AEPC Guidelines For Detailed Feasibility Study For Projects

Mini-Grid Support Programme (MGSP)
Alternative Energy Promotion Center

Energy Sector Assistance Programme (AEPC/ESAP)

GUIDELINES FOR DETAILED FEASIBILITY
STUDY FOR PROJECTS FROM 100 kW TO
1000kW

Version-1
Date: 18, 11, 2008

Guidelines: Detailed Feasibility Study of Mini Hydropower Projects ranging from 100kW to 1MW

Alternative Energy Promotion Center/ Energy Sector Assistance Program Page 1

ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................... 5
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 7
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2 Objective and scope of works ............................................................................................. 7
1.3 Feasibility Study .................................................................................................................. 8
1.4 Application of Guidelines and content ............................................................................... 8
1.5 Hydropower development and the private sector ............................................................. 9
2. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES........................................................ 10
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Components of a Mini Hydro Project .............................................................................. 10
2.3 Function of the Mini Hydro Components ....................................................................... 11
2.4 Power Market .................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Alternatives of Supply ....................................................................................................... 13
2.6 Institutional Aspects .......................................................................................................... 14
2.7 Policy issues ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.7.1 Application Process under Electricity Act .................................................................................... 14
2.7.2 Government Policy ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.8 Opportunity of Integrated Use of Water resources ........................................................ 15
3. SURVEY AND INVESTIGATIONS .............................................................................. 17
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Approach & Methodology ................................................................................................ 17
3.2.1 Site Selection of Project Components ........................................................................................... 17
3.2.2 Topographic Survey and Mapping ................................................................................................ 23
3.2.2.1 Available Maps and Survey Equipment ........................................................................................ 23
3.2.2.2 Topographical Survey ...................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.2.3 Mapping and Plotting ....................................................................................................................... 25
3.2.2.4 Site Photographs .............................................................................................................................. 26
3.2.3 Hydrological Investigation ........................................................................................................... 26
3.2.3.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 26
3.2.3.2 Flow Estimation Method .................................................................................................................. 27
3.2.3.3 Stream flow measurement .............................................................................................................. 28
3.2.3.4 Flow Duration Curve (FDC) ............................................................................................................ 34
3.2.4 Geology and Geotechnical Study .................................................................................................. 37
3.2.4.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 37
3.2.4.2 Regional Geological Study .............................................................................................................. 37
3.2.4.3 Geology and Geomorphology of the Project Site/ Area .............................................................. 38
3.2.4.4 Construction Material Survey ......................................................................................................... 41
3.2.4.5 Geological Problems ........................................................................................................................ 42
3.2.4.6 Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................................... 43
3.3 Socio-economic Aspects ..................................................................................................... 43
3.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 43
3.3.2 Data/Information Requirement ..................................................................................................... 43
3.3.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 44
3.3.4 Community Benefit Assessment ................................................................................................... 47
3.4 Environmental Considerations ......................................................................................... 49
4. TECHNICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 56
4.1 General Features of Hydropower Projects...................................................................... 56


4.2 Civil Works ........................................................................................................................ 57
4.2.1 Planning and Layout of Diversion Headworks ............................................................................. 57
4.2.1.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 57
4.2.1.2 Objectives .......................................................................................................................................... 57
4.2.1.3 Scope ................................................................................................................................................. 57
4.2.1.4 Data requirements ............................................................................................................................ 57
4.2.2 Diversion Weir .............................................................................................................................. 58
4.2.2.1 Temporary Weir ................................................................................................................................ 58
4.2.2.2 Semi Permanent Weir ..................................................................................................................... 58
4.2.2.3 Permanent weir ................................................................................................................................ 59
4.2.2.4 Hydraulic Design .............................................................................................................................. 59
4.2.3 Undersluice ................................................................................................................................... 60
4.2.3.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 60
4.2.4 Intake ............................................................................................................................................ 60
4.2.4.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 60
4.2.4.2 Scope of design ................................................................................................................................ 61
4.2.4.3 Typical Components ........................................................................................................................ 62
4.2.5 Gravel Trap ................................................................................................................................... 65
4.2.5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 65
4.2.5.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................................. 66
4.2.5.3 Design Principal & Criteria .............................................................................................................. 66
4.2.5.4 Design Formula for Gravel Trap ..................................................................................................... 66
4.2.6 Settling Basin ................................................................................................................................ 67
4.2.6.1 Purpose ............................................................................................................................................. 67
4.2.6.2 Design Principal & Criteria .............................................................................................................. 67
4.2.6.3 Typical Components ........................................................................................................................ 67
4.2.6.4 Design of Settling Basin .................................................................................................................. 68
4.2.6.5 Design of Inlet Transition ................................................................................................................ 68
4.2.6.6 Design of Settling Chamber ............................................................................................................ 69
4.2.6.7 Settling Basin Design ....................................................................................................................... 70
4.2.6.8 Outlet Zone ....................................................................................................................................... 71
4.2.6.9 Sediment Flushing System ............................................................................................................. 71
4.2.6.10 Types of Settling Basin based on flushing operations ................................................................ 72
4.2.7 Water Conveyance System - Part I :Canal .................................................................................... 72
4.2.7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 72
4.2.7.2 Components of Conveyance System ............................................................................................ 73
4.2.7.3 Approach Canal ................................................................................................................................ 73
4.2.7.4 Headrace Canal ................................................................................................................................ 74
4.2.7.5 Basic Design Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 74
4.2.7.6 Hydraulic Calculation of Free flow Canal ...................................................................................... 74
4.2.7.7 Geometry of Channel Sections ...................................................................................................... 75
4.2.7.8 Transitions in canal .......................................................................................................................... 76
4.2.7.9 Head Losses in canal ...................................................................................................................... 76
4.2.7.10 Permissible Velocity in the canal.................................................................................................... 78
4.2.7.11 Free Board in lined and Unlined Canal ......................................................................................... 79
4.2.7.12 Canal Lining ...................................................................................................................................... 79
4.2.8 Water Conveyance System - Part II : Pipe .................................................................................... 80
4.2.8.1 Pipe Flow ........................................................................................................................................... 80
4.2.8.2 Headrace Pipe .................................................................................................................................. 80
4.2.8.3 Design Considerations for headrace pipe ..................................................................................... 81
4.2.8.5 Pipe Diameter Optimization ............................................................................................................ 83
4.2.8.6 Economic Diameter and Shell Thickness ..................................................................................... 83
4.2.8.7 Head loss in pipe flow ...................................................................................................................... 83
4.2.9 Forebay ......................................................................................................................................... 84
4.2.10 Powerhouse .............................................................................................................................. 84
4.2.11 Tailrace Canal .......................................................................................................................... 87
4.3 Hydro-mechanical Equipment ......................................................................................... 87
4.3.1 Penstock ........................................................................................................................................ 87
4.3.1.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 87
4.3.1.2 Type of installation ........................................................................................................................... 88
4.3.1.3 Conditions governing the adoption of a Pipeline ......................................................................... 89


4.3.1.5 Structural Design .............................................................................................................................. 91
4.3.1.6 Expansion Joints .............................................................................................................................. 93
4.3.1.7 Branch Pipe ....................................................................................................................................... 94
4.3.2 Gates, Stoplogs and trashracks ..................................................................................................... 94
4.3.2.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 94
4.3.2.2 Gates .................................................................................................................................................. 94
4.3.2.3 Stoplogs ............................................................................................................................................. 94
4.3.2.4 Trashracks ......................................................................................................................................... 94
4.4 Powerhouse Mechanical Equipment ................................................................................ 96
4.4.1 Introduction or general outline...................................................................................................... 96
4.4.2 Turbine Type Selection ................................................................................................................. 96
4.4.3 Unit Selection ............................................................................................................................... 97
4.4.4 Turbine Speed ............................................................................................................................... 98
4.4.5 General Efficiency Trend ............................................................................................................ 100
4.4.6 Design Criteria ............................................................................................................................ 100
4.4.7 Description of Equipment ........................................................................................................... 100
4.4.7.1 Turbines ........................................................................................................................................... 100
4.4.7.2 Governors ........................................................................................................................................ 103
4.4.7.3 Inlet Valves ...................................................................................................................................... 105
4.4.7.4 Drive System (Speed Increaser) .................................................................................................. 105
4.4.7.5 Other Accessories and Equipment .............................................................................................. 106
4.5 Electrical Components .................................................................................................... 106
4.5.1 Generator .................................................................................................................................... 106
4.5.1.1 Types and Selection ...................................................................................................................... 106
4.5.1.2 Generator capacity and power output rating .............................................................................. 107
4.5.1.3 Generator voltage........................................................................................................................... 108
4.5.1.4 Generator Speed ............................................................................................................................ 108
4.5.1.5 Insulation and temperature rise .................................................................................................... 108
4.5.1.6 Excitation System ........................................................................................................................... 108
4.5.1.7 Generator Neutral Grounding ....................................................................................................... 109
4.5.2 Transformers ............................................................................................................................... 109
4.5.2.1 Generator Transformer .................................................................................................................. 109
4.5.2.2 Station Transformer ....................................................................................................................... 110
4.5.3 Switchgear equipment................................................................................................................. 110
4.5.3.1 Circuit breakers and isolators ....................................................................................................... 111
4.5.3.2 Surge Arresters .............................................................................................................................. 112
4.5.4 Control and Protection Systems .................................................................................................. 112
4.5.4.1 Control system ................................................................................................................................ 112
4.5.4.2 Protection Systems ........................................................................................................................ 113
4.5.5 System Grounding ...................................................................................................................... 114
4.5.6 DC power supply ........................................................................................................................ 115
4.5.7 Lighting system .......................................................................................................................... 115
4.5.7.1 Normal AC lighting system ............................................................................................................ 116
4.5.7.2 Emergency DC lighting system .................................................................................................... 116
4.5.8 Communication System .............................................................................................................. 116
4.5.9 Modes of Mini hydropower station operation ............................................................................. 116
4.5.9.1 Isolated Mode ................................................................................................................................. 116
4.5.9.2 Interconnection with grid ............................................................................................................... 116
4.6 Transmission and Distribution ....................................................................................... 119
5. POWER AND ENERGY ............................................................................................... 124
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 124
5.2 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 124
5.3 Outage ............................................................................................................................... 124
5.4 Input Data ........................................................................................................................ 124
5.5 Results of the Study ......................................................................................................... 125
6. PROJECT CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION ................................................................... 126
6.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 126


7. Project Cost Estimate .................................................................................................... 128
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 128
7.2 Assumptions ..................................................................................................................... 128
7.3 General Methodology ...................................................................................................... 128
7.4 Cost Estimate of Civil Works ......................................................................................... 129
7.5 Unit Rates/ Unit Prices .................................................................................................... 129
7.5.1 Labour Costs ............................................................................................................................... 129
7.5.2 Cost of Equipment tools and Plants ............................................................................................ 130
7.5.3 Cost of Construction Material ..................................................................................................... 130
7.5.4 Overhead and profit .................................................................................................................... 130
7.6 Cost components .............................................................................................................. 130
7.6.1 Land and Support ........................................................................................................................ 130
7.6.2 Pre-operating expenses ............................................................................................................... 130
7.6.3 Main Civil works ........................................................................................................................ 131
7.6.4 Hydro mechanical works ............................................................................................................ 131
7.6.5 Electrical and Mechanical Equipment ........................................................................................ 131
7.6.6 Transmission Line ...................................................................................................................... 132
7.6.7 Value Added Tax (VAT) ............................................................................................................ 132
7.6.8 Contingencies ............................................................................................................................. 132
7.6.9 Interest During Construction (IDC) ............................................................................................ 132
7.6.10 Annual operation and Maintenance Cost ............................................................................... 132
7.7 Project Cost ..................................................................................................................... 133
8. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING AND SCHEDULING .............................................. 134
9. Financial Analysis ........................................................................................................ 136
9.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 136
9.2 General Assumptions ...................................................................................................... 136
9.3 Financial Analysis Spread Sheet Model ........................................................................ 137
9.4 Results of Financial Analysis: ......................................................................................... 139
9.5 Sensitivity Analysis .......................................................................................................... 139
10. Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................ 140
10.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 140
10.2 Financial Risk .................................................................................................................. 140
10.3 Hydrological Risk ............................................................................................................ 141
10.4 Construction Risk ............................................................................................................ 141
10.5 Other Risks ....................................................................................................................... 141
11. Feasibility Report Standard ...................................................................................... 143
12. Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 149
12.1 Electricity Glossary ......................................................................................................... 149
12.2 Hydropower glossary ...................................................................................................... 155
12.3 Lighting glossary ............................................................................................................. 158
12.4 Power System Terms ....................................................................................................... 161



ABBREVIATIONS

AC
Alternating Current
ACSR
Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced
AEPC
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
amp
Ampere
AVR
Automatic Voltage Regulator
B/C
Benefit Cost Ratio
BM
Bench Marks
CAR
Catchment Area Ratio
CFUG
Community Forest Users' Group
CT
Current Transformer
DC
Direct Current
DDC
District Development Committee
DHM
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
DoED
Department of Electricity Development
DWRC
District Water Resources Committee
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
ELC
Electric Load Controller
ESAP
Energy Sector Assistance Programme
FDC
Flow Duration Curve
FGD
Focus Group Discussion
GoN
Government of Nepal
GPS
Global Positioning System
GRP
Glass Reinforced Pipe
HDPP
High Density Polythene Pipe
HFL
High Flood Level
HH
House hold
HP
Hydropower
HSC
Hydrological Similar Catchment
Hz
Hertz
ICIMOD
International Center for Integrated Mountain Development
IEE
Initial Environmental Examination
INGO
International Non-Governmental Organization
INPS
Integrated Nepal Power System
IPP
Independent Power Producer
IRR
Internal Rate of Return


km
Kilometer
kVA
Kilo-Volt ampere
kW
Kilo Watt
kwh
Kilo-Watt hour
l/s
Litre per second
m
Metre
m
3
/s
Cubic meter per second
MCB
Miniature Circuit Breaker
MCCB
Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
MGSP
Mini-Grid Support Program
MIP
Medium Irrigation Project
mm
Milli-metre
MoEST
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology
MoWR
Ministry of Water Resources
MW
Mega Watt
NEA
Nepal Electricity Authority
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
NPV
Net Present Value
PPA
Power Purchase Agreement
PT
Potential Transformer
RCC
Reinforced Cement Concrete
RL
Reduced Level
VDC
Village Development Committee
WECS
Water and Energy Commission Secretariat



1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Nepal has good hydropower potentials for generating electricity. However, harnessing
of these potentials has been minimum and about 60% of the population does not have
access to electricity. Some of the reasons are-i) shortage of funds for grid extension ii)
Economic unfeasibility in extending transmission line from existing electricity grids to
remote villages and most importantly iii) Power and energy shortage being faced by
Nepals power system which at present cannot meet the supply of ever increasing
power demand. In this backdrop, The Government of Nepal (GoN) has policies to
develop hydropower projects of various capacities in the country, both on grid and off
gird. In line with this GoN policy, Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is
promoting rural electrification program through the development of micro and mini-
hydro projects in remote areas of the country through local entrepreneurs/ community.
The AEPC has already developed a well-defined guideline for Detailed Feasibility
Studies of micro-hydro projects ranging up to 100 kW of installed capacity. This
guideline has proved successful in carrying out detailed feasibility and developing
micro-hydro projects.
In the near future, AEPC intends to extend its working sphere in the range of 100kW to
1000kW. Therefore, this guideline has been developed to conduct detailed feasibility
study of mini hydro projects from 100 kW to 1000 kW and is expected to undergo
continuous refinement and revisions as experiences comes by.

1.2 Objective and scope of works
The main objective of the Detailed Feasibility Study of Mini Hydropower Projects in the
range of 100 kW to 1000 kW capacity is to determine the technical feasibility and
financial viability of the project so that it can be implemented by a private
Developer/Community. The feasibility study report provides necessary information to
the Developer to make decisions for the implementation of the project.
The scope of work under a feasibility study includes:
Study and review of reconnaissance or pre-feasibility study of the project prepared
in earlier study
Carry out hydrological, topographical, geological & geotechnical field survey and
investigations. Collect information on existing infrastructure.
Conduct socio-economic survey and environmental study of the project and supply
area
Study of multipurpose use of water resource
Assessment of power & energy requirement and load demand forecast of the
project area
Assessment of power potential of the site and determination of optimum plant
capacity
Prepare layout, design and dimensioning of the components of the power plant on
detailed feasibility study level
Study of transmission line for power evacuation and for interconnection with mini
grid or central grid


Preparation of construction planning and scheduling
Preparation of Bill of Quantities and project cost estimation
Carry out financial analysis of the project
Risk assessment of the project
Project evaluation on implementation and recommendations for further action.

