Art of the Past

March 2010

Behold Masterworks from South and Southeast Asia

Art of the Past

March 2010

1242 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10128 P: 212.860.7070 F: 212.876.5373 artofpast@aol.com www.artofpast.com

Introduction Art of the Past is pleased to present the catalog for our latest exhibition, Iksita Behold: Masterworks from South and Southeast Asia. The Sanksrit word iksita means behold, especially in relation to the process of witnessing the divine. The works selected for this exhibition embody this idea of visual transcendence. The majority of artworks selected for this exhibition were created for the purpose of worship and meditation. The catalog generally progresses in a chronological format beginning with a powerful Gandharan torso of Avalokiteshvara, and ending with an example of fin de sicle photography from the Bourne & Shepherd studio and large nineteenth-century portraits of the Mughal emperors Akbar and Humayun. As with our previous publications, the items selected for this catalog represent the breadth and depth of our collection in sculptures, paintings, and the decorative arts from South, Central, and Southeast Asia. Particularly noteworthy is an important Gandharan sculpture, Large Bird and Female Figure (figure 3). A surviving Chola-Period pair of the Shiva Nataraja and his consort, Uma Parameshvari, is also included in the exhibition (figure 6). Very few bronze Chola sculptures of this subject and size remain together as an original pair. The decorative arts are represented by an elaborate gold nineteenth-century Jada Nagam, or braid ornament, with precious stones (figure 20). We hope you enjoy this catalog as much as we enjoyed putting it together. We thank you for your continued friendship and support and look forward to seeing you soon!

Aaron M. Freedman

1
Schist Height:

Avalokiteshvara

Ancient India, Region of Gandhara Kushan Period, 2nd 3rd century CE

66 inches (167.6 cm)

The powerful torso of this bodhisattva is modeled heroically, with a muscular chest and defined abdominals. The uttariya (shawl) is worn over the upper part of the left arm, stretched tightly over the shoulder, and draped across the right forearm, where it is undercut at the elbow. The paridhana (lower garment) falls to the calves, and the naturalistic drapery folds are in ridged relief. The bodhisattva is ornamented with a short, wide collar set with stones and beaded border. Over the collar is a long, roped necklace with makaramukha terminals holding a bead between them. A double-chain necklace with beads passes over the right shoulder, and an amulet cord is worn across the body and hung over the left shoulder. The figure stands with the right knee flexed slightly forward. The right arm is held at the waist and broken at the wrist, showing the strut that supported the missing hand. The complete left arm hangs at the side and holds an object with an incised fishnet pattern. The sculpture is a representation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (the left hand holds a garland,1 an identifying attribute of Avalokiteshvara). Another relief sculpture in the collection of the Peshawar Museum shows the preaching Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas.2 The bodhisattva with the water pot is Maitreya, and the figure with the garland is identified as Avalokiteshvara, completing the classic triad. Although

Pratapaditya Pal, Indian Sculpture, Volume 1 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art and University of California Press, 1986), p. 167, fig. S45. Lyons and Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan (New York: Pantheon, 1957), fig. 254.

Avalokiteshvara is more commonly thought to hold a lotus, there are sculptures of the bodhisattva holding both attributes, a garland in the left hand and a lotus in the right.3 The missing right hand of this bodhisattva might originally have held a lotus, or it might have been held in the more common gesture of reassurance.4

3 4

Nara, Special Exhibition: Bodhisattva (Nara National Museum, 1987), p. 23, fig. 16 For other examples of the garland-holding bodhisattva, see Lyons and Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan (New York: Pantheon, 1957), fig. 316; Isao Kurita, Gandharan Art II: The World of the Buddha (Tokyo: Nigensha Publishing Co. Ltd, 1990), p. 66-67, figs. 164, 166, 167, 169; The Art of Gandhara, Pakistan (Tokyo: Tokyo National Museum, 2002), fig. 12.

Buddha in Dhyana

Ancient India, Region of Gandhara 4th 5th century CE Bronze with silver inlay Height: 1414 inches (36.2 cm)

The remaining upper half of this large bronze sculpture shows the Buddha with hands arranged in dhyanamudra, the gesture of meditation. The complete figure would have shown the Buddha seated with legs crossed in diamond posture.1 The robe hangs over both shoulders and plunges dramatically below the neck. Moving down the chest, the drapery folds ripple from beneath the collar in increasing size. The head is round, with a squared chin, and a small forehead. The hair is an arrangement of tight curls that run over the large dome of the ushnisha. Fine, incised, arching lines indicate eyebrows, and a raised silver dot in the center of the forehead represents the urna. The large, half-closed eyes are also decorated with silver inlay. The prominent nose has straight edges running from the eyebrows. The long earlobes are close to the head, with lobes that flare out dramatically toward the wide shoulders. Surviving bronze images of the Buddha or bodhisattvas from the Gandharan Period are extremely rare.2 This Buddha is one of the larger examples known; the majority of extant pieces are small and portable.

This was a common representation of the Buddha. See W. Zwalf, A Catalogue of the Gandhara Sculpture in the British Museum Volume II (London: British Museum Press, 1996), 31-37, pp. 26-30. Douglas Barrett, Gandhara Bronzes, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 102, No. 689 (Aug., 1960), pp. 361-365.

