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PHYS0608

Aleksandra Djurii, Room 315 2859 7946 dalek@hkusua.hku.hk

Course Outline
Basic food molecules pH value Flavors Foams and bubbles Sauces Cakes, bread and cookies Culinary curiosities Kitchen Tools Cleaning
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Reference List
P. Barham, The Science of Cooking, Springer, 2001 P. L. Couteur and J. Burreson, Napoleons Buttons, Jeremy P. Tarcher/ Penguin, 2004 B.G. Osborne , T. Fearn, Near Infrared Spectroscopy in Food Analysis, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1988 H. McGee, The Curious Cook, Wiley Publishing, Inc. , 1990 A. Gardiner , S. Wilson, with the Exploratorium, The Inquisitive Cook, Henry Holt and Company, 1998 R. L. Wolke, What Einstein Told His Cook, W. W. Norton & Company, 2002 R. L. Wolke, What Einstein Told His Cook 2, W. W. Norton & Company, 2002 T. Lister, Kitchen Chemistry, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2005 S. Perkowitz, Universal foam, Walker Publishing Company, Inc., 2000 T. P. Coultate, FoodThe chemistry of its components, Royal Society of Chemistry, 1989 D. Weaire and S. Hutzler, The physics of foams, Oxford University Press, 1999 L. L. Schramm, Emulsions, foams, and suspensions, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA Weinheim, 2005 C. H. Snyder, The extraordinary chemistry of ordinary things, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1998 O. R. Fennema, Food chemistry, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1996 H. McGee, Food and Cooking, Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, 2004 A. Vantal, Book of coffee, Hachette Livre, 1999 A. P. Robert, Book of tea, Hachette Livre, 1999 4

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Water
smallest and simplest of the basic food molecules, just three atoms: H2O, two hydrogens and an oxygen each water molecule is electrically unsymmetrical or polar (has a positive end and a negative end) because

Chapter 1 Basic Food Molecules


Water, Carbohydrates, Proteins & Fats

oxygen atom exerts a stronger pull than the hydrogen atoms on the electrons they share hydrogen atoms project from one side of the oxygen to form a kind of V shape: so theres an oxygen end and a hydrogen end to the water molecules, and the oxygen end is more negative than the hydrogen end
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Water

the diagram shows the orientation of the 2 hydrogen atoms and the 2 other pairs of electrons around the central oxygen atom within a water molecule
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each gray spoke radiating out from the oxygen represents a pair of electrons, so oxygen has filled its outer shell by sharing electrons with the 2 hydrogens

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Water
the significance of having 2 hydrogen atoms on one side of a water molecule is that the oxygen is able to pull the electrons shared with the hydrogen towards it the result is an unequal sharing of the electrons this makes a water molecule polar, in that the oxygen end of the molecule has more electrons (a negative charge), while the hydrogen end has a slightly more positive end (as the electrons are found there less frequently)
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Water

the positive end is able to attract negative ions or the negative end of other polar molecules and vise versa because water does this very well, it is able to dissolve many substances, and it is thus called a universal solvent[]

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Water
the molecules in ice and liquid water are participating in 1-4 hydrogen bonds at any given moment hydrogen bonds in liquid water are fleeting[], and are constantly being formed and broken since the motion of the molecules in the liquid is forceful enough to overcome the strength of hydrogen bonds and break them the natural tendency of water molecules to form bonds with each other has a number of effects in life and in the kitchen
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Water
water forms hydrogen bonds not only with itself, but with other substances that have at least some electrical polarity, some unevenness in the distribution of positive and negative electrical charges major food molecules are much larger and more complex than water,
for example, both carbohydrates and proteins have polar regions

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Water
water molecules are attracted to these regions and cluster around them when they do this, they effectively surround the larger molecules and separate them from each other if they do this more or less completely, so that each molecule is mostly surrounded by a cloud of water molecules, then that substance has dissolved in the water

Thermodynamics of Water Three States of Water

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under normal conditions, water exists in one of three states: solid, liquid, and gas the solid state of water is commonly known as ice pure water at sea level freezes at 0C liquid water is most often used in cooking, and the temperature varies between 0C and 100C water boils at 100 C and becomes steam (the gaseous state) the transition between two states is called a phase transformation 14

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Thermodynamics of Water Three States of Water


Heating curve of water

Thermodynamics of Water Three States of Water

if a cup of water is heated under atmospheric conditions, the heating curve was obtained as shown in previous slide horizontal axis shows time (or more energy added), and the vertical axis is temperature notice that the temperature of water stays constant with added energy during phase transformation this is because all of the energy is used to transform one state to another that no energy is available for heating the water
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Freezing
transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous phases typically involve large amounts of energy compared to the specific heat if heat were added at a constant rate to an ice to take it through its phase changes to liquid water and then to steam, the energies required to accomplish the phase changes (called the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization ) would lead to plateaus in the temperature vs time graph
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Thermodynamics of Water Three States of Water

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Boiling
boiling water is one of the most commonly used heat source in cooking boiling water is undergoing liquid-to-gas transition, and because of this it stays at a constant temperature of approximately 100C this provides a convenient standard for us to control the cooking process as liquid water is heated, the molecules become increasingly mobile
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Boiling
some of the molecules acquire enough energy to escape as vapor these molecules exert a force on the atmosphere, called the vapor pressure[] the vapor pressure is opposed by another force (atmospheric pressure[]), created by a column of air pushing down on the pan water begins to boil when the vapor pressure overcomes the atmospheric pressure

Pressure and boiling

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Water

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Boiling
this means that the majority of water molecules have become energetic enough to escape the surface the temperature at which water boils is related to the vapor pressure required for boiling, which is equal to the atmospheric pressure the implication of this is that as the atmospheric pressure changes, the boiling point of water changes as well
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Interesting Questions in Cooking

Why does water boil at a lower temperature at altitude? Does food cook faster at a higher altitude?

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Cooking at High Altitudes


the temperature of boiling water at sea level is 100C the atmosphere of air surrounding the earth creates a pressure against us and all objects on earth as you increase altitude, the density of the air becomes thinner and exerts LESS pressure (the column of air pushing down is smaller)

Cooking at High Altitudes


therefore, water boils at a lower temperature, and food takes longer to cook for every 1000 ft. in altitude, the boiling point of water decreases by about 1 C a clever appliance designed to take advantage of the pressure-boiling point relation is the pressure cooker if less heat is required, then less temperature is required, then the water will boil at a lower temperature
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Impurities and Boiling Point


the boiling point of water can also be changed by adding impurities, such as salt or sugar, in the water generally, impurities increase the boiling point of water because
impurities dilute the concentration of water the number of molecules that can vaporize at any give temperature decreases

Impurities and Boiling Point


for example, concentrated sugar-water solutions that are used for making candies and caramel boil at temperatures exceeding 150 C

the result is that a higher temperature is required to achieve the same vapor pressure
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Freezing
water freezes when the molecules have slowed down enough to develop bonds upon collision the rate at which freezing occurs is governed by nucleation and growth nucleation [] is the formation of small solids in a liquid the clusters of solids are called the nuclei the rate at which new nuclei form (number of nuclei per second) is the nucleation rate
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Freezing
once the nuclei have formed, they become the landing sites for other molecules to attach onto The growth rate is the rate at which the radius of a nucleus grows after formation the solidification rate is determined by the combination of nucleation and growth rates the size of crystals formed during solidification is determined by the nucleation/growth processes a solidification process with fast nucleation rate and/or slow growth rate will result in many small crystals forming
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Freezing
larger crystals form from slow nucleation rate most liquids decrease in volume upon solidification; water has a rather unique property of expanding during liquid-to-solid transformation this property comes from the hexagonal structure of ice crystals; water molecules form a hexagonal crystal structure, which actually takes up more volume than if the molecules were freely slipping past one another

Freezing
consequently, ice cubes float in water water has highest density at ~4C the freezing point of water at sea level is 0 C this temperature can be changed, however, by adding impurities in water
Sprinkling salt on road surfaces on an icy day melts the ice by lowering the melting temperature
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water expands when it freezes because of its molecular structure, in tandem with the unusual elasticity of the hydrogen bond and the particular lowest energy hexagonal crystal conformation that 29 it adopts under standard conditions

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Freezing
normally the solid phase of a given substance is denser than the liquid phase as the molecules attraction for each other becomes stronger than their movements, the molecules settle into a compact arrangement determined by their geometry in solid water, however, the molecular packing is dictated by the requirement for even distribution of hydrogen bonds

Freezing
the result is a solid with more space between molecules than the liquid phase has, by a factor of about one-eleventh

because water expends when it freezes that water pipes burst when the heat fails in winter; that bottles of beer put in the freezer for a quick chill and then forgotten will pop open

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Liquid water is slow to heat up


due to the hydrogen bonding between water molecules, liquid water has a high specific heat the amount of energy required to raise its temperature by a given amount i.e. water absorbs a lot of energy before its temperature rises in the time that it takes to get an iron pan too hot to handle on the stove, water will have gotten only tepid[]

Liquid water is slow to heat up


before the heat energy added to the water can cause its molecules to move faster and its temperature to rise, some of the energy must first break the hydrogen bonds so that the molecules are free to move faster in the kitchen, it means that a covered pan of water will take more than twice as long as a pan of oil to heat up to a given temperature longer and conversely, it will hold that temperature longer after the heat is removed
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Boiling
as water starts to boil (approaching 100C in temperature), you can see little bubbles of vapor form on the bottom where the water is closest to the fire these bubbles of gaseous water, or steam, rise to the surface and erupt into the air more and larger bubbles form until the entire surface of the liquid is rolling at this temperature, the water changes state and leaps from a liquid into a gaseous form liquid water absorbs a lot of heat as it vaporizes into steam 35

Boiling
hydrogen bonding gives water an unusually high latent heat of vaporization[], or the amount of energy that water absorbs without rise in temperature as it changes from a liquid to a gas cooks take the advantage of it when

bake delicate preparations like custards gently by partly immersing the containers in an open water bath oven-roast meats slowly at low temperatures simmer stock in an open pot

in these cases, vaporization removes energy from the food or its surroundings and causes it to cook more gently

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Condensation
Steam releases a lot of heat when it condenses into water when water vapor hits a cool surface and condenses into liquid water, it gives up that same high heat of vaporization this is why steam is such as effective and quick way of cooking foods compared with plain air at the same temperature in bread baking, an initial blast of steam increases the doughs expansion, or oven spring, and produces a lighter loaf
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Evaporation
if you leave water in a pot at room temperature it will gradually all vaporize into the air, leaving the pot empty and dry this process is called evaporation it takes place at any temperature factors affecting the rate of evaporation:
temperature movement of air humidity of surrounding air surface area of the liquid

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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates[] have the general formula [CH2O]n they function in
short-term energy storage, such as sugar as intermediate-term energy storage, such as starch for plants and glycogen[] for animals as structural components in cells, such as cellulose[] in the cell walls of plants and many protists[], and chitin[] in the exoskeleton[] of insects and other arthropods[]
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Carbohydrates
sugars are structurally the simplest carbohydrates. they are the structural unit which makes up the other types of carbohydrates Monosaccharides[] are single (mono=one) sugars if several sugar rings are joined together, the resulting molecule is called an oligosaccharide[] (oligo means few in Greek)
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides[] are formed when two monosaccharides are chemically bonded together examples are sucrose[]and lactose[]

Common carbohydrates

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Oligosaccharides
oligosccharides are carbohydrate molecules made up of fewer than ten monosaccharide units, and are still generally referred to as sugars rather than starches the three- and four-unit oligosaccharides raffinose[] and stachyose[]are present in beans but are not digestible by humans

Polysaccharides
polysaccharides are large molecules composed of individual monosaccharide units many sugar molecules are joined together to form long strings, e.g. cellulose, amylose[ ]and amylopectin[] a common plant polysaccharide is starch cellulose is the constituent of plant cell walls that gives them stiffness and strength which very few organisms can break and digest in contrast, starch forms a staple food of many plants and animals which possess enzymes that allow them to digest starch
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Sugars
food sugars are made up of rings of 4 or 5 carbon atoms and one oxygen atom, with 1 or 2 more carbon atoms attached on the side of the ring the single ring sugars will generally release more energy than the multiple ring sugars when burnt there are different enzymes for the reduction of different sugars most plants produce sucrose while most mammals tends to produce lactose
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Glucose
Glucose[] is also called dextrose it is a simple sugar, and the most common sugar from which living cells directly extract chemical energy it is found in many fruits and in honey, but always in a mixture with other sugars glucose is the major component of sucrose a chain of two glucoses is called maltose[ ]
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Glucose
it is made up of a single ring and called monosaccharide
it normally exists in a different form other than straight chain formcyclic/ ring structures the ring of glucose consists of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom There are two versions of glucose-glucose and -glucose
for -glucose, the OH at carbon number 1 is below the ring for -glucose, if the OH at carbon number 1 is above the ring

Glucose
cooks encounter it most often as the sweet substance in corn syrup, which is made by breaking starch down into individual glucose molecules and small glucose chains compared to table sugar, or sucrose, glucose is less sweet, less soluble in water, and produces a thinner solution it melts and begins to caramelize[] at around 150C
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The left one is -glucose while the right one is glucose

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Fructose (fruit sugar)


Fructose[] is also called levulose it has the same formula as glucose C6H12O6 fructose and glucose are isomers compounds that have the same chemical formula but different arrangements of these atoms like glucose, fructose is found in fruits and honey, and certain corn syrups are treated with enzymes to convert their glucose into fructose it is sold in pure crystalline form
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Fructose (fruit sugar)


it is the sweetest of the common sugars, the most soluble in water, and absorbs and retains water most effectively our bodies metabolize fructose more slowly than glucose and sucrose, so it causes a slower rise in blood glucose levels, a quality that makes it preferable to other sugars for diabetics it melts and begins to caramelize at a much lower temperature than the other sugars do, just above the boiling point of water at 105C
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Fructose (fruit sugar)


fructose molecule exists in several different shapes when dissolved in water, and the different shapes have different effects on our sweet receptors
the sweetest shape, a six-corner ring, predominates in cold, somewhat acid solutions; in warm solutions, sweet five-corner ring dominates

Sucrose
it the scientific name for table sugar it is a composite molecule made of one molecule each of glucose and fructose consist of two rings joined together and called disaccharides green plants produce sucrose in the process of photosynthesis, and we extract it from the stalks of sugar cane and the storage stems of sugar beets
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it is a useful substitute for table sugar in cold drinks, where it can provide the same sweetness with half the concentration and a calories savings approaching 50% in hot coffee, however, its sweetness drops to the level of table sugar 51

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Sucrose
It is composed of two simple monosaccharides
it contains equal amounts of glucose and fructose but not as a mixture of two different molecules The glucose and one fructose are joined together through the removal of a molecule of water between the OH at carbon number 1 of -glucose and the OH on carbon number 2 of -glucose

Sucrose

Removal of a molecule of H2O between glucose and fructose forms sucrose. The fructose molecule has been turned 180 and inverted in these diagrams.
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Sucrose
it is the second sweetest, after fructose, but is alone in having a pleasant taste even at the very high concentrations found in candies and preserves; other sugars can seem harsh it is also the second most soluble sugartwo parts can dissolve in one part of roomtemperature water and it produces the greatest viscosity, or thickness, in a water solution sucrose begins to melt around 160C and caramelizes at around 170C
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Sucrose
when a solution of sucrose is heated in the presence of some acid, it breaks apart into its two subsugars breaking sucrose into glucose and fructose is often referred called invert sugar or invert syrup Inversion refers to a difference in optical properties between sucrose and a mixture of its components parts invert syrups are about 75% glucose and fructose, 25% sucrose
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Sucrose
invert sugar only exists as a syrup, since the fructose component wont fully crystallize in the presence of glucose and sucrose sucrose inversion and invert sugars are useful in candy making because they help in limit the extent of sucrose crystallization

Lactose (milk sugar)


lactose is the sugar found in milk it is a disaccharide formed from one unit of glucose and one unit of another monosaccharide, galactose[] which is an isomer of glucose: the only difference is that in galactose the OH group at carbon number 4 is above the ring and not below the ring as it is in glucose

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Lactose (milk sugar)


having an OH above or below the ring may seem like a very minor difference, but for those people who suffer from lactose intolerance, it is not to digest lactose and other disaccharides or large sugars, we need specific enzymes called lactase that initially break down these complex molecules into simpler monosaccharides insufficient lactase makes the digestion of milk and milk products difficult and causes the symptoms associated with lactose 59 intolerance, e.g. diarrhea[]

Lactose (milk sugar)

-galactose has C#4 OH above the ring while -glucose has C#4 OH is below the ring. These two molecules combine to form lactose.

Structure of the lactose molecule Galactose on the left is joined through C#1 to C#4 of glucose on the right.
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Sweetness
a sweet taste indicates that fruit is ripe Sour taste tells us there are still lots of acids present unripe fruit may cause a stomachache bitter taste in plants often indicates the presence of a type of compound, known as an alkaloid, which is often poisonous the relationship between chemical structure and sweetness is complicated
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Sweetness
one simple model, known as the A-H,B Model suggests that a sweet taste depends on an arrangement of a group of atoms within a molecule

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Sweetness
these atoms (A and B in the diagram) have a particular geometry, allowing atom B to be attracted to the hydrogen atom attached to atom A this results in the short-term binding of the sweet molecule to a protein molecule of a taste receptor, causing a generation of a signal (transmitted through nerves) informing the brain, this is sweet
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Sweetness
there are many sweet compounds other than sugar, and not all of them are good to eat, such as
ethylene glycol[]: it has a sweet taste but it is very poisonous glycerol: it has a very similar structure to ethylene glycol and also tastes sweet but it is safe to be consumed in moderate amount

it is used as an additive in many prepared foods because of its viscosity and high water solubility it occurs naturally in wine when you swirl a glass of wine, the legs that form on the glass are due to the presence of glycerol increasing the viscosity and smoothness characteristic of good vintages 64

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Starch and Cellulose


the difference between cellulose and starch is in the geometry of the way they are joined:
cellulose molecules are joined in a way that they make stiff molecules that pack tightly together and are held in place by internal hydrogen bonds the geometry of the bonds between the sugar rings in the starch molecules leads to a more open helical structure and fewer internal bonds

Starch and Cellulose

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Starch
starch is formed by many plants in small granules from a cooking point of view, the amount of protein and its location in the starch granules is crucial
starch granules with a high protein content will absorb a lot of moisture at room temperature while those with low protein contents absorb little water
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Starch
starch consists of molecules of the complex carbohydrates amylose and amylopectin packed into a starch granule when you heat flour in liquid, the starch granules absorb water molecules, swell and soften
when the temperature of the liquid reaches approximately 60C the amylose and amylopectin molecules inside the granules relax and unfold, breaking some of their internal bonds (bonds between atoms on the same molecule) and forming new bonds between atoms on different molecules
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Starch
the result is a network that traps and holds water molecules the starch granules then swell, thickening the liquid
Starch granule

Starch
Starch molecules inside Protein molecules around the outside Aggregated Granules Protein molecules absorb water and expand Stretched aggregate

Swollen granule

if you continue to heat the liquid (or stir it too vigorously), the network will begin to break down, the liquid will leak out of the starch granules, and the sauce will separate

Wet protein molecules are sticky and hold granules together

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Gluten sheets form where the proteins are stretched

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Cellulose
cellulose is a polymer of glucose it is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls it forms the fibrous part of the plant cell wall in terms of human diets, cellulose is indigestible, and thus forms an important, easily obtained part of dietary fiber as compared to starch and glycogen, which are each made up of mixtures of - and glucoses, cellulose (and the animal structural polysaccharide chitin) are made up of only glucoses
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Cellulose
the three-dimensional structure of the structural polysaccharides is thus constrained into straight microfibrils by the uniform nature of the glucoses, which resist the actions of enzymes (such as amylase) that breakdown storage polysaccharides (such a starch)

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Cellulose
long cellulose chains pack tightly together, forming the rigid, insoluble fiber of which plant cell walls are constructed cellulose chains lie side by side on bundles the shape of a linkage confers on the structure allows the cellulose chains to pack closely enough to form these bundles which then twist together to form fibers visible to the naked eye
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Cellulose
on the outside of the bundles are the OH groups that have not taken part in the formation of the long cellulose chain, and these OH groups can attract water molecules, thus cellulose can take up water human and all other mammals lack the digestive enzymes needed to break down linkages in these structural polysaccharides so we cannot use them as a food source
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Cellulose
but we do have a digestive enzyme that splits an linkage the configuration is found in the storage polysaccharidesstarch and glycogen storage polysaccharide in plant are amylose and amylopectin storage polysaccharide in animals is glycogen formed mainly in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle
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Cellulose

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Differences in branching

Cellulose Fibers

Amylose Amylopectin Found in plants Glycogen Found in animals

The diagram shows different branching in starch compared with glycogen. The greater the branching, the greater the number of chain ends for enzymes to break down the linkages and the faster glucose can be metabolized
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Cellulose Fibers from Print Paper (SEM x1,080)

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Cooking Sugar
in the kitchen, sugar is a versatile ingredient because sweetness is one of a small handful of basic taste sensations sugar interferes usefully with the coagulation of proteins and so tenderizes the gluten[] network of custards and creams if we heat sugar enough to break its molecules apart, it generates both appealing colors and an increasing complexity of flavor: no longer just sweetness, but acidity, bitterness, and a full, rich aroma
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Honey
honey is largely invert sugar, a mixture of glucose and fructose secondary sources include nectary[] elsewhere on the plant and honeydew, the secretions of a particular group of bugs some nectars are mostly sucrose, some are evenly divided among sucrose, glucose and fructose the most concentrated natural source of sweetness is honey its major ingredient is sugars
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Honey
the stored food of certain species of bees which reaches 80% sugars the principal raw material of honey is the nectar collection from flowers which produce it in order to attract insects and birds the most important sources of nectar [ ]are flowers of plants in the bean family especially clover[] most honey is made from a mixture of nectars from different flowers
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Honey
in the hive[], the bees concentrate the nectar to the point that it will resist bacteria and molds and so keep until it is needed house bees pump the nectar in and out of themselves for 15-20 minutes, repeatedly forming a thin droplet under their proboscises from which water can evaporate until the water content of the nectar has dropped to 50% or 40% the bees then deposit the concentrated nectar in a thin film on the honeycomb which is a waxy network of hexagonal cylinders about 0.2 inch/ 5 mm across 82

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Honey
with the workers keeping the hive air in continuous motion by fanning their wings, the nectar loses more moisture until it is less than 20% water this process is known as ripening[] it takes about three weeks the ripening of honey involves both evaporation and the continuing work of evaporation and the continuing work of bee enzyme
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Honey

Honeycomb, and the anatomy of the worker bee. Worker bees hold freshly gathered nectar in the honey sac, together with enzymes form various glands, until they return to the hive.
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Honey in cooking
with its syrup-like viscosity, glossiness, and range of brown shades, it makes an attractive topping for pastries and other foods it can be substituted for sugar
1 measure of honey equivalent of 1.25-1.5 measures of sugar because it is more hygroscopic or water attracting than table sugar, honey will keep breads and cakes moister than sugar and even absorbing it on humid days
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Honey in cooking
due to its antioxidant[] phenolic[] compounds, it slows the development of stale flavors in baked goods and warmedover flavors in meats bakers can use its acidity to react with baking soda and leaven quickbreads its reactive reducing sugars accelerate desirable browning reactions and the development of flavor and color in the crusts of baked goods in marinades and glazes and other preparations
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Honey in cooking
honey has not been refined the way table sugar and is chemically complex its vitamin content is negligible since the bees get most of theirs from the pollen its antibacterial properties which led early physicians to use it to dress wounds, are due largely to hydrogen peroxide, one of the products of glucose-oxidizing enzyme

Honey in cooking
honey should not be fed to children less than a year old since it often carries the seed-like dormant spores of the botulism bacterium which are able to germinate in immature digestive systems and infant botulism[ ] can cause difficulty in breathing and paralysis

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Making sugar
the cane stalks were first crushed and pressed, and the resulting juice was cleared of many organic impurities by heating it with lime and a substance such as egg white which would coagulate and trap the coarse impurities in a scum, that could be skimmed off the remaining liquid was then boiled down in a series of shallow pans until it had lost nearly all of its water, and poured into cone-shaped clay molds then it was cooled, stirred, and allowed to crystallize into raw sugar, a dense mass of sucrose crystals coated with a thin layer of syrup 89

Making sugar
the clay cones were left to stand inverted for a few days, during which time the syrup film would run off through a small hole in the tip in the final phase, a fine wet clay was packed over the wide end of the cone, and its moisture was allowed to percolate through the solid block of sugar crystals for eight to ten days the resulting sugar was generally yellowish
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Making sugar
the sucrose is whitened by the technique of decolorization[], in which granular carbona material like activated charcoal [ ]that can absorb undesirable molecules on its large surface areais added to the centrifuged, redissolved sugar after it absorbs the last remaining impurities, the charcoal is filtered out the final crystallization process is carefully controlled to give individual sugar crystals of uniform size table sugar consists of purely 99.85% sucrose
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Making Sugar
Sugar cane Refined sugar 1. wash 2. dissolve Cane juice 1. heat, clarify 2. heat under vacuum, evaporate water and concentrate Dark brown syrup 1. crystallize 2. centrifuge
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1. wash, mill

3. clarify, decolorize 4. evaporate, crystallize 5. centrifuge Raw sugar

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Sugar

Caramelization
Caramelization[] is the chemical reactions that occur when any sugar is heated to the point that its molecules begin to break apart this destruction triggers a remarkable cascade of chemical creation the more the sugar is cooked, the less sugar and sweetness remain, and the darker and more bitter is gets

Under a microscope, you can see that sugar crystals arent cubes, exactly, but oblong and slanted at both ends.
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Jam
sugar helps set preserves by interacting with pectin, a carbohydrate that forms an invisible network that sets jams and jellies without sufficient sugar, pectin molecules would be more likely to bond with water than with each other but sugars affinity for moisture takes some water out of circulation, leaving pectin[] molecules free to reach each other

Jam
the successful setting of jams and jellies depends on a balance between pectin, acid, and sugar if you want a low-calorie jam, try low-sugar pectin
they gel differently as pectin combines with calcium and very little sugar less sugar means jams and jellies spoil more easily, so consider making your low-calorie jam the freezer variety, or process it in a hot water bath

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the considerable amount of sugar in regular jams also acts as a preservative, to keep microorganisms from growing 96

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Proteins
Protein[] is a special class of polymers made up by joining together amino acids[ ] there are more than 20 different amino acids and each amino acid is made up of about 20 atoms possible to select from the almost infinite range of possible protein molecules ones that have particular shapes and perform specific tasks
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Proteins
the shape of the proteins gives them particular biological function,

e.g. the protein haemoglobin is designed to carry oxygen around in the blood

the shapes of protein molecule is determined both by the sequence of amino acids along its length and by internal bonds between different amino acids there are several types of internal bonds that can form links between the amino acids in proteinsdisulphide bridge or hydrogen bond
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Model of the -helix


the polypeptide backbone is folded into a spiral that is held in place by hydrogen bonds (black dots) between backbone oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms note that all the hydrogen bonds have the same polarity the outer surface of the helix is covered by the side-chain R groups
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Denaturation
Denaturation[] is the process that the internal bonds of the proteins are broken and thus their shape changes from that in the natural state heat in cooking is a cause of denaturation all molecules vibrate all the time amplitude of these vibrations increases as the temperature is increased if the vibrations are strong enough, the molecules can literally shake itself free of its internal bondsuse this property of proteins to fight infection
viruses are complex molecules which can be very sensitive to heating
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Denaturation
most proteins are denatured at temperatures around 40C when the proteins are heated to higher temperatures, they start to undergo chemical reactions that can cause them to break up or to join together into even larger molecules
e.g. when cooking an egg, the egg proteins denature once the temperature is above 40C and they start to react together to cook the egg once the temperature is above about 75C which makes the egg changes from liquid solution of proteins into solid mass
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Gluten
the wheat kernel contains several proteins, including gliadin[] and glutenin[ ] when you mix flour with water, gliadin and glutenin clump together in a sticky mass kneading the dough relaxes the long gliadin and glutenin molecules, breaking internal bonds between individual atoms in each gliadin and glutenin molecule and allowing the molecules to unfold and form new bonds between atoms in different molecules the result is a network structure made of a new gliadin-glutenin compound called gluten
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Gluten
gluten is very elastic the gluten network can stretch to accommodate the gas (carbon dioxide) formed when you add yeast to bread dough or heat a cake batter made with baking powder or baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), trapping the gas and making the bread dough or cake batter rise when you bake the dough or batter, the gluten network hardens and the bread or cake assumes its finished shape
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Gluten
glutenin gliadin

gluten (gliadin + glutenin)