The detailed feasibility study serves as the documented basis for decision making by
the investors and for entering into contract for detailed design and construction. It is
assumed that a turnkey contract is the basis for the detailed design and the
construction. In a turnkey contract, the contractor has to complete the detailed design
and have it approved before contractor enters in construction work.
The detailed feasibility study report: should provide detailed information on the project.
1) Demand Survey
2) Supply analysis
3) Financial analysis
4) Community benefit assessment
5) Risk assessment
6) Project layout and recommended specifications

1.3 Feasibility Study
The feasibility study of a project is carried out after a project has been identified and its
preliminary study completed. If the preliminary study concludes that the project looks
attractive for development, then a feasibility study is carried out in order to determine
the technical and financial feasibility of the project. The feasibility report provides basis
for whether the project is worth investing and concludes whether to go ahead with the
implementation or not. Thus, the feasibility report should be a decision making tool for
its implementation. If the developer is satisfied with the return on his investment in the
project, then he proceeds for its implementation. The report will also provide a basis
for negotiation of loan from a financing institution for its development.
A detailed feasibility is a comprehensive study prepared after the detailed field
investigation work of a mini hydropower to supply power and energy to a certain
supply area and to the neighboring grids. The study prepares optimum design and
layout of the project with its cost estimation and then carries out the financial viability of
the project. The study prepares the load demand in the supply area and conducts
socio-economic and environmental study of the project area. The detailed feasibility
study report helps the Developer to negotiate with a contractor for the detailed design
and construction of the project and the contractor to offer a bid and prepare the
working drawings for construction.

1.4 Application of Guidelines and content
The present guideline is prepared to assist consulting engineers and developers to
conduct the detailed feasibility study of a mini hydro project. Experience of mini hydro
development in various countries and guidelines on planning and design have been
studied and referred to prepare this guideline. In particular, the guideline is prepared in


the context of Nepal. Guidelines are not one time job and are not final documents.
They should be updated and upgraded continuously.
The aim of this guideline is to prepare detailed feasibility reports in a definite quality
and bring uniformity in content and presentation of the report. It is expected that the
guideline will serve to design cost effective projects for the electrification in rural areas
including supply of surplus energy to the nearby grid (national or mini) through mini
hydro development.
The Guideline covers methods and sequence of preparation of the detailed feasibility
study of a mini hydro project. Methods of conducting field survey & investigation and
scope of design and analysis have been elaborated.

1.5 Hydropower development and the private sector
Since 1990 the government has made attempts to mobilize the local and international
private sector to invest in the hydropower sector of the country. New legislation has
been introduced since then and new policies have been put in to place. This has
resulted in the development of several hydropower plants by the private sector.
The Ministry of Water Resources, with the intention of developing small hydropower
(up to 10 MW) through the private sector, has declared policies for the purchase of
electricity by NEA from projects which can be interconnected with INPS. The policy is
reviewed time to time. The 1998 policy has the following features on power purchase
from IPPs.
NEA will buy all power produced by the private power plants of 10MW or less
capacity.
PPA period is 25 years.
Base year for energy tariff will be 2055/056 (1998-1999)
Differential tariff: For power plants of less than 5 MW installed capacity, there are
different rates for wet and dry months with an annual escalation on tariff of 6% for
the first five years and review of tariff from the 6th year.



2. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES
2.1 General
The feasibility study of a mini hydro project is carried out to determine the technical
feasibility and financial viability. The feasibility study report will assist the developers,
the government agencies or donors on whether to proceed for the implementation of
the project or not. The report provides basis for appropriation of government funds or
for negotiation of a loan from financing institutions for the project implementation.

2.2 Components of a Mini Hydro Project
Hydropower projects require tailor made layout and design according to specific site
conditions like hydrology, topography, geology, socio-economic and other features.
The design and layout must be sound and performed by experienced professionals.
Nevertheless, mini hydro projects bear similarity in their technical features
standardized planning tools can be designed to a large extent. On the basis of supply
conditions mini hydro projects can be categorized as:
1. projects to supply isolated load centers not connected into any grid,
2. projects interconnected with the nearby grid (national or mini-grid).
3. projects to supply both to isolated load centers and connected to the grid.

The basic components of a mini hydro project are:
A. Civil Structures
1. Diversion Weir and Intake Structure
2. Gravel Trap and Settling Basin
3. Headrace Water Conveyance (canal or conduits)
4. Forebay/ balancing reservoir
5. Penstock
6. Powerhouse
7. Tailrace Canal

B. Powerhouse Mechanical Equipment
1. Turbine
2. Governor
3. Inlet Valve

C. Powerhouse Electrical Equipment
1. Generator
2. Excitation System
3. Control and Protection equipment
4. Power Transformer
5. Low Voltage Distribution and switchgear
5. Earthing and lightning arrestors


D. Transmission/ Distribution Line
1. Switch Yard / MV switchgear room
2. Transmission Line
3. Distribution Transformer
4. Distribution Line

The schematic layout of a typical mini hydro project is illustrated in the following figure.

2.3 Function of the Mini Hydro Components
1. Diversion Weir: Structure placed across the river to divert a part of the river flow
to the water conveyance system through the intake.
2. Intake: An opening to draw design flow from the river and provided with trash
rack screen to prevent entry of floating debris and coarse bed load into the water
conveyance system. It is equipped with a control gate to regulate flow down the
conveyance system under various flow conditions in the main river.
3. Gravel trap: Structure to intercept bed load carried by the diverted flow. It is
equipped with gravel flushing gate followed by a flushing canal to discharge the
trapped gravel particles back to the river. A lateral side spillway also can be
located in this structure to spill excess flow entering from the intake during high
floods.
4. Settling Basin: An approach canal conveys water from the intake/ gravel trap to
the settling basin. It settles suspended sediment contained in the water. The
settled sediment is subsequently discharge back into the river through a flushing
arrangement consisting of flushing gate/ valve and canal.
5. Headrace Conveyance System: Usually a canal/ pipe/ tunnel or a combination
of these for the purpose of delivering design flow to the forebay with a minimum
energy loss.
6. Forebay (Head Tank or Surge Tank): It stores water to compensate changes in
design flow, stabilizes head on the penstock. A side spillway is provided in this
structure to spill excess water coming from the conveyance system. The forebay


is equipped with a fine screen/ trash rack to prevent floating debris into the
penstock pipe and ultimately to the turbines. It serves as a secondary settling
basin as well and a sediment sluice to remove settled suspended particles.
7. Penstock: Conveys design flow under pressure to the turbine/s with a minimum
head loss. Anchor blocks and saddle supports are provided to stabilize forces
acting on the penstock pipe.
8. Powerhouse: Houses electricity generating units, switch gear, control equipment
and maintenance equipment.
9. Tailrace: Disposes the design flow discharged by hydraulic turbines after power
generation.
10. Switchyard: Houses HV (33KV) switchgear and power transformer (if 33KV)
where applicable and transmission line termination such as lightning arrester,
outdoor CT/PT, isolator and earthing switches.

2.4 Power Market
The power market of mini hydro projects can be divided into two categories depending
upon interconnection of the project.
(1) Isolated Scheme
If the project is to operate in isolated mode the power market will be the load
centers envisaged to be supplied by the proposed mini hydro project. These
load centers in general exhibit the following characteristics:
Energy use is primarily for domestic lighting purpose,
Peak power demand are in evening hours,
Day time load is limited to milling of agro products and other commercial
uses,
The household consumers are scattered in wide area,
The load factor of isolated system is generally low,
Load promotion activities should be identified/designed for increasing the
load factor which is essential for the financial viability of the project.
Data for power demand assessment is collected during the field visit.
Discussion with community helps to determine the power requirement. The
load survey consists of collecting number of households to be connected with
electricity, collecting data on population of load centers and growth rate of
population, assessment of income level of households, identification of end-use
possibilities for cottage industries and commercial services in the supply area.
Prospective entrepreneurs willing to install various end-use projects should be
identified at the detailed feasibility study.
In isolated system the installed capacity is governed mainly by the domestic
demand. Other non-lighting uses should ideally complement the lighting use. If
the end uses are such that they can be operated during non-lighting hours, the
size of the scheme need not be unnecessarily increased. At any time, the total
capacity of end uses in operation is desirable to be limited to installed capacity,
which is governed by the lighting demand. Other approaches to sizing a plant
may also be proposed, provided that financial viability can be demonstrated.


The maximum demand for which a hydro scheme is to be designed and the
load variation it has to accept have to be determined in the feasibility study of
the project. For an isolated run-of-river scheme the hydrology governs the
limitations in the output capacity.

(2) Scheme Interconnected with Other Generation Facilities
Schemes with larger potential generation sites should be studied for
interconnection with other generating facilities. During the field survey, it is
required to collect information on the adjacent power facilities and nearest
transmission line. It should be investigated whether surplus power from the
proposed project can be transmitted to the nearby local or national grids. The
voltage level, distance from the new scheme, capacity of the transmission line
to absorb the additional power supply etc. should be investigated. Grid
connected schemes have better financial viability than isolated schemes as all
the energy generated by the scheme can be sold to the grid operator.
The electricity tariff will have to be determined/ assessed both for supply in the
local load centers and for supply to the grid operator. The purchase rate of grid
operator might be less as he is supplied only the surplus energy which will be
secondary type of energy. For guaranteed power, a take or pay type of Power
Purchase agreement can be entered with the grid operator. But since most of
the mini-hydro power plants will be selling only surplus power, instead of Take-
or-pay, a simple energy contract will be best. The tariff is fixed and is same for
both types of contracts. Up to 1000 kW capacity, this facility of flexible energy
supply is available presently.

2.5 Alternatives of Supply
A feasibility study assesses alternatives of electricity supply and prioritizes them for
implementation. Electrification of rural areas away from central grid can be planned
with different alternatives. It depends on the location of the supply area, accessibility,
size of load center and power demand etc. Possible alternatives of electricity supply in
a remote rural area are:
a) Supply by constructing a new hydropower project (micro, mini and small).
b) Extension of grid line
c) Supply by diesel generators
Extension of long transmission line for electrification was considered expensive on one
hand and on the other hand the Integrated Nepal Power System is facing deficit in both
power and energy and is not meeting demand of existing electrified area. However,
NEA is extending its grid lines to many areas that are being connected by road
network. The GON has recently introduced community electrification schemes through
NEA. The government has declared that it would subsidize 80% of the cost for RE
through NEA if community contributes 20% of the electrification cost. The alternative to
electrification will be the community electrification where the electricity line is extended
with local participation together with NEA. In many cases electrification using this
scheme would be much more feasible alternative compared to establish a new mini-
grid facility with own generation.


The rural electrification best alternative in hilly areas is considered by constructing
smaller sizes of hydropower projects where there is potential for this alternative. In
Nepal, various micro hydro plants are supplying electricity to small settlements. Larger
load centers can be electrified through mini hydro projects. It is necessary to study the
possibility of grid connection during the feasibility study of the project. Multipurpose
projects and integrated end uses of electricity from mini hydro projects should be
identified or designed to develop a viable project.
Supply of electricity by installing a diesel generating unit has high operating cost.
Transportation of costly diesel to remote inaccessible areas is very high. Contrary to
high production cost from diesel generator, the affordability of rural consumers is low.
So, this alternative is considered unfeasible for rural electrification in Nepal. The
generation cost from this alternative is Rs. 30 to 70 per kwh and more.

2.6 Institutional Aspects
Assessment of Developers capability and commitment to implement the scheme
should be made by the consultant. Financial and management ability for
implementation and operation of the project should be elaborated. Also the role of
beneficiary/ community in the project implementation and operation should be clearly
defined. The Developer must have overall knowledge of mini hydro development
process and must be aware of the risks associated with it.
Institutions such as NGOs or government line agencies that are active in the project
area and are likely to contribute in the implementation of the scheme should be
contacted and explored their interest in the scheme and possible contribution on their
part should be mentioned in the report.

2.7 Policy issues
2.7.1 Application Process under Electricity Act
Section 3 of Electricity Act, 2049 has the provision that a proponent does not require
a license for survey, construction and operation of production/ transmission/
distribution of a hydropower project with installed capacity from 100 kW to 1000 kW.
However the proponent shall submit the certain information before commencing the
work of the project as prescribed in Schedule 1 of Rule 3 of Electricity Regulation,
2050. Submittal shall be made to the Secretary of Ministry of Water resources
(MoWR) through the Department of Electricity Development (DoED).
If the proponents application is for survey of the project only, the proponent shall
submit the following information to the DoED.
a. Desk study of the proposed project which includes salient features (i.e. name of
the water body), scope of work and work schedule
b. Topographical map showing all the major components of the project (in scale of
1:25,000 or 1: 50,000).
c. Electricity distribution area and estimated number of consumers to be benefited, if
any.
d. Information regarding other water uses in the area


e. Letter of recommendation addressed to DoED for project development (survey,
production, transmission and distribution) from concerned VDC/ Municipality with
a copy addressed to DWRC (District Water Resources Committee).
f. Boundaries of the survey area with latitudes and longitudes including VDC/
Municipalities.

2.7.2 Government Policy
A detailed feasibility study should adequately address AEPCs, the focal point of
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MOEST), policy issues regarding
the eligibility for subsidy support in the scheme. Currently, these include the
following:
Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy 2063 supports rural energy projects for the
protection of environment and sustainable development.
Whether adverse environmental impacts are possible due to the implementation
of the scheme.
The project must be financially viable such that the return on equity at the
applicable discount rate for the economic life is positive.
The subsidy policy of AEPC for the study and implementation of the scheme
should be mentioned in the relevant parts of the feasibility study.
As policy requirements may change over time, it is recommended that the consultant
contact the AEPC office regarding the policies that are applicable at the time the
study is conducted. For schemes to be interconnected with the national grid (NEA)
the consultant should address and meet all the requirements of NEA for such
schemes. The procedure of power purchase agreement (PPA) for the sale of surplus
energy to NEA and its expected energy purchase rate should be used in the financial
analysis of the project.

2.8 Opportunity of Integrated Use of Water resources
Financial and economic viability of a hydro project is enhanced by integrating hydro
generation with other uses of the water resource for the purpose of irrigation and water
supply. The following configurations of multi-purpose use of water are practiced:
Feeding irrigation command area located downstream of the of the tailrace canal
Use canal drops in the middle of the main canal of irrigation system
Supply water for irrigation or water supply from the power canal or forebay
Pumping water for irrigation or drinking water during off-peak period
For multi-purpose schemes, the following concerns should be considered in the
feasibility study:
Apart from meeting the flow requirements for power generation, excess flows are
available for the secondary purpose. For example, if the design flow required for
power generation is less than the 11-month exceedance flow (large river and low
installed capacity), excess irrigation flows can be available during the irrigation
demand period. If the command area is along the headrace alignment, irrigation
flows can be made available by sizing the headrace canal to meet both demands


(i.e. those for power generation and irrigation). If a pipe is used for headrace, flow
control structures such as valves will be required at the irrigation outlets.
If the command area is along the tailrace alignment, irrigation flows can be made
available without increasing the conveyance capacity of the headrace.
Realignment or extension of the canal length can be the only additional costs
required.
It may also be possible to accommodate irrigation flows or other non-hydropower
flows with the same design flows or canal by water management practices. For
example, irrigating during off-peak hours by either reducing the power output or
closing the plant are viable options.
The additional costs and incremental benefits from the secondary use should be
demonstrated multi-purpose projects. For example, the increase in the cost of the
headrace canal to accommodate irrigation flows should be compared with the
benefits due to increases in crop yields over the span of the power plant. If the
accumulated benefits from the secondary uses over the life the plant for a given
discount rate as per the prevailing policy exceed the additional costs required to
accommodate such uses, then multi-purpose projects can be justified.
Multiple uses of water resources should not be considered a threat in mini hydro
projects. In fact, efforts should be made to seek technical and management solutions
that encourage power generation and integrate other uses of water resources.