Large Bird and Female Figure

Ancient India, Region of Gandhara Kushan Period, 2nd 3rd century CE Grey schist with traces of original red gesso Height: 33 inches (83.8 cm)

The talons of a large bird grip a voluptuous female figure. The womans left hand is placed on the claw on her hip and her right hand grasps a serpent held in the birds beak. The womans hair is arranged in a chignon, and she wears a sleeved, diaphanous tunic, a girdle, a necklace, and anklets. She stands with her right leg crossed over her left, emphasizing the swell of her hip. The wings of the bird consist of sharply pointed, grooved coverts above the longer, flight feathers below. The feathers on top of the birds head sweep away from the forehead and culminate in a topknot-like dome on the crown of the head. The two figures rest atop a narrow plinth that has been broken away, as have a portion of the womans feet and the birds tail feathers. The sculpture bears traces of the original red gesso, which was used primarily to accentuate the gold leaf that once decorated the sculptures surface. Within the Gandharan context, the motif represented in this sculpture is often interpreted as a conflict between a suparna, or garuda, and its naga enemies.2 It may also relate to the accounts of garuda kings who cavorted with human women, such as in the Kakati Jataka, which tells of a garuda king who fell in love with Kakati, the queen of Benares, and carried her away to the garuda realm.2 The motif derives from the Greek myth the Rape of Ganymede. Ganymede was a beautiful boy who was abducted by Zeus. Zeus either himself appeared in the form of an eagle or sent an eagle messenger to transport Ganymede to Mount Olympus. According to Pliny, Leochares, a disciple of Skopas, carved one of the most famous depictions of the myth in ancient Greece in the midfourth-century BCE.3

2 3

See Albert Grnwedel, Buddhistiche Kunst in Indien Handbcher der kniglichen Museum zu Berlin (Berlin: Museum fr Volkerkunde, second edition, 1900), pp. 96-97; Albert Grnwedel, Buddhist Art in India (trans. from Handbuch of 1900, by Agnes C. Gibson, revised and enlarged by J.Burgess, London, 1901), pp. 48-49; Alfred Foucher, Lart grco-bouddhique du Gandhra, 2 vols. (Paris, 1905-51), pp. 11, 34-40; J. Ph. Vogel, Indian Serpent-Lore, or The Nagas in Hindu Legend and Art (London: Arthur Probsthain, 1926, reprinted Delhi, 1972), p. 41. The Jataka, or, Stories of the Buddhas Former Births, Volumes 3-4 , Edward Byles Cowell, ed. (Cambridge, 1897), pp. 60-62. William Smith, ed., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1867), p. 749.

4
Sandstone Height:

A Pair of Vyalas

North India, Madhya Pradesh or Uttar Pradesh Post-Gupta Period, 7th - 8th century CE

34 inches (86.3 cm) and 31 inches (78.7 cm)

The vyala is a mythical creature that became one of the most common architectural motifs in the sacred architecture of the subcontinent. It usually resembles the body of a lion with a composite head. Although the head is typically shown as a lion with horns, it can also have a beak of a bird, an elephants trunk, or even a goat or human face. The meaning of the vyala is based on the lion, and derives from a fourth-century BCE Archaemenid model that symbolized power and royalty. The vyala is also seen as a force of nature, with the tip of the tail shown as a swirling mass of foliage. In this pair, the rampant beasts are mounts for sword-wielding figures, and balance upon elephants. The mythical creatures represent the idea of royal glory triumphing over ultimate physical force. Although vyalas are more frequently shown with one human figure riding the beast and another crouched below the animals upraised feet, the image of the elephant is not an uncommon iconographic element. It is the prominent placement of the elephants within the compositions, however, that is unusual, since elephants were more often positioned below a vyalas base.

It is significant that this pair of vyalas has survived and remained together. Within the context of Indian temple architecture, vyalas almost always appeared in pairs, flanking entryways, or as bracket supports in gateways, but this pair may be the only instance in a Western collection of early-period vyalas of such significant size that remain together.

5
Granite Height:

Narayani

South India, Tamil Nadu Late Pallava Period, late 9th century CE

55 inches (139.7 cm)

The basic iconographic features of Narayani are identical to those of her male counterpart, Vishnu (Narayana). She stands in the samapada (with feet even) or sambhanga (symmetrical stance) position. The goddess has four completely preserved arms. The upper-right arm holds the wheel sideways, which is characteristic of an early period,1 and the upper left holds the conch. The gesture displayed by these two hands is known as kartarimukha, because two fingers open like scissors (kartari). The primary right hand is held in abhayamudra (reassurance), and the corresponding left hand is pressed against the thigh in katyavilamvita (the gesture extending to the waist), and signifies the easing of suffering. The goddess wears a yogic breast band and a tall, simply decorated crown that tapers toward the top. The sculpture, which remains in excellent condition, is characterized by its restrained simplicity and thinness. The figure is remarkably long and slim, with a minimally defined torso and abdomen. The ornamentation is reserved, with simple decoration that accentuates the subtle roundness of the figure. This simplicity is echoed in the treatment of the cascading garments pleats and rippling folds on the legs. Quite similar to a roughly contemporaneous sculpture of Vishnu in the collection of the Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, the superb state of this sculpture can most likely be attributed to its having originally been placed in a sheltered niche in a temple wall.2

Pratapaditya Pal, Asian Art at the Norton Simon Museum, Volume 1: Art from the Indian Subcontinent (New Haven and London: Yale University Press and The Norton Simon Art Foundation, 2003), p. 217. Pal, fig. 166B, p. 217.

6
Bronze Height: Shiva Uma

Shiva Nataraja and Uma Parameshvari

South India, Tamil Nadu Chola Period, 12th 13th century

3714 inches (94.6 cm); complete shrine: 4134 inches (106 cm) 2734 inches (70.5 cm); complete shrine: 4012 inches (103 cm)

