YEAR 11 CHEMISTRY RESEARCH TASK

By Sioned Vaughan

Contents
Living organisms make compounds which are an important source of energy ........................... 2 Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy into chemical energy and recall the raw materials for this process ..................................................................................... 2 Outline the role of the production of high energy carbohydrates from carbon dioxide as an important step in the stabilisation of the suns energy in a form that can be used by animals as well as plants ........................................................................................................................... 2 Identify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal, petroleum and natural gas ................................................................................................................................................ 3 Identify the range of compounds found in coal, petroleum and natural gas and the location of deposits of these fossil fuels in Australia ............................................................................... 3 The rate of energy release is affected by factors such as types of reactants ................................. 5 Explain the importance of collisions between reacting particles as a criterion for determining reaction rates .......................................................................................................... 5 Explain the relationship between temperature and kinetic energy of particles ....................... 6 Describe the role of catalysts in changing the activation energy and hence the rate of chemical reactions using a named industrial catalyst as an example ....................................... 6 Analyse information and use the available evidence to relate the conditions under which explosions occur and relate these to the need for safety in work environments where fine particles mix with air ................................................................................................................... 8 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 9

Living organisms make compounds which are an important source of energy

Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy into chemical energy and recall the raw materials for this process
In the process of photosynthesis, light energy from the sun strikes photosystems located in the thylakoid membrane of plants and other photosynthetic organisms. The light energy charges electrons which then bond to electron carriers (NAD+, NADP+) which carry the highly charged electrons to the Calvin Cycle where they bond to the RuBisCo enzyme which stores the energy from the electrons (and previously the light) in glucose molecules. This process of photosynthesis requires water (broken apart to provide electrons to be charged and hydrogen ions to create a concentration gradient) and carbon dioxide (used in the Calvin Cycle to create glucose). This process of photosynthesis converts unusable light energy from the sun into potential chemical energy which can later be used to power the functions of the organism through the process of cellular respiration. Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because the energy is absorbed from the sun and used to create glucose (chemical energy)
Light Carbon Dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen Chlorophyll

Outline the role of the production of high energy carbohydrates from carbon dioxide as an important step in the stabilisation of the suns energy in a form that can be used by animals as well as plants
Carbohydrates are molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and include glucose, starch and cellulose. They are formed by autotrophs through the process of photosynthesis, where chlorophyll absorbs 2830kJ of energy per mole of glucose created. This energy is stored within the bonds of the carbohydrate molecules and is released during the process of cellular respiration. During cellular respiration the potential energy of the carbohydrates is converted into ATP, which is a form of energy more easily used by organisms. The amount of energy released is 2830 kJ per mole (the same as is absorbed in photosynthesis). Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

High-energy carbohydrates are essential to life as they are able to store and carry energy in a form which can be used by all life (through the exothermic

process of cellular respiration). The conversion of light energy to chemical energy (and thus, the making of carbohydrates) during photosynthesis isnt just necessary for plants and photosynthetic organisms (autotrophs) but also for consumers (heterotrophs). When one organism consumes another organism, they consume the carbohydrates (stored energy) that that organism contained, and they in turn can use this energy through cellular respiration. Thus energy is transferred from the sun to autotrophs through photosynthesis and then to heterotrophs through predation.

Identify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal, petroleum and natural gas
Normally, when an organism dies, it is decomposed and its energy returns to the biosphere through the carbon cycle, water, and nutrients, however if an organism is fossilised after it dies, the energy is trapped within its body and under certain circumstances this energy can be converted into fossil fuels. Different fossil fuels are formed depending on circumstances such as what mixture of plants and animals was present, how long the material was buried and under what conditions of decomposition and pressure the fossil fuels were forming. For example, oil and natural gas were formed by marine animals which were buried by ocean or river sediments. Heat, pressure and bacteria combined to cook the organic material. First this formed a thick liquid (oil) but in some of the hotter areas the process continued and natural gas was formed. Eventually some of this natural gas and oil moved upwards through the earths crust and found its way into cracks known as caprocks from which we mine these fossil fuels today. On the other hand, while coal is created by the same types of forces, coal is formed from the remains of trees, ferns and other plants that were living 300 to 400 million years ago.