3. SURVEY AND INVESTIGATIONS
3.1 General
The objective of field survey and investigation of a mini hydro project is to obtain
necessary data and information of the identified hydropower site and the electricity
supply area to carry out the technical feasibility and financial viability of the project. The
feasibility study of a project is carried out to meet the power demand and demand
growth of a power market (supply area) which has been established through a
reconnaissance or pre-feasibility study of a particular hydropower site. At the feasibility
stage of study, it is understood that the electricity supply area has been defined to a
reasonable extent and a matching potential hydro generation site has been identified.
The prevailing regulation requires that permission for the feasibility study (survey
license) has been received by the developer from the concerned authorities to conduct
the feasibility study from a water source within a defined area.
Generally, the following field survey and investigations are conducted for the feasibility
study of a mini hydropower project:
1) Topographical survey of the project for mapping of the site
2) Hydrological survey and data collection
3) Geological and Geotechnical investigations and studies
4) Socioeconomic study
5) Environmental Study

3.2 Approach & Methodology
To fulfill the above objectives of the feasibility study certain methodologies are
adopted. Such methodologies are: Desk study, reconnaissance study, review of earlier
studies, field survey and investigations; laboratory tests and data analysis,
topographical mapping, project design, quantity and cost estimation, construction
planning and scheduling and financial analysis. It will carry out power evacuation study
and conduct environmental study as per prevailing regulations.
In mini hydro project period, hydrology and geology should be studied properly to draw
right conclusions in the field investigation stage. The cost of investigation is directly
linked to the depth of investigation, therefore a balance between limiting the cost and
satisfactory data must be maintained.

3.2.1 Site Selection of Project Components
The field survey and investigation starts with a walkover survey of the earlier
identified site by a team of multi disciplinary experts. The field team generally
consists of a hydropower engineer, civil engineer, geologist, hydrologist,
topographical survey crew and environmentalist. Depending upon the size of the
project, site conditions and experience of the team members, the survey team can be
smaller. The joint team evaluates the site conditions and defines the project layout
after on the spot discussion. The walkover survey finalizes the sitting of all the major
structures. The locations of all the major structures are noted by each team member
on the available map from the earlier study or on the existing topographical map of
the project site. It is recommended to use a GPS to record the coordinates of the


selected sites. Then, each member carries out his specific study in detail. Information
is shared at the field with each other.
In the investigation of a mini hydro project it is highly recommended that relatively a
larger area be investigated before finalizing the project layout for detail survey &
investigation. For example, better site for river diversion and intake may be available
with increased natural head in the upstream of an identified site. Similarly, better
powerhouse site and penstock alignment sometimes may be identified by extending
the walkover survey further downstream. Information on such possibilities may be
collected from local residents in the area.
For selecting the water conveyance system the alignment should be studied on both
banks. Merits and demerits on each bank should be compared and better one
selected.

(1) Diversion Works
The diversion works site shall be selected based on its suitability for the principal
components in consideration of technical, economic and environmental factors.
The primary factors considered in the site selection are:
a) The diversion structure should be sited in a straight reach of the river as
possible
b) The river banks shall be well-defined
c) The diversion structure shall be located at a relatively narrow section of the
river to the extent that the hydraulic functions of the structural components
do not interfere with each other.
d) The site shall have ample space for construction activities and sufficient
level differences to allow flushing of the sediments.
e) The selected sites shall be geologically stable.
f) The diversion works shall be located at sites where the upstream and
downstream hazard potentials resulting from its construction and operation
are minimal.
g) The site shall preferably be located at areas where the local construction
materials are available in adequate quantities and of suitable quality.
h) The site is selected considering river diversion and flood handling during the
construction period.
i) As far as possible, the site shall be located at or near existing infrastructure
such as access road and power supply.
j) The site shall be selected with due consideration to minimizing adverse
environmental impacts.

(2) Intake
General Principles for selecting intake location:
The following principles should be considered while selecting appropriate intake
locations:
a) Minimum disturbance to the natural state of the river.
b) Location in an area that offers natural protection.


c) Location on the outside of a bend should be chosen so that the largest
possible portion of the bed load remains in the river and not taken in the
waterways.

To hold off the bed load the following measures has to be considered:
i) Use of physical laws:
To minimize sediment load and to ensure flow availability during dry season;
an intake should be sited on the outside of a bend. The best location is
about 2/3 to 3/4 of the distance around the bend as shown in the fig below.

If it is necessary to construct the intake on straight river section, a bend flow
can be made in order to follow natural physical laws.

ii) Technical Measures:
As technical measures, bed load deflecting structures in the form of intake
sills, under sluice etc, in the flow area can be introduced.
In order to use of natural physical laws, technical measures are always
necessary for:
Intake where the water is not dammed up.
Intake where the water is dammed up.
The intake structure in dammed up case is located in such a way that the intake sill
level should be heightened up by 0.5 to 2m based on the river sediment transport
characteristics.


In order to minimize the entry of bed load, the flow in front of the intake on straight and
narrowing river section must be deflected. For this, the groins are arranged on the
opposite side of the intake structure.
The selection criteria for side and bottom intakes based on nature, flow and sediment
behavior of the river are summarized in the tabular form below:

SELECTION CRITERIA SIDE INTAKE BOTTOM INTAKE
Amount of water: Favorable site selection
necessary (outside of a bend
or an artificial bend by
groins) if the amount of
diverted water is greater
than 50% of the water
supplied.
The bottom screen dawns off
the river up to capacity limit
of the screen (i.e. all river
flow if screen is large
enough).
Gradient of river:
Very high ( i > 10%) to high
(10%> i >1%)

Favorable: maintenance free
operation of the intake
structure should be ensured
as far as possible

Favorable for very high
gradient; can be
maintenance free, if properly
designed.

Unfavourable if i<10%.
Mean gradient (1%> i
>0.01%)
Favorable Unfavourable: fine bed load
into initial headrace canal
results in difficulty in flushing.
Plan of river:
Straight Possible Very favorable as bottom
screen is uniformly loaded.
Winding Very favorable if the river
channel is stable; when
arranged on the outside of
the bend.

Unfavorable, as bottom
screen is not uniformly
loaded
Branched Unfavorable; damming of
river is required.
Unfavorable.

Suspended sediment
concentration.

High

Low

Suitable in combination with
very efficient settling basin.

Well suited.

Less suitable

Well suited.

Bed load transport:



Strong

Weak

Suitable as long as sufficient
amount of water remains in
the river for flushing.

Well suited.

Less suitable.

Well suited.

(3) Settling Basin
The settling basin site is generally selected on flat and larger area to accommodate
the foreseen structures parts and facilities. Large excavation works should be
avoided specially towards hill slope. Attention should be given that it is possible to
flush the sediment and spill water from the basin without causing any problems.
There must be sufficient flushing head to flush the sediment and drain the basin
with respect to the river high flood level. It should be located as close to the intake
as possible to discharge sediment back to the river. Adequate space on fairly
leveled ground is needed to construct the structure. If suitable site is not available
immediately after the intake an approach canal can be considered to convey the
water to a site further downstream.

(4) Headrace Canal Alignment
Headrace canal is suitable in stable geological and favorable topographical conditions
to convey water for power generation. Generally, the contour elevation of the
headrace canal bed level is followed to minimize cutting and filling works. It is not
recommended to align a canal or other structure in fills as far as possible. If a
depression is to cross the canal bed has to be raised on a firm foundation. The soil
and slope stability condition along the canal alignment are the governing factor in the
selection of the canal option instead of tunnel or pipe. The canal option is practical
only for small discharge in the hilly regions of Nepal. Canal construction with large
dimension is limited due to steepness and fragile geological condition creating slope
stability problem.
Detail geological mapping along the canal alignment and test pit observation,
sampling and testing are necessary to decide the suitability of the terrain condition for
excavation and construction of headrace canal.
Different structural components like cross-drainage works (aqueducts, siphons) along
the headrace canal are generally the integral parts of it. The headrace canal may
have to pass through a number of crossings. Headrace canals are more economical
in a favorable topographic condition. The canal requires considerable maintenance to
control canal seepage. Canal costs may also be excessive if it requires a substantial
number of stream crossings (aqueducts and siphons). In some topographical and
geological conditions, cut and covered canal can be provided.
The terrain condition indicating not favorable for excavation of canal may in some
case exhibit the possibility of the pipe option as the conveyance for hydropower
development because it will require minimum excavation space for pipe installation.
The geological and geotechnical study for the design of the pipe route should


emphasis on distribution and characteristics of the rock and soils, thickness of the
overburden soil, position of the unstable areas, and locations of foundation problem.

(5) Forebay
The forebay site is identified at the end of the headrace canal and represents a small
intake reservoir for the penstock. The location is normally fixed at the top of the most
suitable alignment of penstock. A relatively flat and even land area is preferable to be
identified. As it is located right over the powerhouse the forebay must be constructed
on a stable place. It is recommended to be built on undisturbed ground. Site for save
conveyance of drainage water, surface run-off and spill water to a nearby creek or
down the hillside to the main river should be fixed and mapped.

(6) Penstock
The penstock should follow a ridge rather than a depression to reduce drainage
problems. The vertical alignment can follow the slope of the terrain in order to avoid
excessive excavation. Sharp bends should be avoided to reduce head losses and
size of supports to anchor the pipe.
The position of the penstock will be guided by the respective location of the forebay
and powerhouse. As the penstock line follows the terrain towards the down slope
direction between the forebay and powerhouse, the study of the soil and rock
characteristics, overburden soil depth and the slope condition and its stability are the
important factors that require consideration while undertaking geological /
geotechnical investigation. Surface examination along the penstock line should be
supported by geological investigations of the foundation condition.
The alignment of the pipe should be straight and short to the extent possible. Large
numbers of bends (horizontal or vertical) increases the head loss and cost by
increasing anchor blocks and expansion joints. To determine the most economical
alignment of a pipeline, the designer must investigate the site and make various
layouts on topographic maps. He must then estimate material quantities for each
layout and evaluate its constructability.
When making these layouts, the penstock should be located on stable foundation
sites such as along a ridge or a bench that has been cut into the mountainside.
Troublesome sites such as underground water courses, landfill, fault zones and
potential slide areas should be avoided.
Because of low-head penstocks cost less than high-head penstock, keep the pipeline
at high elevations as long as possible before going down the mountainside into the
powerhouse. To minimize costly anchors and costly pipe transition sections, combine
vertical bends, horizontal bends, and changes in diameter shall be combined at the
same location.

(7) Powerhouse Site selection
The powerhouse houses the generating equipment, which is considered the most
expensive component of a power plant. Therefore, it is essential to locate the
powerhouse in a safe location. It is generally located at the end of the penstock and
near the river where the tailrace discharges the water after the turbine. Thus, at one


hand it should be located in such a way that it is not damaged by rock falls or slides
down the penstock hill and on the other hand it should be at a safe distance and level
from the probable high floods.
Generally, a flat land is identified with sufficient area to layout the powerhouse,
tailrace and switch yard facilities. For mini hydro projects, surface powerhouse should
be considered with the minimum excavation works. It is recommended that the
tailrace invert is fixed above high flood level (HFL) and the flood level should be that
for 100 years return period flood magnitude. The HFL can be obtained from the rating
curve (stage discharge curve).
Rating or stage discharge curve at a particular cross section of a river provides
information on water level in the river a different magnitude of flows. The river flows/
floods are shown in the abscissa and the water depth the ordinate. The powerhouse
floor level should be above 100 years period return flood.
Transformer and switchyard area should be identified close to the powerhouse on a
flat area.

3.2.2 Topographic Survey and Mapping
3.2.2.1 Available Maps and Survey Equipment
Available Maps
Topographic Maps prepared by the Survey Department of Government of Nepal are
available in the scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, which are used as a basis for
further topographic survey and mapping of the site. These days digitized topo maps
are also available in the Survey Department and can be purchased. Topographical
maps provide Important information, such as ground elevation, nature of river
stretches/ bends, areas of forest, cliff, agro land, slides, settlements, existing trails,
roads, electricity line etc., which are very useful for the survey team.
Contour maps from pre-feasibility or earlier study, if available, should be referred in
the preliminary study and used for planning of subsequent field survey works.

Survey Equipment
Survey equipment required for topographical survey are listed below:
1) Global Positioning System (GPS)/ altimeter, compass
2) Total Station or Theodolite and Level Instrument
3) Prisms, survey staff (3m/ 5m), ranging rods in required numbers
4) Measuring tapes ( 3m/5 m, 50m/100m)
5) Chisel for engraving in rock/boulders, enamel paints (red or yellow), wooden
pegs, concrete monuments with pegged nails etc.

3.2.2.2 Topographical Survey
A team of multi disciplinary experts visit the project site identified earlier. This team
evaluates the site conditions and defines the project configuration after on the spot
discussion. After a walkover survey of the project site and finalizing the layout of the
project and fixing the locations of major structural components (headwork, canal


alignment, forebay, penstock alignment, powerhouse and tailrace alignment), the
following works are carried out:
1) Establish control points and benchmarks.
2) Carry out close traverse survey to establish required ground control points at
various locations in the project area.
3) Carry out topographical survey covering the complete project area. The major
structural components should be surveyed in detail. Details of existing features
like survey points, streams, forest area, high flood marks, test pits, river banks,
cultivated land, foot trails, roads, houses, springs, ponds, electricity supply line,
rocky cliff, landslide etc. should be surveyed for mapping.
4) Strip survey of water conveyance route (canal, aqueduct, siphon) with detailed
cross section of cross drainage, lying across the headrace conveyance route
(s) and penstock route with coverage of most promising alternatives to produce
maps. The width of the survey corridor should be at least 20m on each side
from the centre line of the canal alignment.
5) River cross section survey should be carried out both at intake and
powerhouse/ tailrace sites covering at least 200m upstream and downstream at
each site. The intervals should be 50m to 100m depending upon river
conditions. High flood marks and existing water levels must be shown in the
cross section. Similarly, the detailed cross-section survey of sites of cross-
drainage works is also need to be carried out.
6) The survey may include impoundment or peaking pondage area.
7) Conduct strip survey of access road alignment with fixing of bench marks, in an
interval of 500m and at major cross drainage locations.
8) Conduct walkover survey along transmission routes using available 1:25,000
scale topo-sheets to compare with socio-environmental settings including
forested areas to be crossed for potential alternatives. GPS will be used for
getting coordinates of the transmission line route.
9) The Bench Marks (BMs) reference points should be clearly defined in
Topographic maps as well as in the report. The reduced level and co-ordinates
will be transferred from nearest permanent survey station (National
Trigonometric Grid) established by the Department of Survey. Alternatively
benchmarks with an arbitrary reduced level (RL) will be adopted by using RLs
from GPS or available topographical maps. A separate reference should be
prepared and concrete monuments with embedded nails should be established
as BMs. BMs established on large boulders should be engraved in an encircled
cross and the BM number also engraved as enamel paints disappear in a short
period. D-cards (description cards) should be prepared for all control points of
topographic survey. Also the photographs of the control points should be taken
to include in the survey report.
10) BMs should be established at Headworks (diversion weir, intake and settling
basin) site, along headrace canal @1 km, forebay site and powerhouse site.



3.2.2.3 Mapping and Plotting
1) Prepare contour map in 1:5000 scale with contour interval of 5m for the whole
project area. All the features mentioned in c of (ii) above must be shown in the
contour maps.
2) Prepare contour maps in 1:200 with 1m contour intervals for diversion weir,
intake, settling basin, forebay and spillway, penstock alignment, powerhouse
and tailrace canal.
3) Other maps, cross sections, profiles should be developed according to the
scales of relevant drawings required for the detailed feasibility study.

Scales of Drawings (Paper Size: A3 Paper)
S.N. Types of Drawing Scale Counter
Interval
1 Alternatives Considered 1:5000 5 m
2 General Arrangement of Selected Project 1:5000
3 Headworks
a) General Arrangement 1:500 1 m
4 Diversion Weir and Intake
b) Elevations and Sections 1:100
5 Settling Basin
a) Plan 1:200 1 m
b) Section 1:100
6 Headrace Water Conduit System
a) Plan & Longitudinal Profile 1:2000 2 m
b) Section 1:200
7 Forebay to tailrace
a) Plan and Profile 1:2000 2 m
b) Section 1:200
8 Forebay (Elevations and Sections 1:500)
a) Plan 1:200 1 m
b) Section 1:100
9 Powerhouse
b) Plan and Elevations 1:200
c) Sections 1:100
10 Powerhouse Switchyard Layout 1:500
11 Cross Drainage Works
a) Plan 1:200
b) Sections 1:100


11 Access Road Interval 1:5000 5 m

Transmission Line (T/L)
A walkover survey of transmission routes using available 1:25,000 or 50,000 scale
topographic sheets should be carried out The route of the transmission line should be
plotted on the map. The coordinates of distinct features should be recorded and given in
the route map. Important physical and social features falling in the right of way of
alignment should be noted down Socio-environmental impacts of the transmission line
should also be assessed. Transmission line can be measured by preparing the T/L
profile from the topo-map. The T/L should be surveyed to each load center. ]

3.2.2.4 Site Photographs
1) Photographs of the location of major structures such as weir axis, settling basin
site, forebay and powerhouse should be taken from various points and angles.
The weir axis should be photographed from upstream, downstream and with
respect to BMs.
2) The headrace canal and penstock alignment photographs should be from a
suitable distance in overlapping sequence from a single position. View from
opposite bank is generally preferred.
3) Photographs of cross drainages, landslides, private land, forest, catchment
area, test pits for construction materials, location of gauging station, flow
measurement activity, load centers, transmission line route etc. should be
taken.
4) These days video films of the site are also widely used which will help to check
some features during design phase of the feasibility study.
5) While taking photograph of a particular site the coordinates of the site should be
recorded and later transferred in the picture.