effective tripartite interpretation of Shivas dance: He is the generative source of all movement within the cosmos; the liberator of consciousness from illusion; and, as the center of our hearts,1 he is the center of the universe (Chidambaram). The raised left leg of the Nataraja shows the liberating aspect of the dance, and the primary left hand points to this refuge of the soul. The drum held in the raised right hand sounds the note of creation. The flame in the left hand represents the change brought on by destruction. The primary right hand dispels fear. The right foot is planted squarely on the back of the malevolent demon Muyalaka and represents the vertical, cosmic axis of Shivas body. The movement of this dance rotates around this axis in a balanced frenzy. The braided and jeweled hair spills down the shoulders and upper arms. A mans earring is worn in the right ear, and a womans in the left, signifying the dual nature of the god. The Nataraja stands on a lotus pedestal, from which an encircling prabha, fringed with flame, is attached. This sculpture is similar in style and treatment to a smaller and less dramatic example (88.9 cm) in the collection of the Dallas Museum of Art.2 The Great Goddess, Uma Parameshvari, stands at ease in tribhanga (thrice-bent posture), on a lotus.3 Her left arm is extended in graceful lalahasta. The right is bent at the elbow with the hand displaying the katamukha gesture, as it once held a blue lotus. The proportions of the figure are sensual and attenuated, with a narrow waist from which the hips flare out with an emphatic curve. The goddess also has a smooth, flat belly, and ample breasts. The sweet face is lit by sincerity and surmounted by an elaborate crown (karandamukata) similar to the jatamukata coiffure associated with Shiva. She wears a sacred cord between her breasts and an auspicious marriage string (mangalasutra) around her neck. This sculpture is modeled with a rarely encountered combination of sumptuousness and restraint.

This is an extremely rare and important matched pair of the Shiva Nataraja and his consort, Uma Parameshvari. The divine couple have not only survived together as an original set, but also remain in complete states, with their flaming prabhas and lotus pedestals. Shiva as the Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance, is the symbol par excellence of South Asian art. It is the full and perfect expression of divine totalitythe manifestation of pure, primal, rhythmic power. Shiva simultaneously dances the universe into existence by awakening inert matter with the rhythmic pulse of his movement, sustains this existence, and sends the whole universe into destruction. Ananda Coomeraswamy gives an
1 2 3

Ananda K. Coomeraswamy, The Dance of Shiva: Essays on Indian Art and Culture (reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1985), p.65. Vidya Dehejia, The Sensuous and the Sacred: Chola Bronzes from South India (American Federation of the Arts: New York, 2002), fig. 2, pp. 99-99. For comparison, see Vidya Dehejia, et. al., Chola: Sacred Bronzes of Southern India (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2006), fig. 10 (height: 88.9 cm); Vidya Dehejia, The Sensuous and the Sacred: Chola Bronzes From South India, (New York: American Federation of the Arts, 2002), figs. 12 (height: 64.1 cm), 13 (height: 72.5 cm), 14 (62 cm).

This Nataraja and Uma pair display characteristics typical of the mature Chola style of the twelfth-thirteenth century period. The prabhas on both shrines have assumed the standard circular shape. They consist of two circular bands, with the inner plain and the outer decorated with rosettes, and framed with flames with five tongues. The uppermost of Shivas

locks creates a loop on either side, which encircles the figure of the goddess Ganga on the viewers left, a characteristic of the twelfth century. The flame in Shivas rear left hand appears to rise directly from the palm, rather than being contained in a small bowl as seen in earlier examples.

7
Bronze Dimensions:

Vishnu with Garuda and Lakshmi

South India, Karnataka Hoysala Period, 12th century

1012 x 6 inches (26.7 x 15.2 cm)

The shrine consists of five figures set against pilasters that support an elaborate arch. The central figure is Vishnu, who stands in samapada posture, on a lotus. He holds a mace and lotus in his right hands and chakras in his left hands. Vishnu wears a crown (kiritamukata), a long garland (vanamala), and an abundance of jewelry. Garuda, appearing in human form, stands to the left of the central deity and is identified by his wings and by the cobra held in his left hand. To the right of Vishnu is Lakshmi, who holds a lotus in her right hand. The two small figures in the foreground are Chakraparusha, standing on the right, and Gadanari, who, strangely, holds what appears to be a lotus. A bearded

sageperhaps Augustineand another corpulent figure sit behind Vishnu atop the ornamental columns. The sculpture is an excellent example of the ornate style characteristic of the Hoysala Period during the twelfth century. Typical of the architecture of this period, the arch is composed of scrolling lotus stems and makaras that rest on the capitals of the side pilasters.1

For comparison, see Pratapaditya Pal, Asian Art at the Norton Simon Museum Volume 1: Art from the Indian Subcontinent (New Haven and London: Yale University Press and The Norton Simon Art Foundation, 2003), figs. 218 - 219, pp. 296 - 297.

8
Sandstone Height:

Standing Devi

Cambodia Angkor Period, 11th century

3214 inches (81.9 cm)

This figure is a striking example of the Baphoun style. Sculptures from the eleventh century are distinctly different from those of previous periods. The bodies become more elongated and the curves less emphatic. Eyes and lips are marked by incisions. The sarongs, most notably, are detailed with thin pleating over the entire garment. The devis face is round, yet delicate. The almond-shaped eyes are deeply carved, and the nose is slightly wide. Full, round lips frame the mouth, and the corners are turned up in a slight smile. The brow, in contrast, is rather ridged. Fine braids trace over the head, and are pulled up into a chignon and held in place by a wrapped tress. There is incising on the neck, as well as across the abdomen, beneath the breasts. A narrow waist and dimpled navel are emphasized by the cut of the lower garment. The vertical edges of the sampot trace down the length of the garment, flaring out in a fishtail at the hem.

9
Bronze Height:

Mahavira Shrine

South India, North Karnataka Western Chalukya Period, 11th 12th century

11 inches (27.9 cm)

The Golden Age of Jainism in Northern Karnataka ended, arguably, with the fall of the Rashtrakuta Empire to the Western Chalukyas, in the tenth century. Known also as the Kalyani Chalukyas, after its capital at Kalyani (Basavakalvan), in Karnataka, the empire ruled most of Western Deccan and north Karnataka between the tenth and twelfth centuries. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate it from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Virashaivism and Vaishnavism both enjoyed considerable growth during the Western Chalukya Period. This ascent of Hinduism paralleled a steady decline in Jainisms popularity, although Jainist patrons did nevertheless continue to build such important temples as Brahma Jinalaya, at Lakkundi; the Charantimatha Group, at Aihole; and the Sankha Jinalya, at Lakshmeshwar. Mahavira, the subject of this bronze shrine, figured prominently in the Jain art of the Western Chalukya Period.1 The historical Jina is identified primarily by the lion at the base of the shrine. Thirteen Jinas and two yakshis atop lions on a separately cast backplate surround the standing central figure. The backplate is further embellished with pillars on either side that culminate in vyala capitals, which support a lushly decorated, rounded lintel that emanates from the mouths of makaras. A large kirtamukha (face of glory) appears at the top of the shrine and protects the Jina from malevolent forces.

