Chapter 5. Coordination and Regulation: Endocrine Systems.

External and internal environments External environment: environment outside an organism. Internal environment: the fluid surrounding living cells within a multicellular organism. o Includes blood plasma, interstitial fluid. Extracellular fluid: fluid outside of cells. Intracellular fluid: fluid within the cell, i.e. cytosol. Nutrients and waste are exchanged between body fluids. Thus composition of intracellular fluid can be affected by that of extracellular fluid.

Homeostasis If a body deviates too far from the normal state of a variable, death may occur. Homeostasis: condition of a relatively stable internal environment which is maintained within narrow limits. Factors such as infection, trauma, toxins or extreme conditions can lead to failure of homeostasis. Animals have the nervous and endocrine systems, which coordinate all other body systems to maintain homeostasis. Negative feedback: system of control, in which a change in variable is detected, and a response occurs to cause a change in the opposite direction. o Negative feedback maintains homeostasis. o Involves a sensor, which detects the change, and an effector, which produces the response. o Example: Nature pg 141. Positive feedback exists and responds to a change in variable by enhancing; it is not part of homeostasis.

Hormones Signalling molecules: molecules which enable cells to communicate. Hormones: in animals, chemicals that are produced in an endocrine gland and transported via the bloodstream to target cells at which they act. Hormones have a specific shape; thus only cells with receptors specific for the hormone can respond. The chemical properties of hormones affect how they work. Production Amino acid derivatives Protein and peptide hormones Steroid (cholesterol) hormones Made in advance and stored in vesicles. Hydrophilic, travel in bloodstream. Surface of target cell membrane. Short Solubility and transport Receptor location Life span Examples Thyroid gland hormones. Thyroidstimulating hormone. Testosterone, oestrogen.

Made on demand from precursors in the cell.

Hydrophobic, travel with carrier proteins in bloodstream.

Target cell cytosol.

Long

Signal transduction: cascade of events linking an external signal to a specific cellular response. o This involves a number of secondary messengers, e.g. G protein, cyclic AMP. o The signal can be amplified this way. o Multiple responses can be produced from a single signal. Cellular responses to a signal can include: o Activation/deactivation of a specific gene. Production of certain proteins. Production of certain enzymes. Production of certain hormones.

o Activation/deactivating of a specific enzyme. o Opening/closing of ion channels in cell membrane. Once the hormone has caused a desired effect, it will be degraded by enzymes and excreted.

Pheromones Pheromones: chemical signalling molecules secreted by animals to communicate with members of the same species. Pheromones can be used for: o Reproduction/sex attractants: female moths emit pheromones to attract male mates. o Food trail: ants mark their paths with pheromones to serve as a guide to other ants. o Alarm: termites release pheromones when attacked to alert members of the same species. Plants may also release pheromones when grazed upon. The pheromones may stimulate surrounding plants to produce tannin, which makes the places less appetising. The pheromones may also attract predators which feed on its grazer. Artificial pheromones are also used commercially to control pests. o Pheromone traps can indicate the amount and size of a pest infestation so that pesticides or biological control can be used in appropriate amounts. o Pheromone traps may also trap pests to prevent them from causing damage to crops.

Plant growth regulators Plant growth is regulated by growth hormones to occur in a predictable sequence. Tropism: directional growth of a plant to a particular environmental stimulus; must be positive or negative. Plant hormones Produced in response to a stimulus. Hormones produced in relatively small amounts. Similarities Act on other cells of the plant. Effective in relatively low concentrations. Target cells have specific receptors. Not produced by specific cells. May travel by diffusion, xylem, phloem. Differences Effects are varied and more general. Hormones may be affected by presence of other hormones. There are five major groups of plant growth regulators. Produced at Method of transport Acts at Apical meristem. Lateral buds. Roots. Cytokinins Primarily roots, also in rest of plant. Xylem. All parts of plant. Action Softening of cell wall, cell elongation. Growth inhibition. Growth inhibition. Cell division, tissue differentiation. Visible effect +Phototropism, -geotropism. Apical dominance. +Geotropism. Growth of plant, esp. growth of lateral buds Produced by specific endocrine glands. Travel by bloodstream. Effects are highly specific. Hormones are not affect by presence of other hormones. Animal hormones

Hormone

Auxins, e.g. idoleacetic acid (IAA)

Apical meristem, young leaves.