3.2.3 Hydrological Investigation
3.2.3.1 General
As design flow is directly proportional to the power production from a potential site the
hydrological data should be reliable so that an optimum plant capacity is determined. As
mini hydro projects are developed in smaller rivers and streams which are generally
ungauged and their flow records are not available. So, the flow measurements should
be taken during the field survey and investigation phase. It is essential that a river
gauging station to measure stream flows be established in this period and
measurements recorded and continued. Normally, a staff gauge is installed at a suitable
location of the stream and a local staff is assigned to take staff reading two times a day.
A rating curve is developed by a hydrologist which gives flow of the stream at a defined
stage or elevation. The rating curve is updated at least after every rainy season
because the river profile may change in the high flood season.
During the filed investigation information on low flows and high floods should be
solicited from the senior natives of the project area. The minimum flow experienced and
maximum flood marks should be interrogated and noted in the filed book for their
subsequent analysis. Uses of water in the upstream and downstream should be


investigated and confirmed. Information on future program for the use of source river
must be collected and water availability for power generation confirmed.
Some of the methods of estimating monthly flows and magnitude of floods stream flow
measurements are recommended with following paragraphs:

3.2.3.2 Flow Estimation Method
The mean monthly flows mentioned in the pre-feasibility study should be verified at
this stage by using three methods:
(1) Medium Irrigation Project (MIP) Method
(2) Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)/Department of Hydrology
and Meteorology (DHM) Method
(3) Catchment Area Ratio (CAR) Method

(1) MIP Method
The MIP method presents a technique for estimating the distribution of monthly
flows throughout a year for ungauged locations. For application to ungauged
sites, it is necessary to obtain one flow measurement in the low flow period from
November to April.
In the MIP Method, Nepal has been divided hydrologically into seven zones.
Once the catchment area of the scheme, one flow measurement in the low
flow period and the hydrological zone is identified, long-term average monthly
flows can be determined by multiplying the unit hydrograph (of the concerned
region) with the measured catchment area.
Hydrological zone can be identified based on the location of the scheme in
the hydrologically zoned map of Nepal.
For catchment areas less than 100 km
2
, MIP method is used for better
results.

(2) WECS/DHM (Hydest) Method
It is developed for predicting river flows for catchment areas larger than 100
km
2
of ungauged rivers based on hydrological theories, empirical equations
and statistics.
In this method the total catchment area, areas between 5000m to 3000m are
required as input.
Flow contribution per unit area (km
2
) for 5000 to 3000m and from lower
elevations, i.e., below 3000m is assumed to be in different proportion during
flood. However, for long term average monthly flows, all areas below 5000m
are assumed to contribute flows equally per km
2
area.
The monsoon wetness index can be read from a standard monsoon wetness
index map (The map is presented in the Expert System, "Hydrology"
Worksheet).
The average monthly flows can be calculated by the equation:


Q
mean,month
= C x (Area of Basin)
A1
x (Area below 5000m +1)
A2
x (Monsoon
Wetness Index)
A3
.
Where, C, A1, A2 & A3 are coefficients of the different months.
The catchment area can be calculated from the topographical maps (maps
that show contours) once the Intake location is identified.

(3) Catchment Area Ratio Method (CAR Method)
If the two catchments are hydrologically similar then extension of hydrological
data for proposed site under study could be done simply by multiplying the
available long term data at hydrologically similar catchments (HSC) with ratio
of catchment areas of base (proposed site under study) and index (HSC)
stations.
A more accurate result in the context of Nepal might be obtained by the use
of Dicken's formula:
Qb = Qi
4
3
Ai
Ab

Where, Q = discharge in m
3
/s
A = drainage area in sq.km
Suffix 'b' stands for base station and i stands for index station.
This method is useful if the hydro-meteorological data of the index station
having similar catchment characteristics with the base station are available for
the data extension.

C Flow calculation by all the three methods outlined above will be calculated by the
Expert System in "Hydrology" worksheet.
C For further details on the methods (1) and (2) above, refer to the "Flow Verification
Guidelines prepared by AEPC and design guidelines for headworks of hydropower
projects prepared by DoED.

3.2.3.3 Stream flow measurement
In order to draw meaningful conclusions about the stream flow, observed flow data
is absolutely necessary. This data can be collected by gauging the flow at a suitable
gauging station continuously for a number of years.

Stream flow may be measured using one or a combination of the following methods:
a) Hydrometric (velocity-area) methods.
b) Hydraulic methods.
c) Dilution method.
d) Volumetric method.

a) Hydrometric method (Velocity-Area Method)


In this method the stream flow measurements can be evaluated by multiplying
the estimated velocity of flow and the cross sectional area of the particular
location of the stream.
Velocity can be measured by:
i) Current Meter Measurement
ii) Float Method

i) Current Meter Measurement
The current meter is most frequently used for velocity measurements.
In shallow water depth, velocity may be observed at one point, at
either 0.5 or 0.6 of the effective depth from the bottom.
In deeper water depth, velocity measurement should include two
observations, at 0.2 and 0.8 of effective depth.
This method may not be used because of unsuitable velocities or
depth of flow or the presence of material in suspension or when a
discharge measurement must be made in a very short time.
In this measurement, the total discharge through the selected river
cross-section shall be estimated as:

=
i
i i
V A Q
Where,
Q = Discharge in m
3
/s
A
i
= partial cross-sectional area of the river at the
selected location in m
2

V
i
= the corresponding mean velocities of flow
measured normal to the partial areas in m/s
ii) Float method:
It is not recommended to use the float method in the detailed feasibility
study of mini hydro project.

b) Hydraulic Method (Slope-Area method)
This method shall consist of measuring the fall between the upper and lower
sections of the water surface profile and computing the flow velocity through
hydraulic formulae appropriate to the type of waterway chosen.
Application of these formulae shall involve the following factors:
Physical characteristics of the channel, geometry of the channel within and
adjacent to the reach used and the boundary conditions.
Water-surface elevations at the time of peak stage to define the upper limits
of the cross-sectional areas and the difference in elevation between two
significant points.
Hydraulic factors, such as roughness coefficients, based on physical
characteristics.


The V Notch weir or Rectangular weir is commonly used structures to
measure the flow during commissioning or in the laboratories.
i) V Notch Weir
The basic equation of the discharge for a V Notch weir is:

Where,
Q = discharge in m
3
/sec
h = head over weir measured from the vertex of the notch
g = acceleration due to gravity
= angle of the notch
C = discharge coefficient, varies from 0.608 at h = 0.05 m to 0.59
at h = 0.381 m. The average value at low head over a weir
can be taken as 0.6.

ii) Rectangular Weir:
The basic equation of the discharge for a Rectangular weir is:

Where,
Q = discharge in m
3
/sec
h = head over weir measured from the vertex of the notch
b = width of the weir in m
C = discharge coefficient, varies from 0.63 to 0.648 at h = 226
mm to 350 m

2
15
8
5
h
2
tan 2g C Q *
* * * =
2 3
h b 2.953 C Q * * * =


c) Dilution Method
Using this method, the discharge shall be obtained by measuring the
concentration of water injected with tracer solution passing through a sampling
point. The sampling shall be done after complete mixing of the tracer solution
has taken place.
The salt dilution method is a simple and practical technique for
measuring the discharge of mountainous streams where turbulence is
high and flow does not exceed 5m
3
/s.
The optimal flow for this measurement method is 1.5 m
3
/s.
The technique is based on the principle that a given amount of salt is
diluted more by a large amount of water than by a small amount. This
means that the higher the discharge the more diluted will be salt that is
placed in the water upstream.
The salt dilution method involves injecting (inserting) a known amount of
salt into a stream. This process is technically known as slug injection.
The salt acts as a tracer to measure the discharge. The concentration of
dissolved salt is measured downstream at a point where it has fully
mixed with the stream water.

Conditions for applicability:
The following conditions are needed for the salt dilution method to be used
accurately:
Stream discharge should be constant during the measurement period
All the injected salt should passes the measurement point without any of
it being absorbed or lost in any way
There should be no ponds or calm zones or other conditions that prevent
the salt from being evenly dispersed in the stream
There should be no livestock bathing in the stream whose urine and
other body fluids (sweat) could cause fluctuations in the conductivity of
the water.


Sheet 1: Calibration Checklist and Procedure
i) Equipment and materials:
1. 500 ml measurement flask
2. 1 ml pipette
3. 1 litre jug/beaker
4. Salt solution of 3g salt per 1000 ml distilled water
5. ~ 1 litre distilled water
6. A robust, field-proof conductivity meter

ii) Calibration procedure:
1. Prepare a salt solution with 3g salt per 1000 ml distilled
water using the same salt that will be injected into the
watercourse.
2. Measure out exactly 500 ml of stream water.
3. Put the stream water into a 1 liter clean beaker or jug.
4. Turn on the conductivity meter and put the sensor into
the beaker/jug.
5. Measure the conductivity and note it on the back of the
data input
6. Add 1 ml of the prepared salt solution and stir thoroughly.
7. As soon as the value is constant and unchanging,
measure the conductivity and note it again on the back of
the data input sheet.
8. Repeat the procedure (steps 6 and 7) until the volume in
the jug or beaker is 510 ml.

iii) Analysis
The calibration factor can be determined using either an
Excel macro or a spreadsheet.

Excel spreadsheet
1. Write the concentration values in one column.
2. Write the conductivity values in the next column
3. Produce a scatter plot with concentration as the y and
conductivity as the x values
4. Insert a linear regression line and display the equation
5. Edit the graph and the sheet so that all information fits
on one sheet
6. Print out the results

Sheet 2: Discharge Measurement Procedure with Salt


i) Preparations in the field station:
1. Place approximately 50, 100, and 500g amounts of salt
into separate plastic bags and weigh them to an
accuracy of + 1%. Mark the weight on the bags with a
waterproof pen.
2. Collect together the following equipment and check it is
in working order:
a. A robust, field-proof conductivity meter
b. Key for water level recorder with spare batteries
c. a 20 liter bucket
d. Stop watch
e. Adequate number of bags of salt
f. Data input sheet (laminated)
g. Waterproof pens
h. An umbrella

ii) Measurement
1. Fill in the base information at the top of the data input
sheet.
2. If conditions allow, and whenever possible, determine
the calibration factor (see Sheet1: Calibration Checklist
and Procedure) and note it on the data input sheet.
3. Fix the conductivity meters sensor in the main line of
flow of the stream.
4. Roughly estimate the amount of discharge.
5. Dissolve an appropriate amount of salt in the bucket (2-
5 kg per m
3
/s) and note the amount of dissolved salt on
the data input sheet
6. Turn on the conductivity meter.
7. Read the water level from the water level recorder or
the staff gauge and note the value on the data input
sheet.
8. Note the base level conductivity on the data input
sheet.
9. Inject the salt into the stream by gently pouring the
contents of the bucket upstream into the stream line
without splashing and then rinsing out the bucket with
water taken from above the point of injection and
pouring this water downstream.
10. As soon as the salt cloud is seen to reach the
measurement point, note down the time for injecting
the salt, the measured value from the conductivity
meter on the data input sheet and repeat
measurements every five seconds.


11. Continue taking measurements every five seconds until
the value returns to the base level conductivity.
12. Note the water level on the data input sheet.
13. Note the remaining information on the data input sheet.

Sheet 3: Analysis of Discharge Measurements Using Salt
Add all the conductivity values together and count the number of
measurements (N), then calculate:

Where,
Q = discharge [l/s]
S = amount of salt injected [mg]
Cal = calibration factor [(mg/l)/( S/cm)]
C(t) = sum of all measured conductivity values [ S/cm]
N = number of values
C
0
= base level conductivity [S/cm]
T = measurement interval [s]

d) Volumetric Method
The volumetric method shall be used for measuring extremely small flows, such
as those from springs or in tiny rivulets.
The flow shall be obtained directly by measuring the volume of water flowing
over a certain period.

3.2.3.4 Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
a) General
i) It is a curve consisting of a plot of values of stream flow (daily, weekly or
monthly) in order of magnitude as ordinates and percent of time as
abscissa.
ii) Flow duration curve can be developed using these flow data over a
number of years.
iii) The curve shows the flow equaled or exceeded for any desired
percentage of time covered by the record.
iv) FDC gives the guidance to planners on year-to-year variations in stream
flow.
v) An estimated FDC can easily be used to estimate the yield of proposed
hydropower plant for alternative installed capacities.

b) Methods of Plotting
i) The stream flow data are arranged in a descending order of discharges,
using class intervals if the number of individual values is very large.
( )
T x
C x N C(t) x Cal
S
Q
o
-
=


ii) The data used can be daily, weekly or monthly values.
iii) If 'N' number of data points are used in the listing, the plotting position of
any discharge (or class value) Q is

where,
m = order of number of the discharge (or class value),
Pp = % probability of the flow magnitude being equalled
or exceeded.
iv) The plot of the discharge Q against Pp is the flow duration curve.
v) The design discharge for the power plant can be selected or optimized
based on this FDC.

c) Rating Curves at Headworks and Tailrace Sites
i) The stage discharge relation (rating curve) is defined by plotting
measured discharge as the abscissa and corresponding stage as the
ordinate.
ii) The relation is generally concave upward on rectilinear co-ordinates; at
medium and high stages, it approximates a straight line on logarithmic co-
ordinates.
iii) In Nepal, where the flood period is well defined during the monsoon
months of June to September, the rugosity and the water surface slope
conditions are different in two periods of monsoon and non-monsoon
months. Under such conditions, it would be better to develop separate
stage discharge rating curves for monsoon and non-monsoon months.

x100%
1 N
m
p
P
+
=


d) Construction of Rating Curve
i) For the construction of rating curves at headworks and tailrace sites,
following stepwise procedure shall be followed:
ii) Points shall be detailed at which stage-discharge curves are required.
Generally, these will be required at the foot of the all hydraulic structures.
iii) Cross-section survey at the headworks and tailrace site shall be carried
out covering the highest flood marks, and magnitudes of flood peaks.
iv) Rating curves shall be developed for these sites with the use of Manning's
formula:

Where,
Q = Discharge of the stream in m
3
/s
A = Cross sectional area in m
2

n = Mannings roughness coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius in m
S = Slope of the stream
v) Water surface profiles shall be estimated for required discharges from the
developed rating curves.
1/2 2/3
n
1
S AR Q=


e) Selection of Gauging Site and Establishment of Staff Gauge
The gauging site must be selected with due care to assure that the stage-
discharge curve is reasonably constant over a long period of about a few
years.
The following are selection criteria for the gauging site:
i) The stream should have a well defined cross-section that does not
change in various seasons.
ii) It should be easily accessible all through the year.
iii) The site should be in a straight, stable reach.
iv) The site should be free from back-water effects in the channel.

f) The Staff Gauge
i) The simplest method of stage measurement is made by noting the
elevation of the water surface in contact with a fixed graduated staff.
ii) It should be fixed rigidly to a permanent structure or rock face.
iii) The markings should be distinctive, easy to read from a distance.
iv) The staff should be made of a durable material with a low co-efficient of
expansion with respect to both temperature and moisture.

3.2.4 Geology and Geotechnical Study
3.2.4.1 General
The detail feasibility study should cover the geological and geotechnical studies. Fairly
larger area should be investigated upstream and downstream of the identified project
site with different alternatives to arrive at most appropriate and economical layout. The
site conditions should be evaluated from construction and operation point of view.
The main objective of geological study of a mini hydro project is to determine the
suitability of the site with respect to stability and sound foundation conditions and
identification of potential slope failure cases and recommend economic measures for
protection works.
In case of underground structures like tunnel, surge tank or other underground cavities
the scope of these should cover for such cases which are not prescribed in this
guideline and relevant guidelines shall be sought accordingly.

3.2.4.2 Regional Geological Study
Following procedures should be followed:
1) Collect and review geological reports, maps and literatures on the regional basis
in which the project area lies. Maps prepared by Department of Mines and
Geology for the project area should be studied for general study and further study/
investigation should be taken up to meet the requirements based on specific site
conditions and the nature and size of project.


2) Locate the project area in the regional geological map which reflects the rock
types and regional geological structures in the project area in the scale 1:10,000
or in other scale available. Such regional geological maps have been prepared
and are available in Nepal.

