Factors Affecting Performance Focus Question B

How can psychology affect performance?

The value of considering psychological behaviour in the participation of sports has grown considerably, it is recognised that an athletes psychological state has great influences upon motivation, interest, concentration and anxiety management. These factors are thought to contribute to performance just as physical factors such genetics, fitness level and skill. The management of psychological factors can significantly enhance or inhibit performance depending on the way they are managed. 2K1: Motivation - Positive and negative - Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal. Motivation is a force that can be manipulated to help an athlete perform to their potentials through infusing values of self belief and support and directing this on their performance. Factors that can influence an individuals motivation Level of competition and expectations Individual expectations related to set goals and targets Individuals self esteem and performance levels Spectator involvement Motivating influences e.g. by coach Past experience Environmental factors e.g. weather, venue

Positive and negative motivation Positive motivation is related to the linking of correct and acceptable performances to a reward base. Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the task or activity. It requires continual self reinforcement and also by others e.g. coach, family and peers. It can be further enhanced by recognising achievement, handling mistakes in a constructive manner and developing respect for the athlete. Positive motivation is an extremely beneficial source of motivation as it relates to positive approaches to success. Negative motivation is the performance of a specific skill under threat of negative consequences or failure if success or competency is not reached. Some players respond to negative motivation on an irregular basis, the long term effects of negative motivation is highly destructive to an athletes psychological well being, it can destroy self confidence, diminish any self initiatives and belief in oneself. Negative motivation causes the athlete to perform out of fear, and hence always opt for safe strategies during a game play situations, by lacking the initiative to take risks they are unable to develop and acquire greater skills. Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation. The simplest way to develop positive motivation is to establish gradual and attainable goals for the athlete, challenges are positive and motivating whereas threats are negative and distract the athlete from the task as they are confronted with the fear of failure. This negates main principles of many sporting activities where an athlete is encouraged to succeed on the basis of enjoyment for the task. Furthermore, positive motivation is more sustainable; giving many long term benefits e.g. increased confidence, decision making skills and strategic thinking. While negative motivation is effective on rare occasions, positive motivation is better for an ongoing basis.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is a self propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve on a basis of enjoyment and interest. This type of motivation drives the internal desire to accomplish and achieve goals. Personal reward and self satisfaction are much stronger driving forces than anything imposed from outside. Individuals who are predominately driven by this form of motivation display high levels of mastery and task orientation. A component of intrinsic motivation is the flow experience; it represents the highest level of internal motivation where athletes have optimal concentration to an extent where they are completely absorbed in the task. In this zone, performance is maintained without conscious effort, freeing the mind of any distractions. It is seen that intrinsic motivation is an integral aid to sports psychology and how it can compliment an athletes performance. Extrinsic motivation is characterised by an alteration of an individuals internal state by sources originating outside the person. Extrinsic motivational factors focus on the product, what is to be gained. Extrinsic motivation does not recognise the short term accomplishments of an athlete and it comes in the basic forms of praise, material rewards and financial remuneration. While rewards or fears may change how hard we work, they do not alter the attitudes that underlie our behaviours. Those external factors may succeed to work on a temporary basis, but has little chance of being sustained. While the responsibility of motivation needs to be a combined effort between individuals, coaches and peers, sustained motivation is more reliant on the internal forces of the individual and their own reasons for success. These athletes are also more likely to stay motivated for longer than those who compete in order to gain rewards from external sources. E.g. high achievers tend to strive for harder goals (matching with a tougher competitor) to test personal abilities and being able to accept wins and losses. However lower achievers tend to select opponents where they have definite chances of winning, due a fear of failure. 2K2: Anxiety and arousal - Trait and state anxiety - Sources of stress - Optimum arousal Anxiety is predominately a psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of a confronting situation perceived to be potentially threatening. At the extreme, anxiety disrupts an athletes behaviour by lowering the individuals focus and affects their muscle control. Sporting competitions may contrib ute to anxiety because of the unpredictable nature of performance or the uncertainty of the outcome. When people realise that their actual ability and their level of motivation falls short in terms of the perception of others, confidence falls and anxiety rises proportionally. A persons state of mind depends almost entirely on their perceptions and expectations. Trait and state anxiety Trait anxiety is an individuals personal characteristics in response to specific situations. Trait anxiety tends to be internalised and varies within each individual, e.g. one performer may feel anxious under pressure situations whereas the other performer performs well under pressure. Coaches and athletes can manage excessive anxiety through relaxation techniques, support, positive motivation and encouragement. State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions developed in response to fear or danger. This may be exhibited through physiological responses such as nervousness, sweating and even shaking. In sports such as rugby, anxiety can develop into a sense of aggression which at some degrees, compliment the game. However in many fine motor sports such as archery and pistol shooting, state anxiety can greatly hinder performance by reducing the athletes state of focus and muscle control.