Published:

Martie Y. Young, Asian Art: A Collectors Selection (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1973), fig. 166, p. 158. Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Ithaca, N.Y., October 17 November 25, 1973; and Munsen Williams Procter Institute, Utica, N.Y., December 16, 1973 - January 13, 1974.

Exhibited:

The main temple at the Charantimatha Group at Aihole, built before 1119, was dedicated to Mahavira.

10
Kashmir 12th Century Chlorite Height:

Ardhanarishvara

16 inches (40.6 cm)

Ardhanarishvara is an androgynous deity composed of Shiva and his consort, Shakti. Together they represent the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies. The Ardhanarishvara form also illustrates how the female principle of God, Shakti, is inseparable from the male principle of God, Shiva. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half-male and half-female, split lengthwise. Shiva is depicted on the right side of the composite figure. He holds a rosary in his primary hand and a trident in the other. The long, matted hair falls from beneath a crown and onto his shoulder. The deity wears a short dhoti, a bracelet, an armband, and an anklet. A sacred thread snakes along his torso. The Shakti side of the figure is identified by the swelling breast and longer lower garment. Shakti holds a mirror in her upper hand and a lotus in her lower one. The two halves share a necklace, a broad, beaded belt, a billowing scarf, and a garland that falls below the knees. Shivas vehicle, the bull Nandi, stands at the gods side.

11
Bronze Height:

Uma-Maheshvara

East India, Bengal Pala Period, 12th century

678 inches (17.5 cm)

Shiva and Parvati sit on a double-lotus base in this portable shrine. Shivas foot rests on the back of his vehicle, Nandi. Parvati sits on Shivas lap, her foot resting on the head of her lion. This intimacy between the figures is characteristic of Uma-Maheshvara during the Pala Period. The conjugal interest of the god and his consort is emphasized further by the positioning of the figuresfacing toward each otherand the manner in which Shiva uses two of his four hands to fondle and caress her. In his other two hands, Shiva holds a lotus and his characteristic trident. Parvati has her right arm wrapped around her lovers neck, and her left hand holds a mirror.

Behind the figures is an ornate prahba. The flattened curls extending from the prahba, as well as the inner curves at the top, where the arch finishes with a decorative point, are typical of twelfth_century metalwork. The multi-tiered and architecturally complex base is also an indicator of a twelfth-century dating, since it relates directly to contemporaneous monuments from this region.1

Susan L. Huntington and John C. Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi Tree: The Art of Pala India (8th-12th century) and Its International Legacy (Dayton: The Dayton Art Institute, 1990), p.175.

12
Sandstone Height:

Heroine Beneath Tree

North India, Madhya Pradesh Chandella Period, 11th century

21 inches (53.3 cm)

A female in salabhanjika pose stands beneath a tree. With her raised right hand, she grasps a branch, and with her left, holds the end of a sash that encircles her hips. This upward stretch exposes and draws deliberate attention to the figures pliant form. She wears a clinging lower garment with a sparse, incised pattern. Her upper body is bare except for jewelry. The figures mood seems pensive, as the head is tilted slightly down and cocked to the side, and her eyes are almost closed. This sculpture may be depicting a dejected heroine suffering from unrequited love. The two lovebirds on the intertwined leafy tendrils, which form a halo above the ladys head, seem to reiterate this theme. By the eleventh century, Indian sculptors had become extremely skilled in transforming stone into twisting and alluring representations of the human form. As an example of his sculptural dexterity, the carver has shown both the front and side views of this figure, creating an image with convincing animation. The pronounced facial features of the figure bear a close stylistic similarity to contemporaneous sculptures from the Khajuraho region in Madhya Pradesh.1 These celestial female figures would originally have decorated the temple walls.

For comparison see Pratapaditya Pal, Asian Art at the Norton Simon Museum Volume 1: Art from the Indian Subcontinent (New Haven and London: Yale University Press and The Norton Simon Art Foundation, 2003), fig. 99, p. 141; Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculpture from North India A.D. 700-1200, eds. Vishakha N. Desai and Darielle Mason (New York and Ahmedabad: The Asia Society Galleries and Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd, 1993), fig. 74-75, p. 128, fig. 46, p. 217.

13
Granite Height:

Ganesha

South India, Tamil Nadu Vijayanagara Period, 14th - 15th century

42 inches (107 cm)

A large, powerfully modeled image of Ganesha carries an axe, noose, his own broken-off tusk, and a bowl of sweets into which he dips his trunk. The short lower garment is tied below the sensual, swollen belly, and the kati sutra cord spans the bellys girth above the navel. The elephant-headed god wears a crown with an intricate decorative treatment. The softly modeled form sways gently in tribhanga (thrice-bent posture), creating a graceful movement that is echoed by the sensitive facial expression. He stands on a double lotus pedestal. The lord of good luck, knowledge, wisdom, and auspicious beginnings, Ganesha is also renowned for his practicality and insight. A popular story is told of how, despite his clumsiness and bulk, Ganesha beat his athletic younger brother, Skanda, in a competition. Shiva and Parvati challenged their sons to a race: The one who went around the world first would receive a special prize. As Skanda raced off on his peacock, Ganesha and his mouse simply circumambulated his parentsmaintaining that Shiva and Parvati comprised the entire worldand won the contest with ease.