3.2.4.3 Geology and Geomorphology of the Project Site/ Area
1) Geological Mapping and Geomorphology of the Project Area
Conduct the geological mapping of the project site/area in the scale 1:2000.
Features to be noted in the mapping include:
rock out crops
rock type
orientation of bedding and joint plane
spacing of joint planes
fracturation intensity of rock
major land mass degradation features
erosion of land mass by river, wind, glacier, etc.
distribution of recent deposits
composition and degree of compaction of deposit
ground water condition.

2) Geological Map and Geomorphology of the major hydraulic structure
Prepare the geological map of the particular sites of major hydraulic structures in
the scale 1:200. Features to be noted include:
rock out crops
rock type
orientation of bedding and joint planes
weathering condition of rock mass
spacing of joint planes
fracturation intensity of rock
land slides
erosion of land mass by river, wind, glacier, etc.
ground water condition
type and nature of recent deposit such as alluvial deposit, colluvial deposit,
glacial deposit, or any other type
composition of deposited materials, degree of compaction, suitable for slope
cutting
permeability in recent deposit, and
estimation of bearing capacity for foundation of hydraulic structures.

3) Collection of Geological and Geomorphological Information


Collection of geological and geomorphologic information such as rock type,
orientation of bedding and joint planes, degree of weathering in case of rock out
crops and geomorphic features should include the description on landslides - type
and nature, active or passive, size, slope failure type and vulnerability to the
hydraulic structures in the format as presented below:

a) Rock Type
Orientation of bedding and joint planes at hydraulic structures site
Bedding
(dip dir./dip amount)
Joint 1
(dip dir./dip amount)
Joint 2
(dip dir./dip
amount)
Joint 3
(dip dir./dip
amount)

Degree of Weathering ( )
Fresh Slightly
Weathered
Moderately
Weathered
Highly
Weathered
Completely
Weathered

b) Geomorphologic Information
Geomorphologic Information should be plotted in the scale 1:2,000 on the
geological map of the project area. Features to be shown in the map are:
Land slides
Type of recent deposits
Ground water or seepage locations along the alignment
Active or passive/ remnants of mass movement such as land slide,
erosion due to river morphology, wind, glacial, etc.
Planer slope failure in rock outcrop due to movement along single bedding
plane or joint plane
Wedge failure along the alignment due to combined bedding and/or joint
planes.
Circular failure in highly fractured rock mass and / or highly weathered
rock mass and recent deposits.
In all type of slope failure, note the size of failure feature and notice the
influence of ground water in the vicinity of such feature.
Erosion of landmass by river, wind, glacier, any other means, etc.

c) Nature and type of deposits in the project area
i) For Recent Deposits

Chainage
Type of Recent Deposit ( )
Structure
River Colluvial
Others


Deposit Deposit
Headworks
Canal
Forebay
Penstock
Powerhouse
Other sites
(add rows as
required)

ii) For river deposits (alluvial deposits):
Note the material composition in percentage for boulders, cobbles,
pebbles, gravels, sand and fine materials chainagewise as below:
Chainage From To .
Boulders Cobbles Pebbles Gravel
s
Sand Fine
Materials
Percent
Size

iii) For colluvial deposits (rock fall deposit)
Note the material composition in percentage for boulders, cobbles,
pebbles, gravels, sand and fine materials chainagewise as below:
Chainage From To .
Boulders Cobbles Pebbles Gravel
s
Sand Fine
Materials
Percent
Size

4) Degree of compaction and estimation of allowable bearing capacity
Check whether the deposit is consolidated or not. In the consolidated deposit, the
allowable bearing capacity of the deposit can be estimated between 20 t/m
2
and
40 t/m
2
. If the deposit is not consolidated. Classify the deposit with degree of
compaction and estimate friction angle. Assuming the non-cohesive soil nature
and estimating the friction angle of soil mass, allowable bearing capacity of soil
foundation can be taken for factor of safety 3 as below:

Degree of
Compaction
Well Compacted Compacted Loose Voids
Non-cohesive
>31
o
25
o
-31
o
20
o
-25
o
<20
o



and friction
angle
Allowable
bearing capacity
~20 t/m
2
~10 - 20 t/m
2
~5 - 10 t/m
2
<5 t/m
2

5) Field permeability measurement
Estimate the permeability in the deposit using falling head method using 6
diameter PVC pipe of 1 m length. Fix the pipe in the deposit inserting pipe to the
depth of 30 cm. Saturate the ground by pouring water in the pipe for at least 30
minutes before taking measurement. Once the ground is saturated, take the
measurement in falling head method and estimate the permeability of deposit
accordingly in cm/sec.

6) Landslides type and nature, active or passive, slope failure type and vulnerability
to the hydraulic structures

Structure Chainage
Type of landslide ( )
Nature of
landslide
( )
Size
C
i
r
c
u
l
a
r

P
l
a
n
n
e
r

W
e
d
g
e

A
c
t
i
v
e

P
a
s
s
i
v
e

W
i
d
t
h
,

m

H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m

3.2.4.4 Construction Material Survey
Construction material survey mainly consists of estimation of local construction
materials at site and evaluation of their quality for construction purpose through
laboratory tests.
1) Borrow Areas
Identify the potential sites for borrowing local construction materials that are
required for construction of civil structures.
a) Sand and aggregates
Types of deposits
i) Alluvial deposit
ii) Colluvial deposit
iii) Other type of deposit

Note the predominant rock types in boulder composition and estimate
the quantity of aggregate formation after crushing the natural boulders.


Measure the length and width of deposit and calculate the area of
deposit.
Confirm the thickness of deposit by digging pits in a density of one
number in every 100 m
2
in uniformly distributed deposit. Otherwise,
increase the density of test pits to the required numbers in case of lateral
changes in deposit. Size of test pit should be at least 2 m x 2 m and
shape should be tapering at the bottom to avoid side wall collapse.
Quantify the volume of materials excavated from each pit and separate
the different materials like sand, gravel and boulders in percentage by
volume.
Take an average of different type of construction materials from all test
pits within an identified deposit.
Confirm the total quantity of reserve for extraction of sand, gravel and
boulders for production of aggregates.

b) Impervious Materials
Type of deposit
Residual
soil
Alluvial soil Colluvial Soil Lake Soil Glacial Others

Identify and investigate the borrow area for impervious clay material
required for coffer dam and other purposes in various hydraulic
structures.
Measure the area of deposit and estimate the thickness of deposit by
excavating pits of size 2m x 2m and depth to the extent of deposit in the
density of one in every 100 m
2
in uniformly distributed deposit or else as
per site condition.
Excavate test pits and log the nature of soil at borrow locations and
collect samples for laboratory analysis
Calculate the volume of deposit by measuring length, width and
thickness of deposit.

2) Quarry Materials
a) Identify and investigate the quarry area for extraction of construction
materials mainly for aggregates.
b) Quantify the total reserve that can be extractable for project.

3.2.4.5 Geological Problems
Note the geological problems in the area such as:
o Plane failure in the cut slope as well as sliding of the hydraulic structure due to
plane failure.


o Wedge failure: As in the plane failure, evaluate the land mass for wedge failure
due to combination of bedding plane and joint plane or joint planes effecting the
hydraulic structure or in the cut slope.
o Major fault zone crossing the structure in which bearing capacity of soil/rock
mass will be very low causing foundation problem as well as slope failure
problems encounter.
o Seepage problem in the cut slope and natural slope causing land slide.
o High fracture intensity and wide openings in the rock cut section may cause
excessive loss of water through seepage.

3.2.4.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
In the geological and geo-morphological observation, if the project site does not
contain any geological problems as mentioned above, geologically and
geotechnically it can be recommended very good site. However, if the project area
has geological problems as mentioned above, then
Evaluate the geological hazards such as planer failure in the hydraulic
structure locations. If the area is evaluated as critically risk, judge for the
economically feasible in providing supports for slope protections. Otherwise
recommend for alternate sites for the structure.
Similarly, in the morphological hazardous area in the structure location areas,
the area should be evaluated as critically risk or not. If the area is critically risk
in terms of landslides, evaluate the stabilizing measures in terms of economy
and recommend accordingly.
Provide conclusion on adequacy of local construction materials and their
quality based on standard laboratory tests. If the construction materials at site
are not sufficient, identify locations to borrow or quarry them.

3.3 Socio-economic Aspects
3.3.1 Introduction
Load demand and socio-economic surveys should be designed to estimate the
power demand of the supply area and assessment of affordability to pay by the
consumers. Development of load demand curves (at which times of the day) and the
determination of energy price (times of the day) of supply.
Standard Guidelines have been developed to carry out the load demand and socio-
economic analysis of the supply area.
The Guidelines have been developed for the following activities in the field:

3.3.2 Data/Information Requirement
For initiation of a hydro-power project data/information specific to the sites need to be
collected. This has to be done through collection of information from the potential
beneficiaries. The following have been included in the data collection tools:
1. General Socio-economic parameters:
Site identification


Site information
Load centers
Social structure
Infrastructure
Local level capacity
Ongoing/planned development activities
Needs Prioritization/local participation

2. Socio-economic parameters for load forecast
Number of houses
Income level
Commercial establishments
Industrial establishments
Willingness to pay

3.3.3 Methodology
For all systems including mini hydropower systems (100 kW-1000kW), the load
demand forecast, affordability and willingness to pay analysis is normally based on
sample household surveys of the identified load centers. This practice is time
consuming and costly.
An alternative method, namely the Focus Group Survey Approach is considered
more appropriate for the type of hydropower systems that is the main concern of this
study.
Steps in the application of the methodology:
Contact the local leaders of the community and explain the need and purpose of
gathering the community members;
Ask community members to gather at a common meeting place like the VDC
office, school, a playground etc.;
Make sure that the group is fairly represented by majority of the potential
beneficiary population, knowledgeable persons like teachers, local leaders, and
elders and VDC/DDC personnel;
Once the group has gathered, explain clearly about the project and why the
meeting is taking place.
Once the group has been oriented, begin with the first part of the Focus Group
discussion format;
Record the results of the discussion either on the provided formats.

The Socio-Economic Guideline consists of two parts namely (1) General
socioeconomic information and (2) Load demand forecast.

(1) General socioeconomic information


This part is concerned with information pertaining to more general description of
the potential beneficiary population. This part is also intended for use as the
baseline information, so that the indicators can be compared after the
implementation of the hydropower system.
1. Identification
Identification of the location of the Scheme and the beneficiary
areas specifically the load center where the FGD is being
conducted.
2. Site Information
Information regarding the distance from the nearest road head and
an airport to the load centre.
3. Income Level
The income level of the households of the load centers has been
categorized into High, Medium and Low levels as perceived by the
participants of the FGD in the respective load center. This should
be taken as the baseline information for comparison in subsequent
periodic FGDs.
4. Economic Activities
Activities related to agriculture, livestock, cottage industry,
remittance, agriculture production, industry and craft, business
entities etc. should be recorded.
5. Infrastructure
The infrastructure available at the time of the FGD should be
recorded under the Public Services heading.
6. Local Level Capacity
Local level capacity implies to the available trained manpower
within the beneficiary communities.
7. Education
Access to education and the annual dropout of students should be
filled in.
8. Consumption of Energy
Consumption of different kinds of energy should be filled in.
9. Development activities
The development activities expected in the immediate future.
10. Willingness to Pay
The willingness to pay for electricity use as reported by the
potential beneficiary during the FGD.
(2) Load Demand Forecast
The load demand forecast spreadsheet is based on Part 2 of the socio-economic
Focus Group discussion section. The output of the guideline has been used as
inputs for the load demand forecast. The inputs for the load demand forecast are
as follows:
a) Total number of households


The total number of households of the proposed load centers is estimated
based on the response of the Focus Group.

b) Base Year population
The total population of the proposed load centers is estimated based on
the VDC records and then verified by the Focus Group.

c) Average household size
The average household size has been calculated based on the number of
households and the population of the load centers.

d) Income level of households
Low income group: households have been estimated on the basis of
Focus Group response.
Middle income group: households have been estimated on the basis
of Focus Group response.
High Income group: households have been estimated on the basis of
Focus Group response.

e) Annual growth of the income groups: will either be based on the district
level figures as far as possible or if not we will have to be satisfied with the
national level figures. The national level figures are biased towards the
richer city areas of the country. Therefore, such statistics may not properly
reflect the conditions of the poor rural areas. Commercial establishment
units: are based on the responses of the Focus Group.
f) Industrial establishment units: are based on the responses of the Focus
Group.
g) Street light units: are based on the responses of the Focus Group.

Based on the above mentioned data input the domestic, commercial,
industrial and street light demand has been estimated.

Local administration including VDC, DDC and other organizations
An inventory of existing institutions and organizations in the load centers will
be made based the responses of VDCs, DDCs and the Focus Group.

Commercial establishments (small scale industries, workshops and
handicrafts).
An inventory of existing commercial units will be prepared based on the
responses of the VDCs, DDCs and Focus Group.

The instructions for filling the second part of the FGD has been provided in
the guideline as well.


Financial Analysis Spreadsheet
The financial analysis of a mini hydro project is the decision making tool to
determine whether to implement the project or not. An investor has to make
decisions on how much to charge for electricity use and also consider the rate
of return for his investment. This demands a financial analysis so that the
investor can make a sound decision.

This analysis will be performed based on a standard format. The
spreadsheets have been developed with all cost parameters and these
parameters can be updated by the users during the conduction of the
feasibility study. Input parameters like cost for implementation & operation
costs and revenue/benefits are compared for the period of economic life of
the plant. Output parameters like Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of
Return are readily available to the users.
The spreadsheet has three sections for entering the preliminary information
as inputs for the analysis:
a) Annual Energy Balance
In this section preliminary information regarding the name of the
project, the district where the project is being located, and the type of
the system (isolated or mini-grid or central grid), installed capacity, dry
season and wet season energy need to be manually entered in the
respective cells by the user.

b) Financial Parameters
This section deals with the input of financial parameters: subsidy,
equity-debt ratio, debt interest rate, debt term, corporate tax, the
discount rate, expected return on equity, construction period, etc need
to be entered. The determination of each of these parameters will be
discussed at a later stage.

c) Project Costs
The project costs determined in the engineering design phase will be
used as input for this section.
On the basis of the inputs described, a Cash Flow Table is generated.
The last section, namely the financial feasibility, gives the results of the
analysis based on the Cash Flow Table. The results of the analysis include
FIRR, Debt-service Coverage Ratio, Simple Payback Period, Net Present
Value and Benefit-Cost Ratio.

3.3.4 Community Benefit Assessment
Methods of qualitative and quantitative assessment of benefits of the project to the
local communities have been developed based on socio-economic evaluation. This


assessment will give the picture of what the local people will gain (direct & indirect
benefits) from the development of the indigenous resource.
Indirect benefits begin to accrue only after the plant construction is completed and
the actual production of electricity has started. These benefits are also known as the
impacts of electrification. What it really means is that these benefits are largely
qualitative in nature and hence their effects are realized long after the operation of
the project. Such expected indirect benefits that arise from electrification eventually
help to improve the rural economy. In order to measure the changes brought about
due to electricity, periodic monitoring and evaluation should be conducted. The
exercise should use the FGD formats used for the collection of baseline information
and data. The expected benefits from electricity use are enumerated as follows:

a. Upliftment of Industrial and Commercial Activities
The industries and commercial enterprises that are presently based on
imported fuel as their basic inputs are expected to switch over to electricity in
their functioning. For example, diesel based mills will change over to more
cheaper and reliable form of energy input, i.e. electricity. Moreover, the stable
supply of electricity at reasonable price is expected to augment new ventures
(such as furniture making, printing press etc.) using electricity as inputs in the
project area.

b. Employment Creation
The implementation of the proposed project is expected to increase
employment of skilled and unskilled local manpower during the construction
and operation periods of the power plant. Employment is further generated
through increased hiring of laborers in the new industrial and commercial
establishments that are likely to emerge after the introduction of electricity in
the proposed load centers. Thus, the jobs created by the introduction of
electricity would obviously increase the income level of the local population.

c. Cost Savings
Presently kerosene is being purchased for lighting purposes. The expenditure
on kerosene is expected to be saved once cheaper and more accessible
electricity will substitute kerosene consumption.

d. Improved Infrastructure
The construction of trails/roads to the project site will allow greater economic
mobility. The availability of telephone, and the movement of staff and other
people lead to create markets, in the area covered by the power plant.
However, depending upon the conditions of the target areas, not all of the
indirect benefits listed above may come to be realized. Therefore, in order to
assess the future indirect benefits present activities, future plans and the
priority needs of the communities should be taken into consideration.