Polar transport (moved from cell to cell).

Gibberellins

Seeds, apical meristem, young roots, young leaves.

Xylem/phloem.

All parts of plant, esp. leaves. Seeds.

Cell elongation. Amylase production. Growth inhibition, stomatal closure, ethylene production.

Growth and enlargement of plant and fruit. Also involved in cell/plant development. Seed germination. Seed and bud dormancy, inhibition of fruit ripening, abscission (due to ethylene production).

Abscisic acid (ABA)

All parts of plant, esp. chloroplasts. All parts of plant, esp. during fruit ripening, abscission, wounding and stress.

Possibly xylem and phloem.

All parts of plant, seeds.

Ethylene

Movement through air (ethylene is a gaseous hormone).

All parts of plant.

Increase in metabolism.

Fruit ripening, abscission, seed germination, increase rate of senescence.

Chapter 6. Coordination and Regulation: Nervous Systems.

The nervous system Nervous system Play a role in homeostasis. Similarities Bring response in effector organs when a receptor is activated. Involve signal transduction pathways. Produces very rapid response. Effects are usually short-term and localised. Differences Involve chemical and electrical messaging. Signal travels via neurons. Involve only chemical messaging. Signal travels via bloodstream. Produces relatively slower response. May produce long-term and widespread effects. Endocrine system

The nervous system acts in conjunction with the endocrine system to coordinate body functions. Central nervous system (CNS): consisting of all neurons of the brain and spinal cord. o Brain o Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS): consisting of all neurons not part of the CNS. o Sensory (afferent): all neurons of the PNS which carry information to CNS. Somatic sensory neurons: detect external stimuli. Visceral sensory neurons: detect internal stimuli. o Motor (efferent): all neurons of the PNS which carry information from CNS. Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system Somatic nervous system Sensory nervous system detects stimulus and transmits information from receptors to CNS. Motor nervous system produces response by transmitting information from CNS to effectors. The autonomic nervous system is not under conscious control. o The sympathetic system increases heart rate, metabolic rate and plays a large role in the fight-or-flight response. o The parasympathetic system decreases heart rate, enhances digestion and emptying of the bladder and directs body function when we are relaxed.

Neurons

Neurons: individual nerve cells. Multiple neurons bundled up at the axon form nerves or nerve fibres. The main parts of a neuron are: o Dendrites: highly branched extensions which receive information and carry it towards the cell body. o Cell body: main body of the cell where the nucleus and many organelles are. o Axon: long extension that carries information from the cell body to the axon terminals. o Myelin sheath: insulating layer around the axon that increases rate of conduction of the nerve impulse. o Synaptic terminals: terminal of the axons which precede the synapse, site of release of transmitter molecules. There are three main types of neurons: o Sensory (affector) neuron: neurons which transmit information from receptors to the CNS. Cell body to the side of the axon. Many synapse terminals. o Motor (effector) neuron: neurons which transmit information from the CNS to effectors. Many dendrites. o Inter- (connecting) neuron: neurons link sensory and effector neurons. Many dendrites and synapse terminals. Nerve impulse: change that occurs in the electrical charge along a neuron membrane in response to a particular stimulus. o When at rest, the outside of the neuron cell membrane is slightly positive compared to the inside. o When the neuron is stimulated, it is excited. The membrane becomes permeable to positive ions, which move into the cell, causing the inside to be more negative. The change in permeability travels along the neurone. o After a nerve impulse has been transmitted, the neuron returns to rest.

Neuron communication Neurotransmitters: chemical released by a neuron axon into the synaptic cleft between it and the target cell, stimulating or inhibiting the target cell. o Examples: acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine. o Each neuron only makes one type of neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitters carry the signal that is being transmitted across the junction between cells. Neurotransmitters are produced at the ends of axons and packaged in vesicles. o This ensures that nerve impulses are transmitted in one direction only. They are exocytised and diffuse across the junction to the specific receptors of another cell. o Synapse: junction between two neurons. o Nerve-muscle junction: junction between a neuron and muscle cell.