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Effects on egg proteins by heat

Effects on egg proteins by heat


chances are the custard without the benefit of the water bath is full of little holes and oozing liquid taste it and you will find the texture is quite rubbery
that is because the egg proteins have coagulated, then toughened, squeezing out liquid as theyre exposed to prolonged heat the same phenomenon occurs when an egg is cooked in a sizzling frying pan
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prepare a baked custard mixture, pour it into individual serving dishes, and place all except one in a shallow pan with hot water halfway up the sides of the custard on the oven rack beside the water bath, and bake all the custards the same length of time compare this custard to one cooked in the water bath when they are cooled, turn each onto a plate and examine it carefully

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Effects on egg proteins by heat


the white gets tough and rubbery and has little holes throughout where water has leaked from the coagulating white even for frying eggs, gentle heat is preferable

Cooking egg
the proteins of egg white are globular proteinstake shapes similar to the micelles that soap and detergents form in water
as a result they move around easily in the blood and other fluids, available to do their chemical work where they are needed enzymes are examples of globular proteins

the hydrogen bonds of egg whites proteins hold the long protein molecules in their globular form, giving the white its characteristic consistency and transparency
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Cooking egg
heating an egg white, as we do when we cook the egg, overcomes the hydrogen bonds that hold the protein in its higher structures and allows the molecule to unravel it comes in contact with other protein molecules which have also unraveled from their globular shapes it is a way to denature the native proteins of an egg white the heat breaks the hydrogen bonds that hold its molecules in their native secondary and higher structures
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Cooking egg
the proteins then regroup on other ways that produce the texture and appearance of the cooked egg another way to denature proteins is by stretching the molecules

happens when liquid is accelerating, all the liquid becomes stretched out, provided that the flow is fast enough, the proteins dissolved in it can be extended in a static solution, the proteins are in the natural state and they are tight coils in the flow, the proteins can stretch out and become long strings
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Fats and Oils


fats and oils are members of a large chemical family called lipids they are invaluable in the kitchen: they provide flavor and a pleasurable and persistent smoothness they tenderize many foods by permeating and weakening their structure they are cooking medium that allows us to heat food well above the boiling point of water, thus drying out the food surface to produce a crisp texture and rich flavor
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Fats and Oils


since they dont mix with water, lipids are well suited to the job of forming boundariesmembranes between watery cells fats and oils themselves are created and stored by animals and plants as a concentrated, compact form of chemical energy, packing twice the calories as the same weight of either sugar or starch
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Fats and Oils


fats and oils are members of the same class of chemical compounds, the triglycerides[ ] they differ from each only in their melting points: oils are liquid at room temperature, fats are solid natural fats and oils are triglycerides, a combination of three fatty acid molecules with one molecule of glycerol[]
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Fats
all fats produced by plants and animals are used to store energy energy is released by a process called oxidation which is the reaction of fat with oxygen this reaction generates a lot of heat fats consist a short strings of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms most fat encountered in cooking have three strings all joined together at one end (about 10 to 20 carbon atoms in each string)
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Fatty acids
every molecule of fat incorporates their molecules of fatty acids the fatty acids may be either saturated or unsaturated, and they thereby impart those qualities to the fat as a whole fatty acids are generally bad-tasting and foul-smelling chemicals they are tamed by being chemically fastened to a chemical called glycerol, in the ratio of three fatty acid molecules to each glycerol molecule
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Fatty acids
three fatty acid molecules tied to a glycerol molecule constitute one molecule of fat fatty acids are the acids that are found as components of fats they are members of a larger family that chemists call carboxylic acids they are very weak acids a fatty acid molecule consists of a ling chain of as many as 16-18 carbon atoms, each one of which carries a pair of hydrogen atoms
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Fatty acids
if the chain contains its full complement of hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid is said to be saturated[] but if somewhere along the chain one pair of hydrogen atoms is missing, the fatty acid is said to be monounsaturated if two or more pairs of hydrogen atoms are missing, it is said to be polyunsaturated some common fatty acids are stearic acid (saturated), oleric acid (monounsaturated) and linoleic and linolenic acids (polyunsaturated)
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Saturated & Unsaturated Fats


fats are distinguished by degree of saturation a saturated lipid is one whose carbon chain is saturated with hydrogen atoms: there are no double bonds between carbon atoms, so each carbon within the chain is bonded to two hydrogen atoms double bonds in unsaturated fats are easier sites for oxidation
atmospheric oxygen can react with unsaturated fats at quite low temperatures which recognizes as the fat going rancid if a vegetable oil is left open at room temperature, it quickly oxidizes and becomes rancid
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Saturated & Unsaturated Fats


why are saturated fats regarded as being less healthy than unsaturated fats?
because saturated fats have higher melting temperature if we should get a build up of saturated fats in our arteries, the melting point of the particular fat should be close to or even higher than the body temperature this is a real danger that the fat may solidify in an artery and cut of the flow of bloodleading to high blood pressure or even a stroke
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Saturated fats
saturated fats have the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms each carbon atom in the chain is attached to two hydrogen atoms and two carbon atoms carbon atoms are joined by single bonds

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Unsaturated fat
unsaturated fats have two or more of the carbon atoms joined together by a double bond and have only one hydrogen attached
Mono-unsaturated fatstwo carbons are joined by a double bond Poly-unsaturated fatsseveral pairs of carbons are joined by double bonds

OmegaOmega-3 Fatty Acids


omega-3 fatty acids are unsaturated fatty acids whose first double bond begins at the third carbon atom from the end they are essential in our diet for proper function of the immune and cardiovascular systems omega-3 is the chemists way of telling exactly how far the first missing pair of hydrogen atoms is from the end of the polyunsaturated molecule: it is three places from the end
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OmegaOmega-6 Fatty Acids


Omega-6 fatty acids are fatty where the term "omega-6" signifies that the first double bond in the carbon backbone of the fatty acid, counting from the end opposite the acid group, occurs in the sixth carboncarbon bond The biological effects of the omega-6 fatty acids are largely mediated by their interactions with the omega-3 fatty acids
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Essential Fatty Acids


essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that are required in the human diet they cannot be synthesized by the body from other fatty acids must be obtained from food there are two closely related families, omega-3 and omega 6 in the body, essential fatty acids serve multiple functions
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Essential Fatty Acids


in each of these, the balance between dietary omega-3 and omega-6 strongly affects function
they are modified to make
the eicosanoids[] (affecting inflammation and many other cellular functions) the endogenous[] cannabinoids[] (affecting mood, behavior and inflammation) the lipoxins from omega-6 EFAs and resolvins from omega-3 (in the presence of aspirin, downregulating inflammation) the isofurans, isoprostanes, epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) and neuroprotectin D

Essential Fatty Acids


fatty acids are straight chain hydrocarbons possessing a carboxyl (COOH) group at one end (alpha) and a methyl group at the other end (omega)

in physiology, EFAs are named by the position of the first double bond from the omega end

they form lipid rafts (affecting cellular signaling) they act on DNA (activating or inhibiting transcription factors for NFB, a pro-inflammatory cytokine) 127

For example, the term omega-3 signifies that the first double bond exists as the third carboncarbon bond from the terminal CH3 end of the carbon chain

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Essential Fatty Acids


some of the food sources of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are fish and shellfish, flaxseed, soya oil, canola oil, hemp oil, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables, and walnuts essential fatty acids play a part in many metabolic processes, and there is evidence to suggest that low levels of essential fatty acids, or the wrong balance of types among the essential fatty acids, may be a factor in a number of illnesses
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What is Essential Essential?


termed 'essential' because each was more or less able to meet the growth requirements of rats given fat-free diets human metabolism requires both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids any omega-3 and any omega-6 can relieve the worst symptoms of fatty acid deficiency the essential fatty acids are:
alpha-Linolenic acid (18:3) - omega-3 Linoleic acid (18:2) - omega-6
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What is Essential Essential?


these two fatty acids cannot be synthesised by humans, as humans lack the desaturase enzymes required for their production omega-9 fatty acids are not essential in humans, because humans possess all the enzymes required for their synthesis do not confuse EFAs with essential oils, which are 'essential' in the sense of being a concentrated essence
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Essential Oils
essential
in the sense of being indispensable means simply that the substance is the aromatic essence

they can be obtained in pure form by steam distillation, or by extraction into cold fat, hot fat, or volatile organic solvents that can be evaporated away many essential oils are terpenes, a class of unsaturated hydrocarbons
e.g. menthol in oil of peppermint, limonene in orange and lemon oil, and zingerone
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Olive Oils

Olive Oils
There are five retail grades for olive oils[] :
Extra-virgin olive oil comes from the first pressing of the olives, contains no more than 0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste. There can be no refined oil in extra-virgin olive oil. Virgin olive oil with an acidity less than 2%, and judged to have a good taste. There can be no refined oil in virgin olive oil. Olive oil is a blend of virgin oil and refined virgin oil, containing at most 1% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor. Olive-pomace oil is a blend of refined pomace olive oil and possibly some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but it may not be called olive oil. Olive-pomace oil is rarely found in a grocery store; it is often used for certain kinds of cooking in restaurants. Lampante oil is olive oil not used for consumption; lampante comes from olive oil's ancient use as fuel in oil-burning lamps. Lampante oil is mostly used in the industrial market.
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among food oils, olive oil is unique for being extracted not from a dry grain or nut, but from a fleshy fruit, and for carrying the prominent flavors of that fruit quality is judged by its overall flavor and by its content of free fatty acids, or fatty carbon chains that should be bound up in intact oil molecules but instead are floating free
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pH scale

Chapter 2 pH Values of Common Foods

the acidity of fruits, vegetables, and other ingredients can be measured using a scale called pH the pH of a solution is a measure of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution and as such is a measure of the acidity or basicity of the solution the letters pH stand for "power of hydrogen" the pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration expressed in mole per liter
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pH scale
the logarithm of a number is the exponent, or power, to which 10 must be raised in order to obtain the number each increment of 1 in pH signifies an increase or decrease in portion concentration by a factor of 10 so there are 1000 times the number of hydrogen ions in a solution of pH 5 as there are in a solution of pH 8

pH scale
the usual range of pH values encountered is between 0 and 14 the pH of neutral, pure water, with equal numbers of protons and OH ions, is set at 7 a pH lower than 7 indicates a greater concentration of protons and so an acidic solution, while a pH above 7 indicates a greater prevalence of protons-accepting groups, and so a basic solution
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pH scale
acidic fruits and vegetables, such as lemons and tomatoes, have a pH of less than 7 foods like egg white and baking soda, with a pH greater than 7, are bases, or alkaline

pH scale
note that most foods you eat are acidic even bland vegetables, such as potatoes, are slightly on the acidic side it is a hidden partner in cookingcapable of exerting a strong influence on color, texture and flavor larger concentrations are described by smaller negative exponents, so a more acidic solution will have a pH lower than 7, and a less acidic, more basic solution will have a pH higher than 7
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pH scale
pure water may contain other combinations of oxygen and hydrogen water tends to dissociate to a slight extent, with a hydrogen occasionally breaking off from one molecule and rebonding to a nearby interact water molecule this leaves one negatively charged OH combination, and a positively charged H3O

pH scale
under normal conditions, a very small number of molecules exist in the dissociated state the number is small but is significant because the presence of relatively mobile hydrogen ions, which are the basic units of positive charge, can have drastic effects on other molecules in solution humans have a specialized taste sensation to estimate proton concentrationsourness
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pH scale
the term used for the class of chemical compounds that release protons into solutions, acids, derives from the Latin, meaning to taste sour the complementary chemical group that accepts protons and neutralizes them are called bases or alkalis the standard measure of proton activity in solutions is pH

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Acids and bases


water solutions of all acids
taste sour turn litmus[] red react with certain metals to liberate hydrogen gas

Vitamin C
is an organic acid with antioxidant[] properties the L-enantiomer of ascorbic acid is commonly known as vitamin C. the word vitamin comes from a contraction of two wordsvital (necessary) and amine (a nitrogen-containing organic compound) the C in vitamin C indicates that it was the third vitamin ever identified

water solutions of all bases


taste bitter turn litmus blue feel slippery

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Structure of vitamin C

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Vitamin C
the RDA (recommended daily allowance) of vitamin C for an adult is generally given as sixty mg per day, about that found in a small orange an excess vitamin C is eliminated through the kidneys swallowing a seventy-milligram ascorbic acid pill may not produce quite the same benefits as the seventy milligrams of vitamin C obtained from eating an average-sized orange
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Vitamin C
the main commercial use of vitamin C today is as a food preservative ascorbic acid can be used as
antioxidant: used in home canning of fruit to prevent browning Antimicrobial[] agent: the acidity is increased and can protect against botulism which is the name given to the food poisoning resulting from the toxin produced by the microbe

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Fruits
fruits are unique in the way that they progress from inedibility to deliciousness there are two different styles of ripening among fruits:
dramatic undramatic

Fruits
Dramatic:
when triggered by ethylene, the fruit stimulates itself by producing more ethylene[], and begins to respireto use up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide its flavor, texture, and color change rapidly, and afterwards they often decline rapidly as well such fruits can be harvested while mature but still green, and will ripen well on their own e.g. bananas, pears and tomatoes

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Fruits
Undramatic:
Nonclimacteric fruits dont respond to ethylene with their own escalating ethylene production they ripen gradually and usually dont store sugar as starch once harvested, they get no sweeter, though other enzyme actions may continue to soften cell walls and generate aroma molecules e.g. pineapples, citrus fruits and melons

Fruits
Fruits dont ripen after picking (nonclimacteric) Cherry Citrus fruits (orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit) Cucumber Grape Pineapple Soft berries (blackberry, raspberry, strawberry) Watermelon Fruits continue to ripen after picking (climacteric) Apple Banana Mango Papaya Peach Pear Tomato kiwifruit
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Fruits
these basic styles of ripening determine how fruits are handled in the kitchen using a process called chromatography[ ], scientists can determine what chemical compounds a food contains, producing a display called a chromatogram in chromatograms, showing the flavorproducing compounds of a tree-ripened peach and an artificially ripened one, the difference are striking
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Fruits
the tree-ripened fruit has about twice as many different volatile flavor-producing compoundsand much, much more of each compound Each spike in these chromatograms represents a different flavor compound
Tree-ripened peach Artificially ripened peach

An artificially ripened peach has fewer flavor compounds and less of each compound than a tree-ripened peach

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Fruits
Sugar Content (% of fresh weight) Guava Apricot Peach Pear Cherry Black Currant Grape Orange Pineapple Banana 7 9 9 10 14 10 16 11 13 17 Acid Content (% of fresh weight) 0.4 1.7 0.4 0.1 0.5 3.2 0.2 1.2 1.1 0.3 Ratio of sugar content to acid content 18 5 23 100 28 3 80 9 12 57
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Fruits
as fruits ripen, their sugars accumulate, aromatic compounds form, and the pectin that cements their cells together changes to a more soluble form, so their texture softens fresh fruits do not generally keep well as the ripening process continues in the picked fruits, texture becomes more mushy and flavor deteriorates refrigeration is the key to keep fresh fruits longer as the enzymes that cause ripening work more slowly in the cold
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Sugar and Acid Content of Fruits

Fruits

Esters
many fruits owe their characteristic aroma to chemicals called esters an ester molecule is a combination of two other molecules, an acid and an alcohol

some produce of tropical origin, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, eggplants, bananas, snap beans, peppers, winter squash, and sweet potatoes, however, is subject to injury if its stored at temperatures below 10C, thus they are best stored at cool, but not cold, temperatures
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Esters
a typical plant cell contains many different kinds of acids, and several different kinds of alcohol the alcohols are usually by-products of cell metabolism fruits have enzymes that join these basic cell materials into aromatic esters a single fruit will emit many esters, but one or two account for most of its characteristic aroma
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Color change of vegetables when cooking chlorophyll has a porphyrin ring system with an Mg2+ ion in its centre during cooking, this magnesium ion can be replaced by two H+ ions to give a compound called phenophytin this is brown and is responsible for the color of overcooked vegetables

chlorophyll molecule

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Color change of vegetables when cooking the replacement of Mg2+ by two H+ ions takes place most readily in acidic conditions and this is the reason why some cooks add sodium hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate of soda) when cooking vegetables sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3, is the salt of a strong alkali and a weak acid and is therefore alkaline in solution because of its interaction with water this keeps the cooking water alkaline and minimizes replacement of magnesium ions thus maintaining the green color
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Color change of vegetables when cooking unfortunately, alkalis catalyze the oxidation of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) to dehydroascorbic acid so addition of sodium hydrogencarbonate is not ideal as it accelerates the loss of this vitamin factors that do affect the color of green vegetables during cooking are
the acidity or alkalinity of the water the hardness of the water
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Color change of vegetables when cooking the longer a green vegetable cooks, the more the nature of its chlorophyll changes cooking green vegetables as quickly as possible lessens the damage using tin or iron cooking pans also changes the color of chlorophyll to a dull brown as these metals alter chlorophylls molecular configuration

Color change of vegetables when cooking chlorophyll is equally sensitive to acids not only the acids that you add in cooking like lemon juice, but also the plant acids within the vegetables themselves that escape as the tissues soften in cooking leaving the lid ajar on the saucepan for the first few minutes allows some of the volatile acids to escape, diminishing their effect on the chlorophyll keeping cooking to a minimum also limits chlorophylls exposure to acids
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Color change of vegetables when cooking


if lemon juice is squeezed onto the spinach[] earlier before serving, the acids have time to react with the chlorophyll, turning the spinach an ugly olive color not all natures colors are as sensitive as chlorophyll Carotenoids[], which are responsible for the yellows, oranges, and red-oranges in fruits and vegetables, are very sturdy pigments the colors of carrots, corn, squash, sweet potatoes, and red peppers change only slightly whether you braise with moisture or bake them in dry heat
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Green and Brown


most cut or crushed fruits and vegetables are discolored by some of their enzymes, which react with the scrambled contents of damaged cells to produce a brownish pigment
e.g. avocado and the basil leaf

the torn or cut edges develop a limp margin of darker green

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Green and Brown

Green and Brown


no browning takes place when susceptible produce is left whole, because enzymes and phenolic compounds are segregated by their cell structures and protected from the air by skin it isnt until you cut or bite or peel a piece of fruit that the cell walls are damaged, throwing together the compounds responsible for browning
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raw fruits and vegetables turn brown sometimes after you peel and slice them it happens when compounds called phenols react with oxygen in the presence of plant enzymes to form brown pigments or melanin it contributes to the natural coloring of raisins, prunes, dates, and figs

Ways to Prevent Browning


browning isnt harmful, but you can control it in several simple ways:
refrigerating the cut fruits: it helps prevent browning because enzymes work more slowly at cool temperatures using ascorbic acid: it acts as an antioxidant, combines with oxygen before the air has a chance to reach the phenols responsible for browning using a a sprinkling of lemon juice for small amounts of fruit
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Texture change of Vegetables When Cooking pectins, which are polysaccharides, are present in vegetables, and form waterretaining gels that help to give vegetables their structure during cooking, pectins become soluble and are extracted into the cooking water making the vegetable go mushy

A section of a pectin molecule


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Texture change of Vegetables When Cooking calcium ions, Ca2+, found in hard water, can form cross links between pectin molecules, making them less soluble and keeping the vegetable tough In some countries, the water is relatively hard so:
people cook vegetables in bottled water to reduce this effect and shorten cooking times one of the taps is fitted with a water softener to reduce the level of Ca2+ ions in the water

Texture change of Vegetables When Cooking since most vegetables require some softening during cooking, cooking in hard water means that longer is needed to achieve the optimum softening during this longer cooking time, more chlorophyll is converted to phenophytin and the color of green vegetables becomes browner

the calcium ion content of water can affect the color of cooked vegetables as well as their texture, but indirectly, by its effect on pectin molecules

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Lid on or lid off?


not surprisingly, lid on or lid off makes no difference the lid raises the pressure inside the pan and thus increases the boiling point of the water unless the pan is sealed, there should be no pressure increase and thus no effect on the boiling point

Salts
salts in its mineral form is known as halite, formed from the elements sodium and chlorine salts can be used
to add flavor to food to preserve food, such as curing meats and pickling

salty surroundings discourage the growth of microorganisms responsible for food spoilage and food poisoning as they lose water by osmosis in a salty environment
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Add salts when cooking beans


For cooks, they think adding salts when cooking beans can:
keep the beans green prevent the beans going soggy improve the flavor raise the boiling point of water so the beans cook faster

Add salts when cooking beans


For scientists, they think it seems to be no good reason because:

only the acidity and calcium content of the water affect the color of the beans adding the amount of salt used by cooks does increase the boiling point of water but only by about 0.1 C not enough to make any detectable difference to the speed of cooking vegetables will go soggy if cooked for too long whether salt is added or not very little salt is actually absorbed onto the surface of a bean during cookingtypically 1/10000g of salt per bean which is too little to be tasted by most people
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Saut Saut Onions Separately


sauting softens onions so they meld smoothly into a soup or a sauce this is particularly important if the next step is to combine them with acidic ingredients, like tomatoes or wine if onions are not softened first, acids in the other ingredients will keep them in firm and distinct pieces if you are including onions in a dish such as scalloped potatoes, sauting the onion lets some of their acids evaporate so there are fewer available to curdle the milk in the sauce
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Creating Flavor By Cooking

Chapter 3 Flavors

through chemical reactions, you intensify the flavor of foods by producing volatile compounds that are not present in the uncooked foods chemical reactions that cause food to brown is known as browning reactions browning reactions are responsible for the distinctive flavors of roasted coffee beans, maple syrup, toasted bread, nuts, coconut, dry roasted spices, etc.
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Creating Flavor By Cooking


the temperature at which food cooks also affects its flavor different flavors develop in baking, roasting, frying, or boiling where parts of the food reach appreciably higher temperatures even when cooking has finished, the temperature to which the food has been raised, its degree of doneness, and amount of waiting time all affect the flavors and aromas that develop
3

Flavor Comes From Where?


we can taste molecules of many sizes however, we can only smell comparatively small molecules that are swept up in the air into our noses acids will always taste sour, no matter what their size the overall flavor of a dish comes from the combination of both taste and smell sensations so is determined by a whole range of molecules
4

Flavor Come From Where?


fruits all have characteristic flavors that are carried by small molecules many plants want to advertise that they have fruits available animals then eat the fruits and distribute the seeds as they pass through the digestive systems unharmed so the need for plenty of flavor to encourage consumption of the fruits is a good evolutionary trend
5

The Chemistry of Flavor


cell wall

molecules responsible for flavor in vegetables are normally trapped inside the cell walls during cooking, the cell walls are damaged for two reasons:
chemical damage occurs as the cell walls, which are made of cellulose, break down physical damage occurs as water inside the cells boils forming steam, and the cell walls break
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The Chemsitry of Flavor


cell wall damage results in the loss of flavor moleculesovercooking water-soluble flavor molecules are lost in the cooking water for other vegetables, such as broccoli[ ] or green beans, the flavor molecules are more soluble in oil than in water
therefore it makes sense to cook these vegetables in water rather than oil to retain most flavor in the vegetable
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The Chemistry of Flavor


it is rare for a single substance to be responsible for the flavor of a particular foodstuff it is also true that other senses as well as taste and smell may be involved volatile molecules in food can be separated by gas chromatography[] (GC) and then identified by mass spectrometry[] (MS), the combined technique being called GCMS
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The Chemistry of Flavor


in GC, components are separated as they are carried through a column of absorbent material by a flow of an inert gas different substances pass through the column at different rates and emerge from it at different times called their retention times the mass spectrometer is then used identify them
the mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their charge to mass ratio each molecule has a specific fragment spectrum which allows for its detection

The Chemistry of Flavor


one current area of interest is why certain flavors seem to go well together (like fish and chips or strawberries and cream) one suggestion is that this occurs when both of the components have a number of important aroma molecules in common

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Chemical reactions in cooking


reasons for cooking food:
kill bacteria and other microorganisms in or on the food to make it safe to eat improve the texture, e.g. softening tough meat improve the color, e.g. browning of meat or toast improving the flavor and aroma, e.g. developing the flavor and aroma of cooked meat

Chemical reactions in cooking


there are many important chemical reactions, which help to develop flavor during cooking the first group contains the enzymatic reactions

these are natural chemical reactions that affect the food there are many different enzymes that are present in different foods all foods contain enzymes which control biochemical reactions essential for the life of the organism

the reactions can continue once the organisms are being used as food

e.g. ripening of fruit, setting of cheese, and breaking down of proteins in the ageing of meat
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Chemical reactions in cooking


the second group of reactions are those which affect sugars and carbohydrates when they are heated,

Caramelisation
if the temperature is increased to a sufficient temperature that sugars melt, then more complex reactions occur which start to oxidize the sugar, these are called caramelisation[] reactions caramelisation is the name for the browning that takes place when sugar is heated this is how toffee is made caramelisation begins with the conversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose
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many disaccharide and oligosaccharide sugars will undergo a process known as hydrolysis when heated with some water the water reacts with the oxygen atom joining the sugar rings and breaks the conversion of sucrose to a mixture of fructose and glucose which occurs during the preparation of boiled sweets if sugars are heated further, then additional reactions take place and the rings will open up to form new moleculesthese reactions are generally called degradation reactions degraded sugars form acids 13

Caramelisation
the ring structures of these smaller sugars are then broken open through degradation reactions and these smaller molecules recombine to form chain-like molecules as the complex reactions progress, the color of the system changes from a clear liquid through yellow to dark brown during caramelisation, a whole range of new small flavor molecules are formed many of these molecules have been identified as a range of organic acids that are formed along with the brown colored polymers

Caramelisation

Sugar before (left) and during (right) caramelisation in a pan

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Caramelisation
as the reaction proceeds, so the new molecules that form tend to be more like the alkaloids [] and have increasingly bitter tastes sugars, with general formula Cn(H2O)n, are decomposed into carbon and water (in the form of steam)
Cn(H2O)n nC + n(H2O)

Cooking Meat
reasons for cooking meat:
to produce browning on the outside

this improves the appearance and also produces flavor and aroma molecules at temperatures of above 140 C a group of chemical reactions called Maillard reactions occurs these take place between carbohydrates and molecules with NH2 groups they make the meat brown and also volatile flavor molecules that give the aroma and taste of roast meat

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Cooking Meat
to decompose molecules of collagen that form the connective tissue of meat

Cooking Meat
other undesirable changes may take place during the cooking of meat, e.g. other protein molecules begin to denature at about 40C and cause the meat to harden meat with a high collagen content (large amounts of connective tissue) will have to be cooked at above 60C to break down the collagen, while meat with little connective tissue would be better cooked at 50C or less to prevent hardening
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connective tissue is the thin translucent film that separates layers of muscle it holds muscles together and attaches muscle to bone too much of it makes the meat tough collagen is a protein in the form of a triple spiral at temperatures above 60C the spiral begins to unwind and the collagen softens, eventually turning into gelatine a soft material that is a constituent of jellies