3.4 Environmental Considerations
Environment Protection Act, 1997 and Environment Protection Rule, 1997 do not make
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
mandatory for hydropower project less than its installed capacity of 1 MW. However,
environmental consequences of the proposed mini hydropower project should be
studied in advance that should identify key impacts, predict magnitude, extent and
duration of impacts as well as suggest monitoring and mitigation/enhancement of
impacts.
Environmental Study of the mini hydropower projects should be carried out consisting
of the following things:
(1) Project Area Delineation
VDC or municipality in which the proposed project is located generally
regarded as the project area. Nonetheless, the project area should be
delineated based on physical settings and socio-economic linkage of that
particular place and not only on administrative boundaries of VDC or
municipality and even district. The project area should be delineated into Core
Area, Immediate Area and Outlying Area.
Core Area is that requires for project structures and facilities such as intake,
settling basin, canal/pipe, forebay, penstock, powerhouse, access road,
camps, quarry site, muck disposal area, route of transmission line etc.
Immediate Area is adjoining area of the core area which is directly influenced
by the project activities and usually within common physical settings and
socio-economically closely linked.
Outlying Area is outer than the immediate area which is not directly
influenced by the project activities and have less common or different physical
settings and socio-economically not closely linked.

(2) Baseline Data Collection of Existing Environmental Conditions
For environmental assessment of the proposed project, the baseline
conditions for the physical, biological and socio-economic and cultural
environment of the project area should be found out and documented for
future records.
a) Data Requirements
i) Physical environment
physiographic features
climate, temperature and rainfall
types of land and soil
soil erosion and landslide
drainage pattern
flood/GLOF hazard
air quality
water quality (parameters - dissolve oxygen, pH,
hardness and fecal coli form)
noise pollution


ii) Biological Environment
types of vegetation and forest
forest status (density, canopy cover, regeneration,
degradation etc)
forest management (national, community, leasehold
etc)
forest products and uses
common flora and fauna of the project site
fish species, aquatic life and fishing practice
presence of rare, endangered and protected species of
flora and fauna

iii) Socio-economic and Cultural Environment
types of settlement (dense or scattered or in colony)
population and number of households
literacy
ethnic composition
land use and cultivated area
cropping pattern and agricultural practice
irrigation and water use of river
infrastructures (school, road, electricity, drinking water
supply etc)
public health and sanitation
occupation
economic activities and market access
famous, important historical, religious and
archaeological sites

b) Methodology of Data Collection
The following methodology can be adopted for the data collection:
Desk Study
collect information and data from maps, literatures, reports of similar
project etc concerning the project area.

Field Work
The Study Team should visit the project area to observe, collect and
analyze data/information of the project area. The works should be
carried out using the following methods:
Walkover survey
Sampling


Interviews/group discussion
Checklist

c) Data Analysis
The information and data collected from the fieldwork should be
compiled and analyzed to establish the relation between the
environmental impacts and their mitigation measures due to
construction and operation of the proposed project. On the basis of
data analysis, conclusion shall be drawn on the resolution of
environmental issues and practical action for environment protection
of the project area.

(3) Public Consultation
Public consultation meeting will be conducted in the project area and with
stakeholders and concerned agencies such as school, CFUG,
VDC/municipality, DDC, District Offices, Political Parties, NGOs etc. The
comments and suggestions collected from the meeting should be
incorporated in the study report.

4) Impact Identification
Likely environmental impacts due to the proposed project should be
categorized into adverse (negative) impacts and beneficial (positive) impacts
for construction phase and operation phase separately. The assessment of
environmental impacts should be based on baseline environmental conditions
of the affected environment with the project activities in relation to spatial and
temporal aspects in terms of magnitude, extent and duration of impacts using
appropriate prediction. The matrix should be used to identify and categorize
the potential impact so that it could be correlated with mitigation and
monitoring plan.

(5) Mitigation/ Enhancement and Monitoring Plan
For those adverse impacts, mitigation and enhancement measures should be
prescribed to minimize or if possible eliminate the impacts. Mitigation
measures should be categorized according to time and specific requirements
as following:
mitigation measures to be incorporated in design and layout
mitigation measures according to the existing environmental
conditions
mitigation measures to be sought during the construction and
operation period
Enhancement plans should be recommended on community
level on the basis of identification of local requirements



Measures should also be taken for enhancing the beneficial impacts of the
project. Other agencies, if any, required to be consulted while implementing
the mitigation measures should be identified. The proposed mitigation
measures should be pragmatic and specific.
A monitoring plan categorized into baseline monitoring, compliance
monitoring and impact monitoring should be prepared. Baseline and impact
monitoring plan should indicate parameter, indicator, method schedule and
location. Compliance monitoring plan should indicate parameter, indicator,
method and schedule and agencies to be consulted by the project proponent
while for carrying out mitigation activities.
The mitigation/enhancement measures and environmental monitoring plan
should be presented in the interactive matrix separately, of which samples are
given in Table 1 and Table 2.
The required cost for the prescribed mitigation/enhancement measures as
well as environmental monitoring should be estimated and clearly mentioned
in the study report. The organizational setup for implementing recommended
mitigation/enhancement measures and environmental monitoring should be
proposed in the study report.

Table 1: Matrix of Environmental Impact Mitigation Measures

Potential impact
Mitigation measures
Possible Actions
Concern
Stakeholders
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

p
h
a
s
e

Physical Environment
Possibility of Soil erosion and
landslides
Proper disposal of muck, construction of retaining structures,
minimization of land clearance

Change in existing drainage system Minimize natural slope disturbance
Change in existing topography Proper dumping and disposal of excavated materials, avoidance of
clearing vegetation along the landslide prone areas

Acquisition of land Appropriate Compensation, Reclaimand maintain the land using
overburden soil and vegetation work

Change in land use Reclaim and maintain the land using overburden soil and
vegetation work, minimize landtake

Air pollution due to construction
activities
Construction activities to be done during the day time, spraying of
construction areas with water etc

Disturbances to the local people Construction activities to be done during the day time, spraying of
construction areas with water etc

Impact on the existing houses and
structures due to vibration
Compensation to the people in case of development of cracks etc,
blasting to be in phases

Low flow in dewatered zone Compensation release, control of boulders collection from
riverbed.

Potential impact
Mitigation measures
Potential
impact
Possible Actions

Increase in turbidity and sediment
content
Preventing dumping of muck into the river etc
Deterioration of water quality due to
spillage of oils, paints, cement slurry,
fecal coli form
Proper handling of oils etc and good house keeping


Possibility of land erosion and
landslides
Proper Planning of dumping areas, provision of retaining
structures for slope stabilization

Change in river course in case of
excessive quarrying from river banks
Avoid excessive quarrying especially fromriver beds and banks
Biological environment
Loss of trees and vegetation Compensatory plantation and improved forest management
Loss of rare and endangered species Protection of rare and endangered species
Felling of Trees for fuel wood Supply of alternate energy source like LPG and Kerosene
Illegal poaching of wildlife Control of illegal hunting and poaching
Reduction if fish number
Riparian release; Releasing of fish fingerlings at the upstream

Socio-economic and cultural environment

project affected families affected due
to landtake
Adequate Compensation and according to the agreed
procedures/rates

Loss of yield, impact on the economic
status of the local people due to land
acquisition
Yield and production support activities; loan support and income
generation activities, training

Disruption of cremation sites cremation sites mostly located on upper hill slopes, compensation
flow release
Disruption of the traditional way of
living
Awareness programmes
Pressure on the existing
infrastructures due to influx of
workers
Development of adequate infrastructure; establishment of
subsidized works

Social instability Increase in Police security
Possibility in work related injuries,
Vehicle accidents etc
Warning Systems, Sign Boards, fire fighting gears, safety training
for workers, safety awareness programs

existing water uses fromthe river (e.g.
Pani ghatta, irrigation)
Compensatory release

Table 2 : Monitoring Plan and Schedule

Parameter Indicators Method Schedule
A Baseline monitoring

1 Watershed, landslide and
erosion
Erosion, slope stability Observation During the construction phase
2 River Water quality pH, DO, BOD, Alkalinity etc Water sampling
and testing
Prior to construction and during the
operation phase
3 Air Quality TSP, PM, Co2, No2, etc Sampling,
measurements
and tests

During the construction phase

Parameter Indicators Method Schedule
Biological Environment
4 Fish population, spawning
and migration
Fish population, changes of
spawning and migratory habitats
Sampling and
discussions with
local people
At least twice a year
5 Forest cover and
management
Density of Forest and Management Discussions with
users group,
observation, local
people and
District forest
Office
Prior to construction and during the
operation phase


Socio-economic and Cultural Environment
6 Settlements Growth of settlements Observation Once a year
7 Health, sanitation, social
instability
Diseases prevailing in the area,
outbreak of diseases, crime, social
disorder
Discussions with
local people,
police,
information from
the local health
posts and health
professionals
Once a year
8 Economy Economic status of the local people
etc.
Discussions with
local people,
observation of the
area,
Prior to construction
B Compliance monitoring
1 Incorporation of
Environmental
considerations mentioned in
the tender documents in the
contractors proposed work
plans
Review of
proposed work
plan submitted by
the contractor
During contract negotiations
2 Integration of mitigation
measures in the detail design
and contract documents
All mitigation measures in the Detail
Design Report
Review process During project approval
3 Filling gullies with
construction wastes
Land stability Site observation During construction
4 Compensatory release
downstreamof the weir
Flow rate (m3/s) Site observation monthly during the dry season
5 Clean-up and reinstatement
of the project area
Condition of the project area site observation At the end of construction period

6 Allocation for funds for
plantation, management,
actual loss of forest and
number of felled trees and
utilization of forest products
Density, forest management, Site observation/
measurement and
counting
Detail design and contract agreement
7 Compensatory plantation Density, forest management, Site observation once a year

8 Land/property acquisition
procedures
Discussions with
local people
at the tome of acquisition
C Impact monitoring
1
Watershed and land stability Erosion, slope stability Observation Continuous observation
2 River Water quality pH, DO, BOD, COD, Acidity,
Alkalinity
Water sampling
and testing and
comparison to
ambient
standards
Regularly during construction period
3 Air quality TSP, PM, Co2, No2, etc and Noise
level
Sampling,
measurements
and tests
Maybe twice a year; wet and dry
seasons


4 Noise and vibration Noise level and cracks Observation Weekly during construction period
5 Spoil Disposal and Waste
Management (handling of oil
and other substances)
Slope stability Observation Continuous during construction
period
6 Vegetation Clearance No of trees felled, ground cover Observation of
the area
During construction
7 Pressure on forest Forest cover observation and
survey of the
forest area before
and after
construction,
discussions with
local people and
FUGs

8 Fisheries Change in fish population , change in
spawning and migratory habitats
Sampling Twice a year (dry and wet season)
9 Monitoring compensation Socio-economic parameters like
economic status, living conditions etc
of the affected people .
Housing assets,
living conditions,
income etc.
One year after acquisition
10 Health issues and social
instability
Types of Diseases and record of
outbreak of diseases, crime and
social disorder
Record of
diseases,
inspection of
camps, no. of
incidents
Continuous during construction
period
11 Safety No. of casualties Records of
accidents
period
12 Employment No. of local people employed by
project
Records kept by
management
period
13 Indirect economic benefits Trade and
business revenues
Once a year



4. TECHNICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
4.1 General Features of Hydropower Projects
Mini hydro schemes can be classified as diversion scheme, dam scheme and mixed
scheme according to head concentration modes. According to flow regulation mode
hydropower projects can be classified as run-of-river scheme, daily regulation scheme
and seasonal regulation scheme. In this guideline run-of-river schemes are discussed
as storage type and dam type projects are not relevant in mini-hydro projects. In run-of
river scheme, small pondage or reservoir can also be considered to meet peak hour
power demand by accumulating water during low demand of power and supply in peak
power demand. In run-of-river scheme the natural run-off of the source river is used for
power generation. So, the power generation in such projects depends directly on the
available flow in the river. Therefore, in isolated projects the design flow is adopted the
minimum flow in the river and the power produced will be firm power.
Multipurpose schemes of hydropower with other projects like irrigation and water
supply can be developed in some projects. Such development needs coordination
between the two beneficiaries or users. The sharing of available water for meeting
multipurpose uses need to be addressed in the design and economics of the project.
Cost and benefits of multipurpose schemes should be considered in the financial
analysis of the project.
The layout, alignment and configuration of projects of hydropower projects should
satisfy hydraulic efficiency/sufficiency, structural adequacy, cost effectiveness, safety
and should be environment friendly. Trouble free operation is also a prerequisite of this
facility. One of the foremost steps required to be taken for making mini hydro
economically viable is to effect on reduction in the cost of the civil works. The
standardization of general equipment helps in bringing down the cost is known from
our neighboring countries China and India.
Civil structures can be of varied nature on account of difference in topography,
geology, hydrological conditions and availability of local construction materials.
Generally they are tailor made to suit the specific site conditions. However, typed
design with variable parameters can be followed in mini hydro projects.
Mini hydro projects can be developed from the following types of water sources:
Flow from small rivers and streams
Part of flow of a relatively large river
Water from an existing irrigation canal
New multi purpose scheme for irrigation and power

Mini hydro configuration:
1. Diversion of water from a steep gradient stream via a water conveyance
system with low gradient and then the head concentrated at powerhouse
through a penstock.
2. Diversion of water from a river where it makes a long bend or loop and the
water conveyance is made of a short canal or a tunnel.
3. Use of a natural head at a waterfall through a short canal and a penstock.


4. Diversion of flow of a stream to an adjacent stream situated at a lower
elevation.
Several configurations of a mini hydro project can be considered and an optimal
development can be determined through the comparative study.

4.2 Civil Works
4.2.1 Planning and Layout of Diversion Headworks
4.2.1.1 General
The civil components of a run-of river scheme consist of:
a) Headworks consisting of diversion structure to divert the design flow for
power generation through an intake and subsequent desanding facilities
b) Water Conveyance System consisting headrace canal and or penstock pipe
c) Powerhouse facility to house generating equipment and tailrace canal

Diversion headworks comprise a diversion weir, usually an under sluice and intake.
The diversion works control the flow of water from the source river into headrace.
The diversion works fulfills the following functional requirements:
a) Maintain the design flow with nominal head losses at all times.
b) Prevent or minimize the bed load, trashes and floating debris entering into
the headrace
c) Safe passage of floods.

4.2.1.2 Objectives
The objectives of planning and layout of the diversion works shall aim to attain an
optimal structural arrangement that satisfies its functional requirements in a safe,
reliable, economical and environmentally sustainable manner.

4.2.1.3 Scope
The planning and layout consists of the following activities:
a. Site Selection
b. Selection of appropriate diversion structures
c. General arrangement of selected structures

4.2.1.4 Data requirements
The planning and layout of diversion works is carried out based on the following
data:
a) Topography
i) General and detailed topography of the project site, including its
catchment, landforms and elevations.
ii) Natural and manmade features in the vicinity of the project site,
including major infrastructure, settlements etc.


iii) Longitudinal profile and cross-sections of the river at upstream of and
downstream of the proposed site for the diversion structure.

b) Geology
i) Regional and local geology.
ii) Site-specific surface and subsurface geology.
iii) Hydrogeology of the area.
iv) Engineering and index properties of the foundation materials.
v) Construction material survey.

c) Hydrology and Sedimentology
i) Discharge data.
ii) Maximum flood and high flood level.
iii) River stage-discharge curve.
iv) Quantity of suspended sediments and bed loads in the river.

4.2.2 Diversion Weir
A weir is required if the intake discharge cannot be diverted without raising the river
water level to the constant minimum depth at upstream of the weir. If the river
hydrology and site conditions are favorable to supply adequate flow towards intake,
this structure is not essential. Depending upon the nature and behavior of the source
river, weir can be made of temporary or semi-permanent or permanent type.
4.2.2.1 Temporary Weir
a) Temporary weir is constructed using boulders available at the site, stone
masonry in mud mortars placed across a part or all of the river width.
b) This is the traditional method used by Nepali farmers and quite extensively
used in micro hydro schemes in Nepal.
c) It is simple and low cost but it is not possible to divert all of the river flow in
dry season by this structure.
d) It is suitable only for the diversion of flows below 1 m
3
/sec

4.2.2.2 Semi Permanent Weir
a) Gabion structures can be use as semi permanent weir.
b) If there is no significant boulder movement along the river stretch at the
intake area, it may be effective
c) It can tolerate some ground movement without significant damage on its
body
d) As the gabion wires are more vulnerable to damage by moving boulders, it
cannot used in the steep streams, which carry such boulders.
e) Seepage can be control by using an impermeable membrane.