When the neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the muscle cell, the muscle is stimulated to contract or inhibit contraction. The act of the neurotransmitters last for a short time only. o The receiving cell releases enzymes which inactivates the transmitter. In maintaining homeostasis, the nervous and endocrine systems interact with each other. o Examples: Nature pg 189, 190, 192. Neurohormones: hormones released by the axon end of a neuron into the bloodstream. o Example: the hypothalamus has some neurons which produce neurohormones which stimulate the pituitary gland. There are two basic types of nerve pathways: o Diverging pathway: axon terminals lead to dendrites of many neurons. A single stimulus can result in multiple responses. o Converging pathway: many axon terminals lead to fewer dendrites of neurons. One cell can have multiple signals which influence a single outcome. Whether signals in a signalling pathway are strong or weak, excitatory or inhibitory, will affect their results.

Toxins Venom: saliva or secretion from some organisms which have an adverse effect on the tissues of other organisms. Toxins: substances poisonous to an organism. Venoms contain one or more toxins. Toxins can cause paralysis in different ways: o Small toxin molecules (porcupine fish, funnel-web spider) prevent a nerve impulse from travelling down the axon by interfering with the passage of ions across neuron membrane. o Larger toxin molecules (red-back spider) act at nerve endings to slow the release of neurotransmitters to a trickle. o Paralysis can result in death because the diaphragm no longer contracts, stopping breathing and leading to heart failure. Antitoxins: compounds that react with toxins to destroy their normal abilities.

Chapter 7. Infection and Disease.

Diseases Disease: any change that impairs the function of an individual in some way. A disease is not necessarily caused by pathogen, can also be genetic, developed, etc. Infectious disease: a disease caused by a pathogen. Pathogen: organism that is able to cause disease in the host.

o Non-cellular agents: prions or viruses. o Cellular agents (microorganisms): bacteria or fungi or protozoan. o Multicellular organisms: worms or fungi. Infection: when a pathogen is inside a host. Virulence: degree to which an organism can cause disease. Modes of transmission of pathogens include: o Airborne/droplets: suspended in the air or in water droplets (sneezing, coughing). o Food and water: pathogens can be ingested with food. o Carrying vector: living organisms such as mosquitoes carry the disease. o Injecting vector: usage of contaminated needles. o Physical contact: passed between host to host. o Bodily fluids: exchange of body fluids, e.g. blood transfusion, pass on the disease. Pathogens can damage the host by: o Invasion of tissue: pathogen in the body tissue may produce enzymes which damage host cells. o Toxins: endotoxins and exotoxins can produce adverse effects on host tissue. o Inhibit normal cell functions: presence of pathogen can inhibit growth, repair, metabolism, etc. o Consume nutrients: pathogen uses hosts nutrients, thus depriving the host of these. o Proteins: viruses and prions may cause host cells to produce damaging proteins. o Immune reaction: the bodys reaction to pathogens produce symptoms such as fever and inflammation.

Non-cellular agents Prions: abnormal and infectious proteins responsible for various forms of spongiform encephalopathy. Diseases Prions are abnormal proteins. When they come into contact with regular proteins, they convert them into prions. Eventually the cell bursts, and the prions infect other cells. In the brain, the bursting of nerve cells result in holes. Spongiform encephalopathy: o Humans: CJD or kuru in humans o Animals: scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease. Uncoordinated movement, muscle twitching. Unusual behaviour. No treatment. Prions are very resistant to heat and chemical agents.

Replication Effects

Visible symptoms Treatment

Viruses: particles consisting of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat, only able to reproduce in host cells. Bacteriophages: viruses that infect bacteria. Viroids: short pieces of naked RNA which only infect plants. Bacteriophages: attachment -> penetration -> biosynthesis -> assembly -> lysis. Human virus: penetration -> uncoating -> nucleic acid replication -> maturation -> release. o RNA viruses replicate nucleic acids in the cytosol. o DNA viruses replicate nucleic acids in the nucleus. Uses host cell resources and may cause lysis when leaving cell. Humans: influenza (RNA), poliomyelitis (RNA), smallpox (DNA), AIDS, genital herpes. Animals: rabbit calicivirus disease (RCD). Plants: tomato mosaic, cucumber mosaic, tobacco mosaic. Difficult to treat viruses without damaging the host cell. Antiviral drugs may specifically inhibit enzymes important to the virus. o Example: Relenza binds to the active site of neuraminidase so that the influenza virus cannot leave the host cell to infect other cells.

