole skill is practiced in its entirety, part skill is broken into smaller components, each discrete sub-skill is practiced separately)

feedback (internal received during execution through the bodys proprioceptive mechanisms, external from sources outside the body, concurrent received as the skill is being performed, delayed received after execution, knowledge of results information about the outcome of a movement, knowledge of performance information about the pattern of movement during skill execution)

stages of skill acquisition cognitive basic/understanding stage focus on: errors: error detection: what frequent, large often unable recognise error see, feel experience movement exploratory stage to associative intermediate/practice stage how some (not so large) able to recognise error autonomous advanced stage; skills performed instinctively other tasks few able to detect and correct errors as they occur adapt the movement to pressure situations movements rehearsed under varying conditions only essential to refine particular movements temporal sequential patterning subroutines automatic and of is

needs to:

and the

practice

kinaesthetic development improved through practice of important

demonstrations are:

best means communication identify subroutines

emphasis on temporal patterning; knows subroutines and can assemble them into the skill moderate and reasonable efficient

learning speed and movement efficiency:

slow and inefficient

speed and efficiency relate to specific requirements of situation manipulation of the environment (ensures the skill can be reproduced under varying conditions)

improvement:

support from teaching aids to enhance visualisation; focus is conceptualisation

practice of set patterns of movements in controlled situations

 rates of skill acquisition learning curves and plateaus learning curves illustrate the relationship between practice (x-axis) and performance (y-axis). Curves include: linear curve (performance improves as practice increases), negatively accelerated curve (practice was highly successful in early stages, but then tapered off), positively accelerated curve (small gains from early practice sessions, but significant improvement in later stages), and S-shaped curve (combination of negatively and positively accelerated curves rapid learning mixed with gradual progress). A learning plateau is a leveling off of the learning curve, indicating that little learning is taking place. implications of rate of learning the rate at which individuals acquire a skill will vary according to internal and external factors, and the degree to which these influence the rate of learning will be affected by the time given to learning and practice. Factors include: nature of task, characteristics of learner, quality of instructions, practice opportunities, merit of feedback, and motivation.

skilled performers versus unskilled performers skilled performers, in comparison to unskilled performers, will better demonstrate: kinaesthetic sense awareness of muscular effort during movement; skilled performers will feel the movement, as they have developed muscle memory. anticipation and timing skilled performers can better predict what may happen in specific situations, and respond accordingly. mental approach performers state of mind should be conducive to peak performance; skilled performers have the ability to focus, and display mental toughness. consistency capacity to perform at a high standard regularly; skilled performers are able to perform movements repeatedly.

objective measurement of skill subjective: judgment based on feelings, impressions or opinions; objective: independent of the observer. skill-related tests designed to measure how well and individual can perform a specific motor skill. validity and reliability of tests validity refers to the honesty of the test the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability is the degree of consistency of the test ability to measure the same attributes of the same individual/group under the same conditions.

judging the quality of performance characteristics of skilled performance controlled movement, fluent and consistent movement, aesthetically pleasing movements, and consistent achievement of a favourable outcome. outcomes of skilled performance include financial remuneration, increased selfconfidence/esteem, increased motivation, desire to improve skills, improved ability to analyse and evaluate performances, ability to transfer proficiency to similar tasks, and ability to critically evaluate performance. personal versus prescribed judging criteria personal criteria is the preconceived ideas or expectations brought to judge a performance, while prescribed criteria are established by sports organisations or bodies, and form the basis of assessment for competitions.