14
Central Java 11th century Bronze Height:

Kubera

8 inches (20.3 cm)

Kubera, the god of wealth, was a popular figure in Javanese culture. Here, he sits in the posture of royal ease, lalitasana, with his right foot resting on a lotus blossom that grows from a double-lotus base. With his left hand, he dangles a bag of money, and with his right, he holds a mongoose. Kubera wears royal attire with a profusion of jewelry, including earrings, a necklace, armbands, a belt, and anklets. He is further adorned with an elaborate kiritamukuta (headdress), from which curls of hair spill out onto his shoulders. Kubera has a delicately carved face with almond-shaped, heavy-lidded eyes, a wide nose, full lips, and round cheeks. As he is clothed only from the waist down, his jovial belly is bare. The fine details of the figure are in sharp contrast to the simplicity of the flat, angular base. Except for the squared tiers, the base is unadorned. The stylizing of the jewelry and modeling of the figure are distinctly Javanese. The detailing of the crown and shaping of the lotus base help date the sculpture to the eleventh century. Javanese bronzes from this period are rare, and the details and condition of this example are superb.

15
Bronze Height:

Dancing Hevajra

Cambodia, Angkor Period Bayon Style, 12th century

938 inches (23.8 cm)

Hevajra is the chief deity of the Tantric path to enlightenment. In his characteristic dancing pose, Hevajra tramples the four Mara, or personifications of evil (which are missing here). The god is unmistakably identified by his eight heads, four legs, and sixteen arms. The two pairs of legs are depicted by a bisecting line that makes each leg appear as two. His feet are, however, are doubled, making him appear to have ten toes on each foot. Each one of his sixteen hands is held in vitarkamudra, or debate gesture, and holds a figure. In his right hands, he holds eight distinct animals, with an elephant in the bottom hand, and a lion in the top hand. Each animal represents one of the supernatural powers of the deity. In his left hands, he holds eight human figures, all kneeling in the same pose, representing Hevajras microcosmic and macrocosmic aspects. His eight heads, each of which displays a third eye, are arranged in three tiers. The figure stands bare chested, a sampot about his waist. A sash holds the cloth in place, with an elaborately shaped tail hanging between the legs. Two large flowers etched into the sash correspond to the tiny floral design carved into the moon-shaped foldover of the sampot. His profusion of jewelry includes anklets, armbands, bracelets on all sixteen arms, a multi-tiered necklace, and matching earrings and crowns on the eight heads. The Bayon style was marked by particularly elaborate incising of its figures. The markings of the eyes in this example are deeply cut, as is the incising on the necks supporting the bottom three heads. A line also traces down the length of his abdomen, terminating at the navel. The eyes are more slanted than in earlier styles, and the lips have become wide and straight.1

For other examples of Bayon-style Hevajra figures, see Helen Ibbitson Jessup and Thierry Zephir, Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory (Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1997), pp 316-319

16
Tibet 17th century

Shadbhuja Mahakala

Bronze repouss with polychrome Height: 2014 inches (51.4 cm)

Mahakala, or the Great Black One, is a dharmapala (protector of religious law) in Vajrayana Buddhism. He is the fierce form of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of absolute compassion. Mahakala uses this terrific manifestation to conquer evil and overcome negative elements, which are often personified as demonic figures. In this large sculpture, the Mahakala is shown with six arms, which identify him as Shadbhuja Mahakala. The six arms signify the successful completion of the six perfections (shadparamita), which are practiced and brought to perfection by bodhisattvas during the course of their training. His three eyes bulge, and his mouth twists into a snarl. His fearsome hair terminates in flames. A tiger skin, tied around his waist, forms his dress. The dharmapala would originally have trampled on the separately cast elephant-headed demon Vinayaka, who symbolizes delusion. The wrathful posture of the parted legs indicates that this is probably the terrible form of Shadbhuja Mahakala preferred by the Gelugpa sect, for whom Mahakala was the principal protector.

17
Tibet Ca. 1700-1750

Shadbhuja Mahakala and Companions

Mineral pigments and gold on silk Dimensions: 23 x 2914 inches (58.4 x 74.3 cm)

Mahakala stands over a fallen figure of Vinayaka, the elephant-faced demon, on a lotus base. Shadbhuja Mahakala is identified by his attributes, which he holds in each of his six hands. In his primary two hands, he holds a ritual knife, or kartrika, and a skull-cup. The remaining hands hold a rosary of skulls, a kettledrum, a noose, and a trident. A third eye is on his forehead, and a skull-studded crown is on his head. Around his neck, Mahakala wears serpents and a necklace of severed heads that hangs down to his knees. A fur pelt is tied about his waist, a golden nimbus encircles his head, and a crimson prahba arches over him. Over the apex of the prahba, a khyung is perched. Serving as Mahakalas messenger, the khyung is a mythical bird-like creature similar to a garuda. Various other deities surround him. They have been labeled, but some of the inscriptions are no longer legible. In the lower right-hand corner, Palden Llamo, Mahakalas consort, sits astride her mule, as she rides through a sea of blood. Her saddle is made from human skin, and a sun radiates from her navel. In the upper right-hand corner is Brahma, holding a vase and identified by his multiple heads and his goose mount.