Sources of stress Stress is a non specific response of the body to a demand that is placed on it. It can be a pressure to perform, make decisions or complete tasks etc. Stress causes an increase in adrenaline production resulting in increased muscle readiness and contractile speed, increased oxygen supply to muscles and sweating. While placing expectations on athletes is beneficial to goal setting, unrealistic expectations can cause them to feel overwhelmed and stressed. Stress is a personal attribute, it depends on an individuals predisposition to stressors (factors that inhibit stress), and examples include: Personal pressure individual pressure imposed by the desire to achieve or fulfil goals Competition pressure pressure exerted by opponents on the field of play Social pressure pressure from coaches, parents, peers and others who are held in esteem by the athlete Physical pressure the physical pressure of having to perform learned skills under a competitive environment

Athletes and any individuals can learn to cope with stress by using strategies such as: Practising relaxation techniques Developing concentration skills that require focusing on the immediate task rather than the perceived reaction to it Developing confidence Planning strategies to cope with the situation

Optimum arousal Arousal is physiological response to anxiety that is prevalent before an event; it reflects the mindset of an athlete. It is usually characterised by a heightened sense of awareness influenced by motivation, expectations, the competition environment and their attitudes toward the task. If arousal is not managed properly, it can greatly hinder performance, however if the level of arousal is manipulated to compliment the sport, it can be highly beneficial. The inverted U hypothesis illustrates the relationship between performance and the level of arousal. There are 3 significant points marked A, B and C. At point A; the athlete is under aroused, here the athlete is observed to be unmotivated, disinterested and experiencing a negative attitude towards the event. Under arousal is linked to poor performance as the athlete is lacking concentration and focus. Under arousal can be linked to a lack of intrinsic motivation, where the athlete is unable to find enjoyment or positive self esteem towards competing in the task. As you move up the curve, the quality of performance increases proportionally with the level of arousal, to reach point B. Point B is described as optimum arousal. It is the point where the athlete is in complete awareness and preparation for the task. The definitive optimal level varies between sports. For example, a sport requiring many gross motor movements and aggressive performance such as sprinting or rugby will have a higher level of optimum arousal (just past point B) in comparison to those sports such as pistol shooting and archery where finesse and accuracy are required. At point C the athlete is over aroused, anxiety begins to show in their behaviour and the athlete is too hyped up, this is similar to under arousal as they are both detrimental to performance. Athletes who are over or under aroused experience problems with concentration and focus, limiting their potential to perform at their peak. To perform at their peak levels, athletes need to identify their optimum levels of arousal for their activity, and knowing how to manage under and over arousal, some techniques include relaxation techniques, centred breathing and mental rehearsal.

2K3: Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety - Concentration/attention skills (focusing) - Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery - Relaxation techniques - Goal setting Uncontrolled or a lack of anxiety and arousal can be a detriment to performance, however athletes are able to adopt various strategies such as concentration, mental rehearsal, relaxation techniques and goal setting to allow them to channel their motivation in the right directions and gain the optimum level of arousal to compliment their sport. Concentration/attention skills (focusing) Concentration is the ability to link movements and awareness to the extent that the individual can focus on completing the task rather than over thinking the task. It is also the ability to attend to relevant factors and disregard irrelevant factors, these factors can be both external and internal. The best way to improve concentration is to focus on the process rather than the outcome, by concentrating on the process athletes can enhance their technique and they can differentiate between good and bad technique and how to improve. With concentration, there also come different types that can be more beneficial to a specific activity, for example, intense concentration is needed for sports such as diving, gymnastics and golf. In comparison to sports that require intervals of concentration such as football, netball etc. Athletes need to recognise the type of concentration required for their particular sport in order to maximise their performance. Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery Mental rehearsal is a strategy to eliminate or minimise anxiety. Mental rehearsal involves the athlete going through entire movements in the athletes imagination as opposed to physical practice of the movements; this increases the athletes familiarity with the desired motion. It relies on the power of imagery, being able to imagine themselves completing the task but also the environment they are performing in. By imagining success, increases their confidence and manages their anxiety. Mental rehearsal is not only dependent on visual factors but, also tactile, being able to feel the terrain, and auditory such as the cheers from the crowd. By being able to engage on this type of level, familiarity is further increased and therefore performance can be improved. Relaxation techniques Relaxation techniques are used to control excessive arousal and to calm the athlete. Relaxation techniques focus on relaxing muscle groups, controlling and centring breathing, and calming the mind. These techniques are particularly useful before competition to release tension, it is essential for athletes to find techniques that best suit them as each athlete, depending on their needs will respond differently. Goal setting Goals are targets that the individual aspires to achieve. They provide direction, motivation and commitment to goals that are specific, achievable and measureable. Goals can be used by athletes to manage anxiety and to increase their intrinsic motivation. It is the specific nature of goals that enables them to reduce anxiety as they are tangible and can provide a focus point for athletes. Goals can be short and long term, short term goals are the most beneficial as they serve as checkpoints by which the long term goal can be measured. It is not efficient to mainly focus on an absolute goal e.g. getting a gold medal or a job promotion, but it is about focusing on the short term goals that guide and compliment the long term goal. Setting goals that are realistic and attainable can be very motivational for athletes as achieving goals can make them feel in control and capable of elevating their expectations and realise their improvements and achievements.