Cooking Meat
the Maillard reactions do not take place below 140C, which would be far too high a temperature for cooking one way round this is for cooks to use a blow torch to heat the surface of the meat to over 140C for a few moments enough for Maillard browning to occur on the surface but not long enough for this temperature to occur in the bulk of the meat

Cooking Meat
the size of the piece of meat is also important meat is a relatively poor conductor of heat so the temperature inside the meat will lag behind that of the surface this is obvious when you carve a joint that has been roasted in the oven the centre of the joint could be relatively raw and red while the surface is brown
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Maillard reactions
they occur between sugars and amino acids the amino acids can come from any proteins and the sugars from any carbohydrates in the first stage of the reactions, the proteins and the sugar from any carbohydrates are degraded into smaller sugars and amino acids then the sugar rings open, the resulting aldehydes and acids react with the amino acids to produce a wide range of chemicals
23

Maillard reactions
the reactions occur between the carbonyl group of a sugar molecule (in the chain form) and an NH2 group to eliminate a molecule of water the NH2 group may be part of an amino acid molecule (that was originally part of a protein molecule) or an amino acid that is still part of a protein chain

in the latter case, it must be an amino acid that has an NH2 group as part of its side chain this side chain is different for each amino acid

24

Maillard reactions
products of the Maillard reactions include polymers that are responsible for the brown color of roast meat and small molecules such as maltol that are responsible for aromas

Enzymic Browning
enzymic browning is responsible for the browning of fruit such as apples and bananas once they have been cut or bruised it is not considered to improve the food because the browned fruit is thought to be unattractive in appearance and the reaction does not result in any aroma molecules this browning is caused by the oxidation of compounds related to phenols[](hydroxybenzenes) that are found inside plant cells

Uncooked meat

The Maillard reactions are evident in the appearance of the meat after 25 cooking

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Enzymic Browning
the oxidation occurs when the cells are damaged by cutting or bruising and become exposed to oxygen in the air and enzymes that catalyse the oxidation the product molecule then polymerises to form the brown pigment

Lactic AcidAcid-Ethanol Fermentations


primary fermentation products of heterofermentative[] lactic acid bacteria, such as Leuconostoc citrovorum[], and the combination of acetic acid[], diacetyl[] and acetaldehyde[] provides much of the characteristic aroma of cultured butter and buttermilk Homofermentative[] lactic acid bacteria produce only lactic acid, acetaldehyde, and enthanol in milk cultures 28

apples before (left) and during (right) enzymic browning


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Lactic AcidAcid-Ethanol Fermentations


acetaldehyde is the character-impact compound found in yogurt, a product prepared by a homofermentative process Diacetyl[] is the character-impact compound in most mixed-strain lactic fermentations, and has become universally known as a diary or butter-type flavorant lactic acid contributes sourness to cultured or fermented diary products Acetoin[], although essentially odorless, can undergo oxidation to diacetyl
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Lactic AcidAcid-Ethanol Fermentations


lactic acid[]bacteria produce very little ethanol, and they use pyruvate[]as the final H receptor in metabolism yeast produce ethanol as a major end product of metabolism Malty[] strains of Streptococcus lactis [] and all brewers yeast also actively convert amino acids to volatile compounds through transaminations[ ] and decarboxylation[] these organisms tend to produce mainly the reduced forms of the derivatives, such as alcohols, although some oxidized compounds, such as aldehydes[], and acids also appear30

Lactic AcidAcid-Ethanol Fermentations


wine and beer flavors, which can be ascribed directly to fermentations, involve complex mixtures of these volatiles and interaction products of these compounds with ethanol, such as mixed esters and acetals these mixtures give rise to familiar yeasty and fruity flavors associated with fermented beverages

Natural Flavor
it is defined as a substance extracted, distilled, or otherwise obtained from plant or animal matter, either directly from the matter itself or after it has been roasted, heated, or fermented a natural flavor does not have to come from the food it is flavoring
e.g. a natural flavor chemical derived from chicken which neednt necessarily taste like chicken, it can be used to flavor a can of beef ravioli

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Artificial Flavor
it is defined by the FDA as any substance that does not fit the definition of a natural flavor synthetic flavoring chemicals are acceptable in all restrictive diets from vegan to kosher, because they are neither animal nor vegetable most of the chemical compounds in both artificial and natural flavors are not recognized as food by our digestive systems and are not metabolized thats why you wont find them listed in the Nutrition Facts chart; they are not nutrients and are at any rate present in only trace amounts 33

Artificial Flavor
each peak represents a different component the height of each peak is related to the amount of that component two identical components would have the same retention time

Gas chromatograms of the volatile components from Coca Cola and Pepsi Cola

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Sugar
sugar combines several useful qualities in one ingredient:

Sugar
the second is high-intensity sweeteners: molecules that provide the sensation of sweetness without supplying many calories, usually because they are hundreds or thousands of times sweeter than sugar, and are used in tiny quantities nonnutritive and low-calorie sweeteners encompass a broad group of substances that evoke a sweet taste or enhance the perception of sweet tastes

there are two main kinds of sugar substitutes the first includes various carbohydrates that provide bulk without being digestible as the sugars
they therefore dont raise blood sugar level as quickly , and supply fewer calories

energy, sweetness, substance, moisture binding, and the ability to caramelize

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Artificial Sweeteners
artificial sweeteners, is also called sugar substitutes, must be approved by the FDA before they can be marketed as well as the geometry of sugars, allowing it to fit and bind to the sweetness receptor, an artificial sweetener needs to be water soluble and nontoxic and not metabolized in the human body these substances are usually hundreds of times sweeter than sugar no artificial sweeteners are free of problems
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Artificial Sweeteners
Ingredient Polydextrose Corn syrup Xylitol Sucrose Fructose crystals Cyclamate Glycyrrhizin Aspartame Acesulfame K Saccharin Sucralose Relative sweetness 0 40 100 100 120-170 3,000 5,000-10,000 18,000 20,000 30,000 60,000 Original source Glucose Starch Fruits, vegetables Sugar cane & beet Fruits, honey Synthetic Licorice root Amino acids Synthetic Synthetic Sucrose + chlorine
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the sweetness of table sugar is represented as 100, a sweetness of 50 means the substance is half as sweet as table sugar

Artificial Sweeteners
some artificial sweeteners decompose on heating and so can be used only in soft drinks or cold foods; some are not particularly soluble; and other have a detectable side taste along with their sweetness, such as aspartame natural nonsugar sweeteners are now being sought from plant sources containing highpotency sweetenerscompounds that can be as much as a thousand times sweeter than sucrose, e.g. Stevia rebaudiana (South American herb), Glycyrrhiza glabra (roots of the licorice plant)

Artificial Sweeteners
artificial sweeteners can be deleterious to health if ingested in very large doses the four that are currently approved for a variety of food uses are aspartame[ ], saccharin[], acesulfame potassium, and sucralose

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Aspartame
aspartame is 100-200 times sweeter than sucrose, is the main ingredient in NutraSweet and Equal It is a combination of two proteins, aspartic acid[] and phenylalanine[ ], and therefore contains the same four calories per gram as any protein and, for that matter, the same four calories per gram as sugar but since its so much sweeter than sucrose, only a tiny amount does the trick

Saccharin
Saccharin[] is the first of the modern artificial sweeteners to be developed (more than 120 years) it has been known for and is about 300 times sweeter than sucrose, is artificial sweetening agent in sweetn Low FDA proposed banning saccharin because of a Canadian study indicating that it causes bladder cancer in humans

Structure of aspartame

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Structure of saccharin

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Saccharin
it is a fine powder it is so sweet that only a very small amount triggers the sweetness response it is non-nutritive it is originally intended as a replacement for sugar in the diet of diabetic patients, it quickly became an accepted sugar substitute for the general population it exhibits a bitter, metallic aftertaste, especially to some individuals, and this effect becomes more evident with increasing concentration
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Acesulfame Potassium
Structure of acesulfame postassium

acesulfame potassium is 130-200 times sweeter than sucrose, is the sweetening ingredient in Sunett and Sweet One is used in combination with other sweeteners in thousands of products worldwide while approved by the FDA, it has been under attack by consumer watchdogs because it is chemically similar to saccharin

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Sucralose
sucralose is 600 times sweeter than sucrose and was approved by the FDA as a general-purpose sweetener for all foods its trade name is splenda it is a chlorinated derivative of sucrose itself, but it doesn't break down significantly in the body

Low Sodium Sodium Salt Substitutes


Salt (sodium chloride) is vital component of our diet both for our health and for its flavoring effect in appropriate quantities it is needed for transmission of nerve impulses and for contraction of muscles some people, who for health reasons require a diet low in sodium, use salt substitutes
it is associated with heart disease, high blood pressure and strokes in excessive amounts

Structure of sucralose

45

these products are either potassium chloride (KCl) or mixtures of sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride LoSalt is an example, it contains 66% KCl, 33.3% NaCl, MgCO3 anti-caking agent 46

Flavor Enhancers
Flavor enhancers contribute a delicious or umami taste to foods when used at levels in excess of their independent detection threshold, and they simply enhance flavors at levels below their independent detection thresholds their effects are prominent and desirable in the flavors of vegetables, diary products, meats, poultry, fish and other seafoods They intensify or magnify certain flavors that are already present the best known members of this group are the 5-ribonucleotides and monosodium Lglutamate (MSG) (XII) 47

Glutamic acid
glutamic acid[] or glutamate[ ], which is one of the most common amino acids found in nature, is a umamitaste compound when glutamic acid is not bound together with other amino acids in proteins, it gives food the distinctive umami taste unbound or free glutamic acid is responsible, in part, for the flavorenhancing characteristics of tomatoes, certain cheeses, soy sauce, and other fermented protein products
48

MSG
monosodium glutamate[](MSG) is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, and adding MSG to foods increases their glutamate content when added to meat broth, MSG increases the overall taste intensity and makes the broth taste meatier humans and other animals do have a specific taste receptor for MSG Chinese Restaurant Syndrome may result after the consumption of MSG and cause headaches and burning sensations 49

Astringency
astringency is often noticed as a dry, puckery feeling in the mucous membranes lining the mouth, caused by the reaction between compounds called tannins or polyphenols with the protein in your saliva It is perceived as a dry feeling in the mouth along with a coarse puckering of the oral tissue

it usually involves the association of tannins of polyphenols with proteins in the saliva to form precipitates or aggregates sparingly soluble proteins such as those found in certain dry milk powders also combine with proteins and mucopolysaccharides of saliva and cause astringency

50

Astringency
astringency may be a desirable flavor property, such as tea

Spices and Herbs


spices and herbs are natural vegetable products used for flavoring, seasoning and imparting aroma to foods spices were used as a preservative and as a flavor enhancer chili peppers grow on a number of species of Capsicum genus
within one species of chili pepper, there is tremendous variation

adding milk or cream to tea removes astringency through binding of polyphenols with milk proteins red wine is a good example of a beverage that exhibits both astringency and bitterness cause by polyphenols

astringency is often associated with bitterness, as many polyphenols and tannins also create bitter taste sensations astringent properties can be unpleasant, as they are in unripe bananas or poor wine
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spices generally lack chlorophyll, and include rhizomes or roots (ginger), barks (cinnamon), flower buds (cloves), fruits (pepper) and seeds (nutmeg, mustard)
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Spices and Herbs


examples of hot molecules: Capsaicin[], piperine[] and zingerone[ ] capsaicin and piperine:
have a nitrogen atom next to carbon atom doubly bound to oxygen have single aromatic ring with a chain of carbon atoms

Spices and Herbs


workers who harvest hot peppers need to wear rubber gloves and eye protection against the chili oil containing capsaicin molecules spices and herbs have been used since antiquity for adding savoriness, tanginess and zestiness, as well as characterizing flavors to food and beverages spices generally are derived from tropical plants, while herbs are generally derived from subtropical or nontropical plants spices also generally contain high concentrations of phenyl-propanoids
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zingerone
found in the underground stem of the ginger plant called Zingiber officinale also has an aromatic ring with the same HO and H3C-O groups attached as in capsaicin but with no nitrogen atom

the hot sensation depends on the shape of the molecules


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Spices and Herbs


typically , spices and herbs contain many volatile compounds, but in most instances certain compounds, provide characteristic aromas and flavor to the material the aroma chemicals of herbs and spices are volatile

Spices and Herbs

they are small and light enough to evaporate from their source and fly through the air it allows them to rise with our breath into the nose, where we can detect them

high temperatures make volatile chemicals more volatile, so heating herbs and spices liberates more of their aroma molecules and fills the air with their odor
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Flavor compounds found in culinary herbs

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Spices and Herbs

Spices and Herbs


herbs, usually the leaves of plants with a distinctive aromatic character, often have relatively low levels of essential oils fresh herbs can differ markedly from dried ones because their flavors alter during drying and storing herbs are grouped according to the main flavor component of their essential oils which does not necessarily correspond to their botanical classification

Flavor Compounds Found in Spices

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Spices and Herbs


when blended[], not only do they reinforce each other in terms of their major flavor components, but they also complement each other in their minor nuances the spicy and aromatic herbsthyme, oregano, and savoryall contain thymol and or/ carvacrol their odor can be sharp and adds a woodsy, richly herbaceous note to foods

Spices and Herbs


in contrast to herbs, spices are most often form fruits, seeds, bark, and flowers of plantsparts that are highly aromatic generally, the flavors of spices are much more powerful then those of herbs an index classifying flavoring strength, chervil rated at 45 has the lowest flavor impact among the herbs and bay leaves rated 140 have the largest among spices, however, sweet paprika (registering at 50) has the lowest impact, but mace stands at 340, turmeric at 400, cloves at 560; chilies at 1000
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Why we experience hot?


hot sensation is a response by our pain nerves to a chemical stimulus due to the shape of the piperine molecule, which is able to fit onto a protein on the pain nerve endings in our mouths and other parts of the body this causes the protein to change shape and sends a signal along the nerve to the brain capsaicin, piperine and zingerone increase the secretion of saliva in our mouths aiding digestion
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Why we experience hot?


pain nerves are able to detect the chemical messages from these molecules, occur in other parts of the human body we often experience a feeling of satisfaction or contentment after eating a fiery meal this may be due to endorphins, opiate-like compounds that are produced in the brain as the bodys natural response to pain
this phenomenon may account for some peoples seeming addiction to hot spicy food the hotter the chili, the more the pain, so the greater the trace amounts of endorphins produced and ultimately the greater the pleasure

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Pepper, Nutmeg and Cloves


Pepper[], nutmeg[] and cloves[ ] were also precious and nutmeg and cloves were a lot rarer than pepper pepper is the most commonly used of all spices
about three-quarters are sold as black pepper produces by a fungal fermentation of unripe pepper berries most of the remainder are sold as white pepper obtained from dried ripe fruit after removal of the berry skin and pulp a very small percentage of pepper is sold as green pepper other colors of peppercorn found in stores are artificially dyed

Pepper, Nutmeg and Cloves


nutmeg and cloves come from different plant families
distinctive different odors are due to extremely similar molecules they differ only in the position of a double bond the fragrant compound of oil of nutmeg is isoeugenol the main component of oil of cloves is eugenol

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the sole difference in these two compounds is the double bond position (is arrowed)

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Pepper, Nutmeg and Cloves


nutmeg was considered to be the spice of madnessits hallucinogenic propertieslikely from the molecules myristicin[] and elemicin[] only one nutmeg can cause nausea, profuse sweating, heart palpitations and vastly elevated blood pressure, and even days of hallucinations death has been attributed to consumption of far fewer than 12 nutmegs myristicin, fragrant molecule which occurs in nutmeg, consumed in large quantities can 65 also cause liver damage

Pepper, Nutmeg and Cloves


pepper and chili irritants induce a temporary inflammation in the mouth, transforming it into an organ that is more tender[], more sensitive to other sensations

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Pungency
strong pungency diminishes our sensitivity to true tastes and aroma
because it usurps some of the attention our brains would normally pay to these other sensations

Pungency
pungency relates to the characteristic hot, sharp, and stinging sensations found in chili peppers, fresh garlic, black pepper and ginger compounds found in several spices and vegetables cause characteristic hot, sharp and stinging sensation sometimes volatile aromatic compounds warn us of a pungent flavor
when you chop a clove of garlic, the aroma that assaults your nose gives warning that youre in for blockbuster flavor
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our sensitivity to pungent flavorings declines with exposure to it and that desensitization lasts for 2-4 days
this is the reason that regular chili-eaters can tolerate hotter dishes than people who enjoy pungent food only occasionally

Pungency
other pungent foods, such as ginger, black pepper, and chili peppers, have very few volatile compounds as a result your nose gets no hint of what to come and these foods catch you by surprise as you take that first unsuspecting bite The whole mouth is assaulted by the searing heat of capsaicinoids (found in chilis), gingerols (found in fresh young ginger and transformed into even more potent compounds as ginger ages), or piperine (found in peppercorns) 69

Pungency
neither a taste nor a smell, but a general feeling of irritation that verges on pain which is caused by two general groups of chemicals:
thiocyanates

are formed in mustard plants and their relatives, horseradish and wasabi, when the plant cells are damaged are usually small, light, water-repelling molecules that readily escape from the food into the air in our mouth, and up our nasal passages stimulate nerve endings that then send a pain message to the brain
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Pungency
alkyl-amides

Pungency
Pungent compound piperine gingerol shogaol zingerone paradol capsaicin
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are found pre-formed in a number of unrelated plants, including the chili, black pepper, ginger, and Sichuan pepper are larger and heavier and therefore less prone to escape the food and get up our nose mostly affect the mouth bind to particular receptors on certain sensory nerves and essentially cause those nerves to become hypersensitive[] to ordinary sensations and thus to register the sensation of irritation or pain

Spice black pepper ginger, fresh ginger ginger grains of paradise chili

Relative pungency 1 0.8 1.5 0.5 1 150-300


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Scovile Scale
Scoville scale is a measure of the hotness of a chilli pepper the greater the number of Scoville units, the hotter the pepper. however, being a natural product, the heat can vary from pepper to pepper, so this scale is just a guide

Scovile Scale
Pepper Bell, Sweet Italian Peperocini New Mexico Ancho, Passila, Poblano Sandia, Rocotillo Jalapeno, Chilpolte Serrano de Arbol Piquin, Aji, Cayenne Habenero, Scotch Bonnet HOTTEST RECORDED*
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Pungency (Scoville) 0 100-500 500-1,000 1,000-1,500 1,500-2,500 2,500-5,000 5,000-23,000 15,000-30,000 30,000-50,000 80,000-300,000+ 577,000
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*The hottest pepper recorded was a Habenero

Capsaicin
Capsaicin[] is the active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum it is an irritant for mammals including humans and produces a sensation of burning in the mouth capsaicin and several related compounds are called capsaicinoids[] and are produced as a secondary metabolite by chili peppers, probably as deterrents against herbivores
Structure of capsaicin

Capsaicin
pure capsaicin is a lipophilic[] colorless odorless crystalline to waxy compound capsaicin is the main capsaicinoid in chili peppers, followed by dihydrocapsaicin these two compounds are also about twice as hot as the minor capsaicinoids nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and homocapsaicin dilute solutions of pure capsaicinoids produced different types of pungency
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Capsaicin
because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with human flesh, it is commonly used in food products to give them added spice or heat capsaicin is obtained by using chili peppers as the source another common source is hot sauces which may contain pure capsaicin or chili peppers
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Capsaicin
the most effective ways to relieve the burning sensation is to cool the mouth and throat with cool food or cool beverages like yogurt, ice cream, or milk, or something sugary, like juice, sugar, or candy pure capsaicin is poorly soluble in water, but good in fat, oils, and pure alcohol, an oftenheard advice is to eat fatty foods like buttered bread or beverages like whole milk or whipped cream

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Gingerol
Structure of gingerol

Gingerol
ginger is a spice derived from the rhizome of a tuberous perennial, which possesses pungent principles as well as some volatile aroma constituents the pungency of fresh ginger is caused by a group of phenylalkyl ketones gingerol varies in chain length (C5-C9) external to the hydroxyl substituted C atom

Gingerol[] is the active constituent of fresh ginger It is a relative of capsaicin, the compound that gives chili peppers their spiciness it is normally found as a pungent yellow oil, but also can form a low-melting crystalline solid cooking ginger transforms gingerol into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma
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Piperine
Piperine[] is primarily found in the fruit of the pepper vine, piper nigrum on five millimeter spikes known as peppercorns[] it gives peppercorns their hot, biting, and very pungent taste it makes up about 5-7% of the peppercorns it can also be found in other vegetables and spices such as the famous hot jalapeno peppers

Piperine
it is a member of the Lipids family it is an alkaloid found naturally in plants belonging to the Piperaceae family, such as Piper nigrum L, commonly known as black pepper, and Piper longum L, commonly known as long pepper it is naturally a more yellowish powder, while after synthesis it has a stronger green tint to it it is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, benzene and water
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Structure of piperine

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Piperine
it is a weak base that is tasteless at first, but leaves a burning aftertaste it has no taste unless it is dissolved (fully or partially) in a solution the oil in the peppercorns reacts with piperine to give it its flavor when piperine loses its characteristic flavor it becomes known as Chavicine, which has the same molecular formula but a different structure when boiled with alcoholic, caustic potash piperic acid is produced
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Piperine
piperine may enhance the absorption of betacarotene, vitamin B6, Vitamin C and Lselenomethionine found in certain foods brandy is known for having a bit of a pinch in it that pinch is also called piperine the piperine in that spicy food has a habit of stimulating perspiration, which in effect causes a cooling of the body while piperine may sound like a pleasant spice, it can also be a deadly killer piperine can be found in most insecticides, particularly those that kill the common housefly
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Sweetness

Sweetness
sugar makes sour foods seem less sour
the tartness of lemon is offset with sugar in many refreshing desserts and hot weather thirst quenchers

many amino acids, some metallic salts, and unrelated compounds, such as chloroform (CHCL3) and saccharin are sweet receptors recognise hydroxyl (OH) groups on organic molecules including sugars and alcohols the flavor of sugar is unique in that it imparts pure sweetness without aftertaste, but alcohols, their related aldehydes, some amino acids, and glycerol also add sweetness to food 85

small amounts of sugar added to salty solutions have been found to reduce the salty taste a touch of sweetness can also enhance our flavors
a sprinkling of sugar added to the cooking water for corn, carrots, or peas flavors of young vegetables

the presence of natural sugars in fruits and vegetables enhances their aroma

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Sweetness
saporous unit is common to all compounds that cause a sweet sensation
it is a combination of a covalently bound H-binding proton and an electronegative orbital positioned at a distance of about 3 from the proton(1=10-10 m) vicinal electronegative atoms on a molecule are essential for sweetness one of the atoms must possess a hydrogen bonding proton

Saltiness
salty taste is represented by sodium chloride, and is also given by lithium chloride salts have complex tastes, consisting of psychological mixtures of sweet, bitter, sour, and salty perception components receptors respond to ionic solutions dominated by positive ions, such as sodium. Many sodium salts are salty, but saltiness also depends on size of an accompanying anion the saltiness of table salt is attributed to sodium; the chloride portion of the salt molecule has no apparent taste of its own
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e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine atoms

hydroxyl-group oxygen atoms can serve either the AH or B function in a molecule simple AH/B relationships can be shown in chloroform, saccharin, and glucose 87

Saltiness
salts and acids enhance each other at moderate concentrations however, at higher concentrations, such as in pickles, they appear to suppress each other salt has also been found to increase perceptions of sweetness sodium salts suppress bitter flavors in addition to drawing forth water from bitter eggplants or cucumbers, salty tastes mask the bitter ones
add a little salt to coffee grounds before the coffee brews can reduce bitterness
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Sourness
receptors[] respond to hydrogen ions and the metal ions in salts, such as sodium ions in table salt sour sensations are associated with acids, which are present in ingredients like vinegar and wine, and in acid salts, like cream of tartar many organic acids contribute to the distinctive flavors of fruits and vegetables they can be broken down during cooking and change to other acids
this may be why cooked apples are less tart than raw apples
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Sourness
some volatile acids evaporate with the steam of cooking; other remain in the cooking water the degree of sourness of a solution does not necessarily correspond to its acidity the juice of a white grapefruit has the same acidity as that of a ruby red grapefruit, but ruby red juice tastes much sweeter citric acid and sugar (sucrose) help reduce the burn of hot peppers and the pungency of black pepper
91

Bitterness
bitter molecules appear to have a requirement for only one polar group and a hydrophobic group the orientation of AH/B units within specific receptor sites which are located on the flat bottom of receptor cavities, provides that discrimination between sweetness and bitterness for molecules possessing the required molecular features

molecules that fit into sites that were oriented for bitter compounds give a bitter response; those fitting the orientation of sweetness elicit a sweet response if the geometry of a molecule were such that it could orient in either direction, it would give bitter-sweet responses 92

Bitterness
bitter compounds are part of natures repertoire of protective devices, designed to keep predators away examples of bitter compounds:
caffeine and theobromine which are found in tea, coffee, cocoa, and cola liminin and naringen which are constituents in grapefruit and oranges

Bitterness
sometimes bitterness is caused by the breakdown of molecules, such as the particular proteins in cheese that can lend cured cheeses an undesirable tone bitterness resembles sweetness because of its dependence on the stereochemistry of stimulus molecules, and the two sensations are triggered by similar features in molecules, causing some molecules to yield both bitter and sweet sensations

occasionally, bitter notes appear in avocados, and the particular chemicals contributing to this characteristic have been isolated by scientists in the seed, fresh, and skin of the immature fruit
93

94

Bitterness
Caffeine[] (VII) is moderately bitter at 150-200ppm in water, and occurs in coffee, tea and cola nuts Theobromine[] (VIII) is very similar to caffeine and is present most notably in cocoa, where it contributes to bitterness caffeine is added in concentrations up to 200ppm to soft cola beverages and it is obtained from extractions of green coffee beans 95

Tartar Cream
tartaric acid[] is a brownish-red acid powder (potassium bitartrate) that is precipitated onto the walls of casks used to age wine. It can be refined into a white acid powder, called the tartar cream Tartar cream is an acid powder Tartar cream
makes baking powder when combined with baking soda gives a creamier texture to sugary things like candy and frosting stabilizes and increases the volume of beaten egg whites
96

16

Temperature
the temperature of a food is one important taste sensation frozen foods often require a higher level of seasoning, both because the volatile compounds responsible for aroma are more sluggish at cold temperatures, and because very cold substances can anesthetize the taste buds, dulling your sense of taste
for example, sherbet tastes sweeter in its melted form than in its frozen state
97

Temperature
salted foods taste saltier when cold
if the cooking food is planned to be served cold, dont adjust the salt levels while its still hot

taste sensations are reduced if the temperature of the food is above 30C
bitterness of coffee becomes more noticeable when it cools

98

Alkaloids
many of the earliest isolated pure compounds with biological activity were alkaloids due to the ease of isolation the nitrogen generally makes the compound basic and the compound exists in the plant as a salt they are often extracted with water or mild acid and then recovered as crystalline material by treatment with base most famous alkaloids are the Solanaceae or tropane alkaloids
99

Alkaloids
examples of alkaloids:
Cocaine[]
cocaine

is a central nervous system stimulant, and has been used as a topical anesthetic in ophthalmology is also a drug of abuse was found in very small amounts in the original CocaCola formula

Caffeine[]
acts as a natural pesticide in plants that paralyzes and kills many insects feeding upon them is a central nervous system stimulant, having the effect of warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness
caffeine
100

Polyphenols
Polyphenols[] are a group of chemical substances found in plants, characterized by the presence of more than one phenol group per molecule they are responsible for the coloring of some plants, such as the color of leaves in the autumn a class of polyphenols has antioxidant characteristics with potential health benefits and may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease[] and cancer
101

Polyphenols
sources of polyphenols include peanuts, green tea, white tea, red wine, olive oil, dark chocolate, and pomegranates green tea contains polyphenolic compounds, which include flavanols, flavandiols, flavonoids, and phenolic most of the polyphenols in green tea are flavanols, commonly known as catechins; the major catechins in green tea are (-)epicatechin, (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate, (-)epigallocatechin, and (-)-epigallocatechin3-gallate (EGCG) in black teas, the major polyphenols are theaflavin and thearubigin 102