Replication

Effects Diseases

Treatment

Cellular agents Bacteria: microscopic, prokaryotic unicellular organisms; can tolerate extreme conditions and have varied requirements. Not all bacteria are pathogenic, e.g. bacteria in intestines. Shape: o Coccus (pl. cocci): round. (Staphylo-: clumps. Strepto-: lines. Diplo-: pairs.) o Bacillus (pl. bacilli): rod-shaped. o Spirochaete (pl. spirochaetes): spiral-shaped. Flagella allow bacterium to move. Bacteria without flagella are non-motile. Bacteria with a slippery capsule are harder to be phagocytised and are thus more virulent. Bacteria can form spores during harsh conditions and become dormant. Bacterial cell walls are composed of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids. o Gram-negative fail to stain and show pink: Smaller amounts of disaccharides and amino acids and no teichoic acid in cell wall. Has outer layer of lipids, which resists penicillin and other drugs, also makes phagocytosis of the bacteria very difficult. o Gram-positive take in the stain and show violet: Mostly disaccharides and amino acids and has teichoic acid in cell wall. Most bacteria are aerobes. Anaerobes can be facultative anaerobes or obligate anaerobes. Specimens of bacteria can be grown in different culture media (pH, nutrients, gases) to identify the bacteria. Replication Effects Diseases Treatment Bacteria reproduce by binary fission when the nutrients, water, temperature and pH are adequate. When conditions are favourable, bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes. Toxins can: o Inhibit protein synthesis. o Damage cell membranes. o Disrupt transport of material across cell membranes. o Interfere with normal nerve function. Produce enzymes which affect host body cells function. Humans: diphtheria (bacilli), typhoid, syphilis (spirochaete), gonorrhoea. Chemotherapy: use of chemicals in the treatment of disease. Antibiotics: naturally occurring substances that inhibit the growth of, or destroy, bacteria and other microorganisms. Can be narrow or broad spectrum. o Penicillin inhibits cell wall synthesis of gram positive bacteria. Sensitivity test: test to establish the most effective drug against a particular species of bacteria. o Agar plate with discs of different drugs; bacteria will not grow around effective drugs. Side effects: adverse effects on a patient due to the use of a particular drug.

Unicellular eukaryotic pathogens Protist: any eukaryote that is not a plant, animal or fungus. Most are unicellular, some are colonial or multicellular. Amoeba: unicellular protists characterised by presence of pseudopodia. Amoeba produce by binary fission. Usually transmitted via contaminated food or drink. Humans: amoebic dysentery, meningitis, giardiasis, malaria, trichomoniasis. o The most severe form of malaria is caused by the protozoan Plasmodium falciparum.

Replication Diseases

Multicellular eukaryotic pathogens Fungi: heterotrophic organisms that release exterior enzymes, which break down organic matter, then absorb the products of this digestion. Ectoparasites: parasites which live on the surface of their hosts. Many fungi are ectoparasites.

Replication

Fungal spores grow on any organic matter with suitable moisture and temperature. Most fungi infect the skin nails and hair and may cause lesions and other skin conditions. Fungi may infect a specific part of the plant. o Obtain nutrients from plant host. o Secrete enzymes that kill host cells. Animals: ringworm of body or scalp, tinea of nails or groin or feet, thrush, food poisoning. Plants: light blight of potato, Dutch elm disease, blue mould rot of fruits. Fungicides: chemicals which kill fungi. Examples: mixture of copper sulphate and lime, sulphur fungicides.

Effects

Diseases Treatment

Some arthropods and arachnids can be ectoparasites on the surface of host organisms. May cause extreme itching. If skin is broken by scratching, secondary infection by bacteria may occur. Animals: head lice, body lice, mites, ticks, scabies. o Cattle ticks are multicellular pathogens that infest cattle as they walk through and feed on grass containing larval ticks. o Ticks feed on cattle blood and can infect the cattle with a pathogen that causes babesiosis. o Babesiosis can cause fever, and can be fatal. Athropods and arachnids can be treated with insecticides. Lice can be manually removed from the surface of the skin.