Factors Affecting Performance Focus Question C

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?
3K1: Nutritional considerations - Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading - During performance - Post-performance Nutritional considerations are a major influencing factor on an athletes performance, and their successful recov ery. The body needs to be able to draw the needed nutrients from food in order to provide them with energy, therefore coaches and athletes need to recognise the role of nutrients and replenish them at appropriate times. While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the role of carbohydrates and fluid are the most significant. Different foods have different amounts of energy (fat has the most, protein then carbohydrates). The type and amount of food consumed before competition is proportional to the amount of energy stores available for use. While complete nutritional balance is essential for optimal physical performance, the specific roles of carbohydrates and hydration are the two most important considerations. Athletes need to consider factors such as what to eat and drink, the most appropriate time for food intake and strategies to recoup expended energy as well as training and performance requirements.

Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading Prior to competition, the athlete needs to address glycogen stores (both liver and muscle) and adequate hydration. The most important food group to consider before an event is the complex carbohydrates, carbohydrates, while containing less energy per gram as compared to fats and proteins provide slow energy release. This means they can provide a copious amount of glycogen and have excess which can be stored. Foods such as pastas, cereals, breads and fruits are examples of complex carbohydrates. These foods should be easily digestible and the athlete should not experiment with unfamiliar foods as these can cause adverse effects e.g. discomfort and ingestion. While considering the type of food, the amount of food is also important, athletes need to be aware of the energy needs of their particular competition i.e. short distance runners will require fewer kilojoules than a marathon runner. Additionally, eating a large amount of food where it is not appropriate can cause discomfort and disrupt digestion. These foods should be consumed a few hours prior to the event to allow time for digestion and absorption, from about 1-2 hours before the event athletes can have small snacks such as sports bars, yoghurt and easily digestible foods. HYDRATION Hydration is critical as fluid is the bodys medium for thermoregulation , transporter for nutrients and maintaining blood volume. Exercising under a dehydrated state will have adverse effects on blood volume, heart rate, stroke volume and temperature regulation, this can heavily impact on the athletes performance, causing fatigue. Coaches use a technique of weighing athletes before and after endurance events to measure fluid loss and allow them to rehydrate accordingly, maintaining balanced fluid levels will also aid in recovery. As a general rule 500600mL of fluid should be consumed 2-3 hours prior and 250-300mL in the last 15 minutes. CARBOHYDRATE LOADING Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to maximise the bodys storage of glycogen in preparation for a high intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes. Average muscle glycogen for individuals can be increased to up to 1/3 in response to carbohydrate loading, making it a very effective technique. This is significant as glycogen derived from carbohydrates is the most important energy source. Previously the method was depleting all glycogen stores through hard intensity training, restrict consumption of carbohydrates, then following a period of full replenishment. It was an unhealthy method that caused lethargy, fatigue and irritability. It is now believed that a well balanced diet rich of carbohydrates that is maintained is sufficient. Carbohydrate loading is very popular for endurance activities; it is a strategy that can give athletes a direct advantage by delaying the point at which the muscles are running out of fuel. During performance An athletes fuel and fluid needs while competing depend on: The duration and intensity of the event - moderate to high-intensity activities lasting longer than 60 minutes (including individual or team-based sports of an intermittent nature) usually require. Environmental conditions (more fluids for hot, humid weather as a lot of is lost due to evaporation) Athletes initial glycogen and hydration level Athletes body size and metabolism

Refuelling during an event can be beneficial, especially for endurance athletes competing in events such as marathons and triathlons. The main nutritional aims of refuelling during the competition are to maintain muscle glycogen and blood glucose, delaying fuel depletion. Food intake during an event will also depend on the athletes tolerance and opportunities within their sport, foods that are suitable include bananas, sports bars, and carbohydrate gels. The most important consideration for an athlete during the competition is rehydration. Athletes should have a fluid replacement plan that matches their bodys requirements, duration, intensity and environmental conditions. It is suggested that 200-300mL of fluid, should be consumed every 15-20minutes during exercise. Sports drinks are recommended as they contain liquid carbohydrates and serve to both hydrate and energise.

Post performance Post performance nutritional plan aims to return the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible, enabling quick recovery and minimal disruptions to further training plans. This is best achieved through a method called proactive recovery, it emphasises immediate refuelling and rehydration that continues for about 8-12 hours or until a pre event state is achieved. This enables optimisation of body repair and the regeneration process. The best way to recover is to start immediately and follow these guidelines: Immediately replacing depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores consuming foods and drinks with a high glycemic index (high GI foods raise blood sugar quicker) is most beneficial. Rehydrating to replace fluid and electrolytes lost during the event an effective rehydration program requires special fluid intake in quantities larger than normal voluntary intake. Rehydration aids in recovery. Active rest enhances the manufacture of red blood cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress related movements.

3K2: Supplementation - Vitamins/minerals - Protein - Caffeine - Creatine products Supplementation use is common amongst athletes; however its effectiveness is often debated. Supplements are used to assist and sustain athletes with their nutritional goals and needs during training and competition. Supplements that are commonly used include vitamins, minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products.