17

Polyphenols

Tannins

103

tannins are astringent, bitter-tasting plant polyphenols that bind and precipitate proteins "Tanning" (waterproofing and preserving) was used to describe the process of transforming animal hides into leather by using plant extracts from different plant parts of different plant species they are divided into hydrolyzable[] tannins and condensed[] tannins 104

Tannins
they can have a large influence on the nutritive value of many foods eaten by humans and feedstuff eaten by animals they are common in fruits, such as grapes, persimmon, blueberry, in tea and in chocolate plant parts containing tannins include bark, wood, fruit, fruitpods, leaves, roots, and plant galls examples of plant species used to obtain tannins for tanning purposes: wattle, oak, eucalyptus, birch, willow, pine, quebracho
105

Tannins
they can complex with proteins, starch, cellulose, minerals they are composed of a very diverse group of oligomers and polymers they are common both in Gymnosperms and Angiosperms they are located mainly in the vacuoles or surface wax of the plants where they do not interfere with plant metabolism hydrolyzable tannins are hydrolyzed by weak acids or weak bases to produce carbohydrate and phenolic acids
106

Tea
tea plant is an example of a plant with a naturally high tannin content green tea leaves are a major plant source of tannins when any type of tea leaf is steeped in hot water for an excessively long time period it brews a "tart" (astringent) flavor that is characteristic of tannins

Tea
if ingested in excessive quantities, tannins inhibit the absorption of minerals, such as iron, into the body
because tannins are metal ion chelators[], and tannin-chelated metal ions are not bioavailable

107

108

18

Colorant
color refers to human perception of colored materialsred, green, blue, etc a colorant is any chemical, either natural or synthetic, that imparts color foods have color because of their ability to reflect or emit different quantities of energy at wavelengths able to simulate the retina in the eye the energy range to which the eye is sensitive to as visible light
109

Colorant
Pigments[] are natural substances in cells and tissues of plants and animals that impart color dyes are any substances that lend color to materials specific colors of fruits are often associated with maturity
while redness of raw meat is associated with freshness a green apple may be judged immature
110

Colorant
substances such as -carotene or riboflavin are not only colorants but nutrients as well many food pigments are unstable during processing and storage prevention of undesirable changes is usually difficult or impossible depending on pigment, stability is impacted by factors such as the presence or absence of light, oxygen, heavy metals, oxidizing or reducing agents; temperature and water activity; and pH
111

Colorant
because of the instability of pigments, colorants are sometimes added to food carbon monoxide is sometimes used as color retention of fish

for example, tuna is eaten raw as sashimi, and the desirable colour is red. However, with storage over time and continued exposure to oxygen, the red colour of the meat gradually changes to brown due to oxidation and the conversion of oxymyoglobin to a brown pigment metmyoglobin. Carbon monoxide has been used to treat tuna meat in order to retain its 'fresh' red colour for a longer period of time by converting brown colour to desirable red colour
112

Chlorophylls
Chlorophylls[] are the green pigments of leafy vegetables they give the green color to the skin of apples and other fruit, particularly when it is unripe they are the functional pigments of photosynthesis in all green plants they occur in the membranes of the chloroplasts, the organelles which carry out photosynthesis in plant cells
113

Chlorophylls
the pigments of the chloroplast are intimately associated with other lipophilic components of the membranes, such as phospholipids, as well as the membrane proteins they are lost naturally from leaves at the end of their active life on the plant this breakdown accompanies a general breakdown of the chloroplast membranes, but the carotenoids are rather more stable so that autumn leaves and vegetables that are no longer fresh have a residual yellow color
114

19

Chlorophylls
when green vegetables are heated, when they are blanched prior to freezing, or during canning, there is evidence for the loss of the phytol[] side chain to give the corresponding chlorophyllide[ ], but the most important event is the loss of the magnesium this occurs most readily in acid conditions, the Mg2+ ion being replaced by protons, to give pheophytins[] pheophytins have a dirty brown color and will be familiar as the dominant pigments in green vegetables such as cabbage that have been overcooked
115

Chlorophylls
the acidity of the contents of plant cell vacuoles makes it difficult to avoid phenophytin formation, especially during the rigorous heating involved in canning peas This can be solved by keeping the cooking water slightly alkaline by the addition of a small quantity of sodium bicarbonate but the alkaline conditions have an unhappy effect on the texture and flavor and losses of vitamin C are enhanced
116

Chlorophylls
in the canning of peas chlorophyll loss is inevitable and artificial color has to be added organic dyes are universally used, a mixture of tartrazine and Green S being most popular copper salts were identified as having this application, albeit toxic, when it was realized that the bright-green color of pickled vegetables, cooked in vinegar, was owed to the Cu2+ ions leached from the copper cooking vessels
117

Carotenoids
Carotenoid[] pigments are responsible for most of the yellow and orange colors of fruits and vegetables they are classed as terpenoids, substances derived in nature from the metabolic intermediate mevalonic acid, which provides the basic structural unit, the isoprene units they occur in all photosynthetic plant issues as components of chloroplasts
118

Carotenoids
they are divided into two principal groups:
carotenes, which are strictly hydrocarbons xanthophylls, which contain oxygen

Carotenoids
in tomato, lycopene[] is the major carotenoid orange juice contains varying proportions of cryptoxanthin[], lutein[], antheraxanthin[] and violaxanthin[] together with traces of their carotene precursors egg yolk owes its color to the two xanthophylls[ ], lutein and zeaxanthin, with only a small proportion of -carotene

they are only freely soluble in non-polar organic solvents the absorption spectra bear out the observation that xanthophylls are the dominant pigment in yellow tissues whereas carotenes tend to give an orange color
119

120

20

Carotenoids
these carotenoids, and the smaller amount that give the fat of animals its yellowish shade, are derived from the vegetable material in the diet the dark greenish-purple pigment of lobster carapace is a complex of protein with astaxanthin[] when lobster is boiled, the protein is denatured and the color reverts to the more typical reddish shade of a carotenoid astaxanthin is also the source of the pink color of salmon flesh
121

Anthocyanins
the pink, red, mauve, violet, and blue colors of flowers, fruit, and vegetables are caused by the presence of anthocyanins[] anthocyanins occur in nature as glycosides, these are flavanoids[], i.e. substances based on the flavan[] nucleus a single plant species will also contain considerable numbers of different anthocyanins
122

Anthocyanins
cyanidin is the anthocyanidin of red cabbage, pelargonidin occurs in radishes and red-seeded varieties of beans, and delphinidin occurs in aubergines the pH and the presence of other substances have a much greater influence on their color than the nature of the ring substituents
the basic anthocyanidin structure in the flavylium cation form that predominates at low pH values as the pH is raised, a proton is lost, a water molecule is acquired, and the carbinol pseudobase is formed
123

Anthocyanins
in most food-processing operations the anthocyanins are quite stable, especially when the low pH of the fruit is maintained however, the ascorbic acid can cause problems
in the presence of iron and copper ions and oxygen the oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid is accopanied by hydrogen peroxide formation this will oxidize anthocyanins to colorless malvones, a reaction implicated in the loss of color by canned strawberries

124

Melanins
Melanins[] are not regarded as desirable pigments in fruits and vegetables but melanin-type pigments that arise when plant tissues are damaged pale-colored fruit and vegetables, such as apples, bananas, and potatoes, quickly turn brown if air is allowed access to a cut tissue damage caused by slicing or peeling, fungal attack, or bruising will bring enzyme and substrates together
125

Melanins
the enzyme, phenolase, occurs in most plant tissues, and a related enzyme, tyrosinase, is found inmammalian skin phenolase is an enzyme in that it catalyses two quite different types of reaction the most important substrate for phenolase in apples, pears, and tomatoes is chlorogenic acid and in onions protocatechuic acid
126

21

Melanins
during fruit and vegetable processing we try to prevent phenolase action, such as
making sure that the fruit and vegetables are blanched as soon as possible after any tissuedamaging operations will reduce phenolase action to a minimum reducing contact with air by immersion in water is also common practice

Melanins
ascorbic acid is not only valued as a vitamin but it is also a good chelating agent and antioxidant it interacts directly with the quinones to prevent browning and, if sufficient is used, will mop up the oxygen in closed containers such as cans the enzymic oxidation of polyphenolic substances is a highly desirable feature of tea
128

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22

Soft Matter

Chapter 4 Foams and Bubbles

solid, liquids and gases are combined in foams[], in emulsions[], where bubbles of one liquid float in another without mixing tiny specks of a solid substance are distributed throughout another material, typically a liquid, the inclusions are arranged randomly in the surrounding medium thats why these materials tend to have freeform shapes that are easily transformed foam and the other combined systems are called soft matter, which is neither flowing freely like a true liquid nor taking on the hard definite shape of a rigid solid

a bowl of gelatin sets into the shape of its container

Soft Matter
Soapsuds[]:
it is neither fully liquid nor completely gaseous it flows differently from the first and does not dissipate like gaseous its components are stable, yet it lives only a short while it is made from clear air and water, yet it is opaque while neither air nor water sticks to the hand in any great quantity, if you scoop soapsuds onto the palm of your hand, and turn the hand over, the suds remain in place in most ways, a foam is totally unlike the substances that make it up
3

Bubbles and Foams


molecules that like water are called hydrophilic those that dislike water are termed hydrophobic in a bubble, the force that bends the membrane comes from the pressure inside the bubble smaller bubbles have a higher pressure inside them than larger ones
because they have a smaller diameter and are more curved

a foam is simply a collection of bubbles all stuck together


4

Bubbles and Foams


small bubbles have higher pressure and give stiffer and stronger foams proteins can be made to behave in much the same way as soaps some of the amino acids are hydrophilic and others are hydrophobic in the natural state, proteins are arranged so that the hydrophobic groups are on the outside and ensure that the proteins are well dissolved in the surrounding water once the proteins are denatured the hydrophobic groups become exposed and 5 they will try to get out of the water

Bubbles and Foams


one route to get away from the water is to go to the surface and emerge in the air however, there is usually only a limited area of such surface present so the exposed hydrophobic groups will coat the surfaces of any fat or oil drops present in the liquid then if the liquid is stirred and the oil drops are broken up so increasing the available surface, more hydrophobic groups can move in and help to stabilize the new interfaces if the groups from denatured proteins will tend to form a thin membrane that stabilized the bubbles 6

Foams
a foam is defined as a gas dispersed in a liquid where the gas bubbles are the discrete phase there are many food foams including whipped creams, ice cream, carbonated soft drinks, mousses, meringues, and the head of a beer a foam is likewise unstable and needs a stabilizing agent to form the gas bubble membrane it is evident that bubble diameter is so large as to exclude foam bubbles from realm of colloids
7

Foams
large diameters, combined with large density difference, cause foam bubbles to cream faster than emulsion droplets by several orders of magnitude foams can be formed within solids, such as the bubbles within risen bread, generally begin as liquid foams foams contain bubbles of various sizes, yet most are tiny a wet foam means it is more liquid than gas

Foams
if you put the bottle down, and wait, the foam changes slowly, the proportion of liquid decreases as the water between bubbles drains downwards under the pull of gravity it is easy to see that it is happening, because a layer of clear water appears and gradually deepens beneath the foam as drainage continues, the wet foam becomes something more complex: a dry foam, with more gas than liquid
9

Foams
the walls between adjoining bubble become very thin and bubbles press against each other in some places, the wall is breached, and two bubbles join into one also smaller bubbles contain air at higher pressure, which moves through their walls into the larger bubbles both processes coarsen the foam, giving it more big bubbles as it ages the shape of bubbles also changes
10

Foams
rainbows of color shown in the bubble come from the interference of light waves within the films to make a foam, a surfactant is needed, but not all surfactants are suitable to make a stable foam
a fairly low concentration of surfactant suffices

Foams
there are various ways to make foams:
by generating gas within a liquid, as when the bubbles are put into champagne[]; by allowing gas that was held under pressure within a liquid to flow out, as when soda spurts from an opened can by mixing gas or vapor into a liquid, as when air is beaten into egg whites to make a meringue[ ], or hissing steam froths milk for a cappuccino

for most surfactants, Ostwald ripening will be substantial even during foam formation, implying that very small bubbles will soon disappear and the bubble size distribution will become narrow as soon as beating stops, bubbles rise rapidly and form a foam layer
11

12

Foams
hissing steam froths milk for a cappuccino
bubbles stream from the nozzle and float upward like hot-air balloons, eventually reaching the surface to form densely packed layers on the top of the milk while foam grows, it also begins to decay, as its oldest bubbles die

Supersaturation
a gas, usually CO2 or N2O, because of their high solubility, is dissolved in the liquid at high pressure when the pressure is released, gas bubbles form they do not form by nucleation a spontaneously formed gas bubble would have a radius of, say, 2nm, which would imply a Laplace pressure of about 108 Pa

most foams are short-lived and must be examined on the fly even in a long-lived foam, it is difficult to register all the bubbles as they change foams can be made in two ways, by supersaturation or mechanically
13

14

Supersatuation
to give an example, if a pressurized bottle of a carbonate liquid is opened, the overpressure is released, CO2 becomes supersaturated, and it diffuses toward small air pockets in the bottle wall these grow, and become dislodged when large enough, leaving a remnant from which another bubble can grow the bubbles rise while growing further, and a foam is formed these bubbles always are fairly large, say 1mm
15

Supersatuation
another example is the formation of CO2 in a leavened dough excess CO2 collects at sites of tiny entrapped small air bubbles, and these sites grow in size some of them grow to form visible gas cells, creating a macroscopic foam structure

16

Food Foams
a gas stream can be led through narrow openings into the aqueous phase; this causes bubbles to form, but they are fairly large smaller bubbles can be made by beating air into the liquid at first, large bubbles form, and these are broken up into progressively smaller ones

Food Foams
shear forces are typically too weak to obtain small bubbles and the breakup mechanism presumably involves pressure fluctuations in a turbulent field, as is true during formation of o/w emulsions bubbles of about 0.1 mm can be obtained in this way, which is the method of choice in industrial processing the method also enables the amount of air incorporated to be controlled this is often expressed as percent overrun, the relative increase in volume
18

17

Food Foams
many liquid foams are made up in kitchen by beating or whipping
egg white, whose constituent proteins provide good surfactants egg yolk has fat particles which act as antifoams cream of tartar acts as a stabilizing agent

Ostwald Ripening
Ostwald Ripening happens most rapidly at the top of foam layer, because the air can diffuse directly to the atmosphere and the layer of water between bubbles and atmosphere is very thin it occurs also inside a foam at a significant rate within minutes after formation, noticeable coarsening of the bubble size distribution often occurs it happens most rapidly at the top of foam layer, because the air can diffuse directly to the atmosphere and the layer of water between bubbles and atmosphere is very thin
20

the stability of whipped cream is attributed to aggregated fat globules


it is the continued process of aggregation which produces butter on further whipping
19

Surface Tension
the geometry of a foam is sculpted by natural forces when water sits motionless in a beaker, all of its molecules are in constant motion these molecules attract each other, and that the fact goes far in explaining how water supports bubbles and foam they form because of the force called surface tension which is due to molecular attraction

Surface Tension
if your tweezers close around a target deep within the water, that molecule can be easily pulled loose
the reason is that all the neighboring molecules attract the target they surround it in three dimensionsabove and below, left and right, front and back all their pulls average out to zero

Molecular force illustrating surface tension in water

21

22

Surface Tension
no molecular force opposes the downward pull, which you feel as resistance to your efforts this is the surface tension[], which pulls molecules on the open surface of a liquid toward the interior of the liquid, making a drop of water behave as if it were coated with a taut elastic skin surface tension appears throughout nature and is responsible for the formation of drops of water and bubbles of gas within water
23

Edible Foams
there are many edible foams that could make a tasty and satisfying meal, such as a frothy soup, a cheese souffl and chocolate mousse, ice cream, marshmallows, milk shakes, cappuccino edible foams begins as gas mixed into liquid for some, the gas is a by-product; for others, it is deliberately added

24

Edible Foams
in bread and beer, the liquid is water, laden with complex molecules that behave as surfactants, and the gas carbon dioxide this gas is a bonus from the process of fermentation, in which yeast turns sugar into alcohol in both bread and beer in most foamy foods the liquid foam is cooked or baked (whipped cream is an exception), which alters its flavor and makes it firmer
25

Beers
there is a huge range in beers depending on the variations in
starting materials flavoring agents processing procedures

each type of beers contains the elements of a foam:


bubbles from residual carbon dioxide proteins that act as surfactants polysaccharides

26

Beers
along with resin[]-containing compounds from the hops[], polysaccharides make beer viscous as they drain slowly out of any foam that forms, making the foam last longer beers made with cereal adjuncts contain proteins that are more likely to link together and enhance the foam foam affects the taste of beer, because it traps some of the compounds that define the aroma of beer
27

Beers
if these compounds are prevented from entering your mouth and reaching the smell receptors in your nose, the flavor of the beer youre drinking is diminished, because smell is an essential component of taste therefore the head on a beer can seriously affect the perception of its flavor the head can be controlled
it depends on the height, speed, and angle of pouring, and the shape of the glass into which the beer is pouring

28

Beers
the head on a beer is also sensitive to any hint of oil or fat, which diminishes the foam, beer glasses should be well washed they also must be free of any trace of soap, which also reduces the head beer that has smaller bubbles of uniform size tends to have a more stable foam beer foam stability can be increased by increasing concentrations of malt proteins, metal cations[], and hop iso--acids, whereas it is generally reduced by increasing amounts of lipids, protein modification, and ethanol 29

Beers
in unpasteurized[] beer, enzymes such as proteinase A reduce beer foam stability interactions between beer components also have an effect on foam stability, such as the cross-linking of malt proteins with polypeptides other influences on beer foam stability include the addition of artificial foam stabilizers, and the nature of the packaging natural proteins are the surfactants in beer dissolved nitrogen has been found to be helpful in creating a fine, stable foam, and it is nitrogen which is injected into beer from a plastic inset
30

Soda
people drank sparkling water because they enjoyed its fizz and its slightly sour flavor
the fizzing action comes because carbon dioxide in water yields highly diluted carbonic acid

Soda
the production of carbonated soda in beverage company involves :
the basic Coca-Cola syrup is blended with water then the mixture is chilled to a few degrees above freezing, which makes it easier for it to take up carbon dioxide and reduces the tendency to foam the gas is added in stainless steel tanks filled with carbon dioxide, after the liquid has been vaporized in diffusers, which makes it more permeable to the gas

the fizzing action and perhaps the acidity affect the taste buds so they are more sensitive to food flavors

31

different brands of soda have different degrees of carbonation, which is controlled by varying the pressure in the tank 32

Champagne
the opposite end of the luxury spectrum from soda is champagne, a unique sparkling wine that uses the carbon dioxide created during fermentation the height and stability of foam depends on proteins in the wine and the polysaccharides that thicken the wine the presence of iron in the base wine contributes to the foam
because the iron bonds with proteins can make a stronger surfactant than the proteins alone
33

Champagne
the height and durability of the foam are affected by the type of grape and the blending and aging of the wines wine aged for 9 months gave the tallest foams, whereas wine aged for 18 months gave the most stable ones foaming capability and foam stability obtained from sparkling wines is usually tested by a dynamic foam stability method the proteins and polysaccharides from the grapes used for wine-making are an important factor in foam formation and stability

34

Champagne

Espresso
the word espresso means pressed out a foam layer helps trap coffee aromas, providing a more gradual release espresso is rich brew of sugars, fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, including polysaccharides the proteins are the surfactants that make the crema, and the polysaccharides help by increasing the viscosity of the coffee so that it drains slowly from the foam
35 36

the variety of grape used could also have an effect on foam formation due to differences in the concentrations and types of proteins and other species it also appears that the extent on the foaminess even a certain amount of iron appears to contribute to the foam stability

Espresso
the crema slows down the release of volatile compounds that carry aroma golden-brown crema signifies a well-made cup of espresso
crema is produced as the water is pushed through and past the close-packed grains of coffee espresso is made by quickly forcing hot water under high pressure through finely ground roasted coffee compacted into a dense mass the appearance of a substantial crema shows that water mixes well with coffee it is important not only because of its pleasing look, but also the flavor
37

Espresso
there is also the hot foamed milk that is added to espresso to make a latte or a cuppuccino unlike the making of espresso, this foaming is still done by steam a pipe delivers steam deep inside a pitcher of milk, where it produces multitudes of bubbles
these bubbles survive as a foam because milk contains proteins that act as surfactants
38

Milk
milk is mostly water, looks white and opaque for the same reason foam does
as it is full of inclusions and small globules of fat that scatter light

Milk
the result is a froth that persists even after removal from the steam
this explains why foamed milk is hard to refoam once it has collapsed and each time milk is foamed, its proteins lose some capacity to strengthen foam

contains several kinds of proteins made of amino acids held together by internal bonds heating milk under the baristas steam wand denatures the proteins, that is, breaks the bonds so that a spherical protein, for instance, unravels into long coil-shaped molecules, which bond with each other in new ways that do not re-create the original 39 molecules, but form a network

the quality of the foam depends on the brand and type of milk and its temperature

40

Milk
warm skim milk is less frothy than the cold variety, and whole milk at room temperature or warmer hardly foams at all
therefore cold skim milk is the best choice

Egg Proteins and Foams


the key to the stable egg foam is the tendency of the proteins to unfold and bond to each other when they are subjected to physical stress in foam this creates a kind of reinforcement for the bubble walls, the culinary equivalent to quick-setting cement whipping exerts two kinds of physical stress on the proteins

the degree of foaming has been found to increase with the degree of roast and the amount of protein in the coffee the stability of the produced foam has been related to the amounts of galactomannan[] and arabinogalactan[]
41

first, as small force drags some of the liquid with them, and create a pulling force that unfolds the compacted protein molecules second, because water and air are very different physical environments, the simple mixing of air into the whites creates an imbalance of forces that also tugs the proteins out of their usual folded shape

42

Egg Proteins and Foams


all these unfolded proteins tend to gather where air and water meet, with their water loving portions immersed in the liquid and their water-avoiding portions projecting into the air thus disturbed and concentrated, they readily form bonds with each other so a continuous, solid network of proteins pervades the bubble walls, holding both water and air in place
43

Egg Proteins and Foams


a raw egg white foam will eventually coarsen, settle, and separate it must therefore be reinforced when it is turned into a final dish this may be done by adding other thickening ingredients, such as flour, cornstarch, chocolate or gelatin but if the foam is to be used relatively pure, sych as flourless souffl, the egg proteins have to do the job themselves and with the help of heat
44

Egg Proteins and Foams


Ovalbumin[], the major protein in egg white, is relatively immune to beating and does not contribute much to the raw foam but it is sensitive to heat, which causes it to unfold and coagulate so when the raw foam is cooked, ovalbumin needs more than double of the amount of solid protein reinforcement in the bubble walls; at the same time, much of the free water in the foam evaporates heat thus allows the cook to transform a transient semi-liquid foam into a permanent 45 solid one

Egg Proteins and Foams


the very same forces that make egg foams also break egg foams just as the foam is reaching its optimum texture, it will get grainy, lose volume, and separate into a dry froth and runny liquid as the proteins bond to each other to support the foam, they embrace each other too tightly, and squeeze out the water they had held between them

46

Egg Proteins and Foams


there are several different kinds of bonds by which the long, unfolding egg proteins are joined to each other in a reinforcing network:
bonds between positively and negatively charged parts of molecules, between water-like parts, between fat-like parts, and between sulfur groups

Egg Proteins and Foams


there are three enemies to the successful mounting of a foam which the cook should be careful to exclude from the bowl: interfere with foaming in the same ways
they are egg yolk, oil or fat, and detergent by competing with the proteins for a place at the air-water interfacement by interfering with the bonding of the protein molecules

the protein network begins to collapse when too many of these bonds accumulate and the proteins cluster together too tightly fortunately, there are simple ways for the cook to limit the accumulation of bonds and prevent the collapse of albumen foams
47

cooks usually mix sugar and whites at the outset in order to obtain a very firm and dense foam

48

Egg White
egg white is nearly a perfect agent for strong and fluffy foams in nature it is water that contains dissolved solids, mostly proteins, whereas egg yolk has a large proportion of fat and other constituents when egg whites are whisked, air is included at the same time, the twisted protein spiral unfolds and stretches capturing and surrounding the air in a stable foam
49

Egg White
egg white protein is elastic, enabling captured air to expand with heat without damaging the foam for maximum foaming, it is important to use a clean glass or porcelain bowl and a clean egg whisk the egg yolk and white must be separated carefully, because a drop of yolk will lessen the foaming ability of the egg white

50

Egg White
when heated, the protein coagulates to light crisp[] texture when egg and sugar are whipped over water, the volume of the foam increases whisked egg white is added to souffls or mixtures for baking, to include more air the air expands with heat and thus acts as a raising agent

Egg White
Meringue[] is a mixture of egg whites and sugar thoroughly beaten together with air, then baked until it is dry and turns brown on top structure that makes the meringue stiff and upstanding comes from certain proteins in the egg whites; these proteins become denatured as vigorous beating mixes them with air, and they recombine into delicate network this traps air that the beating has forced into egg whites, making the basic foamy structure
52

51

Egg White
the heat of baking denatures other proteins into coil-shaped elements that coagulate to strengthen the structure, and the heat also expands the trapped air to make the meringue puff up not even a drop of egg yolk can be allowed into the egg whites, or the volume of the beaten foam is dramatically reduced the reason is in the fat in the yolk
fats and oils reduce surface tension egg whites tainted by fat cannot rise high into a fluffy meringue

Egg White
it is better to use a copper bowl for beating egg whites

a sliver bowl will do the same, too


53

copper has the useful tendency to form extremely tight bonds with reactive sulfur groups, so tight that the sulphur is essentially prevented from reacting with anything else the presence of copper in foaming egg white essentially eliminates the strongest kind of protein bond that can form, and makes it harder for the proteins to embrace each other too tightly if you whip egg whites in a copper bowl, the foam stays glossy and never develops grains

54

Basic eggegg-beating techniques


first, choosing a suitable egg
old eggs at room temperature are often recommended on the grounds that the whites are thinner and therefore foam more rapidly

Basic eggegg-beating techniques


second, beat an egg white for two minutes and it will expand eightfold into a semisolid foam third, beat an egg yolk for ten minutes and it will double its volume
yolks are richer in protein than whites, and have the added advantage of emulsifying phospholipids that do a fine job of coating fat droplets

the older thin white drains from the foam more easily the old eggs are more likely to leave traces of yolk in the white

very fresh eggs are said to be almost impossible to foam by hand


fresh eggs are less alkaline and so make a more stable foam
55

fourth, pour in some water, the yolk foams

56

Basic eggegg-beating techniques


Reasons for adding water:

EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
eggs are mixed with other liquids across a tremendous[] range of proportions
one tablespoon of cream will enrich a scrambled egg one beaten egg will slightly thicken a pint of milk into an eggnog at around 250ml to 2 eggs will make the custards and creams, dishes in which the egg proteins give substantial body to otherwise thin liquids

the protein-rich, emulsifier-rich yolk is deficient in water


not only does it contain about half the water that the white does, but nearly all of it is tightly bound to all the other materials neither the physical abuse of whipping nor the presence of air bubbles causes the yolk proteins to unfold and bond with each other into a reinforcing matrix

proteins in egg yolk are too stable


so supplement the yolk with liquid, and the whipping with careful cooking, and the mixture will rise to four or more times its original volume

57

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EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
Examples:
custard: dish prepared and serve, a solid gel creams: auxiliary preparations, same mix as custard, but stirred continuously during stovetop cooking to produce a thickened mass sabayon: made by beating egg yolks with a liquid over simmering water until thickened and increased in volume; may be sweet or savoury and usually served as a sauce or used in making gratins

EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
there are two broad classes of creams
the pourable creams

the cream fillings


they have the consistency of heavy cream at serving temperature they contain the standard eggs, milk, and sugar, and are cooked only until they just begin to thicken they are meant to stay put a dish and hold their shape they are stiffened with a substantial dose of flour or cornstarch

egg yolks contains a starch-digesting enzyme, amylase, that is remarkably resistant to heat
60

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10

EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
unless a sharch-egg mix is brought to a full boil, the yolk amylase will survive, digest the starch, and turn the stiff cream into a pourable one creams should be protected against the formation of the leathery skin that results from evaporation which concentrates and toughens the surface layer of protein and starch
to press waxed paper or buttered parchment directly onto the cream

Physical Agitation
physical agitation normally breaks down and destroys structure with a single dense, sticky egg white, work with a whisk, and in a few minutes, you have a cupful of snowy white foam, a cohesive structure that clings to the bowl when you turn it upside down, and holds its own when mixed and cooked like the head on a beer or a cappucino, an egg foam is a white liquid filled with air in such a way that mixture of liquid and gas keeps its shape, like a solid
61 62

Egg Foams: Cooking with the wrist


it is a mass of bubbles, with air inside each bubble, and the white spread out into a thin film to form the bubble walls the makeup of those liquid walls determines how long a foam can stand up pure water has a strong surface tension that strong attractive forces among its moleculesimmediately starts to pull itself together into a compact puddle
63

Ice cream
ice cream consists mainly of ice, fat, sugar, air egg yolk and other ingredients are added to give it flavor and color to make ice-cream conventionally, mix egg yolks and milk and stir in sugar along with flavoring, such as vanillia
stirring at this stage helps to prevent lactose molecules, which is the main sugar found in milk, forming crystals which could give the ice cream a gritty[] texture
64

Ice cream
then heat the mixture, while stirring, but to no more than 65C
above this temperature, the protein molecules in the egg begin to denature and coagulate into lumpseffectively the same process that occurs when making scrambled egg

Ice cream
during the cooking process, stirring is essential
because ice crystals form during cooling if they are not broken up by stirring, these crystals can grow large and give the icecream a gritty texture over a vastly larger time scale, when magma cools slowly it forms granite rock with large crystals while more rapid cooling forms basalt, which has smaller crystals

the product at this stage is in effect a custard and has to be frozen to make it into ice cream this was traditionally done by cooling the custard in a container in freezing mixture
65

one way to make ice cream crystals quickly is to cool the custard by adding liquid nitrogen
66

11

Ice cream
this liquid is at -196C and is constantly in the process of boiling if liquid nitrogen is poured into an ice-cream custard, it cools within seconds and a smooth ice cream with very tiny ice crystals is formed the nitrogen boils away forming harmless nitrogen gas and the ice cream is quite safe to eat once it has warmed up to about 0C
67

Ice cream

68

Making Bubbles by Yourself


you can easily make soap films by dipping a loop of wire, or even a loop made by bringing your forefinger tip to touch the tip of your thumb, into a bowl of soapy water and then lifting it out carefully a soap film will have formed inside the loop if you blow gently on this film, it will bend outwards forming a bowl shape it you keep on blowing the film may bow out so much that it breaks away from the edge of the loop and forms separate bubble
69

Making Bubbles by Yourself


a bubble is simply a curved membrane formed from lots of soap molecules that form a sphere enclosing some air the more curved the membrane, the higher the pressure of the air inside the bubble as the water in a membrane starts to evaporate, the membrane becomes a little less stiff and the bubble will expand under the pressure of air inside and usually resulting in burst of bubble a foam is simply a raft of many bubbles joined together
70

Making Bubbles by Yourself


in a foam the many soap membranes join together and lose their curvature note that the hydrophobic ends of the soap molecules hate water, but they quite like oils and fats when they come into contact with some oil, or an oily surface, the oils destroy soap films, burst bubbles and collapse foams this explains why souffls and some cakes tend to collapse
understand the stability of foams and perfect souffls can be made more easily

Interesting Questions in Cooking

Can a bottle of soda go flat if its never been opened?