Effects

Diseases

Treatment

Worms can also cause disease. Humans: threadworm (or roundworm or pinworm). o Live in the large intestine. o Females lay eggs around the anus, causes itching. o Scratching transfers eggs to the hands. Animals: tapeworm. o Dog is primary host, sheep or other animal act as intermediate host. Plants: nematode worms. o Secrete enzymes to break down plant cells, releasing cell contents for worm to consume. Worming tablets.

Diseases

Treatment

Chapter 8. Immunity: Defence Against Disease.

Immune system: group of lymphoid tissues and organs and lymphatic vessels that assist the body to resist infection and disease. Immunity: reactions that occur in a person in response to an infection. The immune system can distinguish self and non-self (foreign). It will attempt to remove foreign material if a person is infected. Specific responses React in a specific way to each infection. Has memory of prior infections. Greater response on second infection by the same foreign agent.

Non-specific responses React same way to all infections. No memory of prior infections. Level of response the same of each infection by the same foreign agent. Non-specific immunity

Non-specific (non-adaptive) immunity: group of defences including physical and chemical barriers, which the body makes to all infections. Include the first and second lines of defence.

The first line of defence includes physical and chemical barriers that prevent entry of microorganisms into the body. o Intact skin: if the skin if broken (abrasion, cuts), the body can become infected. Glands in skin secrete fatty acids and sweat (containing salt) which can inhibit bacterial growth. o Natural secretions: tears and saliva contain lysozyme, which can bacteria to lyse. Stomach acid (low pH) can kill many bacteria. Lactoperoxidase (milk) and spermine (semen) are also antibacterial agents. o Mucous membranes: respiratory mucus is secreted by cells lining the respiratory tract; it traps bacteria. Cilia then sweep mucus toward the back of the throat (phlegm, snot, coughing, sneezing). Mucus of the digestive tract also makes it difficult for microorganisms to penetrate body cells. o Natural flora: bacteria normally present on the skin, gut and vagina are non-pathogenic in those areas and inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria due to competition. The second line of defence works to fight infection when the first line of defence has failed (i.e. person has become infected). Cells at site of injury, e.g. mast cells, release cytokines, histamine, serotonin and other signalling molecules which result in inflammation and greater permeability of vascular tissue. Inflammation: reaction to the infection, involving dilation of arterioles and increased blood flow to area. Blood contains proteins and white blood cells which leave the blood vessels to fight the infection. o Platelets and fibrin (a fibrous protein) form a blood clot and repair the broken skin. o Phagocytes: types of leukocytes which engulf and destroy foreign material. Examples: monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils. Phagocytes endocytise the microorganism and digest it. Pus contains dead white blood cells. o Natural killer (NK) cells: types of lymphocytes which kill virus-infected or cancerous cells without recognition of specific markers. o Complement proteins: group of blood proteins that play various roles in the bodys second line of defence against infection. Also play a role in specific immunity. About 20 different types, which circulate in blood inactive. When antibody-antigen complexes occur, the proteins are activated, which results in a cascade effect. Some proteins attach to microorganisms, making them more recognisable to phagocytes. Some stimulate phagocytes to be more active or attract phagocytes to site of infection. Some destroy membranes of microorganisms. Interferons: a group of proteins secreted by some cells infected by a virus; helps other cells resist the virus. o Stimulates production of antiviral proteins in uninfected cells. Cytokines: protein molecules that act as messengers and elicit a response in the target cell; regulate many parts of the immune system. o Cytokines are messengers between cells of the immune system. o They can also send messages to other body cells.

Specific immunity Specific (acquired or adaptive) immunity: the reaction of each lymphocyte to a specific antigen. The immunity acquired is long-lasting, often life-long. Lymphocytes: class of white blood cells found in all tissues, playing a role in specific immunity. All lymphocytes originate from stem cells produced in the bone marrow. o T cells travel to and mature in the thymus. o B cells mature in the bone marrow. All nucleated self cells have a major histocompatibility complex I (MHC I). B and T cells recognise and ignore cells with the same MHC I as themselves. Antigens: compounds (usually proteins) that can trigger the immune system to respond in various ways. o Antigens can be present on the surface of pathogens or be present in some toxins or poisons. o Antigens can also be self or non-self; body cells also have antigens.