Identify the range of compounds found in coal, petroleum and natural gas and the location of deposits of these fossil fuels in Australia
Australia is the worlds largest exporter of coal and is ranked sixth in exports of liquefied natural gas, while in contrast most of Australias liquid energy needs are imported. Australia is estimated to hold 6% of the worlds coal resources and 2% of the worlds natural gas resources. Australia is abundant in black and brown coal. The largest black coal deposits are found in the Bowen-Surat (Queensland) and the Sydney basin (NSW). Australias brown coal reserves are abundant and located in Gippsland Basin (Victoria). At the current rate of production these brown coal reserves will last another 500 years. Australia has large gas deposits found mostly in the Carnarvon, Browse and Bonaparte basins off the northwest coast with smaller deposits in the

Gippsland basin and the Cooper-Eromanga basin. At current production these will last around 60 years. Australias oil resources are found mostly in the Carnarvon and Gippsland basins and are small by world standards. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are made up of compounds known as hydrocarbons. These contain carbon, hydrogen and some impurities. An assortment of distinctly different compounds made with different proportions of these elements are found in the fossil fuels. The fewer carbons in the compound, the lighter the compound and the more likely the fossil fuel will be in a gaseous form. Thus natural gas has the fewest carbon atoms, while petroleum contains long chains of carbon and coal contains even longer chains. Natural gas is defined as being made of hydrocarbons which remain in a gaseous form at standard temperature and pressure and 20C and thus can be limited to hydrocarbons with four or fewer carbon molecules: methane, ethane, propane and butane. Natural gas is made up of methane and these hydrocarbons, and methane generally accounts for 70-90% of total volume. It also contains impurities such as arbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen, nitrogen, helium, and argon which must be removed prior to sale. Coal can contain as many as 76 of the 92 naturally occurring elements but most of them are found only in trace amounts. There are 8 minerals found in coal enough to be major constituents: quartz, kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, chlorite, pyrite, calcite, and siderite. These minerals are made up mostly of oxygen, aluminum, silicon, iron, sulfur, and calcium. The organic compounds in coal are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and trace amounts of other elements. The key components of petroleum are carbon (93% 97%), hydrogen (10% - 14%), nitrogen (0.1% - 2%), oxygen (01.% - 1.5%) and sulphur (0.5% - 6%) along with a few trace metals. The overall properties of different petroleum sources are determined by the percentages of the four main hydrocarbons found in petroleum, which are typically present at these percentages: paraffins (15% 60%), napthenes (30% - 60%), aromatics (3% to 30%), with asphaltics making up the remainder.

The rate of energy release is affected by factors such as types of reactants

Explain the importance of collisions between reacting particles as a criterion for determining reaction rates
In order for two particles to react, they must collide (with the correct alignment and enough energy to break the bonds). Thus the rate of collision affects the rate of reaction, as with fewer collisions there will be less chance that a reaction will occur. Another factor related to collision which will affect the rate of reaction is the orientation of the particles. Consider a reaction between ethene and hydrogen chloride: As a result of the collision of ethene and hydrogen chloride, the double bond between the carbons is converted into a single bond, as a hydrogen atom gets attached to one carbon, and a chlorine atom to the other. This can only happen if the hydrogen end of the hydrogen chloride collides with the double bond between the carbons of ethene (see below).

The double bond has a slight negative charge, so in collision 2, the chlorine (which also has a slight negative charge) is repelled from the double bond, while the hydrogen (which has a slight positive charge) is attracted. Thus reactions are only possible if the particles are correctly aligned. There is a greater chance of correct alignment if the rate of collisions is greater, so in this way, the higher the rate of collisions, the higher the rate of reactions. In conclusion, anything that increases the rate of collisions will increase the rate of reaction. Factors which have this effect are:

o the concentration (increasing the concentration means there are more particles of the reactant per unit of volume thus increasing the chances of collision) o state of division of a solid reactant (if the reactant is in smaller pieces, there will be more surface area in contact with the other reactant and thus more chance of collision) o stirring (this will keep the solid suspended in the solution thus maximising the surface area exposed, as well as refreshing the solution, ensuring there is plenty of solvent for the solute to react with)

Explain the relationship between temperature and kinetic energy of particles

As the temperature increases the speed (kinetic energy) of the particles increases. This increases the rate of collisions, increasing the reaction rate. This increase in temperature can also allow the particles colliding to break through the energy barrier, and cause a reaction. If colliding particles have insufficient activation energy, they bounce back and dont react. Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy, thus enabling particles to react now that they have sufficient energy. Thus increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, which increases the rate of reaction.

Describe the role of catalysts in changing the activation energy and hence the rate of chemical reactions using a named industrial catalyst as an example
There is a certain amount of energy required to create a reaction. This is known as activation energy (see explanatory graph of activation energy in an exothermic reaction below)

The particles must collide with more energy than the activation energy, or no reaction will occur. The Maxwell-Boltzman distribution (see below) shows that most particles have less energy than the activation energy required.

Note: this graph only applies to gases but the conclusions drawn can be applied to reactions involving liquids

The rate of reaction can be increased by shifting the graph through a change in temperature, or through decreasing the activation energy needed by adding a catalyst. A catalyst increases the rate of reaction without being consumed. They increase the rate of reaction by providing an alternate pathway for the reaction that requires less activation energy.