Vitamins and minerals (iron, calcium) Vitamins are necessary for energy release, metabolic regulation and tissue building but only required in small amounts, usually vitamins can come simply from a balanced diet. Taking an excess of unneeded vitamins is not beneficial as they are excreted, this means they can be considered wasteful. Vitamins A and D can accumulate in the body, and in excessive quantities can have detrimental side effects e.g. Joint pain, headaches, nausea, fatigue and loss of appetite. While the benefits of vitamin supplements seem negligible, most multivitamin supplements provide the recommended daily intake and pose as no concern. Inorganic compounds that enable normal body function to be maintained Do not contain energy Functions as a catalyst to help the body use energy Food is main source of vitamins Super-supplementation is unnecessary, potentially dangerous and does not improve performance

IRON AND CALCIUM Iron and calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes; inadequate supplies will affect performance and contribute to health problems. Iron is a component of haemoglobin therefore it is crucial that there are sufficient amounts to sustain peak performance. Usually iron can be found in lean meats and vegetables, but it is found many individuals do not consume enough iron as part of their daily diets, so supplements are very common. Calcium is essential for bone structure. The quality of bone tissue deteriorates gradually from about the mid 20s and can contribute to osteoporosis. It is important to focus on bone development in childhood as this helps maintain healthy bone structure throughout adult life, and hence calcium supplements may not be required.

Inorganic substances found in the body that are necessary for it to function adequately Do not provide energy Iron and calcium most commonly deficient in athletes Iron found in haemoglobin diminished haemoglobin levels affects performance, muscle cells deprived of oxygen Sports anaemia lack of energy and general fatigue

Iron found in lean meat, grain products, dark, leafy green vegetables such as spinach People most at risk of iron deficiency endurance athletes (sweat loss), females (menstruation), vegetarians (lack of red meat), adolescent males (growth spurt) Calcium deficiency impacts on health Vital for bone structure, strong bones Deteriorates with age, therefore adequate calcium intake vital in childhood

Protein Protein is important for its structural and functional role, it is popular amongst weight lifters, body builders and strength athletes, as it is believed that they control muscle building qualities. Food is best source of protein, most athletes dont need expensive protein supplements. Research indicates protein supplements exhibit no advantages over protein rich foods. Protein supplements can possibly be dangerous as some products may contain additives and have no health benefits. Athletes need to monitor their protein intakes and only use supplementation when it is really needed. Caffeine Research on caffeine products and their effect on performance are still inconclusive. Caffeine can improve cognitive processes such as alertness, improved concentration and memory. But it can also have side effects such as over arousal, an increased heart rate and an impairment of fine motor control. Creatine products Creatine occurs naturally in the body's muscle tissue. It can also be found in the diet, with the main source being protein foods e.g. meat. In the muscle, creatine is converted to creatine phosphate which provides a ready source of energy to resynthesise ATP for working muscles during high-intensity anaerobic activity such as weight lifting and sprinting. Because creatine cannot be stored in the body, athletes attempt to increase the body's stores of creatine by supplementation. By supplementing creatine, athletes are trying to enhance the efficiency of the ATP-PC system to provide energy and resynthesise ATP faster. While manufacturers of creatine products continue to market its performance enhancing properties, including increasing strength, delaying fatigue and burning fat, it may also have some detrimental side effects e.g. muscle cramps, weight gain and renal diseases. By having a diet with adequate amounts of protein, a natural source of creatine can be produced, making supplementation unnecessary.

3K3: Recovery strategies - Physiological strategies e.g. cool down, hydration - Neural strategies e.g. hydrotherapy, massage - Tissue damage strategies e.g. cryotherapy - Psychological strategies e.g. relaxation Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume normal training and competition, with fully replenished and recovered states. Rest allows for both physiological and psychological revitalisation to occur, restoring the athlete to pre-event states. Recovery is important to avoid symptoms of overtraining and prevention of injury. Physiological strategies e.g. cool down, hydration Physiological strategies focus on the removal of metabolic by products (through cool down) and a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy rich nutrients. COOL DOWN (ACTIVE RECOVERY) A cool down is the immediate period following exercise, consisting of 5-10 minutes of low intensity exercise such as walking, jogging, and static stretching.

The purpose of a cool down is: Assist in the removal and dispersion of lactic acid Reduces the accumulation of venous blood at the extremities, allowing heart rate to gradually fall back to its resting state Reducing adrenaline Reduce muscle soreness and tightness by stretching