He represents the zenith of the ten directionsthe heavens. To the bottom left is Nandikeshvara, seated on a lotus, and also holding a vase. Nandikeshvara represents the directional nadirearth. Centered below Mahakala is a mandola of the remaining eight guardians of the directions. Indra (east) appears at the top of the circle, on a white elephant and holding a vajra, followed by Agni (southeast), on a goat with a rosary. Yama appears as the south, riding a buffalo and holding a club, followed by Nairiti (southwest), on a corpse with a sword. Varuna (west) appears at the bottom, riding a makara and carrying a serpent-noose. Vayu (northwest) is identified by his banner and his stag, and Kubera (north) rides a bovine. Last, Ishana (northeast) rides a bull and carries a trident. This style of thangka painting, involving mineral pigments and gold on black or dark-blue backgrounds, is referred to as nag-tang. Its subject matter is almost exclusively wrathful deities, this example being no exception. Although some earlier examples have been known, the nag-tang style did not come into widespread use until the seventeenth century.1

For general discussion on the evolution of this technique, see Robert Linrothe and Jeff Watt, Demonic Design: Himalayan Art and Beyond (New York, Rubin Museum of Art, 2004) pp. 30-36.

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Southwest India, Goa 18th Century Ivory Height:

St. Catherine of Alexandria

11 inches (27.9 cm)

St. Catherine of Alexandria has figured prominently in the history of Goa. Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal defeated Adil Shah of Bijapur, leading to the capture of Goa in 1510. Since the victory occurred on the feast of St. Catherine, Afonso commissioned a chapel to be built and named in the saints honor. In 1552, Gov. George Cabral decided to enlarge the earlier structure, and construction began in 1562, in the reign of King Dom Sebastio. St. Catherines Chapel was completed in 1619 and consecrated in 1640. This image of St. Catherine shows the saint with a wheel and sword, the attributes representing her martyrdom. In the third century, Catherine was put to death by Maximin II of Alexandria (who shared the imperial crown with Constantine), by first being tied to a breaking wheel, then beheaded with a sword. St. Catherine is wearing a long-sleeved garment that covers her feet, and a cape draped over her shoulders is held by a clasp at the neck. A separately carved crown would have adorned her head.

19

Jina Mahavira

South India, Mysore Late 18th- early 19th century Opaque watercolor and gold on board Dimensions: 2378 x 1934 inches (60.6 x 50.2 cm)

Vardhamana Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and last Jina, is the central figure in this elaborate painting. He is identified by his golden color and the presence of his lion vehicle at the base. He is flanked by his loyal attendants. Both the yaksha and yakshi are depicted as blue, and are dressed in royal green and gold, and adorned with crowns and jewels. Mahavira stands within a shrine with a kirtimukha above him.

The frieze below Mahavira is of Jina Parsvanatha, who sits under a naga hood with a serpent at his feet. The naga couple, Nagaraja and Nagini, flank him. To either side of the trio are two attendants holding staffs. In the central bottom frieze, the image of the goddess Chakresvari is seated within a red and gold shrine. Her left leg is tucked under her, and her right leg hangs down. In her upper hands, she holds two chakras, or wheels. Chakresvari, draped in rich green garments, is flanked by two female chauri bearers dressed in pink. All three figures wear matching crowns. Surrounding these three friezes are individual images of the other twenty-two jinas, as well as forty-four gods and goddess, all identified with small inscriptions in Tamil. Each figure is seated in front of a red or green background. This compartmental type of composition was common in Jain paintings. As its popularity in South India waned, fewer and fewer Jain images were made, making later-period images like this one quite rare.

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Jada Nagam

West India, Rajasthan 19th century Gold, ruby and emerald beads, pearls, on cotton thread Length: 24 inches (61cm)

During festivals and celebrations, Indian women were often adorned with jewels from head to toe. One of the most elaborate pieces of jewelry was the jada nagam, or braid ornament. The ornament always depicted a naga, which, is this context, symbolized fertility. Central to this elaborate jada nagam is a dancing Shiva figure under a naga hood. Each of the five cobra heads has a pink pearl above it and holds a ruby bead dangling from its mouth. The body of the naga coils down into a figure eight, with makaras, adorned with emerald beads, at either side. Below the naga are two registers of delicately carved flowers alternating with leaves. Just below the floral design is a small relief of Krishna Venugapala, standing in front of a cow and flanked by two gopis, and with scrolling foliage encircling all three figures. Stretching down from the Krishna relief are twenty chevron-shaped sections of graduated sizes, each with the same pattern and with gold beads hanging from either side. A kirtamukha is in the center, flanked by makaras. The final chevron-shaped piece features a flower flanked by two makaras. The bottom section has an inverted makara with an elaborate headpiece. The jada nagam is held together with three black cotton ropes, said to represent the three sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati, and finished with three large tassels, each adorned with gold beading and green, red, and gold thread.

21
Delhi, Mughal Ca. 1770

Bhils Hunting Deer

Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper Dimensions: Painting: 718 x 412 inches (18.1 x 11.4 cm) Folio: 1338 x 914 inches (34 x 23.5 cm)

Under a moonlit sky, a group of young men in a craggy landscape are hunting deer. Their settlement, a cluster of huts, can be seen on the far side of a distant river, and, on the riverbank, in front of the huts and near a small fire, sit two older men, smoking a hookah. By their attire, the hunters can be identified as Bhils, a tribal people of Central and Western India. The Bhils, respected for their knowledge of the terrain, were employed by the Rajputs during the feudal and colonial periods, and often served as scouts or soldiers in the army. Maharana Pratap Singh of Mewar (r. 15401597), for example, kept a company of Bhils who carried out an effective guerilla campaign against the Mughals.

The scene of Bhils hunting deer at night was popular and repeated throughout the Rajput and Mughal painting centers.1 To their contemporaneous urban inhabitants, the Bhils represented a paradisiacal lifestyle, and artists enjoyed the dramatic possibilities of showcasing them against the dark shadows of night.2

See Toby Falk and Mildred Archer, Indian Miniatures in the India Office Library (London: Sotheby Parke Bernet, 1981), fig. 499, p. 249; Linda York Leach, Mughal and Other Indian Paintings (London: Scorpion Cavendish Lt, 1995), fig. 6.331, pp. 691-693. Leach, p. 693.