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12

Interesting Questions in Cooking


the plastic pop bottles are slightly permeable to carbon dioxide gas gas can diffuse out though the walls to diminish the effervesence[] classic coke in plastic bottles has a recommended shelf life of 9 months for optimum flavor and quality, whereas Diet Cokes recommended shelf life is only 3 months

Interesting Questions in Cooking


freezing can lower the fizziness when the bottle freezes, the expanding ice can bulge out the bottle, and when it thaws the bottle may retain its expanded shape that makes more gas space into which more carbon dioxide can escape from the liquid, lowering its effervescence level

since the artificial sweeteners aspartame is somewhat unstable and loses its sweetness over time
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Interesting Questions in Cooking

Interesting Questions in Cooking


it is an art to create a perfect ice cream soda although you start with just two ingredients-ice cream and soda; you end up with three-ice cream, soda, and foam. it turns out there's a big difference between foam on a glass of plain old soda, and foam made by soda and ice cream together when ordinary soda foams, it releases carbon dioxide gas this forms bubbles that rise and pop pretty quickly

Put ice cream in glass first, then pour soda over it, the glass will fill with much foam. But put the soda in first, then hardly get any foam at all! WHY?
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Interesting Questions in Cooking


things get more complicated when ice cream is added to the mix because ice cream itself is in fact a kind of foam if you looked at ice cream under a microscope, you'd see ice crystals, liquid, and air pockets this foamy mixture of liquid, solid, and air is crucial to ice cream's flavor and consistency to help keep this foamy microscopic structure, ice cream contains chemical ingredients called thickening agents, which are designed to help foam stay foamy 77

Interesting Questions in Cooking


when you pour soda over ice cream, the soda makes its bubbles as it usually does but these bubbles don't just pop; they are held in place and stabilized by the thickening agents in the ice cream if you add the ice cream after the soda, most of those soda bubbles have already formed and popped before the thickening agents can get to work

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13

Interesting Questions in Cooking


the stabilizers[] are a group of compounds, usually polysaccharides, that are responsible for adding viscosity to the unfrozen portion of the water and thus holding this water so that it cannot migrate within the product this results in an ice cream that is firmer without the stabilizers, the ice cream would become coarse and icy very quickly due to the migration of this free water and the growth of existing ice crystals
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Interesting Questions in Cooking


the smaller the ice crystals in the ice cream, the less detectable they are to the tongue especially in the distribution channels of today's marketplace, the supermarkets, the trunks of cars, and so on, ice cream has many opportunities to warm up, partially melt some of the ice, and then refreeze as the temperature is once again lowered this process is known as heat shock and every time it happens, the ice cream becomes more icy tasting
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Interesting Questions in Cooking


stabilizers help to prevent this gelatin, a protein of animal origin, was used almost exclusively in the ice cream industry as a stabilizer but has gradually been replaced with polysaccharides of plant origin due to their increased effectiveness and reduced cost the stabilizers in use today include: carboxymethyl cellulose[], locust bean gum[.], guar gum[ ], carrageenan[], or sodium 81 alginate[]

Interesting Questions in Cooking


Percent fat destabilization

Time in freezer (min) Effect of emulsifier on fat destabilization in ice cream


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Interesting Questions in Cooking

Interesting Questions in Cooking

You can see above the increased amount of shape retention and slowness of melt that comes from the added emulsifiers, particularly polysorbate 80.

Comparison of Foams and Emulsions: Order of Magnitude of Some Quantities


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14

Emulsions

Chapter 5 Sauces

an emulsion[] is an integrated mixture of two liquids that wouldn't ordinarily mix together - such as oil and water in most emulsions, the dispersed phase is very finely divided, forming droplets which may be as small as 1m or less two immiscible liquids form a cellular structure, stabilised by a surface-active agent, which may be called an emulsifier

oil and water

emulsion

Emulsions
extremely fine emulsions, known as microemulsions, constitute a rich field of physics for two reasons:
the idealised model in which two fluids are separated by an interface with a constant surface energy, is inadequate when the surface curvature approaches the reciprocal of the size of molecules additional energy contributions arise, which involve this curvature

Emulsions
emulsion droplets are spherical and deformable, and their interface is fluid emulsion droplets behave like solid spheres, unless stirring is extremely vigorous or droplets are very large emulsions are dispersions of one liquid in another

the small scale of the structure allows thermal fluctuations to play a role, and this may result in ordered structures
3 4

Emulsions
Type: oil-in-water (o/w) or water-in-oil (w/o)
this determines what liquid the emulsion can be diluted the o/w emulsions are most common, e.g. milk and milk products, sauces, dressings, flavor emulsions, meat emulsions, cream liqueur and soups butter and margarine are w/o emulsions

Emulsions
Droplet size distribution
this has an important bearing on physical stability smaller drops generally gives more stable emulsions the energy and the amount of emulsifier needed to produce the emulsion depend on the droplet size desired because of the great dependence of stability on droplet size, the width of the size distribution is also important
5 6

Emulsions
Volume fraction of dispersed phase ()
In most foods, is between 0.001 and 0.4 for mayonnaise[], it may be 0.8, which is above the value for maximum packing of rigid spheres, roughly 0.7; this means that the oil droplets are distorted

Emulsions
Composition of the continuous phase
this determines solvent conditions for the surfactant and thereby colloidal interactions the viscosity of the continuous phase has a pronounced effect on creaming

Composition and thickness of the surface of the surface layer around the droplets
this determines interfacial tension, colloidal interaction forces

Emulsifiers
food is a complicated mixture of carbohydrate protein, oil and fat, water, and air, as well as a variety of other minute components such as minerals, vitamins, and flavors food processing subjects this mixture to a wide range of:
thermal treatments, e.g. baking, boiling, steaming, freezing mechanical treatments, e.g. kneading, mixing, extruding
9

Emulsifiers
each component of food (carbohydrate, protein, oil and fat, water, air, etc.) has its own unique properties which sometimes come into conflict with other components, for example, oil and water thus a third substance is necessary to increase the compatibility of the contact surfaces of the two components, that is, to serve as an interface between two mutually exclusive materials the substance which is used to improve the quality of food and its processing is called a food emulsifier
10

Emulsion Formation
to make an emulsion, one needs oil, water, an emulsifier, and energy making drops is easy, but to break them up into small droplets mostly is difficult drops resist deformation and thereby break up because of their Laplace pressure, which becomes larger as droplet size decreases this necessitates a large input of energy the energy needed can be reduced if the interfacial tension
11

Emulsion Formation
hence Laplace pressure is reduced by adding an emulsifier the energy needed to deform and break up droplets is generally provided by intense agitation agitation can cause sufficiently strong shear forces if the continuous phase is very viscous this is common when making w/o emulsions, resulting in droplets with diameters down to a few micrometers
12

Emulsion Formation
in o/w emulsions, the viscosity of the continuous phase tends to be low, and to break up droplets inertial forces are needed these are produced by the rapid, intensive pressure fluctuations occurring in turbulent flow if air is beaten in an o/w emulsion, this may lead to adsorption of droplets onto air bubbles the droplets may then be disrupted into smaller ones, due to spreading of oil over the o/w interface

Emulsion Formation
if the droplets contain crystalline fat, clumping may occur; beating in air thus promotes partial coalescence[] this is what happens during churning of cream to make butter and also during whipping of cream in the latter case, the clumped, partially solid droplets form a continuous network that encapsulates and stabilizes the air bubbles and lends stiffness to the foam
14

13

Emulsion Formation
a way to prevent or retard all changes except Ostwald ripening is to cause the continuous phase to gel, e.g. butter and margarine
the water droplets are immobilized by a network of fat crystals some crystals become oriented at the o/w interface the droplets cannot closely encounter each other if the product is heated to melt the crystals, the aqueous droplets readily coalesce often, a suitable surfactant is added to margarine to prevent rapid coalescence during heating which would cause undesirable spattering
15

Emulsion in Food
egg yolk contains an emulsifying agent, lecithin, which acts as a stabilizing emulsion between oil and water
this prevents oil and water mixtures from separation Lecithin[] attracts oil and water particles and forms a thin layer around them to keep them from dispersing

when making mayonnaise, the egg lecithin surrounds the oil particles, preventing them from joining and discharging oil
16

Emulsion in Food
butter sauces, such as Hollandaise sauce[ ], are an emulsion of butter in combination with water or vinegar, stabilized with egg licithin in cakes prepared by using the creaming method, the emulsifying quality of eggs is essential to ensure a light texture
when whipped egg is added to creamed butter and sugar, the sugar dissolves in the egg and the egg lecithin stabilizes the butter and water emulsion air is trapped in this emulsion when heated, the air expands to give a lighter texture when baking
17

Emulsion in Food
an emulsified sauce is a sauce that is made from these two types of otherwise unblendable []ingredients an example of an emulsified sauce is mayonnaise one of the most popular mother sauces, Hollandaise, which is an emulsified sauce made with butter, egg yolks and seasonings emulsifiers are used to provide both flavors and to enhance textures

they might be egg yolks, egg whites, gelatin, skim milk, or fine powders
18

Emulsion in Food
three components are needed to make an emulsion:
a liquid, such as oil, that can be broken up into millions of tiny droplets a water-type liquid that will stay around between the tiny droplets to keep them separate an emulsifier that keeps the oil-type liquid and the water-type liquid from joining back together into big drops first, obtaining the required flavor second, ensuring the sauce has the right thickness and mouth-feel

Emulsion in Food
the most difficult area is to understand what makes a sauce thick or thin The viscosity affects the thickness
the viscosity of liquid can be defined as the ratio of the rate at which it flows through a pipe, to the pressure applied to the liquid to make it flow If we dissolve some large molecules in the water, then they can increase the viscosity and hence thicken the sauce the viscosity of water can be increased by adding small molecules, such as sugar
20

there are two separate steps in making sauces

19

Emulsion in Food
It is more difficult to push a large molecule out of the way and it is more difficult to slide easily past an irregularly shaped molecule
liquids made up from larger and more irregular shaped molecules have higher viscosities

Emulsion in Food
two main methods are used to thicken sauces:
in the first, starch granules are swollen in hot water and in the second, proteins are crosslinked[]to form large networks which can in turn form gels

we want the source to have


a low viscosity when it is being poured a high viscosity when it is stationary on the plate

21

both methods are used in all sorts of sauces, both sweet and savoury starches and proteins are used as thickening agents in a variety of different sauces the starch comes in the form of granules that swell up in hot water 22

Emulsion in Food
so it can be the swollen granules themselves rather than the starch inside them that thickens the sauce many proteins are a lot smaller than starch molecules
helpful to make them into larger molecules by heating them until they react together and form a network molecule that can be many hundreds of times larger than a single protein such large molecular aggregates can have as much as a thousand fold greater effect on the viscosity than the separate proteins before they coagulated[]
23

Starch Based Sauces


starch is formed in small granules in many vegetables, and seeds there are two main molecules (amylose and amylopectin) involved in making starch granules these long molecules are made up from long strings of small sugar molecules joined together in amylose, the sugars are joined to make linear strings, while in amylopectin, the sugars join in a more complex fashion to make branched molecules
24

Starch Based Sauces


on heating above about 70C, the starches amylose and amylopectin start to become soluble in water and the granules begin to absorb large amounts of water as more water flows into the granules so they expand; in extreme cases they can expand to 100 times their original volume these expanded granules provide a good deal of thickening by increasing the viscosity of the liquid
25

Starch Based Sauces


in the sauce, it is possible for some of the starch molecules to burst out of the granules
this will happen at sufficiently large expansions of the granules, i.e. at sufficiently high temperatures

the free starch contributes to the general thickening also, by forming a sort of entangled network of long molecules that penetrates throughout the sauce, they impart a shear thinning property to the sauce, which will allow it to be poured, while it will also not flow too much on the plate
26

Starch Based Sauces


starches are used widely to thicken gravies[], such as cornflour[] or wheat flour another major use of starch to thicken a sauce is in some custards[]
the best custards are thickened with egg proteins, however, this can be a time consuming and expensive process so most commercial custards use cornflour as the thickening agent

Starch Based Sauces


flour is also a traditional thickener for sauces when flour is mixed with cold water, nothing happens but when the mixture is heated, the starch granules in flour soften and begin to absorb liquid tiny granules swells to form a latticework when theres no place for any remaining liquid to flow, the sauce has thickened
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Starch Based Sauces

Protein Thickened Sauces


proteins are long molecules made up from linear strings of amino acids joined together however, when heated, the proteins change their shapes in a process known as denaturation[] once the proteins have denatured, they tend to expand and spread out in any surrounding water as the temperature is raised, proteins will come together and react with one another forming bridges between adjacent molecules, thus building up large networks that can act to thicken a sauce
30

cooks create sauces that form the basis of an amazing array of dishes each of the starches used for thickening has its own special properties:
the way it reflects light the temperature at which it thickened its thickening power when cold or boiled or frozen
29

Protein Thickened Sauces


an example of a protein thickened sauce is egg custard the proteins in the egg yolks are first denatured at a temperature of around 40C then react with one another to form a network at temperatures above about 70C if too much of this networking should occur, the custard will become too thick and lumps start to form, or, in extreme circumstances, it may turn into scrambled eggs[] a good guide is to make sure the temperature of your custard never gets above 80C 31

Gelation
Gelation[] is an orderly aggregation of proteins, which may or may not be denatured, forming a three-dimensional network polymer-polymer and polymer-solvent interactions, as well as attractive and repulsive forces, are balanced such that a well-ordered matrix can be formed the gel may be turbid or translucent; in the latter case, the gel may be thermoreversible []
32

Gelation
the term gelation is also used in another context with respect to egg-yolk proteins the phenomenon of egg-yolk gelation refers to the formation of an irreversibly gelled product upon freezing of the yolk the classic explanation of heat induced aggregation of protein molecules is the following two-step process:

Gelation
Coagulation (congealing) is the change in state from a solution (having the characteristics of a liquid), to a gel (having the characteristics of a solid)
it is a physio-chemical change which takes place when protein is converted from a fluid to a semisolid or solid state it is caused by heat, salt, acid, alkali and whipping this occurs in liquid foods which contain proteins because the shape of the globular polypeptide molecules change when the liquid is heated
34

Native protein -> denatured protein (long chains) -> aggregated protein (associated network) the first step is considered a denaturation process and the second step an aggregation process
33

Gelation
the energy supplied to the molecules by the heat causes the bonds which link different parts of the chain to break, resulting in a change in the protein structures other bonds then form as a second process called coagulation occurs - the protein eventually becomes a three-dimensional network of molecules within which water is trapped at this stage the food has solid characteristics: it has coagulated
35

Gelation
egg white coagulates at 60C, egg yolk at 65C and whole egg at 63 - 65C it is also important when binding ingredients, e.g. fish or pumpkin[]cakes, for glazing when baking, to clarify fluids, to thicken sauces like custard sauce and to set tart fillings and baked custard

Pumpkin cake
36

Gelation
Protein Concentration affects aggregation
about 80% of the protein heats at 75C for 5 min aggregates a higher protein concentration is probably needed to allow a closer association of molecules for aggregate formation at the lower temperatures proteins with higher percentages of hydrophobic amino acids are classified as coagulation-type proteins and concentration dependent proteins with a lower percentage are gelationtype proteins and concentration independent further heating causes egg albumin to polymerize by intermolecular sulfhydryl-disulfide, exchange, forming a network
37

Colloidal Sauces
in scientific terms, a suspension of fatty droplets in another liquid is called a colloid essentially, to make a colloid you need to form very finely dispersed drops of the fat and coat these with some surfactant molecules that stabilize them in the water based medium surfactants are molecules one end of which likes to be in the fatty environment and the other end of which likes to be in the watery environment of the bulk and does not like to be in the fatty droplets
colloid
38

Colloidal Sauces
there are many examples of such molecules that can be used in making colloidal saucesprobably the most important are the lipids[] found in egg yolks adding egg yolks to a mixture of oils and water and then vigorously stirring the mixture will create a stable colloidal suspension of oil drops in the water and make a thick and creamy sauce
39

Colloids
Colloids[] is defined as a dispersion containing particles that are clearly larger than small molecules, yet too small to be visible their size ranges from about 10nm to almost 1mm there are two types of colloids: reversible (lyophilic) and irreversible (lyophobic) a reversible colloid forms by dissolving a material in a suitable solvent

e.g. macromolecules, like polysaccharides, proteins and association colloids are formed from amphiphilic molecules, like soaps
40

Colloids
these have a fairly long hydrophobic tail and a smaller, very polar (hydrophilic) head in an aqueous environment, the molecules tend to associate in such a way that the tails are close to each other and the heads are in contact with water micelles or liquid crystalline structures are formed Colloidal interactions between particles forces act that originate from material properties of the particles and the interstitial 41 fluid

Colloids
these colloidal interaction forces act in a direction perpendicular to the particle surface, contrary to the surface forces, which act in the direction of the surface colloidal interaction has important consequences:
it determines whether particles will aggregate and may determine further physical instability aggregating particles may form a network and rheological[] properties and the stability of systems containing networks it may greatly affect susceptibility of emulsion 42 droplets to coalescence

Colloids
Types Examples
Emulsions(O/W) Milk, ice cream, creams, coffee creamers, cream liqueurs, soft drink syrups, mayonnaise, sauces (e.g. hollandaise, barnaise), sausages, whippable toppings, some salad dressings, some fruit drinks Emulsions(W/O) Butter, margarine, spreads, processed cheese, some salad dressings Foams Ice cream, whipped cream and toppings, barnaise, souffles, mousses, aerated icing

Gels
a gel[] is a material that exhibits a yield stress, has viscoelastic properties and has a moderate modulus many foods are soft solids and often said to be gels or gel-like when a small stress acts on the material, it behaves elastically:
it keeps the shape obtained as long as the stress acts it returns instantaneously to its original shape as soon as the stress is removed
43 44

Products made Bread, cakes, meringue, marshmallow from foams Suspensions Ice ream, vegetable shortening, chocolate drinks, water ice

Examples of food colloids

Gels
for greater stress, the material may show viscoelastic behavior:
it first deforms elastically but then starts to flow after removal of the stress it only partly regains its original shape

Gels
the behavior of a viscoelastic material greatly depends on the time scale of the deformation at very short time scales, a gel is almost purely elastic, and at very long time scales almost purely viscous from a structural point of view, a gel has a continuous matrix of interconnected material with much interstitial solvent gels may be formed in various ways, according to the kind of gelling material 46

strain () means relative deformation, and strain rate is its change with time (d/dt)
the strain at fracture (fr) may be called shortness and brittleness, and they are closely related to 1/ fr the strain at fracture may vary widely; for gelatin fr may be 3, and for some polysaccharide gels only 0.1
45

Gels
the mechanical properties of various gels differ greatly
for most gels, proportionality of stress and strain is only observed at very small strains, and at larger strains the quotient may be called an apparent modulus the strength of the material is the stress at fracture[] (fr)

Food Gels: Gelatin


the flexible molecular strands between cross-links are long and this causes the gel to be very extensible it is also predominantly elastic because the cross-links are fairly permanent (at least at low temperature) the dependence of modulus on concentration is in reasonable agreement, but the temperature dependence is not this discrepancy stems from the mechanism of cross-linking
48

this gives the solution some elasticity gelation is caused by formation of intermolecular cross-linksthis can be covalent bonds, salt bridges, or microcrystalline regions

47

Food Gels: Gelatin


despite the severe treatment of the collagen during preparation of gelatin, the molecules retain much of their length and produce highly viscous aqueous solutions upon cooling, the molecules tend to form triple helices like those in collagen this applies to only part of the gelatin, and the helical regions are relatively short

Collagen, Gelatin and Gels


Collagen[] is a stiff fibrous protein that is abundant in all mammals collagen is a major component of skin and of the sinews that connect muscles to bones, as well as forming coatings around bundles of muscle fibers collagen is not a single molecule, but consist of three separate molecules twisted around each other in a rope like structure
49 50

Collagen, Gelatin and Gels


it is this triple helical arrangement that provides collagen with its stiffness and makes it so useful as a structural building block in mammalian tissue when collagen is heated above about 70C the separate strands of the triple helix unwind, denatured, gelatin and proteins cannot reform into a triple helix when cooled instead, the separate strands interact with one another forming many links with other molecules and so build up a large network
51

Collagen, Gelatin and Gels


between the junction zones of the networks, the gelatin remain dissolved in the surrounding water the gelatin water system behaves like a solid, rather than a liquid; even though it may contain as much as 90% water and such systems are called gels or in the kitchen jellies gels formed by gelatin are thermo-reversible gels, i.e. if we increase the temperature, the links between the separate molecules weaken and break, so melting the gel
52

Collagen, Gelatin and Gels


similarly, when we cool the dissolved gelatin below about 15C, the separate molecules start to interact again and the gel reforms gels are also formed from other molecules in cooking
e.g. when egg whites are heated, the proteins denature and then form new crosslinks to build up a gel which we recognize as cooked egg white the gel is permanent and the links between the egg white proteins are formed by irreversible chemical reactions
53

Micelle
a micelle[] is an aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid it forms a roughly spherical or globular aggregate with the hydrophilic "head" regions in contact with surrounding solvent, sequestering the hydrophobic tail regions in the micelle center micelles are often globular and roughly spherical in shape, but ellipsoids, cylinders, 54 and bilayers are also possible

Micelle
the shape of a micelle is a function of the molecular geometry of its surfactant molecules and solution conditions such as surfactant concentration, temperature, pH, and ionic strength the process of forming micelles is known as micellization

Micelle
when surfactants are present above the critical micelle concentration (CMC), they can act as emulsifiers that will solubilize a compound normally insoluble in the solvent being used this occurs because the insoluble species can be incorporated into the micelle core, which is itself solubilized in the bulk solvent by virtue of the head groups' favorable interactions with solvent species
55 56

Micelle
the most common example of this phenomenon is detergents, which clean poorly soluble hydrophobic material (such as oil, grease, or dirt) that cannot be cleaned by water alone detergent also helps clean by lowering the surface tension of water, making it easier to remove dirt from a surface the emulsifying ability of surfactants is also the basis for emulsion polymerization
57

Texture
while it is the viscosity, or thickness, that largely determines the texture of a sauce, there are several other factors that can be important as far as sauces are concerned, you may be interested in smoothness, lumpiness, creaminess, acidity or sharpness, as well as the persistence of the texture and flavor

58

Creaminess
the sensation of creaminess comes largely from the tendency of thick creamy foods to coat the mouth and not to dissolve very quickly so providing a taste sensation that persists for some time it comes from a combination of the viscosity (thickness) and the solubility of the fats in the sauce it can be achieved most easily by the addition of some thick cream
59

Creaminess
the fat in the cream is at best poorly soluble in the mouth and being very thick it can readily coat the inside of the mouth creamy texture is the reason why many recipes call for the finishing of a sauce with the addition of a little cream at the last minute

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10

Interesting Questions in Cooking

Interesting Questions in Cooking


flour is composed of both proteins and starch
because protein has no ability to swell and doesnt participate in the thickening process, it reflects the light and makes the sauce appear cloudy

Why a sauce thickened with cornstarch is clear, while one thickened with flour is cloudy?

cornstarch is pure starch


after adding water and heat to the starch granules, they will absorb water and swell, at the same time, they will become transparent

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this property is often used in fruit pies, because its transparency shows off the color of fruits well
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Cakes
cakes normally combine

Chapter 6 Cakes, Bread and Cookies

some kind of wheat byproduct a sweetening agent (commonly sugar) a binding agent (generally egg) fats (usually butter or margarine) a liquid (mostly milk or water) flavors

some form of leavening agents[] (e.g. yeast or baking powder)


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Cakes
methods to combine cake ingredients:
creaming method: butter and sugar are creamed together before the rest of the ingredients are gradually added melt-and-mix method: dry ingredients are mixed together and then melted butter and other liquids are added to complete the cake All-in-together method: the dry ingredients and shortening are placed in the food processor and liquid is gradually added sponge-making method: eggs and sugar are whipped to a froth and flour is carefully mixed in, no raising agent or fat is used in this method and it takes great skill to make a light sponge