HYDRATION Fluid recovery is an important consideration for immediate recovery after an event or training session. Fluid intake can be monitored and determined by weighing the athlete, where the weight loss represents the fluid loss. To replenish fluid lost during training or games the athlete should consume approximately one litre of water for every kilogram of body weight lost. The addition of carbohydrates will speed up fluid replacement as well as refuelling muscle glycogen stores. Thirst is not a valid indication for dehydration. Fluid can be in the form of water or sports drinks, these are generally more effective as they have many dissolved electrolytes and nutrients so it is able to replenish a wide range of lost minerals. Neural strategies e.g. hydrotherapy, massage Neural strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as result of high intensity exercise. Neural strategies integrated with other recovery strategies have gained popularity, especially in team sports such as rugby. HYDROTHERAPY Hydrotherapy involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist in metabolic recovery. Water provides support for safe movements and provides some resistance. Typical hydrotherapy methods involve using steam rooms, spas and heated pools. With hydrotherapy, the most benefits can be gained when exercise is incorporated, gravity assisted movements such as jumping, walking and floating in the water can be used. Contrast water immersion: Alternating hot water (39-40C) spa sessions (approx 3-4 minutes) with cold water (1015C) plunge repeated three times. This aims at enhancing recovery by increasing blood flow through the actions of vasoconstriction and vasodilation (narrowing and widening of the blood vessels). It improves waste removal and nutrient delivery and often results in the athlete feeling refreshed and alert. Even temperature immersion: Promptly following a training session, game, or competition, the athlete showers or bathes, often with hot water. This accelerates recovery of lactates and reduces metabolic fatigue. Interspersing

stretches with light active movements in a pool appears to reduce post-performance stiffness and accelerate the return to a normal state. Spa baths are often used allowing a massage effect from the jets. MASSAGE Used post event, sports massage extends from the cool down, focusing on body and mental relaxation. During exercise, many body tissues are placed under stress, therefore massage can relive many of the discomfort and pain associated with this. Massage claims to relive swelling, reduce muscle tension, assist in eliminating toxic byproducts and promote flexibility. pre-event, massages can be used as a supplement to the warm-up procedure as it stimulates blood flow to the muscles, thus aiding flexibility, oxygen supply as well as prevention of injury Rehabilitation massage is another form which is specifically for the remedy of injuries, allowing athletes to return to training with minimal recovery time Massage needs to address individual needs and the nature of the sport, e.g. sports such as cycling which uses lots of lower body activity will require different massage techniques compared to a rower. Tissue damage strategies e.g. cryotherapy Tissue damage can be minor (soreness) or major (muscle tears). Various forms of cryotherapy, which involves the use of cooling, have been popular as a recovery strategy. Ice is the most commonly used form of cryotherapy due to its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory process, and preventing the build up of waste. If wastes are not quickly removed, it contributes to muscle soreness and reduces flexibility. Cold water immersions can be in the form of ice baths and they work on the principle that the cold water makes blood vessels constrict, to retain heat, and upon emerging from the cold water, the warmer air will stimulate the vessels to dilate, allowing a fresh, oxygen rich supply of blood to become abundant in muscles. Ice can cause shock in the body initially, therefore the body should be allowed to gradually adapt starting with shorter periods, and building up to longer periods through adapting. Psychological strategies Relaxation techniques target both the body and the mind. Following demanding sessions, athletes may experience low concentration and anxiety. Relaxation techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation, meditation, visualisation and centred breathing can promote positive environments facilitating psychological recovery (reduces tension).

Factors Affecting Performance Focus Question D

4K1: Stages of skill acquisition - Cognitive - Associative - Autonomous Cognitive stage The fundamental requirement in the cognitive stage is understanding the nature of the skill. Individuals focus on the task required by watching, thinking, reasoning and visualising the skill rather than practising it. Athletes require a basic conceptualisation of the task (ability to generate images of the task). Demonstrations are critical during this stage, demonstrations should be accompanied with simple instructions to avoid information overload. Complex skills may need to be broken down into smaller movements. It is expected that the learner may experience large errors; poor timing and disorientation e.g. when playing a golf shot, a learner in the cognitive stage will often miss the ball or hit the ground. The cognitive stage should focus on fundamental skills, aim to keep motivation high and provide positive, constructive and specific feedback. Associative stage The associative stage is characterised by an emphasis on practice. The learner, having acquired an idea of what the skill consists of, needs to repeat the movements to develop the synchronisation of their mind and muscles. The focus should be on temporal patterning. The player should be familiar with subroutines and work on assembling them into the required skill. Errors are still prominent in this stage, but are smaller and less frequent than in the cognitive stage. Feedback is again essential. A sense of fluency and refinement of skill develops as the learners kinaesthetic sense improves. Gradually, the confidence of the learner increases. For complex skills, some learners remain in this stage for long periods of time. Autonomous stage The autonomous stage is characterised by the ability to automatically execute the skill. Execution and temporal patterning of movements is now properly sequenced and performed instinctively into actions that are aesthetically pleasing and fluent. Players at the autonomous stage will make errors that are highly specific to situations and involve highly movement skills. These errors tend to be about shot selection, player tactics and responses to environmental factors rather than skill execution. An example of a typical error at this stage from tennis is playing a top spin forehand rather than a flat forehand when the opposing player is out of position. It may take individuals a long time to achieve autonomy in all skills with many never reaching it. In the autonomous stage, improvements come slowly and training needs to well organised and must provide a high level of motivation. 4K2: Characteristics of the learner - Personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience, ability The speed at which an individual learns is dependent upon the combination of many personal characteristics. For learners there are countless variables at play in skill acquisition. Acronym: PE CHAP Prior experience