Thus only cells with non-self antigens but no self MHC I will be recognised as foreign and be attacked by the immune system. Humoral immunity: immunity resulting from the presence of antibodies in body fluids. B cells have immunoglobulins (antibodies) on their surface and can also produce antibodies. o Each kind of B cell produces only one type of antibody. o Initially there are only a few of each kind of B cell produced. When a B cell recognises an antigen, that B cell undergoes clonal expansion to create a large number of identical B cells, all producing the specific antibody for the antigen. o The need for clonal expansion results in a delay between infection and antibody production. Most of these cells differentiate into plasma cells, some differentiate into memory cells. Plasma B cells: antibody-secreting B cells derived from B cells. Memory B cells: B cells which can respond quickly to a specific antigen that has been previously encountered. o Memory B cells produce a larger and quicker response when the body is infected by the same antigen a second time. o Memory B cells last for several years or for life. Plasma cells survive for a few days. o Primary antibody response: antibodies are produced slower and in less amounts. Levels of antibodies decline after the infection has cleared. o Secondary antibody response: antibodies are produced rapidly and in larger amounts. Levels of antibodies decline at a slower rate after infection has cleared.

Antibodies: proteins produced by animals in response to antigen; react specifically with the antigen. o Has four polypeptide chains, with two long and two short, joined by disulphide bonds. o The antigen-binding site is different between types of antibodies. o One antibody can bind to two antigens. o The hinge can bend for the antibody to better link to its antigen. There are five different types of long chains, which result in five different groups of antibodies: o IgE is involved in allergic responses; it activates mast cells to release histamines. o IgA and IgG are present in milk and aid breastfed babies in fighting disease. o IgG is present in highest concentrations. The effect of antibodies include: o Cause agglutination of the antigens/pathogens. o Activate macrophages and complement proteins. o Neutralise the pathogen.

Cellular immunity: response to infection involving action of phagocytes and T cells. T cells are lymphocytes that mature in the thymus. T cells are specific to particular antigens; a few of each kind of T cells are produced. When a T cell encounters its antigens, it undergoes rapid reproduction and form T memory cells. Types of T cells include: o Helper T cells (Th): phagocytes that have ingested foreign material will display an antigen-MHC II complex. Th with a specific receptor recognises the complex and signals to B cells and T cytotoxic cells. This stimulates B cells to undergo clonal expansion. Existing plasma and memory cells to stimulated. o Cytotoxic T cells (Tc): kill body cells that are virus-infected. The Tc identifies the antigen (a viral protein coat on surface of cell) and secrete proteins that punch holes in the cell membrane. Some Tc destroy cancer cells.

Lymphatic system Lymphatic tissues, including spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes, are connected by lymphatic vessels. Many leukocytes are packed into lymphatic tissues. B and T cells circulating the lymph are ready to react with antigens. Antigens in the lymph can be filtered out and thus prevented from entering the bloodstream.

Acquiring specific immunity Active immunity: production of antibodies with a person in response to exposure to a particular antigen. o Results in long-term or life-long immunity, due to production of B and T memory cells. Aw yiss. o Natural active immunity: active immunity acquired upon infection. First infection by a pathogen, responds by producing the specific antibodies and lymphocytes. o Induced active immunity: active immunity acquired through vaccination. Vaccines contain pathogens treated or killed so that they cannot cause disease. The antigens on the pathogens still trigger the primary antibody response. Attenuated microorganisms are not killed but are treated so that they cannot cause disease. When the person is naturally exposed to the same pathogen they will produce a secondary antibody response. Toxoids: inactivated toxins used for active immunisation. Passive immunity: antibodies produced in one animal is introduced to another to react with antigens and provide immunity. o The user did not produce the antibodies. o Gives immediate protection to the recipient, however antibodies do not last as long. Well crap. o Natural passive immunity: Developing foetus receives antibodies (IgG) of the mother through the placenta. Baby acquires antibodies in mothers milk (IgA). o Induced passive immunity: immunity acquired through injection of antibodies. Antibodies are extracted from the blood plasma of blood donations. Animals, e.g. horses, rabbits, can be used to make antibodies. o Animal is injected with a small dose of venom. Animal produces antibodies. o Animal is injected with a higher dose of venom. Animal produces more antibodies. o Blood is taken from the animal; antibodies are extracted and used in vaccines and anti-venoms.

Allergies