Cakes
when all the cake ingredients are mixed, the mixture is called cake batter or mix then the cake batter is poured into the baking pan most cakes are baked in an oven at low temperature refrigeration is usually used to set and stay firm

Cakes

Cakes

the bubbles in a freshly cooked sponge are closed so that no air can get in or out as the cake cools, so the steam inside the bubbles condenses and changes back to water imagine all the tiny bubbles starting to deflate and getting smaller and smaller the cake will start to collapse 5

the cake is stiffer around the edges and supported by the tin so it is not likely to collapse too much there however, it will collapse in the middle unless you can change the structure so that air can come back into the bubbles to replace the condensed steam
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Angel Food Cakes


recipes for true angel food cakes contain no chemical leavening and very little flour beaten egg whites
form the basis of their delicate structure also reach incredible heights in the oven as air bubbles rise and evaporating liquid generates steam during baking

Bread Making
once the dough is mixed and kneading[ ] begins, the elasticity develops in flour so the dough becomes strong enough to hold the carbon dioxide as it is slowly produced by the yeast as the volume of gas increases, the dough stretches and lifts once the dough is satiny smooth and you can feel it resisting as you knead, it is left to rise at warm temperatures

once baked, such a fragile framework tends to compress by turning the pan upside down when the cake is baked, the air cells stay stretched until the structure solidifies as it cools 7

Bread Making
yeast grows best at the temperature of a pleasant summer day, about 27C, but it works slowly a long, slow rise at slightly lower temperatures develops a fuller flavor in the finished loaf this is called fermentation[] fermentation allows yeast to get on with its life processes as yeast ferments, it also makes dough easier to handle, and the alcohols and organic acids it produces create new aromas and flavors
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Bread Making
during fermentation, yeast converts the complex carbohydrates in flour into simple sugars that it feeds on it starts to release carbon dioxide and alcohol, all very important by-products in bread making fermentation can be quickened by warm rising temperatures, 2430C or slowed by cool ones, such as in a refrigerator
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Bread Making
it is important to realize that yeast, although needing warmth, can be killed if it becomes too hot, above 60C when yeast ferments, the carbon dioxide gas released by it is trapped in the tiny air cells in the bread's strong and elastic gluten[]strands[] initially, dough rises slowly, but it picks up momentum as fermentation proceeds a second or final rising period always takes less time than the first
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Bread Making
punching the dough down after its initial rising
breaks up large pockets of gas so the dough becomes evenly inflated redistributes the yeast and its food, and equalizes temperature differences throughout the dough

as yeast bread bakes, leavening gases are trapped in the dough moisture turns to steam, a natural leaven also helps add volume
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Bread Making
as water evaporates from the dough, the structure of the loaf solidifies heat eventually kills the yeast and inactivates its enzymes smell the alcohol as it evaporates during baking

Bread Making Steps affect Yeast


the first rising is to allow time for the yeast cells to grow as this takes place, yeast generates carbon dioxide which makes the dough rise, and alcohol for flavor punching down the dough redistributes the cells more evenly throughout the dough mass after shaping, the dough rises again, but this rising takes place more quickly as the yeast cells are by now highly active
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Bread Making Steps affect Yeast


at this stage, most bakers stretch and tuck the dough underneath itself, into a round to give it a smooth, tight top that will trap the gases produced by fermentation let the dough stand for 10-15 minutes this lets the gluten bonds relax a little and makes the final shaping of the dough easier

Fermentation Time
some bread recipes require less fermentation time than others because of the type of flour used recipes with rye[] flour require less than those containing only wheat flour
rye flour is more fermentative than wheat flour because it contains a larger percentage of natural sugars, diastase and protease enzymes rye flour is slightly higher in natural acidity than wheat flour these factors have an acceleration effect on gas production and gas retention
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15

Key Points in Making Bread


use a strong flour, i.e. a high protein content do not rub the fat in too much so that it interferes with the hydration of the starch proteins knead the dough thoroughly allow plenty of time for the dough to rise knock down the risen dough and allow it to rise again at least once before cooking
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Key Points in Making Bread


bread rises because the carbon dioxide generated by the yeast makes bubbles in the dough for these bubbles to have enough strength not to burst, you need to create the rubbery gluten sheets from the protein in a strong flour the kneading is essential as it stretches the protein molecules and promotes gluten formation
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Baking Soda and Baking Powder

Baking Soda
baking soda[] is a single chemical, pure sodium bicarbonate it releases carbon dioxide gas as soon as it comes in contact with any acidic liquid, such as buttermilk, sour cream

both baking soda and baking powder are used for leavening
making baked goods rise by producing millions of tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas the gas bubbles are released within the wet batter, after which the heat of the oven expands them until the heat firms up the batter and traps them in place
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Baking Powder
baking powder is baking soda combined with one or more acid salts, such as monocalcium phosphate monohydrate it is used when a recipe contains no other acid ingredients as soon as the powder gets wet, the two chemicals begin to dissolve and react with each other to produce carbon dioxide

Baking Powder
to keep them from going off prematurely, they have to be protected from atmospheric moisture by being kept in a tightly closed container many food products such as bread, sponge cakes and buns have a honeycomb structure which contains many bubbles during cooking these bubbles are formed by a gas, and the mixture rises
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Baking Powder
the gas is air which is whipped into the mixture before cooking and which expands during cooking carbon dioxide can be formed either from the fermentation of sugar aided by yeast (as in making bread) or by chemicals that react to
the most common chemical used for this purpose is sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3
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Baking Powder
carbon dioxide can be formed in two ways:
on heating: 2NaHCO3(s)Na2CO3(s)+CO2(g) + H2O(l) on reacting with an acid, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl): NaHCO3(s)+ HCl (aq) NaCl(aq)+ CO2(g)+ H2O(l)

the gaseous product of the reaction is carbon dioxide a weak acid potassium hydrogentartrate is used in cooking

this dry mixture is the basis of baking powder


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a solid which is possible to mix it with the sodium hydrogencarbonate without the two reacting they only react in the presence of water

Baking Powder
one problem with the use of potassium hydrogentartrate is that it is very soluble in water

Baking Powder
potassium hydrogentartrate dissolves and reacts almost immediately which makes the dish rise on mixing calcium dihydrogendiphosphate is slower to dissolve and will not react until the mixture is in the oven and the gas bubbles are trapped by the cake as it bakes

as soon as it becomes wet, e.g. when milk is added, it dissolves and reacts this risks all the gas escaping while the cake mix is still liquid and before it goes in the oven

most baking powders nowadays are socalled double acting

along with the sodium hydrogencarbonate, they use a mixture of potassium hydrogentartrate and calcium dihydrogendiphosphate (CaH2P2O6), which is also a solid acid
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Baking Powder
self-raising flour is plain flour with baking powder added to it when the cake mixture is cooking in the oven the baking powder gives off carbon dioxide gas this carbon dioxide gas makes the cake rise, so when the cake is cooked it is light and fluffy

Flour
Flour[] is made up from small starch granules each starch granule is in turn composed of a mixture of starch molecules Amylosep[](a linear molecule) and amylopectin[] (a heavily branched

molecule) also contain some proteins the actual amount of protein depending on the source of the starch granules
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Flour
the arrangement of the different molecules and their proportions determine
the type of flour, e.g. hard or soft, bread or cake how the flour will behave when used in baking

Flour
this process of absorbing water is technically referred to as hydration these hydrated protein molecules then begin to stick together, and so bind the granules to one another if these bound granules are then moved apart the proteins between them become stretched when they are stretched, the proteins change their shape and interact with each other in different ways
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for bread making, the most important aspect of the flour is the formation of gluten sheets as the wet dough is kneaded when water is added to the flour, the proteins on the outside of the starch granules rapidly absorb the moisture and become very sticky
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Flour
the new interactions between the starch granule proteins lead to the formation of gluten to make good bread, you need gluten sheets to be robust enough not to break as the carbon dioxide is formed and plentiful enough to capture the gas in very small bubbles large bubbles would lead to holes in the final loaf
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Flour
there are many different types of flour
the first difference between flours is the type of grain they are milled from

all flours start life as cereal grains, these are then ground down to a fine powder grains commonly used for flour are wheat, rice, corn, barley, and several types of bean including soya[ ], chickpea[] and fava[]

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Flour
there are many strains of wheat with different proportions of starch and protein in the grains depending on the climate and soil conditions where it is grown there are two very different types of flour available
plain, or all purpose flours, having no additives self raising flours, having raising agents such as baking powder added to them
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Flour
plain wheat flours are characterised by the amount of protein in the flour
flours with high protein contents, above 12%, are particularly useful for bread making and are often called bread flours or hard flours flours with a low protein content are termed cake or soft flours

for general baking, you need a moderate protein content of around 7-10% by weight it is generally better to have a flour with a protein content at the lower end of this range for pastry
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Flour
for breads, where the generation of gluten is essential, you need a higher protein content, over 10%, so special flours are essential some flours are sold as wholemeal, brown, or whole wheat, etc different types of wheat have similar components, the variety, planting times, soil conditions, and climate
e.g. durum, ideal for pastas e.g. red spring, more useful in flours for baking
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Flour
whole wheat flour uses all parts of kernel[

this may mean grinding the whole kernel or adding back bran and germ to milled flour in their original proportions
because the oils in wheat germ can go rancid, whole wheat flour spoils more easily then other flours

it is best to avoid the formation of gluten when making pastries[]


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Flour
one way to reduce gluten formation is to coat the starch granules with fat before adding any water and are unable to swell and interact, i.e. the first stage in gluten formation is prevented, or significantly reduced the technique used in pastry making is to rub the fat into the flour before adding any liquids thus it should be apparent that, in bread making, where we want to ensure a good deal of gluten formation, the fat should not be rubbed into the flour, but should be mixed in along with the liquids 37

Gluten
gluten is a protein found combined with starch in the endosperm of some cereals, notably wheat, rye, and barley it is formed when two different protein molecules, gliadin[] and glutenin[], are made to interact with each other by the kneading of a wet dough, to form a super protein or protein complex it constitutes about 80% of the proteins contained in wheat, and is composed of the proteins gliadin and glutenin

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Gluten
it is a highly elastic material
it develops formed from that behave rather like rubber balloons

Gluten
a simple dough of flour and water is rinsed with plain water and kneaded until the rinsing water remains clear and free from starch and bran the remaining lump of gluten[]should have a stringy, sticky texture

in bread, these balloons formed from the gluten sheets become blown up by carbon dioxide gas generated by the yeast as the bread leavens, and thus make the bread rise it is responsible for the elasticity of kneaded dough, which allows it to be leavened, as well as the "chewiness" of baked products
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Gluten in Bread
gluten is created when wheat flour and moisture, e.g. water, are mixed and two proteins contained in the flour, gliadin and glutenin when the dough is mixed the gluten fibers become parallel and cross-bond to form the elastic but strong structure, like rubber-bands once flour and water are mixed together, any further working of the dough, such as kneading or handling, allows more proteins and water to find each other and link together, further creating and developing the 41 gluten into a web

Gluten in Bread
the gluten gives the bread dough structure and the elasticity it needs to stretch as carbon dioxide is released from the yeast the gluten structure must also be strong enough to trap and hold the leavening gases released slowly by yeast over a period of several hours
that is why bread flour with a high gluten-forming potential is typically used in bread recipes

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Gluten in Bread
as more and more tiny air cells fill with carbon dioxide, they begin to inflate the cells causing the bread dough to rise good bread texture depends to some extent upon the uniform distribution of the gluten done through the mixing and kneading, as well as rising steps a dough that is mixed properly and develops the gluten in the flour, will yield a lighter loaf of bread; too much flour or gluten, results in bread that it is dry and dense
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Gluten in Bread
cooked gluten becomes firm to the bite and soaks up a certain amount of the surrounding broth and its taste it is commonly used in vegetarian cuisine, one variety is called seitan[] in baking, gluten is responsible for keeping the fermentation gases in the dough, allowing it to rise after baking, the coagulated gluten ensures that the final product keeps its shape although starch is also essential for structural integrity
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Gluten in Bread
recently, gluten has also been implicated as being at least partially responsible for bread staling the wheat gluten proteins correspond to the major storage proteins that are deposited in the starchy endosperm cells of the developing grain these form a continuous proteinaceous[ ] matrix in the cells of the mature dry grain and are brought together to form a continuous viscoelastic[] network when flour is mixed with water to form dough
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Gluten in Bread
these viscoelastic properties underpin the utilization of wheat to give bread and other processed foods one group of gluten proteins, the HMM subunits of glutenin, is particularly important in conferring high levels of elasticity, i.e. dough strength

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How the Ingredients Work?


Flour
the protein content must be high enough to allow gluten sheets to develop during the kneading stage

How the Ingredients Work?


Salt
it acts to modify and control the action of the yeast if too much salt is added, the yeast will die before it has had the chance to make the bread rise if there is too little salt and the dough is left to rise for a long time, the yeast may continue to multiply and give the bread a strong yeasty flavor
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Sugar
the sugar provides some food for the yeast there are some sugars in the flour that the yeasts can metabolize[] it provides a boost for the yeast to allow it to get to work making carbon dioxide gas to make the dough rise quickly
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How the Ingredients Work?


Fat
it is added to slow down the staling process in the bread the staling process is a rearrangement of the starch molecules that involves water becoming tightly bound to the starch the addition of fat slows down the rate at which water can associate with the starch in the cooked bread and so helps to keep the bread fresh longer
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How the Instructions Work?


Kneading
it is used to produce the gluten from the proteins around the starch granules the gluten forms sheets that have similar properties to rubber when bubbles of carbon dioxide form in these sheets and expand as the yeast continues to work, so the bubbles are blown up just like balloons if the gluten sheets are too weak, then these bubbles will burst very easily and the bread wont rise properly

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How the Instructions Work?


Leaving to rise
the rising is the stage where the yeast works to produce carbon dioxide gas that inflates the gluten balloons the more of these small bubbles that form and the larger they grow, the more the bread rises and the lighter the final product will be yeast works best at temperatures around 2025C, it is best to keep the dough warm during the rising the rising itself stretches the dough and so the dough kneads all by itself and helps to make yet more gluten rising can be slowed down by reducing the temperature, one result is that the yeast behaves differently and new flavors develop

How the Instructions Work?


Knocking down and rising again
the reason you knock the dough down and let it rise again is to try to make more, and smaller, bubbles in the final bread, so giving it a finer, but still light texture when a bubble is closed up by knocking down it will often form several smaller bubbles as the gluten sticks to itself these smaller bubbles will then be blown up again as more carbon dioxide is generated during the second rising
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Baking
for bread, once grain had been pounded into flour and mixed with water, airborne natural yeast might have settled on the result and initiated fermentation in both baking and brewing, the first steps is to change starch, a main component of wheat and barley, into sugar, which is then fermented to make alcohol and carbon dioxide in bread, the alcohol produced by fermentation evaporates during baking
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Baking
the carbon dioxide would also escape gluten is primarily made of proteins, which are large, complex molecules composed of thousands of atoms of nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen formed into specific combinations called amino acids proteins are essential to living things, forming a large part of muscle and other types of tissue and enhancing metabolic processes

54

Baking
the proteins in gluten link together in long chains, forming a network that holds the carbon dioxide within individual cells, which expand along with the gas during baking the heat of baking induces other chemical processes that join molecules of starch, and binds the gluten to the starch, to firm up the malleable dough the size and distributed of the cells indicate how completely the dough has been kneadedthat is, pushed and pulled to thoroughly combine with the yeast for the complete fermentation
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Baking
baking powder and baking soda produce carbon dioxide by chemical reaction in the sourdough process, leaven is produced in the dough itself some baking techniques use no leaven at all: batter mixed vigorously with air and egg whites, or even with steam, produces fluffy baked goods like angel food cake
The honeycomb structure of bread is caused by gas bubbles
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How to Make Cookies Soft?


cookies should be removed from the oven while they appear not quite cooked
baking for a shorter time keeps sugar in solution

How to Make Cookies Soft?


maintain an oven temperature of 190C
cookies brown fairly quickly, so you are likely to remove them from a hot oven sooner than if they are baked at a lower temperature

include molasses[], corn syrup[] and honey


they have a high affinity for moisture

keep the moisture content high use margarine and shortening


they spread less than butter

use a large amount of dough for each cookie and leave it mounded on the cookie sheet use an ungreased cookie sheet
so cookies dont spread as much

remove to a cooling rack as soon as they are cool enough to move


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How to Make Cookies Crisp?


bake until cookies appear done keep the sugar content high
this ties up moisture so less is available to turn to steam use butter, which tends to spread faster than shortenings this slows browning so that the cookies dry as they bake

How to Make Cookies Crisp?


flatten cookies or use a small amount of dough for each cookies
so they lose moisture more quickly during baking

keep the fat content high

grease the cookies sheet to encourage spreading use sugar delays setting
it allows more time for the cookies to spread larger spread makes a crisper cookie

maintain an oven temperature of 180C

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maintain a low ratio of liquid to flour


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10

Garlic

Chapter 7 Culinary Curiosities

Garlic[] is the most pungent member in the lily family, others in this family are onions[], chives[], and shallots[] inside the cells of each clove of garlic, theres an odorless molecule called alliin[ ] in the spaces between the cells, there is an enzyme called alliinase [] cutting a garlic clove throws the two together, creating a series of reactions that result in the familiar intense flavor and odor 2

Garlic
the more finely you mince or chop fresh garlic, the greater the contact, and the stronger the flavor to bring out this more affable side, bake them slowly, or cool them in lots of water, and allow their pungent compounds to evaporate when cooked whole, garlic mellows as its odoriferous molecules are broken down by heat
3

Garlic
methods to eliminate the broken down of garlic mellows:
when you roast garlic, use the whole head peel away the papery outer covering, but leave each clove, covered by its skin, still firmly attached to the base lightly brush the surface of the garlic with olive oil and place in a baking dish add 3 tablespoons chicken stock bake for one hour at 180C, basting frequently
4

Garlic
just before serving, sprinkle with coarse salt pinch each clove and it pops right out of its skin You will notice how gentle and delicately aromatic garlic becomes, once tamed by cooking

Onions
Why do raw onions make you cry?
when you slice through an onion, you break open a number of onion cells some of these cells have enzymes inside of them, and when they are sliced open, the enzymes escape the enzymes then decompose some of the other substances that have escaped from sliced cells, e.g. amino acid sulfoxides, form sulfenic acids[], quickly rearrange themselves into a volatile gas the gas reaches your eyes and reacts with the water that keeps them moist

Onions
this changes the chemical's form again, producing, among other things, a mild sulfuric acid, which irritates the eyes the nerve endings in your eyes are very sensitive and so they pick up on this irritation the brain reacts by telling your tear ducts to produce more water, to dilute the irritating acid so the eyes are protected your other reaction is probably to rub your eyes, but this will actually make the irritation a lot worse, of course, if you have onion juices all over your hands
7

Onions
there are lots of ways to avoid your eyes watering when chopping onions, such as
peeling the onion and then chilling it in the refrigerator before you slice it
because it will minimize the release of gas as the change in temperature alters the compounds in the onion

moving your head as far away from the onion as you can
so the gas will mostly disperse before it reaches your eyes
8

Onions
wearing goggles cooking an onion before you slice it cutting the onion under water or running the tap over it as you slice it
cold running water carries away sulphur compounds during peeling

Jelly
why cant you make jelly out of fresh pineapple, kiwi, or papaya? jellies are based on gelatin[], which is derived from the protein collagen[]
collagen is based on three intertwined -helices
when these are treated with hot water, the helices unravel and a three-dimensional partly cross-linked structure is formed which is gelatin

when a warm, aqueous solution of gelatin sets, it forms a three-dimensional matrix that traps water and becomes the jelly
9 10

Jelly
fresh pineapple contains several active proteindigesting enzymes, especially a protease enzyme called bromelain, that catalyzes the breakdown of collagen so that adding fresh pineapple to the jelly solution prevents it from setting cooking foods sufficiently will denature and inactivate any enzymes they may contain pineapples and certain other fruits contain an enzyme that breaks proteins down into small fragments if raw pineapple is combined with gelatin to make a jelly, the enzyme digests the gelatin molecules and liquefies the jelly
11

Jelly
tinned pineapple has, like all tinned foods, been heated to a high temperature to destroy microorganisms
this denatures the enzyme so the jelly will set normally if tinned pineapple is added

freezing process does not denature the enzyme interestingly, fresh pineapple jellies can be made to set by adding chili[]the chili (capsicum) contains a chemical that destroys the enzyme that prevents the jelly setting
12

Jelly
pineapple for gelatin-based desserts must be cooked first, to inactivate the enzyme if incorporated into a mixture containing milk or cream, bromelain[] will break down the casein proteins and produce bitter-tasting protein fragments the proteolytic enzyme found in pineapple is called bromelain, that found in papaya is called papain[] and that in kiwi fruit is actinidin
13

Jelly
papain breaks protein chains at glycine [ ] molecules
it is used to tenderise meat by breaking down collagen and also to remove cloudiness from beer, which may also be caused by collagen

both papain and bromelin are used commercially to tenderise[] tough cuts of meat and some recipes call for the tenderising of meat by injecting it with pineapple juice
14

Apples
why do apples float?
20-25% of an apples volume is air which is much more than in most fruits the cells in apple tissue fit imperfectly together air sits in the in the spaces between the cells, not only making apple buoyant, but making a justpicked apply crack as you take that first bite

Popcorn
what puts the pop in popcorn?
the key to popping corn is a moisture level of between 11 and 14% and a strong, airtight casing varieties are carefully engineered to create these crucial factors the kernels are sealed in airtight packages when you heat popping kernels, their tiny starch granules swell with moisture, but theyre trapped inside the popcorns hard shell
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Popcorn
as the temperature inside the kernel rises beyond the boiling point, water vaporizes and turns to steam in gaseous form, steam occupies more space than water, so each kernel becomes a tiny pressure cooker when the pressure gets too great for the kernels tough overcoat, it explodes and the starch granules instantly expand into a light and fluffy mass

Ice Floats on Water


Why does ice float on water?

when substances freeze, usually the molecules come closer together water freezes below 0C but when temperatures fall to 4C, water starts to expand and as a result the density is lower when two substances are mixed but do not dissolve in one another, the substance with the lowest density floats on the other substance in this case that substance is ice, due to the increased density of water

density of a substance means the weight in kilograms of a cubic meter of a substance

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Simple Ice Cream Machines


in an ice cream machine, the vessel containing the ice cream mixture is cooled by concentrated brine as ice cream freezes, the remaining liquid becomes more and more concentrated with sugar and other impurities the concentrated liquid has a much lower freezing temperature than water as a result, ice cream never completely freezes, and retains the characteristic soft texture
19

Ice Cream Cools You Off?


Does eating ice cream in hot weather cools you off?
people do seem to think so but the answer is, no after all, we are warm-blooded creatures with thermostats set at 37C, and eating something cold cannot change that our cooling mechanism is purely a surface phenomenon: the evaporation of perspiration from our skins, assisted, when were lucky, by a breeze that hastens the process
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brine is a salt-water solution which has a temperature that is lower than the freezing point of ice cream mixture

Ice Cream Cools You Off?

Cooking Oils
the highest practical cooking temperature for an oil is limited not by a boiling point but by the temperature at which the oil begins to smoke the approximate smoke-point ranges of some common cooking oils are:
safflower oil: 163-177C corn oil: 204-213C peanut oil: 216-221C soybean oils: 227-232C olive oils: 210-238C

putting ice cream into ones mouth serves only to cool the mouth in calculations, melting a one-inch -18C ice cube in the mouth would absorb only 1.3 calories of heat it distributed over the entire body, that amount of heat loss would lower the temperature of a 150 pound person by 0.004C
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Cooking Oils

Salt and Boiling Point


How much does salt increase the boiling point of water?
boiling point elevation depends on the number of particles dissolved rather than their nature the boiling point constant for water is 0.52C when 1 mole of solute is dissolved in 1 kg of water since sodium chloride dissociates fully into Na+ and Cl- ions on dissolving in water, the boiling point of water increases by 1.04C for every mole (58.5 g) of sodium chloride dissolved in 1 dm3 (approximately 1 kg) of water typically a cook might add 5 g or so of salt to 1 dm3 of water so this would increase the boiling point by about 0.1C 24

121C 149C 177C 204C The approximate smoke point ranges of cooking oils

232C
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Potatoes Absorb Salt?


throw in some chunks of raw potato, simmer them for a while, and they will absorb some of the extra salttrue or not?
the answer is no all it means is that the potatoes soaked up some salt water; they didnt selectivity extract the salt from the water the concentration of salt in the water, i.e. the amount of salt per quart, would not be affected

Potatoes Absorb Salt?


the salty taste of the potatoes proved nothing, except that for more flavor we should always boil our potatoes--in salted water rather than in plain water there was no detectable difference in the salt concentrations before and after being simmered with potato that is, the potato didnt lower the concentration of salt at all

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Salt Hotel

Dissolving Sugar in Water


add two cups of sugar to one cup of water in a saucepan and stir while heating slightly You will see that all the sugar will dissolve with heating, you can coax more than 5 cups of sugar to dissolve in a single cup of water and thats how candy is made

the largest salar, or saltpan, in the world is the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, where tourists can stay at a nearby hotel made entirely form salt
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Soften Hard Brown Sugar


if you are in a hurry to soften hard brown sugar, your microwave oven will come to the rescue with a quick, but temporary, fix just heat the sugar for a minute or two on high, probing it every half minute or so with a finger to see if its soft yet
because ovens differ so widely, no exact time can be stated then measure it out quickly because itll harden again in a couple of minutes

Shaking Soda
why do bubbles foam over when you open a soda can that was shaken?

you can also soften the sugar in a conventional oven at 250C for 10-20 minutes

shaking the can before opening it releases some of the dissolved carbon dioxide gas into the space above the liquid when the can is opened, even more of the gas is suddenly released because the pressure inside the can is relieved by opening it the result is a gush of foam and a mess because the carbon dioxide dissolves even better if the soda is cold, doing the same thing with a warm can of soda will make an even bigger mess
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Shaking Soda
soda is a supersaturated solution of carbon dioxide it is made with a high pressure of carbon dioxide that gives it a greater than its solubility than carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure when the can is popped open especially if it is shaken and warm the excess dissolved carbon dioxide is released from the soda soda also contains some ingredients that cause the released carbon dioxide to form a froth if those ingredients were not there, the soda would appear to "boil" without the formation of the "head" of foam
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Baking Soda Absorbs Odors


How does baking soda absorb odors?
baking soda is pure sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, also known as bicarbonate of soda it reacts with both acids and bases but it is more than twenty times as effective in reacting with acids as with bases when a molecule of a smelly acid alight upon a surface of baking soda, it will be neutralized

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Corn Oils From Corn


corn is a low-fat food 9 billion bushels of corn contain some 3 billion gallons of oil so how can oil be contained from corns?
it seems that it requires a lot of corns

Steaming Green Vegetables


Why dont green vegetables stand up to steaming?

the oil resides in the germ of the grain in corn, the germ makes up only about 8% of the kernel and only about half of that is oil
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steam cooking opens up the pores of the product vitamins and minerals immediately begin to escape and your good wholesome vegetables lose their valuable nutritional elements for a vegetable to be green, it must contain chlorophyll, and when chlorophyll is cooked, carbon dioxide is created when you steam vegetables the pan must be kept covered to prevent the steam from escaping, the carbon dioxide, trapped inside, turns the chlorophyll dark the vegetables become grey and drab

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Steaming Green Vegetables


the basic principle in cooking green vegetables is to use a large amount of water, and to add 30 g of salt per liter of water
salt water is used to form a "wall" and creates a barrier against the carbon dioxide so that the vegetables stay attractive and bright green in physical terms this means that you are making the water heavier than normal: the water density will exceed the density of the vegetables when you drop the vegetables into the hot salted water, a "wall" will be created around the vegetables which will prevent their vitamins and minerals from escaping
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WaterWater-Soluble Substances
polarity determines if a substance is watersoluble a polar substance is a substance that has two kinds of 'poles' when another substance is polar also, the poles of the substances attract each other and as a result the substances mix, a substance then dissolves in water
oil is not a polar substance, which is why oil does not dissolve in water, so it floats on water, just like ice, due to its smaller density
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To Reduce Astringency
heat makes the astringency of the persimmon[] more apparent it is always good to add one-half teaspoonful of baking soda to each cupful of persimmon pulp in all recipes where the fruit is subjected to heat

Cheesecakes
changes that might make the texture of cheesecake more delicate:
add air by:
Whipping the cream Beating egg yolks and sugar together well Beating egg whites until stiff and folding them


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reduce baking time change technique

bake at 160C maximum warp base of pan in aluminum foil and bake in a water bath serve cool but not cold
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Folding versus stirring

Cheesecakes
Changes that might improve the appearance of cheesecake:
reduce baking time to avoid cracking run knife around edges as soon as cheesecake is removed form the oven, so the cake doesnt stick to the pan as it contracts cool away from drafts so the cake cools gradually and evenly

Cracking of Eggs
although eggs are always less prone to cracking if you bring them to room temperature before cooking, it does seem that some eggs are more resistant to cracking than others some eggshells have larger pores that allow air to escape more easily watch an egg carefully as it warms in the cooking water and you may see a little stream of air bubbles escaping from the large end

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Cracking of Eggs
this is air that has expanded as the egg heats and has found its way out through the tiny pores in the shell if pressure builds faster than the air can escape, the shell cracks try making a pinhole in the air space at the large end of the egg this facilitates a quick exit of air, reducing the pressure that builds inside the eggshell
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Cracking of Eggs
the pinhole also has another advantage when the air leaves while the egg is still liquid, the egg white fills the air pocket, and youll end up with a perfectly oval hardcooked egg, rather than one with a dent[ ] in the fat end

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Adding Salts Prevents Cracking?