Prior experience can accelerate the learning process as it reproduces alterations or similar movements to skills acquired in the past. The degree to which prior experience influences skill acquisition and ultimately performance is variable among learners. If an individual has participated in an activity which involves similar qualities, such the hand/eye co-ordination found in hockey, they may be able to learn the skills involved in other sports such as cricket or golf more effectively. Confidence As an individual begins to learn skills and experiences success, they begin to develop a sense of self-belief in their ability to perform. Some level of confidence is internally generated, based on how the learner sees themselves (related to their personality). To increase confidence, coaches need to develop drills and strategies that are sequential and establish goals that are attainable. If complex tasks are introduced too early and out of the individuals ability range, it can make it hard for the learner to achieve, diminishing their confidence. Heredity Heredity refers to the genetically inherited characteristics of an individual; these are unchangeable and limit the dimensions to their potential. The environment determines whether we can reach the limits set by heredity. Specific hereditary characteristics influence the potential for success in specific sports/skills: The relative percentage of fast/slow twitch muscle fibres: this will determine the individuals advantage in certain sports. An activity requiring fast, explosive movements such as jumping, throwing, sprinting require a large percentage of fast twitch muscle fibres, whereas endurance activities that require a slow and sustained energy released e.g. marathon running rely more on slow twitch muscle fibres. Somatotype: (body type/shape) can determine their suitability for a range of activities. Ectomorphic bodies carry very little weight (linear body shape) suitable for events such as high jump and gymnastics. Mesomorphic bodies are more muscular and larger; mesomorphs are more suited to rowing, boxing, and football. Lastly, endomorphic bodies carry more weight and tend to be more rounded; they have an advantage in activities such as rugby and throwing events. Gender: Males have a significant advantage in developing strength and power due to their higher levels of testosterone. For this reason, many sports have separate competitions for each gender. Height: Differences in height provide considerable physical and biomechanical advantages. Conceptual ability: The ability to visualise a movement and make it materialise is an important factor in the early stages of learning.

Ability Ability is the way in which an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills. Ability incorporates a range of factors, such as sense of acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence, which combine to allow the individual to do readily what is intended. Personality Personality refers to an individuals characteristic way of behaving and it is a result of the individuals social interactions and learning experiences throughout life. From a motor learning point of view, certain aspects of personality tend to be favourable with certain learning environments for example elite coaches tend to select athletes not only with superior physical talent but also those who possess positive learning attributes such as determination, enthusiasm and dedication. Learners whose personality reflects positive ways of behaving are more receptive to instruction and advice, more cooperative in performing set tasks and more helpful in creating a productive learning environment.

4K3: The learning environment - Nature of the skill (open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self-faced, externally paced) - The performance elements (decision making, strategic and tactical development) - Practice method (massed, distributed, whole, part) - Feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance) The learning environment can have a positive and negative impact on the learning process and is a major factor in the development of skills. Nature of the skill The nature of the skill refers to observable characteristics which can be classified according to: the stability of the environment (open or closed skills) the precision of the movement (gross or fine skills) the distinctiveness of the beginning and end points (discrete, serial or continuous skills) Timing (externally paced or self-paced skills).

OPEN SKILLS An open skill occurs in an unpredictable and frequently changing environment (weather, field, opponents) where the timing and the placement of the performance are dependent upon factors outside the control of the performer. Performance of the skill is greatly influenced by external factors and as such most open skills are externally paced. Most team games involve skills that are open in nature. The unpredictability of the environment forces the performer to respond in a variety of ways. Cognitive learners often have great difficulty executing open skills. CLOSED SKILLS A closed skill occurs in a stable and predictable environment, where the timing of the skill is self-paced and to a large extent, the performer determines the place where the skill will be performed. These environments are more conducive to skill learning as the learner is not distracted by other factors e.g. hitting a golf ball. GROSS MOTOR SKILLS Often involve the larger muscle groups used to produce large movements. The movements are not very precise and include many fundamental movement patterns e.g. running, leaping, kicking. These skills are more easily learnt than fine motor skills. FINE MOTOR SKILLS Are often associated with manipulative skills, fine control and limited movements. They are usually intricate, precise and movements that involve small muscle groups. Fine motor skills require high levels of hand eye coordination e.g. snooker. DISCRETE SKILLS Discrete skills have are well defined actions that have a clear beginning and end. They are single, specific skills e.g. tennis forehand, forward roll. SERIAL SKILLS A serial skill requires a number of separate skills to be performed in a specific order to achieve the set movement required. Activities such as bowling in cricket where a run up, a delivery phase and the follow through need to be combined for effective performance. CONTINUOUS SKILLS A continuous skill is one that has no real beginning or end but is maintained in a repetitive fashion. The starting and finishing point of these skills are determined by the performer, not by the skill itself. This includes the leg action when running, cycling or swimming.

SELF PACED SKILLS Are those that are instigated by the performer. The performer is able to control the rate at which the skill is executed. This is recommended for learners as it does not involve unpredictable environments e.g. hitting a golf ball, serving in tennis. EXTERNALLY PACED SKILLS Externally paced skills are where the factors external to the performer set the time of execution of the movement. When a ball is served/bowled/pitched, the return or strike of the ball is classed as externally based skill. Rhythmic performances such as gymnastics, dancing, and aerobics, are externally paced as the movements must be performed in time with the music.