4.2.2.3 Permanent weir
a) If flow is limited during dry season and river does not carry large boulders
permanent weir may be built across the river.
b) These are constructed of mass concrete, stone masonry in cement mortar
and using plum concrete.
c) A reinforced concrete surface layer may be provided to protect the weir
body from damage by boulders moving in flood season.
d) A permanent weir should be considered in the following conditions, if:
i) large boulders do not move in the river at the weir site.
ii) the river bed is not eroding, aggrading or shifting course.
iii) there is a scarcity of flow in dry season.
iv) there is sufficient fund for construction.
v) the site is not in remote areas.

e) Factors to be considered during design of weirs:
i) If a weir across part of the river width is sufficient, it should not be
extended across the entire width.
ii) The weir length should allow safe passage of design flood.
iii) The weir height should be as low as possible but should be such that
the water level rises above the upper edge of the intake mouth.
iv) The weir profile should be such that it is possible for the bed load to
move the boulders to roll over it.

f) The weir design should include the following factors:
i) Seepage control
ii) Safety against scour
iii) Safety on bearing capacity of the foundation
iv) Stability against overturning and sliding

4.2.2.4 Hydraulic Design
The discharge over the weir is given by:
Q
w
= 2/3 * * L * (2 * g)
1/2
* h

3/2

Where,
Q
w =
Discharge through weir
L = Length of weir
= Weir discharge coefficient varies according to weir profile
g = Acceleration due to gravity
h = Head over weir crest



The discharge coefficient depends on the crest forms of the weir as given
below:

Crest forms Weir Coefficient
1. Broad; sharp edges 0.49 ~ 0.51
2. Broad; round edges 0.50 ~ 0.55
3. Round overfall 0.70
4. Sharp edged 0.64
5. Rounded 0.75

4.2.3 Undersluice
4.2.3.1 General
a) An undersluice is a component of diversion works that facilitates bed load
control at the intake and prevents the inflow of bed load to it.
b) It is provided close to the intake to flush out the sediments deposited in front
of it and thus controls the bed levels in its approach area.
c) The crest and upstream floor levels are generally kept at lowest bed level of
the deep channel of the river.
d) The bed load is kept off by intake sill in front of the sluice.
e) Solid matter that are deposited in front of the sluice can be led off to the
downstream side by continuous or intermittent flushing after a sluice has been
opened.

The discharge through under sluice is given by:
Q
u
= k * * b * a * (2 * g * h)

Where,
Q
u

=
Discharge through Under sluice, m
3
/s
= Discharge coefficient varies 0.55 ~ 0.60
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

k = Correction factor for submerged discharge, for free flow k =1
B = Length of under sluice opening, m
A = Height of under sluice opening, m
H = Impounding head in front of the sluice, m

4.2.4 Intake
4.2.4.1 General
An intake is a structure in the diversion works where the water to the power plant is
either abstracted or separated from the river flow. The intake shall be designed to


be functional, hydraulically efficient, structurally optimal, economically viable and
practical in operation and maintenance.
The functions of the intake are:
a) To ensure the withdrawal of flow from the river in the required quantity and
directing towards water ways of the scheme.
b) To limit excess flow into the intake during high flow season.
c) To control the sediment inflow towards water ways from the source river.
d) Minimizes hydraulic losses.
e) Prevent formation of air vortices.
f) Prevents floating debris, trash and ice from entering the water conveyance
system.

An intake is chosen with or without a diversion weir depends not only upon the cost
of the weir but also the following aspects:
a) The topographical conditions upstream of the structure such as natural pool,
river course, rock outcrops, landslides etc.
b) The geotechnical conditions of the bank zones such as alluvial/colluvial
deposits or rocky cliff. The topographical conditions upstream of the structure.
c) Height of the bank above the river bottom
d) The ratio of the quantity of diverted water to the residual quantity of water in
the river at low discharge with regards to existing rights of use of the
downstream release.
e) The channel width in the tapping point (dependence of water level at times of
low discharge in the river, meandering at low discharge in wide rivers, etc.,
cost of damming structure etc.)
f) The routing of the diversion canal
g) The intake structure must not narrow the cross-section of flow of the channel,
otherwise at peak discharges, the bottom erosion in the area of the intake
structure in the river bed would be increased, which in turn results in a
change of the water level.

4.2.4.2 Scope of design
The design objectives shall be achieved through proper hydraulic and structural
design of the intake structure. Generally, the design shall entail the following
activities:
a) Selection of suitable intake.
b) General arrangement of the intake.
c) Hydraulic design, stability and stress analysis and structural design of the
structure.
d) Hydraulic design, stress analysis and structural design of the trash rack.
e) Selection of raking arrangements.



4.2.4.3 Typical Components
Side and frontal intakes shall typically consist of the following components:
a) A trash rack supporting structure.
b) Intake opening for permitting entry of water from the river.
c) Gate slot for closing intake openings / stop log grooves.
d) Breast walls for control of the flow during flood season.
e) Piers for dividing intakes with large horizontal spans into two or more
sections.
f) Service platform for operation of gates and stop logs, trash handling and
general maintenance.

a) Side or Frontal Intake
The hydraulic design of a side or a frontal intake shall primarily consist of:
i) Fixing its invert level
a. The invert level of the intake shall be fixed considering the sediment
content in the river flow and previous design and construction
experience.
b. This invert shall be 0.5 to 2 m above the under sluice crest level,
according to site condition, to prevent entry of bed sediments into the
intake opening due to turbulence in sluice bay flow.

ii) Intake opening
a. The intake opening should be sized to accommodate flows 10% to
20% over the design flow so that the water required for flushing will be
sufficient.

iii) Entrance velocity
a. The entrance velocity through the intake opening should be less than
1 m/sec.

iv) Intake Losses
Intake head losses shall be computed as (USBR, 1978)

2g
V
K H
2
n
i
=
Where, H
i
= intake head loss in m
K = intake loss coefficient
V
n
= normal velocity through intake in m/s
G = acceleration due to gravity in m/s
2.

The loss coefficient shall usually consist of two parts, namely


t i
K K K + =
Where, K
i
= intake loss coefficient due to sudden contraction in flow
from the inlet pond as it passes the trashracks and
piers
K
t
= gradual contraction losses as the flow follows the
transition part of the Intake into the intake gate
Some approximate values for the two types of losses are given in
Table 1

Table 1: Typical values of K
i

Shape K
i

Bell mouth 0.03 - 0.05
Slightly rounded 0.12 - 0.25
Sharp cornered 0.50

Table 2: Typical values of K
t

Cone angle K
t

30 0.002
45 0.04
60 0.07
(Source: USBR, 1978)

v) Trashrack Losses
The head losses through the trashrack may be computed using the
following formula (IS: 11388 1995):
sin
2g
v
b
t
k h
2
8 1
r

=
Where, h
r
= loss of head through racks, m
t = thickness of rack bars, mm
b = clear spacing between rack bars, mm
v = velocity of flow through the trash rack, m/s
a = angle of bar inclination to the horizontal, and
k = factor depending on bar shape, determined in
accordance with Figure 1:


t
k=2.42 k=1.83 k=1.67 k=1.035 k=0.92 k=0.76
k 1.29
0.25 t
0
.
3
0

t
0.15 t
2

t
t

Figure 1: Values of trash rack coefficient for different bar shapes
(IS: 11388 1995)
In view of the large amount of trash in Nepali rivers during floods, 25
to 50 percent of the area of racks may be considered to be obstructed
by trash.

b) Bottom Intake
i) design of bottom intakes shall involve sizing of the intake gallery and the
sediment trap trench.
ii) the bottom rack part shall be designed to pass the discharge up to 125%
to150% of plant design flow.
iii) The plan dimensions of the intake shall be obtained from the relation
(Zhurablov, 1975)

m r r p t c
2gh b l C C Q =
Where, Qc = Canal discharge, m
3
/sec
C
t
= transparency coefficient
m = coefficient ranging from 0.60 to 0.65
C
p
= coefficient normally taken equal to 0.90
l
r
= length of the rack opening in m
b
r
= width of the rack opening in m, and
h
m
= depth at the middle of the rack in m.

iv) The transparency coefficient 'C
t
' shall be computed using the equation
t
t
C
t
+
=

Where, t = the opening between trash rack bars, and
d = the thickness of the rack bars.



Figure: Intake gallery of drop intake

4.2.5 Gravel Trap
4.2.5.1 General
a) A gravel trap is designed to trap gravels that enter from the intake along with
the river flow.
b) It handles coarse materials that enter near the bed rather than suspended
materials that need to be settled.
c) The main design principle for a gravel trap is that the velocity through it
should be less than to move the smallest size of gravel to be removed.
d) In general, gravel traps should settle particles larger than 2 mm diameter.
e) The criteria used for the design of gravel trap are as follows:
i) The velocity in the gravel trap should be limited to 0.6 m/sec to trap the
particles below 2 mm diameter.
ii) The length of gravel trap should be at least 3 times the width of the
headrace canal or 2 m whichever is larger.
iii) The storage of the sediment in the gravel trap must be provided below the
normal flow depth.
iv) The gravel trap should be located as near to the intake as possible to
minimize the blockage and abrasion in the headrace.
v) The structure should be located at the safe place but close to the intake.
vi) The size of the gravel trap should be sufficient to settle gravels that enters
the intake through the coarse trash rack. The spacing of those bars
should be considered while sizing the structure.
vii) The flushing arrangement should be provided to flush the deposited
gravels with sufficient flushing head.
viii) An overflow spillway should be incorporated in this structure and sized to
spill either the design flow or the flood flow that enters through the intake.
ix) The flushing outlet should lead to the river without undermining the
foundations of the headrace or gravel trap.
x) Since gravel enters the intake only during high flows incorporating stop
log is more convenient and economic.


4.2.5.2 Purpose
a) to trap gravels that enter from the intake along with the river flow.
b) to handle coarse materials that enter near the bed rather than suspended
materials that need to be settled.

4.2.5.3 Design Principal & Criteria
a) The main design principle for a gravel trap is that the velocity through it
should be less than to move the smallest size of gravel to be removed.
b) In general, gravel traps should settle particles larger than 2 mm diameter.
c) The criteria used for the design of gravel trap are:
i) The velocity in the gravel trap should be limited to a maximum of 0.6
m/sec to trap the particles below 2 mm diameter.
ii) The length of gravel trap should be at least 3 times the width of the
headrace canal or 2 m whichever is larger.
iii) The storage of the sediment in the gravel trap must be provided below the
normal flow depth.
iv) The gravel trap should be located as near to the intake as possible to
minimize the blockage and abrasion in the headrace.
v) The structure should be located at the safe place but close to the intake.
vi) The size of the gravel trap should be sufficient to settle gravels that enters
the intake through the coarse trash rack. The spacing of those bars
should be considered while sizing the structure.
vii) Flushing arrangement should be provided to flush the deposited gravels
with sufficient flushing head.
viii) An overflow spillway should be incorporated in this structure and sized to
spill either the design flow or the flood flow that enters through the intake.
ix) The flushing outlet should lead to the river without undermining the
foundations of the headrace or gravel trap.
x) Since gravel enters the intake only during high flows incorporating stop
log is more convenient and economic.

4.2.5.4 Design Formula for Gravel Trap
The threshold critical velocity is given by:
V
c
= a d
Where, a = 0.36 for d > 1mm
d = size of gravel to be removed, in mm
Settling Time, t
set
= D/V
set

Where, D = depth of flow
V
set
= settling velocity of gravel sized particles

Velocity of the flow in the gravel trap, V = Q/A < V
c
Length of Gravel trap, L = ( t
set
x V) f


Where, f = factor of safety (1.1 ~ 1.4)

4.2.6 Settling Basin
4.2.6.1 Purpose
a) to remove the fine grained suspended matter from the water drawn from
intake to ensure that the water entering the water conveyance system is free
of sediments that can damage the penstock and turbine runners due to
abrasion.
b) removal of suspended particles to reduce the wear and tear of the nozzle and
runners of the turbines and other hydro-mechanical components.

4.2.6.2 Design Principal & Criteria
The basic principle of settling is that the greater the basin surface area and the
lower the through velocity, the smaller the particles that can settle.
c) The settling basin shall be designed to remove as much of the sediment load
in the water as is economically and hydraulically possible.
d) A settling basin must satisfy the following design considerations:
i) Settling capacity
a. The size of the basin must be large enough to allow a large
percentage of the fine sediment to fall out of suspension and be
deposited on the bottom.
b. The geometry of the inlet and outlet transitions and any other
curvatures must be such as to cause minimum turbulence, which
might increase the trapping efficiency of the basin.

ii) Storage capacity
a. The basin should be able to store the settled particles for some time
unless it is flush out.

iii) Flushing capacity
a. The basin should be able to flush all these settled particles along with
the incoming flow in the basin by opening flushing gates or valves.

4.2.6.3 Typical Components
Settling basins shall consist of the following components:
a) an inlet transition including gated arrangement,
b) settling chamber/s to settle the sediments in the incoming water,
c) an emergency spillway to spill the settling basin design discharge into the
parent river, if required,
d) an outlet transition with regulator to control the flow of water from the settling
chamber,
e) a flushing channel for flushing the settled sediment.


Canals
Upstream
transition
part
Flushing
channel
Canals
Upstream
regulator
Chamber of
desilting basin
Downstream
regulator
Downstream
transition
part

Figure: Typical components of settling basin
4.2.6.4 Design of Settling Basin
a) Factors to be considered in the design of the settling basin:
vi) characteristics of suspended sediments, particles of hard or soft rock or
soil origin like quartzite, granite, basalt, gneiss, etc.
vii) concentration of sediments with the river flow.
viii) required removal percentage of suspended sediments.

b) The design of the settling basin shall be based on the following criteria:
i) It should be long enough, but economically effective, to allow settling of
sediments of specified size depending upon the origin of sediments.
ii) The length of the settling basin shall be determined mainly by the settling
velocity of sediment to be eliminated and by the longitudinal flow velocity.

c) Scope of design
i) General arrangement of the settling basin including its inlet and outlet
transitions and flushing system.
ii) Hydraulic design of the settling basin, inlet and outlet transitions and its
flushing system.
iii) Stability analysis and structural design of the basin.

4.2.6.5 Design of Inlet Transition
a) The inlet transition for settling basins shall be designed to prevent turbulent
flow at the entrance to the settling basin chamber.
b) The approach canal to the settling basin shall have a straight alignment for a
stretch equal to about 10 times the width of the canal upstream of its junction
to maintain an even flow distribution at the start of the inlet transition.
c) The hydraulic design of the canal shall eliminate secondary currents in its flow
caused by rotational flow. It shall also ensure flow velocities in the range of
1.1 to 1.3 m/s.


d) To maintain gradual expansion of inlet channel, set the horizontal expansion
ratio at about 1:5 (or = 7 to 15). The vertical expansion ratio can be set at
about 1:2 (or = 20 to 30).
e) If space constraints do not permit the long transition, the inlet transition may
be shorten through guide walls in the transition.
f) If space constraints do not permit a straight section of approach canal, even
flow in the settling basin may be achieved using a tranquilizer or baffle blocks.