Can adding salt to the water before boiling eggs prevent the eggshells from cracking?
its not true salt has no chemical and physical effect on eggshells an eggshell can crack when there is a sudden temperature difference between a cold shell and hot water the heat makes the shell expand quickly but unevenly, because it has different thicknesses in different places
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Adding Salts Prevents Cracking?


the uneven heating causes stresses that can fracture the shell at its weakest points an egg may also crack if the air space inside the large end expands too quickly, before it can seep out slowly through the porous shell a good precaution is to puncture the large end with a pushpin to let the air bubble out harmlessly as the egg heats

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Chinese Preserved EggsEggs-Pidan


the salt-preserved duck eggs made it possible to transport eggs to distant markets and store them for months during off season the most famous of preserved eggs are the so-called thousand-year-old duck eggs, which actually have only been made for about 500 years, take between 1-6 months to mature, and keep for a year or so they owe their popular namethe Chinese term is pidan[], or coated eggsto their startlingly decrepit appearance:
the shell encrusted with mud the white a transparent brown jelly the yolk a semisolid, somber jade

Chinese Preserved EggsEggs-Pidan


pidan are toned down by rinsing the shelled egg and allowing it time to breathe before serving there are only two essential ingredients for making pidan, in addition to eggs:
salt the lime and the wood ashes, which are both rather strongly alkaline Lime[] is calcium oxide, CaO
a wood ashes contain potassium carbonate, K2CO3
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Chinese Preserved EggsEggs-Pidan

Chinese Preserved EggsEggs-Pidan


Procedures to make pidan:
take a fresh duck egg in the shell plaster it all over with a thick coating of a paste made of salt, lime, pine ashes from the fireplace strong brewed black tea all thatched together with rice straw or even grass clippings bury the thing for about three months

over time, these alkaline substances seep through the shell and acts on the proteins in the egg white, reconfiguring their molecules similarly to what cooking them would do some of the normal chemical changes take place and produce chemical products such as aldehydes[] and ketones[], which are responsible for the sharpest of the flavors
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Chinese Preserved EggsEggs-Pidan


a mild, soft-yolked version of pidan is made by adding some lead oxide to the cure
the lead reacts with sulfur from the egg white to form a fine black powder of lead sulfur from the egg white to form a fine black powder of lead sulfide blocks the shell pores and shows the further movement of salt and alkaline ingredients into the egg

White Chocolate

Is white chocolate caffeine-free?


yes white chocolate is simply the fat from the cacao bean mixed with milk solids and sugar it contains none of those wonderful, though inauspiciously brown, cocoa-bean solids that give chocolate its unique character and rich flavor
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Mashed Potatoes
What causes gooey[] mashed potatoes[]?
if you cook starchy potatoes in too much water for too long, or beat them too vigorously after they are cooked starch granules rupture spilling out trapped water and starch they give a pasty, unpleasant texture

Mashed Potatoes
How to make mashed potatoes?
cut the potatoes into 1-inch pieces and precook for about 10 minutes at a simmer, not a full boil this gives the starch grains a chance to swell without rupturing then drain the potatoes and let them cool which allows the swollen starch granules to firm up when you are almost ready to mash, simmer the potatoes the rest of the way until theyre barely tender, not mashy drain them very well and mash them with a potato masher or ricer the firmed-up starch granules wont release their gooey as easily as they would have without the precooking and cooling steps

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Great Jacket Potatoes

Chefs Secrets

How To Make?
prick the outside a few times with a fork add a few drops of olive oil, then rub it all over the skin after that, rub in some crushed salt to make the skin nice and crunchy

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Great Jacket Potatoes


Science Explanations:
because salt is anhydrous which is crystallized and lacking in water salt draws excess moisture out of the potato skin, guaranteeing that the jacket will be satisfyingly crisp when baked in the oven salt is also used to crisp up the skin of roast pork and duck
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Lumpless Sauce
How To Make?
use boiling liquid and add slowly to the roux cook between each addition and stir in well whisk whenever possible and if in real trouble, pass through a sieve

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Lumpless Sauce
Science Explanations:
Roux[] is a type of batter, made from butter and flour, used to thicken sauces when liquid is added to flour, the starch granules inside the flour begin to swell when they reach 64C heating the mixture further makes them rupture the flour starch is released into the liquid and starts to thicken it this is known as 'gelatinisation[]'

Lumpless Sauce
when flour is mixed with hot liquid, the exterior portion of the starch granules become gelatinised and sticky bind around the dry starch granules, forming pockets of dry flour trapped inside a sticky ball - or 'lumps' adding liquid to the roux gradually whilst stirring, ensures that the starch granules heat up evenly, so they swell in unison this results in a smooth, lumpless sauce
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Perfect Pasta
How To Make?
cook the pasta in plenty of boiling water the pan must be large enough for the water to remain at a good rolling boil, so the pasta moves around as it cooks, preventing it from sticking together

Perfect Pasta
Science explanations:
pasta is a starchy food made from egg and wheat uncooked pasta contains rigid starch granules when plunged into boiling water, these granules begin to absorb water and swell
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Perfect Pasta
some of the starch granules leak out of the pasta into the water these leaked granules also start to swell, thickening the water if there isn't enough water in the pan, it becomes thick and gloopy and the pasta starts sticking together

Fluffy Rice
How To Make?
if you cover the rice with about 2.5cm of water it should always cook properly without sticking after boiling for 5 minutes, turn the heat down very low, cover with a lid and steam for the rest of the cooking time, without stirring
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Fluffy Rice
Science Explanations:
starch is the main component of rice, like pasta but unlike pasta, rice must be cooked in little water rather than plenty the liquid absorbed by the starch must be just enough to be completely absorbed in the amount of time it takes for the rice to be perfectly cooked and makes it 'fluffy pasta is left slightly under-cooked or 'al dente', so the water doesn't need to be measured as accurately 63

Fluffy Rice
when the rice is boiling in the water, the heat is being transferred by the moving water molecules through convection once the water is absorbed, the heat is in danger of being transferred to the rice by conduction directly through the bottom of the pan after boiling for 5 minutes, it is important to turn the heat down low and continue convectional steaming the lid helps promote these convection currents by letting the air cool at the top and fall back down, rather than escape 64

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Cooking Containers Containers Materials

Chapter 8 Kitchen tools

most cooking containers are metal or ceramic[], due to their ability to withstand high temperatures common metals are aluminum, copper, tin, stainless steel, and cast iron ceramics include glass, porcelain, earthenware, and stoneware non-stick coatings and enamel coatings may be used on the surfaces to improve the properties
2

Cooking Containers Containers Materials


a thin metal cake pan of any color conducts the ovens heat efficiently into the batter a glass pan is a very poor conductor of heat and is quite sluggish at transmitting its oven-given heat into its contents the ovens heat needs a longer time to penetrate through the glass to the batter

Cooking Containers Containers Materials


thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat are three very important factors in determining what cooking material is best suited for the kitchen a high conductivity material tends to have a more even temperature distribution than one with a low thermal conductivity a material with low specific heat requires less thermal energy to heat; therefore, it heats faster than one with a high specific heat
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Cooking Containers Containers Materials


thermal diffusivity[] () is the combination of the three properties: thermal conductivity (k), density (), and specific heat (cp) it measures the effectiveness by which a material conducts thermal energy with respect to its ability to store thermal energy
material with high is characterized by a quick response to the changes in surrounding temperatures material with low takes longer to reach a steady state condition, but is excellent at retaining heat once heated
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Cooking Containers Containers Materials


the thickness (mass) of pot also changes the heating characteristics
thicker pots tend to allow more uniform heat distribution; however, they take longer to heat

where k is the thermal conductivity, is the density, and cp is the specific heat

Cooking Containers Containers Materials


K Cp (kg/m3) (W/mK) (J/kgK) (10-6m2/s) Aluminum 2780 170 880 70 Cast iron 7870 70 450 21 Copper 8900 400 385 117 8000 15 480 3.7 Stainless steel Glass 2600 4 800 1.9
Properties of Common Cooking Materials
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Cooking Containers Containers Materials


two basic properties in a utensil:
its surface should be chemically unreactive so that it wont change the taste or edibility of food it should conduct heat evenly and effectively, so that local hot spots wont develop and burn the contents

heat conduction in a solid proceeds either by the movement of energetic electrons, or by vibration in crystal structures a material whose electrons are mobile enough to conduct heat well is also likely to give up those electrons to other atoms at its surface
good conductors like metals are usually chemically reactive
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Ceramics
ceramics are stable, unreactive mixture mixtures of compounds, e.g. magnesium and aluminum oxides, silicon dioxide, whose covalent bonds hold electrons tightly they are very resistant to corrosion and are non-toxic glass is a particular variety of ceramic whose composition is more regular, and usually includes a preponderance[] of silicon dioxide

Ceramics
they transmit heat slowly by means of inefficient vibrations due to their ability to retain heat, dishes made of thick ceramic materials will keep foods warm longer than metallic serving dishes of comparable shape and size a common problem with most ceramics is their tendency to crack due to thermal stress since they are such poor conductors of heat, there may be a large temperature difference between one side of the pan and the other
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Ceramics
hot areas expand while cooler areas do not, mechanical stresses build up, causing the pan to crack
they are seldom used on stovetops for this reason

Ceramics
kitchen utensils naturally covered with a very thin layer of ceramic material metallic electrons are mobile, and oxygen has high electron affinity[] when metal is exposed to the air, the surface atoms undergo a spontaneous reaction with atmospheric oxygen to form a very stable metal oxide compound these oxide films are both uncreative and fairly tough
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ovens allow even heating from all sides, preventing large thermal gradients this is why ceramics are generally used only in the oven, where they encounter only moderate and diffuse heat, or they are applied in thin coatings on the surface of metals, so that the metals can do the job of distributing the heat evenly
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Ceramics
aluminum oxide, when it occurs in crystals rather than on pan, makes up the abrasive []called corundum, and is also the principal material or rubies[] and sapphires[] the problem is that these natural coatings are only a few molecules thick, and are easily scratched through or worn away during cooking
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Ceramics
ceramics have poor conductivity so they have an advantage in keeping food hot
good conductors like copper and aluminum quickly give up heat to their surroundings, while ceramics retain it well

ovens with ceramic walls are unparalleled for the evenness of their heating
The walls slowly absorb and store large quantities of energy while the oven is heated up, and then release it when the food is placed inside
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Copper
copper is the first metal to be used in tool making it has the highest conductivity among all common cooking materials unmatched conductivity which makes fast and even heating a simple matter it is relatively expensive since its conductivity has made it the preferred material for electrical circuitry
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Copper
it is troublesome to keep polished because it has a high affinity for oxygen and sulfur, and forms a greenish coating when exposed to air copper cookware can be harmful
its oxide coating is sometimes porous and powdery copper ions are easily leached into food solutions

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Copper
copper ions can have useful effects:
they stabilize foamed egg whites the green color of cooked vegetables is improved by their presence

Aluminum
aluminum has the second highest thermal conductivity it is available at much lower cost it has a low density that makes it lightweight and easily handled it is non-toxic and non-reactive It can be used to make the foil wrappings, beer and soft drink cans in cookware, it is usually alloyed with small amounts of manganese and sometimes copper

but it can be toxic if it diffuses into food in large amounts


the human body can excrete copper in only limited amounts, and excessive intake may cause gastrointestinal problems and in more extreme cases, liver damage to overcome this major drawback, copper utensils with stainless steel or with tin

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Aluminum
anodized aluminum has a thin coating of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) on the surface aluminum oxide forms as a result of aluminum reacting with oxygen at high temperature, and is a very hard ceramic suitable for protection from scratches

Aluminum
most aluminum utensils are either given a nonstick coating or are anodized[]
anodization is a process that involves making the metal the positive pole in a solution of sulfuric acid, and so forcing the oxidation of its surface to make a thick protective oxide layer

because unanodized aluminum develops only a thin oxide layer, reactive food molecules, such as acids, alkalis, the hydrogen sulfide evolved by cooked eggs will easily penetrate to the metal surface, and a variety of aluminum oxide and hydroxide complexes, some of them gray or black, are formed these can ruin light-colored foods
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Iron and Steel


cast iron and steel are iron alloyed with a small amount of carbon to increase strength iron and steel are very prone to corrosion, and must be seasoned to prevent rusting cast iron is alloyed with about 3% carbon to harden the metal
it contains some silicon

Iron and Steel


the disadvantages of iron:
it tends to corrode, though this can be avoided by regular seasoning and gentle cleaning it can discolor foods it is a poorer conductor of heat than copper or aluminum

carbon steel contains less carbon, and is heat-treated to obtain a less brittle, tougher alloy that can be formed into thinner pans
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since it is denser than aluminum, a cast iron pan will absorb more heat and hold at longer than a similar aluminum pan
thick cast iron pans provide steady and even heat
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Iron and Steel


seasoning cast iron and carbon steel improve their easily corroded surface by building up an artificial protective layer they season them by coating them with cooking oil and heating them for several hours the oil penetrates into pores and fissures of the metal, sealing it from the attack of air and water
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Iron and Steel


the combination of heat, metal, and air oxidizes the fatty acid chains and encourages them to bond to each other to form a dense, hard, dry layer highly unsaturated oils, e.g. soy oil, corn oil, are especially prone to oxidation[]and polymerizing[] to avoid removing the protective oil layer, cooks carefully clean seasoned cast iron pans with mild soaps and a dissolving abrasive like salt, rather than with detergents and scouring pads
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Iron and Steel


stainless steel[] is an alloy[] of iron, chromium, and nickel, and is desired due to its strength and resistance to corrosion metals form protective surface coatings is iron, which rusts in the presence of air and moisture the orange complex of ferric oxide [] and water is a loose powder rather than a continuous film, and so does not protect the metal surface from further contact with the air

Iron and Steel


unless it is protected by some other means, iron metal corrode continuously efforts to make this cheap and abundant element more resistant to rusting resulted in the development of the stainless steel in cookware, is formulated with about 18% chromium and 8-10% nickel chrome is synonymous with bright and permanent shininess because chromium is extremely prone to oxidation and naturally forms a thick protective oxide coat

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Iron and Steel


in the stainless steel mixture, oxygen reacts preferentially with the chromium atoms at the surface, and the iron never gets the opportunity to rust the chemical stability is bought at a price stainless steel is more expensive than cast iron and carbon steel, and its an even poorer heat conductor the addition of large numbers of foreign atoms apparently interferes with electron movement by causing structural and 27 electrical irregularities in the metal

Iron and Steel


the transfer of heat in a stainless steel pan can be evened out by coating the underside of the pan with copper, or by inserting a copper or aluminum plate in the pan bottom, or by making the pan out of two or more layers, with a good conductor just adding further to the cost of the utensil these hybrids are the closest thing we have to the ideal chemically inert but thermally responsive pan
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Tin
tin was probably first used in combination with copper to make the mechanically tougher alloy called bronze it is found only as a nontoxic, unreactive lining in copper utensils it has two inconvenient properties:
a low melting point, 230C, that can be reached in some cooking procedures a softness that makes the metal very susceptible to wear
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Frying Pans and Saucepans


different metals conduct heat with different efficiency
copper conducts heat very well so it provides a uniform temperature around the base of the pan even when the heat source is not heating evenly around the pan stainless steel is not a good conductor of heat, so stainless steel pans can suffer from hot-spots

most good quality stainless steel pans are made with a sandwich construction
with an inner layer of copper thin outer layers of stainless steel with the good thermal conductivity of copper
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Frying Pans and Saucepans


pans with thicker bases will tend to spread the heat from the hotplate more evenly, they will also take longer to heat up and will stay hot longer making precise temperature control difficult when you want fast temperature changes thicker based pans will last much longer pans with thinner bases often distort under the heat, or become dented through general wear and tear
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Frying Pans and Saucepans


protein-containing foods (such as egg, cheese or meat) are particularly prone to stick to metal pans proteins become chemically quite reactive at high temperatures
react with themselves to form networks react with metal ions at the surface of cooking pans

sticking is caused by chemical bonds forming between the food and the material of the pan, usually metal
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Frying Pans and Saucepans


it can literally become glued to the surface these bonds may be relatively weak van der Waals forces or covalent bonds

Frying Pans and Saucepans


once a piece of food is stuck to the surface, then the temperature can rise above 100C if all the water is lost through evaporation and then the food can burn which can lead to unpleasant, bitter flavors things may stick to one another for reasons that are primarily either mechanical or chemical

protein-rich foods are particularly prone to sticking because the proteins can form complexes with metal atoms, e.g. iron in the pan
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Frying Pans and Saucepans


although there are weak attractions between protein molecules and metals, the sticking of an egg to a regular frying pan is largely mechanical; the congealing egg white grabs onto microscopic crags and crevices scratching your frying pans by the too vigorous use of metal spatulas makes things even worse

Frying Pans and Saucepans


to prevent food sticking and burning, you need to prevent any protein molecules reacting with the surface of the pan
keep the food moving so that it is never in contact with the pan long enough for chemical bonds to form
eventually the proteins on the surface of the food will have got hot enough to react with something else, after which sticking is not a problem this is what happens when meat browns, for example

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Frying Pans and Saucepans


another method is to heat some oil in the pan before cooking

Frying Pans and Saucepans


the surfaces of nonstick pan coatings are extremely smooth on a microscopic scale have virtually no cracks, theres nothing there for food to grab on to glass and many plastics share this virtue, but Teflon is resilient and stands up well to high temperatures two common materials used for coating are glass enamel and Teflon (non-stick coating)
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the oil fills in the valleys and caves of the pan surface and when it gets hot it reacts with the metal atoms of the pan and forms a coating called a patina[] any liquid would do that, but water wouldnt last long enough in a hot pan to do much good unless you use lots of it this leaves few free metal atoms to react with the food this coating can easily be removed by detergents, however, so it has to be reapplied before each use of the pan

the most common method is use of a Teflon coating


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Frying Pans and Saucepans


glass enamel[] is formed by fusing glass powders to pan surfaces the enamel improves the chemical resistance of the pan and prevents corrosion; however, they may crack when exposed to sudden changes in temperature

Frying Pans and Saucepans


in the kitchen, the atoms or molecules of a frying pan surface can form weak chemical bonds to certain food molecules most non-stick pans have a coating of the inert polymer poly (tetrafluroethylene) or PTFE, known by such trade names as Teflon

the molecules of Teflon are unique in that they wont form bonds to anything
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it is made up of only two kinds of atoms, carbon and fluorine, in a ratio of four fluorine atoms to every two carbon backbones with fluorine atoms bristling out like the spikes on a woolly caterpillar

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Frying Pans and Saucepans


it is a saturated[] molecule, i.e. it has no carbon-carbon double bonds it contains only strong carbon-carbon and carbon-fluorine single bonds it covers small roughness on pan surfaces and forms a very smooth finish, preventing food from sticking the PTFE layer will not react chemically with proteins and so prevents any sticking occurring
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Frying Pans and Saucepans


PTFE wont even let most liquids adhere to it strongly enough to wet it PTFE coated pans can be particularly useful in baking when you cook a cake or bake bread, you simply put the dough in the baking tin and do not stir it around at all there will be plenty of protein molecules in the bread dough or cake mix that will stick to any exposed metal ions at the surface of the baking tin
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Frying Pans and Saucepans

Frying Pans and Saucepans


a relatively shiny aluminum or stainless-steel cake pan obviously reflects visible light more than a dark-colored anodized one or a nonstick-coated one because all the light falling on an object must be either reflected or absorbed, that means that the dark surface is absorbing more light than the shiny one is that extra absorbed light energy makes the dark-colored pan slightly warmer than the shiny one, even in a same temperature oven
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The surface of a Teflon coated pan

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Conduction
the hot air molecules are moving faster than the cooler food molecules, and when they collide with the foods molecules they kick them up to a faster speed, like a cue ball scattering a rack of billiard balls it can be quite efficient between two solids in contact, such as your hand on a hot frying-pan handle, but not between hot air and anything else
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Conduction
you can put your hand in 93C oven for several seconds without fear
because the rate of conduction of heat from the air into your skin is so extraordinarily slow

but dont try dipping your hand into 93C water


water is a much better conductor of heat because its molecules are much closer together than airs are

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Convection
variable conditions inside the oven, e.g. inevitably uneven temperatures between one spot and another, make the air move
because hotter pieces of air rise, while cooler pieces fall, creating a kind of circulation thats called convection, or convection currents

Convection
temperature distribution can be improved by using a fan, located inside the oven, to create forced convection currents the forced convection currents efficiently mix the air inside an oven, creating uniform temperatures even in the presence of large pans the increased airflow results in a higher convection coefficient, which reduces cooking time
thats why it is a good practice to lower the temperature by 14C when using a convection oven rather than a standard one

this circulation oven boosts the efficiency of heat transfer between the air and the food
because it increases the amount of contact between the food and the hot air molecules in the enclosure
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Radiation
hot things radiate infrared radiation[] all materials at all temperatures are emitting some of their energy as infrared radiation a given object, the hotter it is, the more infrared radiation it is emitting when the infrared radiation coming from the hot oven walls and the hot air hits the food, the food molecules absorb it and move with increased energy, i.e. they become hotter
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Radiation
infrared radiation is not heat it is electromagnetic radiation like microwaves infrared radiation is emitted by hot matter and travels through space, it is not transformed back into heat until it is absorbed by other matter a dark surface absorbs more of this radiation than a light-colored or shiny surface does
thus a cake should cook faster in a dark pan than in a light one
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Cooking Methods
as simple an operation as heating a pan of water on the stove involves
radiation and conduction from an electrical element conduction through the pan convection in the water

Cooking Methods
cooking methods can be characterized into two main types: dry heat cooking and moist heat cooking
dry heat cooking heats foods in the absence of water, and includes methods such as baking, grilling, broiling, frying, and deep frying moist heat cooking uses water to heat food, and includes boiling, simmering, braising, and steaming
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Dry Heat Cooking

Baking
baking relies on a combination of radiation form the walls and hot-air convection to heat the food it easily dehydrates[()] the surface of foods, and so will brown them well provided the oven temperature is high enough typical baking temperatures are well above the boiling point, from 150-250C
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Baking
a potato can be boiled in less time than it takes to be baked at a much hotter temperature this is so because neither radiation nor air convection at 260C transfers heat very rapidly to food oven air is less than a thousandth as dense as water, so the collisions between hot molecules and food are much less frequent in the oven than in the pot

Baking

thats why we can reach into a hot oven without immediately burning our hand
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electric ovens use two heating coils, located at the top and bottom of the oven the bottom coil is used for baking and roasting; the top is used for broiling the heating coils are simply resistive elements which are heated by passing an electric current through them
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Baking
in traditional ovens, when bottom coil is heated, the air inside the oven is heated primarily by conduction and natural convection the heat is then transferred to the food, which is heated by the natural convection current convection ovens increase the rate of heat transfer by using fans to force more air movement, and significantly reduce baking times
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Baking
the heat transfer is enhanced by the use of a fan
the fan creates forced convection within the oven, which not only heats the food faster but also encourages even distribution of heat

heat transfer inside an oven is actually more complicated than simply conduction and convection the heating element emits a considerable amount of radiation which also contributes to the heating of the food in addition, the walls of the oven become heated as well, emitting their own radiation 58

Grilling and Broiling


in grilling, the heat source is below the food; in broiling, above though the air convection contributes some heat source, broiling is a matter of infrared radiation the heat sources used in these techniques all emit radiators of infrared energy
the total amount of energy radiated by a hot object is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, so that a coal or metal rod at 1100C is radiating more than 40 times as much energy as the equivalent area of oven wall at 260C
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Grilling and Broiling


it makes possible a rapid and thorough browning of the surface, and so produces intense flavors theres a huge disparity between the rate of heat radiation at the surface and the rate of heat conduction within the food thats why it is so easy to end up with a steak that is charred [] on the outside and cold at the center

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Grilling and Broiling


broiling takes advantage of the radiation from the coil to rapidly heat the top of the food broiling uses only the top coil, which suppresses the natural convection current since the hot air is blocked by the ceiling of the oven the radiation from the top coil, which is often set to a very high temperature, heats the surface of the food to high temperatures, promoting browning
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Grilling and Broiling


the key to grilling [] and broiling [] is
to position the food far enough from the heat source to match the browning rate with the inner conduction rate to brown the surface well with intense heat, and then move the food to finish cooking through with a more distant or weaker heat source

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Frying and Saut Sauting


frying and sauting are methods that heat foods for the most part by conduction from a hot, oiled pan, with temperatures between 175-225C that encourage Maillard browning and flavor development the fat or oil has several roles to play:
it brings the uneven surface of the food into uniform contact with the heat source it lubricates and prevents sticking it supplies some flavor

Frying and Saut Sauting


the surface is quickly dehydrated by the high temperatures while interior remains largely water and never exceeds 100C in order to reduce the disparity between outer and inner cooking times, we generally fry only thin cuts of food It is also common practice to fry meats at a high initial temperature in order to accomplish the browning, and then to reduce the heat while the interior heats through
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the trick in frying is to prevent the outside from overcooking before the inside is done

Deep Frying
deep frying [] differs from pan frying by employing enough oil to immerse the food altogether resembles boiling more than pan frying, with the essential difference that the oil is heated for above the boiling point of water, and so will dehydrate the food surface and brown it

Moist Heat Cooking

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Moist Heat Cooking


Moist heat cooking use waters in various states to heat food various states of water are used for cooking, and there are special names for some of them
Poaching: uses warm water just before boiling Simmering: refers to cooking in water when it has just begun to boil Boiling: uses vigorously boiling water Steaming: uses the water in vapor phase to heat the food
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Moist Heat Cooking


water is heated by conduction through a pot on stovetop, and the heat is transferred to the food through convection in boiling and its lower-temperature versions, simmering and poaching, food is heated by the convection currents in hot water the boiling point of water can be raised slightly to reduce the cooking time impurities, such as salt, increase the boiling temperature by a few degrees
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Moist Heat Cooking


disadvantages for moist heat cooking:
browning of food occurs at temperatures above 150C, which cannot be reached by moist cooking, resulting in lack of browning and the flavors that accompany the browning reaction it requires containers that are both water and fireproof