The performance elements Performance elements are crucial in improving skills as it focuses on an approach to incite thought upon the whole game and how athletes should respond under pressure. This game centred approach provides an emphasis on integrating thinking and logic rather than basic physical skills. Performance elements such as decision making, strategic and tactical performance is critical in skill practice to enable optimal performance. DECISION MAKING Throughout a competition performance athletes need to make many decisions that will influence the quality of the performance. These include decisions such as who to pass to, whether to shoot for goal or pass, or decisions to accelerate in a cycling or distance running event. Coaches need to provide opportunities for decision making in practice so the athlete can improve their skills resulting in clear decisions when performing. D Decision making skills are necessary as they challenge the performers mind to think under pressure, take initiatives and seize opportunities. STRATEGIC AND TACTICAL DEVELOPMENT Some sports have a high strategic and tactical component. In tactical sports such as basketball, touch football or cricket, the learning environment must reflect the game situations to develop players understanding of how to effectively apply skills they have acquired in a game situation. The tactics associated with game play are can be similar across some sports, such as moving into space or marking a player. Athletes can develop an awareness of the tactics required and apply these skills in a variety of game situations. Tactical development requires practice of pressure situations similar to a game, rather than stationary practice or drills. As tactical development improves, game like practices can become more complex allowing for development of decision making and problem solving. Practice methods The learning environment is further affected by the structure of training sessions and systems designed to teach a particular skill. MASSED PRACTICE Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, where the rest intervals are shorter than practice intervals. It is an effective method of highly motivated and highly skilled performers. It has the advantage of mirroring some competitive situations while providing adaptive abilities both physiologically and psychologically to the time of game play. However this method should not be used with beginners as it may introduce boredom, lower motivation and interest. DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE Distributed practice involves a broken practice session, with regular intervals of rest. It is predominately used amongst beginners to avoid fatigue and overwhelmed feelings due to a lack of success. It also helps players stay alert and avoid over emphasis of skills. Motivation is also easier to maintain during distributed practice as the demand is less intense than that of a massed session. It is also more beneficial to beginners in the cognitive as this structure allows them balance to understand, practice and recover.

WHOLE PRACTICE The whole practice method refers to practising a skill in its entirety, such as a softball pitch. PART PRACTICE When a skill is broken into discrete components which are practiced separately. Discrete movements are extracted from the whole movement and analysed separately as each segment is mastered, the skill is reassembled. This practice method is commonly used amongst beginners. Feedback Feedback is an essential component in the successful acquisition and development of skills, regardless of the stage of acquisition or age of the learner. Feedback provides information about the performance that allows the learner to adjust and improve or continue efficient performance. Feedback can improve a learners performance by: Reinforcing the correct or desired response Motivating the performer to improve or maintain the performance Correcting the action as a result of information received about the errors

Feedback can come from internal and external sources; it may be given at different times such as concurrent or delayed; and it may provide different information such as knowledge of performance and knowledge of results. INTERNAL FEEDBACK Internal feedback is information received from the senses as a result of movement. This helps athletes develop a kinaesthetic sense that is able to differentiate from skilled movements and errors. Internal feedback is important as it is the self interpretation and understanding that will help minimise future error. EXTERNAL FEEDBACK External feedback comes from external sources that respond to the results of a skill. This includes suggestions from coaches, video replays, crowd reaction etc. External feedback is essential to developing skills as opinions and suggestions from others help locate biomechanical errors. CONCURRENT FEEDBACK Concurrent feedback is information received during a performance. This is most often internal feedback but can also be from external sources. This feedback allows for immediate correction of body position to improve results during the performance of a skill. For example, during a tennis serve, the server recognises that their ball toss is off direction. This concurrent feedback allows the player to stop the serve and improve the toss, rather than continuing the serve and being forced into error. DELAYED FEEDBACK Delayed feedback is information provided to the athlete after the skill has been performed, and is therefore received too late to produce a response at the time. An example of delayed feedback is a comment from the coach at the end of the activity, at half time or from video analysis after the game. This information allows for changes to technique in future performances. KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS Knowledge of results is the information about the outcome on a movement. It is important as it provides information about skill execution. For example, athletes seeing the ball drop into the basket from a jump shot, or from score boards. KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE Gives feedback on the quality of the execution of the skill, it may be internal or external. For example a diver gaining information from external sources such as video replay about the position of their body.