22

Thewa Snuffbox

Western India, Rajasthan, Pratapgarh 19th century Gold washed silver, gold and green glass Dimensions: 412 x 338 x 34 inches (11.4 x 8.6 x 1.9 cm)

This delicately adorned snuffbox depicts a hunting scene, a common subject matter of thewa art from the nineteenth century. A figure being attacked by a tiger is central to the composition, and along the left-hand side are three hunters, all pointing rifles toward the cat. On the right sits a nobleman on horseback, and another figure is perched on a tree branch overhead. Below the hunters is a register with four antelopes. The background is filled with three flowering trees, and a scrolling floral border traces the perimeter of the scene. A silver snuffbox, with gold wash on both the exterior and interior, is the mount for this intricate thewa design. All four sides of the box are also adorned with thewa work, using matching floral vines framed in a chevron pattern. It is believed that the art of thewa was invented in the mid-eighteenth century by a jeweler in Pratapgarh, Rajasthan. The process involves the fusion of thin sheets of gold with glass. Miniature filigree designs are cut from sheets of gold, and embossed with tiny details. The filigree is then placed on a piece of colored glass and heated until the gold and glass fuse together. The gold typically used is 24 karat, ensuring that it is flexible, yet still strong enough to withstand the heating process. Thewa art gained popularity in the nineteenth century, when it became a valued commodity for the tourist trade.1

For similar examples, see the Victoria and Albert collection, London, at www.collections.vam.ac.uk.

23

Maharana Raj Singh II Rides the Elephant, Hawa, in Procession

Possibly by Nuruddin or his workshop Rajasthan, Udaipur Ca. 1755 Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper Dimensions: 1914 x 1712 inches (49 x 44.5 cm)

Inscribed in Devanagari on the reverse: chitaro deva nagare kidho deva ni abhavi janamo pure him (painter from Devanagar arrived and presented on [Maharanas ?] birthday). maharajadhiraja maharana sri raj singhiji ri surat ro pano/ hathi asavar hawa somai cundavat jodh singhji kunwar karta huvo (Maharana Raj Singh in his painting riding the elephant Hawa and accompanied by Kunwar Jodh Singh) . Further inscribed on the reverse above the inscription: Nam 140 (number 140 deleted)/ ki 115 (valuation Rs. 115) Mewar Royal Collection, inventory number 18/128.

The youthful and nimbused Maharana Raj Singh II of Mewar (r. 1754 1762) rides the elephant Hawa, accompanied by numerous retainers on foot. Kunwar Jodh Singh sits with him in the howdah, holding a chauri (flywhisk). The royal retinue includes standard- and chauri-bearers, soldiers, dancing girls, and female attendants. The background is an expansive, flat, teal space, with a narrow band of rolling, dark-gray clouds at the top. A similar painting of Maharana Raj Singh II is in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, and is attributed to the artist Nuruddin.1 By the middle of the eighteenth century, internal strife and external forcessuch as the Maratha Empirehad mostly exhausted the resources of the Mewari maharanas, and the quality of the painting in Mewar had generally declined. For this reason, the work of Nuruddin was all the more exceptional for its time. Since the piece shown here is stylistically very close to the National Gallery of Victoria example, it is quite possible that it was also painted by Nuruddin or his royal workshop.
1

See Andrew Topsfield, Paintings from Rajasthan in the National Gallery of Victoria (Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria, 1980), fig. 150, p. 108.

24
Punjab Hills, Kangra Ca. 1825

Radha and Krishna in a Pavillion

Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper. Dimensions: 814 x 5134 inches (21 x 14.5 cm)

Radha and Krishna lie in a close and tender embrace within a hexagonal marble pavilion in a secluded glade, enjoying the manifold pleasures of the setting as a prelude to making love.1 Nature echoes the lovers, and the trees in front of the pavilion lean toward each other, their leaves and branches entwining. A flowering vine has coiled its sinuous form around the trunk of a tree to the right, bursting into flower in the branches above. A peacock perched on the branches calls to the birds fluttering in the trees. Other trees and blossoms intertwine to enclose the lovers from the left. The pavilion juts into a lake full of pink lotus flowers and green lotus leaves. Radha and Krishna rest on a soft bed of white flowers strewn on green leaves. Krishna wears a yellow robe and hat, copious jewelry, and a long floral garland. Radha is clad in a sheer, saffron garment that slips away to reveal her body. The smiling faces of the lovers, the abundant blossoms amid the verdancy of nature, and the birds in song, all combine to create a celebratory mood imbued with divine love. The dark, billowing clouds are edged with gold and tinged with purple.2

The style of the painting and oval form, may be compared with a group of fourteen oval Rasakapriya paintings of similar date at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London; see W. G. Archer, Indian Paintings from the Punjab Hills (London: Sotheby Parke Bennet, 1973), vol. I, pp. 305-306, Kangra 66 (i-xiv); vol. II, p. 228-230, pls. 66(i, ii, iii, iv, v. vi). A similar painting from Simur (Nahan), in the Archer Collection of Pahari Miniatures, is published in W. G. Archer, Visions of Courtly India (Washington DC: The International Exhibitions Foundation, 1976), cat. no. 79, pp. 150-151.

25
Silver Height:

Chhatri

North India, Punjab Plains 19th century

1114 inches (28.6 cm)

An elegant, dome-shaped chhatri, or umbrella, is covered with ornate patterns and designs. Central to the composition of the chhatri is a band of seated figures, each depicting one of the ten Sikh gurus. Guru Nanak Dev is the largest figure, seated facing forward and wearing a topi. A sunburst nimbus encircles his head. The remaining nine gurus appear in the circumference of dome, all facing toward Guru Nanak Dev, five facing to their left, and four to their right. Scrolling designs fill the rest of the register. Below the gurus is a band of delicately carved flowers, with leaves radiating from each blossom. Three registers of scrolling foliage decorate the top. A chain feeds through the top opening and into a cone-shaped adornment carved with leaves and scrolling vines. A symbol of nobility and the divine, the chhatri has appeared in depictions of Indian culture for centuries. As Sikhism was established in northern India, the umbrella began to be affiliated with the gurus. In sculpture and painting, gurus are often shown with an attendant holding an open parasol overhead. A chhatri such as this would have been used at a religious site, hung over the place where a guru would sit and pray.