Steaming
steam is less dense than liquid water and so makes less frequent contact with the food, steam compensates for this loss in efficiency with a gain in energy it takes a large amount of energy to turn liquid water into a gas gaseous water releases that same large amount of energy when it condenses onto a cooler object this means that steaming does an especially quick job of bringing the surface of the food up to the boiling point, and an effective job of keeping it there
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Pressure cooking
the use of pressure cooking reduces cooking times by trapping the steam that escapes from boiling water, thereby increasing the pressure on the liquid, and so raising its boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure, 100kPa, water boils at 100C, but at twice this pressure it boils at about 125C
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Pressure cooking
pressure cooker has a sealed lid with a valve to ensure that the pressure does not get too high the temperature at which a liquid boils increases as the external pressure increases this is because boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of water is equal to the external pressure which means that bubbles can form in the body of the liquid

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Pressure cooking
as the water boils, steam is produced and this raises the pressure inside the pan and increases the boiling point of the water most pressure cookers are set to operate at 100kPa above atmospheric pressure, i.e. at double the atmospheric pressure as the pressure inside the pot increases, the boiling point rises, and a higher temperature can be achieved for cooking

Pressure cooking
when you consider that water usually boils at 100 C and the food inside a pressure cooker is at much hotter temperatures than normal simmering[] will allow, it is not surprising that food cooks quickly steam penetrates food easily under pressure
so connective tissues in cubes of beef for soups or stews soften in 15 minutes or less, and a pot roast will be medium-rare in 30 minutes
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Microwaving
the electromagnetic spectrum consists of various types of radiation, characterized by wavelength () and frequency () Microwave radiation refers to the region of the spectrum with frequencies between 109 Hz to 1011 Hz cooking power of a microwave oven, and hence how fast it will do its chores, depends on the number of watts of microwaves there are per cubic foot of space in the box
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Microwaving
microwaving heats food by agitating the water molecules most foods we consume contain over 70% water by weight, making this an effective way for heating foods however, the negative side is that food with low water contents take longer to heat in a microwave
frozen foods take longer to heat because the water molecules are not moved as much as in liquid water
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Microwaving
foods heated in a microwave cannot become hotter than the boiling point of water
this is why foods cannot be browned in a microwave, and pies reheated in a microwave do not have a crisp crust like a freshly baked pie would have

Microwaving
One often hears the statement, "microwaves cook foods from inside"
because foods heated in a microwave tend to heat most rapidly in the center, they cook much faster than what we intuitively believe from conduction of heat from outside in fact not entirely true:


77

microwave radiation simply has the ability to penetrate several inches into the food it penetrates into food several inches down, it can heat foods quicker than if it were being heated through conduction by boiling water on the outer surface if the food were larger than several inches, the middle of the food still needs to be heated by conduction 78

13

Microwaving
How microwave heating works?
the O-H bond in a water molecule has a dipole O--H+ because the electronegativity of oxygen is significantly greater than that of hydrogen the alignment and the charges on the atoms are such that the hydrogen side of the molecule has a positive (+) charge, and the oxygen side has a negative (-) charge
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Microwaving
because of its angular shape, the water molecule has an overall dipole moment[] microwave radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields microwave radiation used in ovens are specially tuned to the natural frequency of water molecules to maximize this interaction the water molecule flips back and forth 5 billion times a second 80

Microwaving
dipoles try to line up with electric fields with their - ends towards the positive and their + ends towards the negative end water molecules try to flip their direction to keep up with the changes in the electric field; this makes the water molecules rotate the rotating water molecules collide with other molecules and this makes them move from place to place this movement is what we call heat
81

Microwaving

Interaction between water molecule and microwave


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Microwaving
Why does the food have to be rotated while cooking?
It is hard to design a microwave oven in which the intensity of the microwaves is completely uniform throughout the entire volume of the box as that food in all locations will be subjected to the same heating power the solution is to keep the food moving, so that it averages out non-uniformities in microwave intensity
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Microwaving
Why mustnt one put metal into a microwave oven?

if you put in the oven reflects too many microwaves back instead of absorbing them, the magnetron tube[]can be damaged therefore there must always be something in the oven to absorb microwaves microwaves set up electrical currents in metals, and if the metal object is too thin, it may not be able to support the current and will turn red hot and melt
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14

Microwaving
How can microwaves defrost frozen food?
hydrogen bonding between the water molecules leads to a lattice structure in which each oxygen atom has two covalent bonds to hydrogen atoms within the water molecule and two hydrogen bonds to hydrogen atoms in other water molecules each oxygen atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four hydrogens and the overall structure resembles that of diamond
85

Microwaving
the water molecules in ice are not free to rotate and the ice does not heat up when subjected to microwave radiation when you defrost frozen food in your microwave oven, you are heating mostly the other, non-ice parts of the food, and the resulting heat then flows into the ice crystals and melts them

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Light Oven
the so-called light oven makes heat in pretty much the same way your electric range does: through the electrical resistanceheating of metal it contains backs of specially designed, long-life 1500-watt halogen lamps that are not vastly different from the halogen lamps in many modern light fixtures only 10% of a household halogen lamps energy output is visible light; 70% is infrared radiation and the remaining 20% is heat
87

Light Oven
ovens halogen lamps produce a secret mixture of visible light, various infrared wavelengths and heat the light ovens visible and near-visible light do indeed penetrate meat to some extent and deposit all their energy directly into the solid portions of the food some of the wavelengths put out by the halogen lamps can penetrate foods up to three-four-tenths of an inch
88

Light Oven
longer-wavelength infrared radiations and the heat are being absorbed in the foods surface, browning and crisping which microwave ovens cant do ordinary ovens take a long time to brown food
because only some of their heat gets to the food by infrared radiation the rest has to get there through the air, which is a poor conductor of heat

Cooking Eggs on Paper Experiment


Objective: to illustrate how cooking food will keep the temperature of the surface of the cooking vessel down to a temperature of boiling water Apparatus: a small camping gas stove, an A4 sized piece of clean white paper, a little cooking oil, an old metal coat hanger, a few large paper clips, a metal spatula and an egg (also keep a washing up bowl full of water nearby in case of any accidents) 90

the light ovens infrared radiation heats the foods surface directly to a higher temperature than an ordinary oven can, so 89 the browning is faster

15

Cooking Eggs on Paper


Procedures: make a paper frying pan bend the coat hanger to form a rough square about 20cm on each side with a handle you can use to hold it fold up the sides of the paper to make a square dish with a base to fit inside with the paper clips spread a little oil on the paper light the gas burner and set it low heat

Experiment

hold the frying pan a few centimetres above the flames of the gas burner

Cooking Eggs on Paper Experiment

a)make sure all parts of the paper that are near the flames have some of the egg covering them b)do not allow any parts of the paper that are not covered above with any egg to come into contact with the flames

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keep moving the frying pan from side to side and up and down as the egg cooks after a minute or two, the egg should be fried and you can slide it from the pan onto 92 a plate using the spatula

Cooking Eggs on Paper


the reason this works is that the egg white and yolk both contain lots of water as the egg is heated, so this water heats up to 100C and then starts to turn to steam the fact that the paper is thin means that the temperature never gets significantly above 100C which is not hot enough to start it burning you will probably find that the paper becomes a little charred around the edges of the egg
this is the region where there is least water and where the temperature can rise high enough to start the paper oxidizing

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16

Minimizing Principle

Chapter 9 Cleaning

the minimizing principle applies to all surfactants[] it is the reason that drops of water and bubbles take on their particular shapes it takes energy to maintain a drop of water
the larger its surface area, the more energy

surface tension[] always acts to minimize area


for a given amount of liquid, the shape with the smallest surface is a sphere, and surface tension tries to pull a drop of water into a perfect globe 2

Minimizing Principle
water dripping slowly from a tap forms a more complete sphere , although elongated by gravity[ ], before it breaks free and falls the ideas of surface tension and minimizing principle apply equally well to gas bubbles inside a liquid, which consists of an elastic skin enclosing a volume a gas, like balloon
3

Minimizing Principle
surface tension provides the skin, but something else is needed to make the bubble truly robust; such a material is called a surfactant e.g. soap its molecules, which are released when soap dissolves in water, act to modify surface tension as it can vary across the curvature of a bubble allow the bubbles to adjust to gravity or other forces that would otherwise destroy it
4

Surface Tension
the surface of any liquid behaves a little differently from the bulk of its interior above the surface, there exist only occasional molecules of the gas of the atmosphere and the very few water molecules that have escaped by evaporation the only nearby water molecules are below and to the sides of those at the surface
5

Surface Tension
at the surface, the forces of attraction become forced toward the sides and downward this particularly strong attraction of the surface molecules for each other and for the molecules immediately below them results in the cohesion of the surface we call it surface tension and it keeps bugs and tacks and other dense but lightweight things from sinking
6

Contact Angle
when two fluids are in contact with a solid and with each other, there is a contact line between the three phases the contact angle is taken in the densest fluid phase it is determined by the interactions across the three interfaces

Soaps
soap is one of class of chemical compounds formed by the action of an alkali on a fat molecules that like water are called hydrophilic[], while those that dislike water are termed hydrophobic[] soaps have one (hydrophilic) end that wants to be surrounded by water and one (hydrophobic) end that wants to get out of the water
the hydrophobic ends will coat any dirt, e.g. oils, fats while the hydrophilic ends remain in the water

Soaps
the dirt is broken up into small particles each of which is surrounded by a layer of detergent molecules with their hydrophobic ends firmly stuck to the oily dirt surface the dirt particles are encapsulated in firmly stuck to the oily dirt surface dirt particles are encapsulated in the water surface tension is lowered so that the water carrying the micelles can get to the dirt
9

Soaps
when the soap micelles reach the embedded dirt, the soap molecules that form these micelles[] once again find themselves at a surface the surface between the water and the grease that makes up most of the dirt hydrophilic heads of the soap molecules remain surrounded by water molecules the soap micelles break up and the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails, which has remained in the interior of the spherical micelles, become embedded in the grease
10

Soaps
with the hydrophilic heads embedded in the water, the soap molecules effectively connect these two phases together Agitation[] now breaks the grease into micelles whose surfaces are covered by the negatively charged carboxylate groups, the hydrophilic groups of the embedded soap molecules

Soaps
with a coating of negative electrical charges enveloping the entire surface of each micelle, the grease droplets repel each other and remain suspended in the wash water instead of coalescing[] and re-depositing on the material being cleaned in the end, the suspending droplets go down the drain with the wash water
Grease micelles with embedded soap molecules
11 12

Soaps
in clean water, there is nowhere for the hydrophobic ends soap molecules form thin films where the hydrophobic groups are all together and keep the water out these membranes can be quite strong themselves; it any air is introduced, the membranes can become curved and make bubbles to make a membrane bend, some force is required, the more curved a membrane becomes, the more force is needed
13

Soaps
in conclusion, soaps clean by:
decreasing waters surface tension, making it a better wetting agent converting greasy and oily dirt into micelles that become dispersed in the soapy water keeping the grease micelles in suspension, thereby preventing them from coalescing back to large globules of grease that could be redeposited on a clean surface

14

Detergents
deterge means to wipe off or to clean detergent is anything that cleans, especially if it removes oily or greasy dirt soaps are detergents in the sense that they help clean oily and greasy dirt from fabrics, metals, our skin and hair soaps make up a very narrow class of detergents all detergent molecules, like those of soaps, consist of a hydrophilic portion and a hydrophobic portion
15

Detergents
when they enter water, detergent molecules head for the single location where both tendencies can be accommodated the hydrophilic end of the molecule becomes comfortably embedded among the water molecules that make up the surface while the hydrophobic tail sticks up, away from the water molecules the detergent molecules become interspersed among the molecules at the waters surface
16

Detergents
in disrupting this tightly knit layer of molecules, the detergent interferes with the strong attractive forces that the surface water molecules normally exert on each other and so lowers the surface tension soaps, detergents, and any other substances that accumulate at surfaces and change their properties sharply, especially by lowing the surface tension, are surface-active agents, surfactants
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Surfactants
surfactants come in two types, polymers and soap-like substances soap-like substances:

they are fairly small amphiphilic[ ]molecules the hydrophobic (lipohilic) part being typically an aliphatic chain the hydrophilic part can vary widely, in common soap, it is an ionized carboxyl group most amphiphilic substances are not highly soluble either in water or oil they feel the least repulsive interaction from these solvents when they are partly in a hydrophilic environment, e.g. water, and partly in 18 a hydrophobic one, e.g. oil

Surfactants
small-molecule surfactants are categorized as nonionic, anionic and cationic, according to the nature of the hydrophilic part distinction is made between natural surfactants (e.g. soaps, monoacylglycerols, phospholipids) and synthetic ones

HydrophileHydrophile-Lipophile Balance (HLB)


hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) value is defined so that a value of 7 means that the substance has about equal solubility in water and oil lower values imply greater solubility in oil surfactants with HLB >7 are generally suitable for making o/w emulsions, and those with HLB<7 for w/o emulsions substances which are suitable as cleaning detergents in aqueous solutions have a high HLB number

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HydrophileHydrophile-Lipophile Balance (HLB)


a longer aliphatic[] chain yields a lower HLB and a more polar, especially an ionized or a larger polar group a higher HLB for most surfactants, the HLB number decreases with increasing temperature this implies that some surfactants exhibit a HLB temperature or phase inversion temperature (PIT), at which a value of 7 is reached above the PIT, the surfactant tends to make a w/o emulsion, and below it an o/w emulsion
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Proteins as Surfactants
proteins often are the surfactants of choice, especially for foams and o/w emulsions because of their water solubility, but they are not suitable for w/o emulsions the mode of adsorption of proteins varies there always is a change of conformation most enzymes completely lose their activity after adsorption at an oil-water interface due to conformational change
22

Proteins as Surfactants
some enzymes retain part of their activity after adsorption at an air-water interface proteins with little secondary structure, like gelatin and caseins, tend to absorb more like a linear polymer it is apparent that proteins, like synthetic high polymers, are much more surface active than soap-like surfactants

Functions of Surfactants
The presence of surfactants:
affects the contact angle, which is important for wetting and dispersion events

it determines whether a particle can adsorb on a fluid interface and to what extent it then sticks out in either fluid phase it is an important bearing on stability of some emulsions and foams

causes the interfacial free energy to decrease, then slow the Ostwald ripening[ ]
23 24

Functions of Surfactants
allows the creation of surface-tension gradients, which is essential for formation and stability of emulsions and foams may greatly modify (colloidal) interparticle forces, mostly enhancing repulsion and thereby stability may undergo specific interactions with macromolecules, such as proteins, thereby materially altering macromolecules' properties

Dishwasher Detergents

e.g. the interaction of some polar lipids with amylose

most dishwasher detergents contain the highly alkaline compound sodium carbonate alkaline chemicals are needed in the dishwasher because they gobble up grease, transforming it into soap aluminum is an unusual metal in that it is attacked by both acids and alkalis
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Dishwasher Detergents
the alkaline sodium carbonate in the detergent does indeed attack aluminum, at the very least eating deeply enough into the surface to make it dull and pewter gray with aluminum compounds
most manufacturers of quality aluminum cookware advise against putting it in the dishwasher

Dishwasher Detergents
there is a second aluminum-damaging phenomenon going on in the dishwasher if the aluminum utensil happens to be touching another metal, which will most likely be stainless steel
whenever any two different metals, in this case aluminum and what is essentially iron, are in contact while immersed in an electrically conducting liquid, an electrical reaction takes place that attacks one of the two metals, in this case the aluminum, corroding its surface and dulling it
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Baking Soda for Cleaning


each crystal of sodium-bicarbonate strikes the surface of a workpiece when it crushes against the surface, the crystal is destroyed, hence it can help cleaning baking soda[] offers several advantages over other solid mediums:
crystals can be sized to provide the necessary cleaning aggressiveness for an application

Baking Soda for Cleaning


because the baking soda crystal collapses on contact, removal problems, involving getting the media from internal passages or small bores, are eliminated it is water soluble therefore getting the media out of highly intricate parts is also simplified it is relatively soft it is an effective blast medium for delicate substrates such as aluminum and thin wall sections like cylinder fins

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Baking Soda for Cleaning


Use baking soda to clean the tub and sink:
sprinkle baking soda on the porcelain fixtures and rub with wet rag add a little of soap to the rag for more cleaning power rinse well to avoid leaving a hazy film

Baking Soda for Cleaning


Use baking soda to clean the toilet bowl:
sprinkle baking soda inside the bowl as you would any scouring powder add a couple drops of soap scrub with a toilet bowl brush and finish outside surfaces with a rag sprinkled with baking soda

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Baking Soda for Cleaning


Use baking soda to clean the oven:
mix 1 cup of baking soda with enough water to make a paste apply to oven surfaces and let stand a little while use the scouring pad for scrubbing most surfaces a spatula or a bread knife is effective to get under large food deposits
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Baking Soda for Cleaning

Use baking soda to clean the drain:


pour 1/2 cup of baking soda down the drain first, then 1/2 cup vinegar fizz for a few minutes pour down a teakettle full of boiling water
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Baking Soda for Cleaning


Use baking soda to clean the pots with food burns:
apply a small amount of baking soda to the food burn dip a sponge in warm water and scrub the pot until the stain is gone
stainless steel pot can be cleaned with white vinegar on a sponge so that they can be kept shiny
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Vinegar for Cleaning


the construction industry uses vinegar to clean their automobiles and equipment restaurants and food establishments use vinegar to clean walls and ceilings there are a number of reasons:
it is non-toxic to the user it does not leave a harmful residue or odor it is convenient and effective it is biodegradable and can be used in large amounts without worrying about those little warnings written on the backs of most cleaning agents on how to dispose of properly
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Vinegar for Cleaning


Use vinegar to clean the window and mirror:
put 1/4 cup of white vinegar in the spray bottle and fill to the top with water spray on the surface rub with a lint-free rag for outdoor windows, use a sponge and wash with warm water with a few drops of liquid soap in it rinse well and squeegee dry

Vinegar for Cleaning


Use vinegar to clean the Linoleum floor
mop with a mixture of 1/2 cup vinegar in a bucket (pail) of warm water the vinegar odor will go away shortly after the floor dries

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Vinegar for Cleaning


Use vinegar to clean copper:
mix equal parts of vinegar and salt a tablespoon of each will do apply to the surface with a rag rinse thoroughly with water afterwards, otherwise it will corrode

Vinegar for Cleaning


Use vinegar to clean teapot:
pour vinegar in a coffeepot and swish it around

if you want intensive cleaning, try the overnight method:


fill the coffeepot about halfway with ice, then pour in the vinegar, and add a few slices of lemon on the top
39 40

Vinegar for Cleaning


let the mixture sit for the night in the morning, dump out the contents and enjoy your freshly deodorized and totally sanitized coffeepot allows you to make coffee with a clean taste and no acidity, which is what builds up in the coffee pot and causes the bitter taste

Vinegar for Cleaning


Use vinegar to clean microwave oven:
soak a sponge in cup water and cup vinegar and place in a bowl in you microwave microwave for 1 - 2 minutes and then remove

this will loosen the goo[] zapped onto your microwave and now you can wipe it off easily

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Vinegar for Cleaning


vinegar can absorb smells while you are cooking the offensive item it can help get the smell of onion or garlic out of your hands
rub a little white vinegar in your hands and the smell will disappear

it can also clean you hands of any stains left from fruits, like blueberries or raspberries

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Coffee and Tea


coffee and tea both contain large doses of phenolic[] compounds the plant materials are full of chemical defenses tea leaves and coffee beans have one defense in common, and thats caffeine[ ], a bitter alkaloid bitterness invokes a response involving secretion of extra saliva bitterness is detected most strongly on the middle of the tongue but back from the tip
2

Coffee and Tea

Coffee and Tea


caffeine interferes with a particular signaling system used by many different cells it has several different effects on the human body:

Coffee
coffee begins as a seed coffee beans are the seeds of two species of a tropical relative of the gardenia[]

it stimulates the central nervous system, relieves drowsiness and fatigue, and quickens reaction times it also increases energy production in muscles and so their capacity for work less desirably, in high doses it causes restlessness, nervousness, and insomnia reaches its maximum levels in the blood between 15 minutes and two hours after consumption, and its levels are reduced by half within three to 3 seven hours

Coffee Beans
when the flowers fall off the fruits starts to forma process that takes up to 6-7 months once it is ripe, the fruit greatly resembles a cherry: the same round or ovoid shape, the same size and the same color, gradually turning from green to yellow, then to orange and finally to red the skin surrounds a thick, viscous pulp inside that, a husk (pale yellow in color but known as the silver skin) protects the two green coffee beans (each marked by a long, deep furrow) nestling in the heart of the fruit
5

Coffee Beans
these are tucked together with their convex sides facing outwards and their flat sides facing each other every species of coffee tree produces its own beans, which differ in size and color once these beans have had their silver skin removed and been dried and roasted, they will serve to make around 40 cups of coffee the seeds cleaned of the fruit pulp by one of two basic methods:
wet method dry method
6

Coffee Beans: Wet Wet Method


all the prestigious coffees are then treated by means of a so-called wet method that requires copious amounts of water the harvested cherries are first soaked overnight in a tank of water, in order to swell and soften them they then pass through a machine called a pulpier, which mechanically removes a large part of the skin and viscous pulp surrounding the beans the waste from this operation is eliminated by means of powerful jets of water
7

Coffee Beans: Wet Wet Method


the beans, still partly covered by pulp, are put into tanks to ferment, thereby speeding up the disintegration of the pulp they are then dried in order to remove their thin silver skin; this takes about 10 days, if they are left out in the sun, although drying machines can complete the process in a mere three days once they are dry, the beans are passed through a husking machine
8

Coffee Beans: Dry Dry Method


the dry method is less complicated and, above all, considerably less expensive is applied to almost all Robustas and some Arabicas, which are classified as natural naturally dried Arabicas have a more fullbodied taste than their washed counterparts the harvested cherries are spread in a thin layer in the sun and are turned over regularlythe entire surface can benefit from the heat after a month, the sun will have completely dried the pulp of the cherry

Coffee Beans: Dry Dry Method


then pass them through a husking machine to obtain the beans whatever drying method is used, once the green coffee beans have been removed from their silver skin, they are then sieved and sorted to rid them of dust and pebbles before being calibrated and graded according to their size it must be verified that none of the beans are rottenjust one can contaminate an entire bag
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Coffee Beans: Gathering Methods


there are several ways of gathering coffee cherries:
selective picking (reserved for the beast coffeesthe ones intended to supply washed Arabicas)
collect only the cherries that are fully ripe manually pass along the rows of tree several times during the ripening process as coffee fruits have the peculiarity of not all ripening at the same time
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Coffee Beans: Gathering Methods


Stripping[], a much less costly technique (suitable for Robustas or Arabicas that are going to remain natural, which can be used in less pampered coffees)
a kind of large comb is run through the branches taking with it all the fruit on the branch, both red and green, and often a good few leaves as well

Civet Coffee
Civet coffee (Kopi Luwak) is coffee made from coffee berries which have been eaten by and passed through the digestive tract of the Common Palm Civet the raw, red coffee berries are part of its normal diet, along with insects, small mammals, and other fruits it is believed that enzymes in the stomach of the civet add to the coffee's flavor by breaking down the proteins that give coffee its bitter taste the animals gorge on the ripe berries, and 14 the undigested beans are excreted

using machine (on very large plantations)


this moves along the lines of trees and shakes them so that the ripest fruits fall off

13

Civet Coffee

Civet Coffee
the beans are excreted still covered in some inner layers of the cherry the beans are washed, and given only a light roast so as to not destroy the complex flavors which develop through the whole process since these dropping are rare to find, in the whole world, only 500 kg of this coffee is produced every year, making it the "rarest" and the "costliest" coffee in the world civet coffee is the most expensive coffee in the world, selling at $75 USD per quarter pound
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civet

Coffee Makes Stomach Burn


only when the acid gets out of the stomach, splashing up into the esophagus, that it burns in some people, coffee makes that happen, but its not the coffees acid thats burning; its the stomachs the citric, malic, acetic, and other acids in coffee add liveliness to the flavor, not bitterness acids in general are not bitter; theyre sour caffeine is bitter, but it contributes only about 10% of the bitterness in coffee 17

Tea
it begins as a new, actively growing leaf it is rich in enzymes it is carefully captured and preserved by minimal heat and drying

18

White Tea
white tea bears the seal of special quality with their silvery white leaves coated with white down it is only withered after picking, before being dried in another process with their fresh taste and delicate aroma, they outrival all other teas
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Green Tea
it preserves some of the original qualities of the fresh leaf, while heightening them and rounding them out it is made by cooking the fresh or briefly withered leaves to inactivate their enzymes, then pressing them to release their moisture, and drying them in hot air or on a hot pan

20

Oolong Tea
oolong tea[] is made by allowing some modest enzyme transformation of leaf juices the leaves are withered until they become significantly wilted and weakened they are lightly agitated to bruise the leaf edges after that, they are allowed to rest for a few hours until enzyme action has turned the bruised edges red, then they are pan-fired at a high temperature, rolled, and finally dried gently, at temperatures just below 100C 21

Oolong Tea
they undergo only a brief fermentation period (incomplete fermentation) the long leaves are kept whole and then rolled oolong tea brews to a light amber color oolong tea have a distinctive, fruity flavor, rich in nuances, together with a distinctive fruity aroma

22

Black Tea
black tea is made by allowing a profound enzymatic transformation of the leaf fluids the leaves are withered for hours, then are allowed to rest for between one and four hours during which enzyme action turns them a coppery brown and causes them to emit the aroma of apples finally, the leaves are air-dried at temperatures around 100C, and become quite dark
23

Tea Teas Flavor and Color


the period of enzyme activity during teamaking has traditionally been called fermentation[], but it doesnt involve any significant microbial activity in tea-making, fermentation means enzymatic transformation it occurs when the tea maker presses the leaves to break open their cells, and then allows the leaves to sit for some time while the enzymes do their work
24

Tea Teas Flavor and Color


there are two kinds of enzymatic transformation:

Tea Teas Flavor and Color


the second transformation is to build large molecules and form small ones, and thereby modifies flavor, color, and body
the

One transformation is the liberation of large range of aroma compounds, which in the intact leaf are bound up with sugars and so cant escape into the air
when

the cells are crushed, enzymes break the aroma-sugar complex apart this liberation makes the aroma of oolong and black teas fuller and richer than the aroma of green teas
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small molecules are the tea leafs abundant supply of three-ring phenolic compounds, which are astringent, bitter, and colorless the leafs browning enzyme, polyphenoloxidase, uses oxygen from the air to join the small phenolic molecules together into larger complexes
26

Tea Teas Flavor and Color


a combination of two phenolic molecules gives a kind of molecule thats yellow to light copper in color, less bitter but still astringent complexes of from three to ten of the original phenolics are orange-red and less astringent larger complexes are brown and not astringent at all the more tea leaves are pressed, and the longer theyre allowed to sit before the enzymes are killed by heating, the less bitter and astringent[] and the more colored they become 27

Tea Teas Flavor and Color


in oolong teas, about half of the small phenolics have been transformed; in black teas, about 85% the red and brown phenolic complexes lend body to brewed tea, because theyre large enough to obstruct each other and slow the movement of the water

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Evolution of Tea Taste

Earl Grey
the best known of these teas is Earl Grey, flavored with bergamot bergamot is an essential ingredient of Earl Grey tea, the tea itself can be black, green or oolong more recent innovations include honey, caramel and chocolate teas, sometimes spiced up with alcohol, such as rum, maraschino or whisky
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Fresh tea leaf (bitter not astringent) Bruised or rolled tea leaf (very bitter and astringent) More extensive enzyme action produces a compound (less bitter and astringent)
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