4K4: Assessment of skill and performance - Characteristics of skilled performers e.g. kinaesthetic sense, anti cipation, consistency, technique - Objective and subjective performance measures - Validity and reliability of tests - Personal versus prescribed judging criteria After skills are taught, assessment needs to be made of the effectiveness of methods used in terms of improvement in performance. It is important that the information gathered about skill and performance are accurate and well established techniques to ensure true reflection of performer achievement. Characteristics of skilled performers By comparing a skilled performer with an unskilled performer, obvious discrepancies can be observed. These observable characteristics include kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and technique. KINAESTHETIC SENSE Kinaesthetic sense is related to being aware of parts of the body and objects connected to or in control of it. A skilled performer is observed to have a well developed kinaesthetic sense; this sense allows them to feel the movement as it is performed and recognise the quality of this move. Skilled performers use this sense to their advantage as it allows them to recognise movement errors and make corrections and modifications while executing the movement. Players are able to adapt under pressure situations, where a slight adjustment of position or pace is crucial. Kinaesthetic sense is developed through practice. ANTICIPATION Skilled performers are better able to predict what may happen in specific situations. They can predict possible outcomes and adjust their technique accordingly, e.g. tennis players are able to anticipate the direction of the ball or where an opponent will move. Anticipation is particularly important in externally paced skills or where fast movement and rapid decision making skills are required e.g. tennis, baseball etc. Skilled performers are not only able to anticipate movements, but also respond in ways to confuse opponents, altering their sense of anticipation i.e. slowing down pace. The ability to predict actions provide players with a larger time span to move and respond leading to better execution of movements with improved co-ordination. CONSISTENCY Consistency refers to the ability to produce similar results. Skilled performers demonstrate greater consistency in their results than unskilled performers. Skilled performers are able to perform desired movements repeatedly due to lots of practice. Observable in games such as tennis, where skilled performer is more consistent in rallies and keeping the ball in the court more regularly. TECHNIQUE Technique refers to the proficiency of a practical method applied within a task, good technique is established when the procedure is carried out in the most well executed, effective and well coordinated manner. The development of good technique is a distinguishing characteristic in skilled performers, their movements are: Economical will not use more energy than is required Skilful - recruiting only the muscles in need (no over emphasising) Aesthetically pleasing looks good Successful well established biomechanics Safe less chance of sustaining injury

Technique is best achieved by practicing, especially through drills, distributed and part practice (breaking the skill up into various components) and game related activities.

Objective and subjective performance measures Measurement of performance is essential as it determines the quality of individuals and teams and is the basis of determining winners. Information can be presented in terms of times, distances or guidelines. Times: using electronic measures such as stop watches reliable, accurate Distances: tape measures reliable, accurate Measurement systems accurately discriminate one set of data from another. Guidelines: judging, scoring unreliable OBJECTIVE OBSERVATIONS: are those that independent from influences of the observer e.g. having a high degree of accuracy and reliability Sports such as high jump, javelin, have high levels of objectivity Sports such as basketball, for example: getting the ball into the hoop; while it seems like an objective measure, the success of the throw is not only determined by whether it enters the hoop, but also by whether the referee deems it as a legitimate throw. Therefore many team sports that require judging officials tend to have less objectivity as it depends on their interpretation of rules. SUBJECTIVE OBSERVATIONS: are those that are influenced by external factors e.g. feelings, impressions, opinions rather than a set measurement system. Sports such as diving, dancing, gymnastics have highly subjective judging measures as it relies on the perception of individual judges. HOW TO MAKE JUDGING MORE OBJECTIVE: Checklists lists that include elements such as style, technical correctness, sequencing, and execution of the required skill Established criteria a set of procedures, rules, guidelines that indicate how an activity is to be assessed Rating scales rating movements in terms of difficulty and how to mark accordingly

By prescribing guidelines, the objectivity of a measure is increased, as judges are influenced by a standard of set criteria. Validity and reliability of tests To ensure fairness in the assessment of skills, it is preferable to have tests that are objective, reliable and valid. A test should systematically gather evidence to determine if a learner or athlete can demonstrate what they have learned/can demonstrate a particular skill. Validity refers to a test's ability to measure what is intended. For example using a beep test to test for aerobic fitness is valid whereas timing how long it takes to run 200m is not. Reliability refers to the ability of a test to reproduce similar results when conducted in similar situations and conditions. Reliability in testing can be improved by the use of similar procedures, conditions and equipment as originally prescribed. Factors that can make a test unreliable can be differences in the tester, the environment, and the equipment. An example of an unreliable test would be to conduct a 40m sprint test one day on grass and then conduct the same test with a different group on sand or with a strong headwind. A test can be reliable but invalid. That is, a test can give reliable, consistent results, but not measure what it is supposed to. A test cannot be valid however, if it is not reliable.

Personal versus prescribed judging criteria Judgements based on personal criteria rely on feelings and emotion s as a measurement tool. A judges preconceived attitudes, expectations, opinions and possible bias may contribute to judgements that others may believe to be incorrect or unjust. For these reasons, judgement that is solely based on personal criteria is not reflective on true abilities of a performer. In top level competition in sports such as gymnastics, dance and diving, appraisal is initially quite subjective as judges watch a dive, their initial impression is based on their personal appreciation of the movement. However, they then apply the prescribed criteria to standardise interpretations as much as possible. This adjusts their subjectivity along a continuum, making it more objective. While it is impossible to make these judgements for these certain competitions completely objective, using prescribed criteria can complement its objectivity though the use of checklists, rating scales and degree of difficulty charts helps more accurately convert the appraisal into meaningful measurements such as score and something that is reflective on the true abilities of the performer.