26

Portrait of Kharak Singh

North India, Punjab Hills, Lahore Ca. 1840 Gouache and gold on paper Dimensions: 1134 x 914 inches (29.8 x 23.5 cm) On a palace terrace, Kharak Singh sits atop a round, pink, yellow, and gold rug and leans against a matching bolster. A vibrant orange wrap is draped over a white garment, under which he wears green trousers. His yellow turban, with gold details, is festooned at the forehead with feathers and jewels. An attendant stands behind him, waving a cloth as a flywhisk in his left hand, and holding another with his right. A colorful rug traces the length of the terrace floor with a deep-blue background dotted with yellow and dark-pink flowers, framed in red with yellow lining. The rest of the composition is bare, which was not unusual for Sikh portraits during this time. Upon the death of his father, the revered Ranjit Singh, in 1839, Kharak Singh assumed the throne, marking the beginning of the Sikh kingdoms steady decline. Kharak Singhs reign was short-lived, and within two months he was usurped by his own son, Nau Nihal Singh. Kharak Singh died in November of 1840, only fourteen months after assuming the throne. Nau Nihal Singh, either by coincidence or well-executed plan, was killed in what appeared to be a freak accident on the very day of his fathers funeral.

27
Silver gelatin print Dimensions:

A Large Portrait of a Maharaja

Studio: Bourne and Shepherd, Calcutta Late 19th early 20th century

3034 x 24 inches (78.1 x 61 cm)

Bourne & Shepherd, in Calcutta, is the oldest photography studio still in operation, and one of the oldest established photography businesses in the world. It was, at its peak, the most successful commercial firm in 19th- and early20th-century India. The studio was begun in 1862, when the British photographers Charles Shepherd and Arthur Robertson opened the firm Shepherd & Robertson, in Agra. They moved to Simla in 1864 and became Howard, Bourne & Shepherd, dissolving the previous partnership and merging with Samuel Bourne and William Howard. Howard apparently left the studio after 1868, and only Bourne and Shepherd remained. Bourne and Shepherd were operating in both Simla and Calcutta by 1870, and, in 1876, they opened a Bombay branch, which was operated by Shepherd until 1879, when he left India. At time of Shepherds departure, Bourne & Shepherd was the preeminent photography studio in South Asia. Although the subject of this Bourne & Shepherd photograph has yet to be determined, the portrait nonetheless remains an important example of the studios work. It is one of the largest photographs made by the studio. The royal subject sits formally, his hands on his lap and his head held at a three-quarter view. The gaze is directed to some point in the distance, and the jaw is set firmly, imbuing the subject with confidence and power. He is adorned with a profusion of necklaces and a bejeweled turban with a feather. The photograph was taken in the studio, as the background appears to be a screen. The studio name, Bourne & Shepherd, appears at the lower-right side of the print.

The studios work is preserved at Cambridge University Library, Cambridge; the National Portrait Gallery, London; the National Geographic Society's Image Collection, Washington DC; and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.

28
Delhi 19th century

Akbar and Humayun Portraits

Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper Dimensions: 2178 x 2434 inches (55.6 x 62.9 cm)

Inscriptions in Urdu: large right-hand portrait: Jalalu din Akbar Badshah 948-1013 AH (1542-1605 AD); large left-hand portrait: Hammayu Badshah, 913- 963 AH (1508-1556 AD); top small portrait: Sultana Begam Hammayu; bottom portrait: Jodha Bai Akbar.

A large image of Jalaluddin Akbar Badshah (r. 1556-1605) dressed in royal attire appears at the left of the painting. Akbar was known for his elaborate dress and often designed elements of his own wardrobe. Here he wears an elegant silk robe profusely decorated with delicate gold embroidery, with hints of green, pink, and blue. He is draped abundantly in jewelry consisting mostly of pearls and emeralds. His turban is equally elaborate, complete with silk embroidery, jewels, and feathers. He rests against a red- striped bolster, and a portion of a throne can be seen behind him To the right of Akbar is a large image of his father, Nasir ad-Din Muhammad Humayun (r. 1530-1540, 1555-1556). Akbars father died at a rather young age and is therefore depicted as much younger than his son. Humayun is dressed in a pale-blue garment with gold embroidery. He wears a fur-trimmed overcoat and an ornate necklace. His matching turban has a large jeweled medallion at the front. Humayun

leans against a blue-striped bolster in front of his throne. The small image at top is a portrait of Hamida Begam Hammayu, wife of Humayun, who faces toward him. The bottom image is of Jodha Bai Akbar, who faces toward her husband. Each woman wears a colorful choli under a sheer headscarf. They are both adorned with a profusion of jewelry, including earrings, multiple necklaces, rings, and bracelets. The portraits and labels are outlined in gold. Each image is identified in Urdu, and Akbar and his fathers portraits also show their birth and death dates. The painting is done on cream-colored paper. Royal blue and gold medallions frame out the composition. The background is filled with delicate scrolling foliage done in ink and highlighted with gold. This painting corresponds to contemporaneous images done on ivory. The style and composition are nearly identical to nineteenth-century Company School portraits.1

For examples of nineteenth-century Company School portraits on ivory, see Mildred Archer, Company Painting: Indian Paintings of the British Period (London, Victoria and Albert Museum, 1992), pp. 218-219, 227.

Text:

Aaron M. Freedman Jennifer M. Moore Harish Patel

Design:

Photography: Subhash Kapoor Publisher: Art of the Past, Inc. 1242 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10128 T: 212.860.7070 F: 212.876.5373 artofpast@aol.com www.artofpast.com

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