There are two types of catalysts: homogeneous and heterogeneous. Homogeneous catalysts are in the same phase (there is no physical separation) as the reactants. For example, nitrogen dioxide is the catalyst for the reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen. Heterogeneous catalysts are in a different phase to the reactants. One or more of the reactants are adsorbed to the catalyst at active sites where there is

an interaction which makes them more reactive (may involve a reaction with the surface or a weakening of the bonds). Once the reaction occurs the product molecules are desorbed. An example of a heterogeneous catalyst is finely divided platinum, which is used to catalyse the reaction of carbon monoxide and oxygen to create carbon dioxide. This reaction is used in catalytic converters in automobiles in order to remove carbon monoxide from the exhaust gases.

Analyse information and use the available evidence to relate the conditions under which explosions occur and relate these to the need for safety in work environments where fine particles mix with air
Explosions occur when reactions are occurring very rapidly, which often happens when there is good contact between particles, and the reaction is highly exothermic with a high activation energy. Once the reaction is started, it releases energy as heat, which increases the temperature and speeds up the reaction. Thus there is a rapid escalation in reaction rate and temperature causing an explosion. Although large lumps of flammable substances arent likely to explode because there is less surface area in contact with the air, smaller particles of flammable substances are dangerous and can go up in flames, especially in a hot workplace. Thus an important component of workplace safety is ensuring there is little build-up of flammable particles in the air. The creation of flammable dust should be minimised and the dust should be collected and filtered from the workplace.

Bibliography
Chandra, V. (n.d.). What is natural gas? Retrieved July 9, 2013, from Natgas website: http://www.natgas.info/html/whatisnaturalgas.html This website was very useful for a detailed description of the compounds that make up natural gas. It is also fairly reliable because although it is not a .edu or .gov website, the information is well researched and supported by geologists, and the website is of a professional educational standard. Clark, J. (n.d.). The collision theory of reaction rates. Retrieved July 10, 2013, from chemguide website: http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/basicrates/introduction.html This webpage was very useful in explaining the role of collisions in affecting reaction rates, as well as the effect of concentration and temperature in slightly less detail. This webpage is reasonably reliable as it is written by a chemistry teacher/professor for students studying in England. Clark, J. (n.d.). Types of Catalysis. Retrieved July 10, 2013, from chemguide website: http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/catalysis/introduction.html This webpage was useful because it had some very good information regarding catalysts, how they work, and the types of catalysts. The webpage is also fairly reliable because it was written by a chemistry teacher/professor and the information correlates with other sources Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism. (2012, July 16). Energy: Basics. Retrieved July 9, 2013, from Australian Government: Geoscience Australia website: http://www.ga.gov.au/energy/basics.html

This webpage was very useful for giving an overview of where fossil fuel deposits were located within Australia. It is also very reliable, as it is published by the Australian government, although it hadn't been updated for a year. This is unlikely to change any of the information I used from it, as the location of fossil fuel deposits will remain fairly constant Fossil Energy Office of Communications. (2013, February 12). How fossil fuels were formed. Retrieved July 10, 2013, from U.S. Department of Energy website: http://www.fossil.energy.gov/education/energylessons/coal/gen_howformed.ht ml This source was very useful in that it contained a fairly detailed description of how fossil fuels were formed, with further details on each of the three fossil fuels discussed. It was also a very valid source as it is a government publication however the fact that it was published by the US government makes some of the statistics irrelevant. Lerner, K. L., & Lerner, B. W. (2008). Catalyst and catalysi. In Gale encyclopedia of science (4th ed.). Retrieved from Gale Science in Context database. (Accession No. GALE|EJ2644040438) This reference provided useful information about catalysts and their role in reactions. It is also reliable as it is a reference source that would be thoroughly edited and checked Petroleum Composition. (n.d.). Retrieved July 10, 2013, from Petroleum website: http://www.petroleum.co.uk/composition This website was very useful in specifying the compounds found in petroleum and providing more detail about petroleum as a resource. The

website is fairly reliable, as it seems to be well researched and dedicated entirely to petroleum, however it is not published by a well-known, respected group so may not be completely reliable. However the information received from the webpage corresponded with information from other sources Smith, R. (2006). Conquering Chemistry (4th ed.). Nelson Cengage Learning. The textbook is useful in that it provides most of the information needed for the task, although further research is necessary to gain a full understanding. it is also reliable as it is a well regarded and respected, fairly recent, published work US Government Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey. (n.d.). Coal: A Complex Natural Resource (S. P. Schweinfurth, Author). Retrieved from http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1143/html/text.html This report was useful in discovering the compounds found in coal. This report is reliable because it was published by a government body, so basic information would be edited and correct