4.2.6.6 Design of Settling Chamber
The hydraulic design of the chamber should be carried out to secure:
a) An even flow distribution between parallel settling basins for various flows.
b) An even flow distribution internally inside each basin for various flows.
c) Efficient removal of deposits during flushing of the basin.
d) Design Parameters:
i) Mean depth of flow in the basin
ii) Mean longitudinal velocity
iii) Fall Velocity
iv) Flushing discharge
v) Sediment concentration of flow
e) Sediment particle size and its fall velocity:
The selection of particle size to be removed (d
limit
) based on the design head
should be considered as follows:
i) Low head schemes, h 10 m: d
limit
= 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm
ii) Medium head schemes, 10 < h 100 m: d
limit
= 0.2 mm to 0.3 mm
iii) High head schemes, h > 100 m: d
limit
= 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm

The following factors should be considered while deciding on the value of (d
limit
) :
a. If most of the suspended particles contained in water is highly abrasive
(quartz or minerals), lower limiting values should be selected for removal.
b. Francis turbines are more sensitive to any type of suspended matter and
pelton turbines are intermediate type. The crossflow turbines are relatively
less sensitive to soft impurities.
The fall velocity of particle size up to 1.5 mm for different water temperatures
are as follows:
Particle size
(mm)
Settling velocity w (mm/s) for different water temperatures
10 C 15 C 20 C 25 C 30 C
0.001 0.0007 0.0008 0.0009 0.001 0.0011
0.010 0.0680 0.0790 0.0900 0.100 0.1100
0.020 0.2740 0.3160 0.3600 0.400 0.4500
0.030 0.6180 0.7100 0.8100 0.900 1.0120
0.050 1.7170 1.9730 2.2700 2.500 2.8120


0.070 2.5100 2.8800 3.2500 3.650 4.1000
0.100 5.1200 5.8800 6.6300 7.440 8.3700
0.200 17.1100 18.7600 20.4200 22.060 23.720
0.300 28.3100 29.9600 31.6200 33.260 34.920
0.500 50.7100 52.3600 54.0200 55.660 57.320
1.000 106.7100 108.3600 110.0200 111.660 113.320
1.500 162.7100 164.3600 166.0200 167.660 169.320
(Source: Zhurablov, 1975)

4.2.6.7 Settling Basin Design
For the sizing of the basin, the following parameters need to be calculated by the
relations:
a) The cross-sectional area of the basin is given by:

V
Q
A =
Where, A = cross sectional flow area in m
2
,
Q = discharge to be passed in m
3
/s
V = adopted mean flow velocity during sediment
settling in m/s
b) The chamber width for given mean flow depth is:

H
A
B =
where, B = width of the chamber in m
H = adopted mean flow depth in m
With the basin area calculated above, based on the site condition, the
L/B ratio should be within the range of 4 to 10.

c) Hydraulic mean depth is given by:
P
A
R =
where, R = hydraulic mean depth in m
P = wetted perimeter in m

d) Energy gradient is given by:
2 / 1
2/3
e
nAR
Q
S

=

where, n = Mannings coefficient

e) Shear velocity (u
*
) is given by:


e *
gRS u =
Where g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

S
e
= energy gradient
R = Hydraulic Radius in m

f) The limiting flow velocity (V) in the basin based on the particle size to
be settled is given by:

The limiting flow velocity is given By:
V
c
= a d

Where, a = 0.36 for d > 1mm
0.44 for 1 mm > d > 0.1 mm
0.51 for 0.1 mm > d
d = size of gravel to be removed in mm

g) The length of the chamber shall be determined as:
)
u
V
H ( x f L
*
-
=
where, f = a safety factor taken equal to 1.2 to 1.4,
w = fall velocity of the sediment to be deposited on the
chamber bed in m/s

4.2.6.8 Outlet Zone
a) The operation water level of the settling basin is controlled at the outlet zone.
b) The outlet zone is designed for decanting the outflow from the settling basin
over a small weir/spillway or simple transition structure.
c) The major parts included in the outlet zone are: transitions to
headrace/forebay inlet with or without control gate mechanism, sediment
flushing gates/valves arrangements.
d) The outlet transition can be more abrupt than the inlet expansion. The
horizontal and vertical expansion ratio can be set at about 1:2 and 1:1
respectively.

4.2.6.9 Sediment Flushing System
a) The flushing arrangement should be provided to flush the sediment deposited
in the basin.
b) It should ensure that when the flushing gate or valve is opened, the water
level in the basin decreases and the sediment deposited in the bed starts
flushing out.


c) To facilitate the flushing of sediment, the bed slope at the bottom should be
1:20 to 1:50 in longitudinal direction. The bed can be provided with a flat or
undersluicing manifold system with purging channel.
d) The undersluicing of flushing system is designed as a manifold system to
withdraw sediment laden water uniformly along the length of the purging
channel.
e) The design should be based on pressurized flow. The flow velocity should be
more than 1.75m/sec.

4.2.6.10 Types of Settling Basin based on flushing operations
Based on flushing operational consideration the Settling Basin can be divided
into two types:
a) Continuous flushing Settling Basin (Dufour, Bieri types)
b) Discontinuous flushing Settling Basin

a) Continuous flushing Settling Basin
i) use surplus water (10 to 15% of plant design flow) during rainy season
for flushing.
ii) more convenient from a power plant operation view point as flushing
operations do not interfere with power production.
iii) Flushing can be done intermittently during low flow season.
iv) to improve reliability and enhance operating flexibility, it can usually be
constructed with a minimum of two basins.
v) much more care is required for its operation to minimize the clogging
of sediment extracting system.

b) Discontinuous flushing Settling Basin
i) simple in design and are much less susceptible to blockage or
clogging of sediment extracting system.
ii) main operating inconvenience is that plant output must be cut back,
for multi basin design, or shut down entirely for single basin design.
iii) flushing is only required when the Settling Basin is over loaded than
the design levels of sediments.
iv) releases much larger flushing flows than continuous type and do so
suddenly. This can pose a significant hazard to downstream water
users.

4.2.7 Water Conveyance System - Part I :Canal
4.2.7.1 Introduction
In hydropower projects, both gravity flow and pressure flow regimes are used based
on topographical conditions of project site. The canals for hydropower projects are


constructed in milder gradient than the river to get the head required for hydropower
generation
Headrace canal is suitable in stable geological and favorable topographical
conditions to convey water for power generation. In canal construction local
construction materials and manpower can be used. It will be comparatively
economic. The soil and slope stability condition along the canal alignment are the
governing factor in the selection of the canal option instead of tunnel or pipe. The
canal option is practical only for small discharge in the hilly regions of Nepal. Canal
construction with large dimension is limited due to steepness and fragile geological
condition creating slope stability problem.
Detail geological mapping along the canal alignment and test pit observation,
sampling and testing are necessary to decide the suitability of the terrain condition
for excavation and construction of headrace canal.
Two essential parts of the canal in a hydropower system are:
a) headrace or power canal and
b) tailrace

The headrace canal serves to convey water from the headwork to the forebay and
the tailrace conveys water released from the turbines to the river. The power canal
can be divided in two sections: one between head-works and settling basin also
called an approach canal and the other between settling basin and forebay called
as headrace canal simply power canal. The prospects of hydropower canals are
high in the hills and middle mountain physiographic regions of the country, but
could be limited in size due to steepness and fragile geological conditions.

4.2.7.2 Components of Conveyance System
For run-of-river projects with head achieved by diversion, the water conveyance
system will comprise of:
1) Canal connecting the intake and settling basin (approach channel);
2) Settling basin and flushing structures;
3) Power conduit (open or closed canal, pressured or non-pressured tunnel,
aqueduct, siphon, cross-drainage works etc);
4) Forebay or surge tank;
5) Penstock pipes (surface or buried) and
6) Tailrace canal

4.2.7.3 Approach Canal
Approach canal starts just after the intake and ends at the settling basin. Its
dimension and shape depend on the discharge to be conveyed, prevailing
topography and geology of the alignment. The canal is usually equipped with a
gravel trap and an overflow spillway. During normal operation, the size of the gravel
and discharge entering into the approach canal is controlled by the coarse trash-
rack and intake gates hence it conveys design discharge including flushing
discharge to the settling basin. But during the high flood period in case of failing to


operate the intake gates, excess discharge will enter into the approach canal.
Therefore, the capacity of this canal and its freeboard are designed to carry the
discharge entering from the intake under design high flood condition. Side walls of
approach canal are designed with sufficient freeboard to convey flood discharge
safely up to the overflow spillway normally above the maximum water head over
spillway crest level. The spillway is designed to provide escape of excess water.
Settling basin should be located at nearest possible site from the intake where the
flushing head is available. Closed ducts can be used as approach canal between
the intake and gravel trap.

4.2.7.4 Headrace Canal
The headrace canal or power canal conveys water to the forebay. Different
structural components like cross-drainage works (aqueducts, siphons) along the
headrace canal are generally the integral parts of it. The headrace canal may have
to pass through a number of crossings. The canal needs to be aligned following the
contours to minimize cut and fill. Headrace canals are more economical in a
favorable topographic condition. The canal requires considerable maintenance to
control canal seepage. Canal costs may also be excessive if it requires a
substantial number of stream crossings (aqueducts and siphons). In some
topographical and geological conditions, cut and covered canal should be provided.
The headrace canals are generally provided with side spillway near the forebay to
release of surges resulting from a sudden closer of the generating units. If the cost
of construction of side channel spillway along with a manmade channel to connect
a natural drainage is excessive, the surges in power canals may be taken care of
by providing additional freeboard.

4.2.7.5 Basic Design Criteria
1) The average velocity should be non-silting and non-scouring velocity in an
unlined canal. Such velocity generally lies between 0.9 and 1.8 m/s for unlined
canals. For lined canal the average flow velocity depends on the type of lining.
2) Freeboard should not be less than 0.2 m plus one-tenth of the full supply depth
to accommodate fluctuations
3) For curves along alignment, the ratio of the radius of the curve (r) to width of
canal (b) should not be less than three.
4) Side wall angles for transitions should be such that tanf equals one-third of the
freeboard. In general, transitions should be as smooth and gradual as possible
to minimize turbulence and hydraulic losses. Rounded corners are preferable to
sharp edges.
5) To tap the rain water provision of catch drain in the hill side is essential.
6) Cross drains should be provided for the passage of surface run offs.

4.2.7.6 Hydraulic Calculation of Free flow Canal
The hydraulic principles of open channel flow are based on steady state uniform flow
conditions. The most commonly used and widely accepted approach for the
discharge calculation in open channel is Mannings equation.


Mannings Equation: Several equations have been empirically derived for computing
the average flow velocity within an open channel. One such equation is the
Mannings Equation. Assuming uniform and turbulent flow conditions, the mean flow
velocity in an open channel can be computed as:

2
1
3
2
S R
n
1
V =
Where,
V = Mean velocity, in m/s
n = Mannings coefficient of roughness of the channel
material
S = Channel slope, in m/m
R = Hydraulic radius, in m = A/P
A = Cross sectional flow area, in sq.m.
P = Wetted perimeter, in m

Commonly accepted values for Manning's roughness coefficient 'n' based on
materials and workmanship required.

4.2.7.7 Geometry of Channel Sections
The design of a headrace canal should be concentrated at determining the size and
configuration that meets the criteria at the least cost. The best form of cross-section
of a canal is a section which is practical in construction and gives maximum
discharge for a minimum cross-sectional area for a given bed slope. The cross-
section should also correspond to the section with the least loss of water from
absorption (i.e. with minimum of wetted perimeter). In practice for ease of
construction, cross-sections close to the theoretical one will have to be adopted.
The most efficient proportions of the rectangular and trapezoidal canals are:
For rectangular Canal
2h b=
h/2 A/P R = =
For trapezoidal canal

Where,
b
= Width of the canal
h
= Depth of the canal
z
= Side slopes
R
= Hydraulic radius
( ) z z 1 2
h
b
2
- + =


P
= Wetted perimeter, and
A
= Area

Natural channels which are usually irregular in shape, man-made channels are
usually designed with sections of regular geometrical shape. The most commonly
used geometric sections and corresponding formulas are given below in the tabular
form.
Geometric Sections and its corresponding Formulae
Formula/Shape Rectangular Trapezoidal with Side Slope z
Area (A) b *h ( )h zh b +

Wetter
erimeter(P)
b+2h
2
1 2 z h b + +

Hydraulic
Radius (R)
h b
bh
2 +

2
1 2
) (
z h b
h zh b
+ +
+

Water Depth
(D)
h
zh b
h zh b
2
) (
+
+

Fig. Typical Canal Sections

4.2.7.8 Transitions in canal
Transitions are required to change the basic canal geometry. Sidewall angles for
transitions should follow the basic criteria. It is important to check if the transition
requires a change in depth of flow. Special design considerations like energy
dissipation systems are required at such change. In general, transitions should be
smooth and gradual as possible to minimize turbulence and hydraulic losses.
Rounded corners are preferable to sharp edges. The common types of transitions
are generally used at the inlet and outlet of structures and where changes occur in
the water section.

4.2.7.9 Head Losses in canal
Water flowing through a conveyance system with entrances, bends, sudden
contraction and enlargements, racks, the loss is expressed in the form h
f
=K v
2
/2g.
where, K is experimental coefficient.
The total head loss is calculated based on the following equation.
t f L
h h H + =


where,
L
H = the total head loss ;
f
h = the loss due to frictional resistance, and
t
h = the loss due to transitions or changes in direction, also called
local head losses.

The friction loss ( )
f
h along its length is calculated by the equation:
4/3
2 2
f
R
L * V * n
h =
where,
h
f
= friction loss
V = velocity in m/s
R = hydraulic radius in m
n = Mannings roughness coefficient and
L = length of canal in m

Typical Mannings Roughness Coefficients for Channels
Channel Material or Type Mannings n
Clean, straight earthen channel 0.022
Concrete-lined channels 0.013 - 0.017
Asphalt-lined channels 0.013 - 0.016
Riprap-lined channel 0.030
Channel with cement plaster 0.011
Brick work 0.014
Rock cut channel 0.035 - 0.040
Channel with gravel 0.022 - 0.030
Older wooden channel 0.015
Natural river bed 0.024 0.05

Transition losses (h
t
) and local losses such as entrance / exit loss, trash rack loss,
bend loss, etc. is calculated by the following general equation:

Where, K is loss coefficient, and g = acceleration due to gravity.
The value K depends on nature of transition (expansion / contraction), change in
direction (shape and angle of bend) and resistance to flow imposed.

2g
KV
h
2
t
=


4.2.7.10 Permissible Velocity in the canal
The maximum permissible velocity will be limited by the resistance of the bed
material to erosion or, in case of lined canals, by that of the lining against wear. The
latter becomes considerable if the water carries abrasive materials in appreciable
quantities.
The range of maximum permissible mean flow velocities is given for different soil
grain diameters varying from fine clay to gravel of medium fineness (0.001 to 10
mm). Maximum permissible velocities for different soils are given below in the
tabular form

(1) Maximum permissible velocity for loose soil
Material
Maximum
permissible
velocity V
1
(m/s)
Very coarse gravel
Coarse gravel
Cobble
Coarse sand
2.4-3.9
0.4-2.4
0.4-0.25
0.15-0.25

Correction coefficients to formula
1
V V =
Depth h
Correction
coefficient
0.3m
0.6m
1.0m
1.5m
2.0m
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.15

(2) Maximum permissible velocities for cohesive soils

Type of Soil V, m/s
Slightly clayey sand, very
fine sand
Medium sandy clay
Hard sandy clay
Ordinary clay
0.7-0.8
1.0
1.1-1.2
0.7
1.5-1.8

(3) Maximum permissible velocity in lined canals



Types of lining Permissible velocity,
V, m/s
Brick lining
stone lining
Concrete lining
1.4
2.4
3.4

(4) Minimum Velocity
In order to avoid silting of the canal, lowest permissible velocities should be
greater than the minimum permissible velocity determined from the formula:
m/s
where,
A = value of coefficient with respect to settling velocity (values =
0.33 to 0.55), m
2
and
Q = discharge in the canal, m
3
/s

4.2.7.11 Free Board in lined and Unlined Canal
Free board of the canal should be 0.3-0.5 m above the possible surge in the canal
but substantially greater allowance may also be required. Freeboard may be
determined by the surge caused by the load rejection in power canal. Freeboard is
provided depending on canal depth and flow. Suggested values of freeboard in
relation to the lined and unlined canal capacity are given in Table below:
Freeboard in unlined and lined canals
Canal discharge in m
3
/s Unlined canal in
meter
Lined canal in meter
Upto-0.10
0.1-0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-1.5
1.5-2.0
2.0-3.0
3.0-5.0
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.10
0.15
0.15
0.20
0.20
0.25
0.30
4.2.7.12 Canal Lining
Power canals are usually provided with some types of lining, which permits high
velocities, reduces the leakage and gives a more favorable value of Mannings
coefficient of roughness. The design discharge can therefore be carried by a smaller
canal and will be cost effective. In the case of headrace canal, there is also possibility
that the lined canal will have the flatter slope creating greater head.
Various types of lining are used. Types of lining depend on the materials available at
work site. The most commonly used are described below:

(1) Stone paving
0.2
AQ V =


These types of canal lining are mostly stone paving as riprap, simple paving,
pavement upon gravel or crushed stone drainage layer and rock fill are also
used for protection against erosion. But these types of linings do not reduce
seepage or friction. Maximum allowable velocities with these linings are about
2 m/s. Thickness of the lining depends on the velocity of the flow in the canal.

(2) Brick or Stone Lining in Cement Mortar
The minimum thickness of this type of lining equals to the brick thickness
which is 5.7 cm in case of locally available bricks.

(3) Reinforced Concrete Lining
In power canals, concrete linings are extensively used because they meet
three basic requirements - little friction, protect against erosion and reduce
seepage. Minimum thickness of canal lining up to 5m
3
/s canal capacity and
one meter depth of canal is 50mm.

(3) Lining made of lean mixture and stone paving
This type of lining is sprayed with cement mortar to reduce seepage. This will
even smooth the surface of rough- e.g. stone-paving etc

Bitumen and Asphalt linings, plastic membranes linings are also used. Bitumen and
asphalt linings also proved to be very efficient, and up to the present, have been
applied mainly in irrigation canals. They are more water tight and elastic than
concrete linings and resist rather well to atmospheric influences. The thickness of
asphalt linings should range from 3 to 6 cm.

4.2.8 Water Conveyance System - Part II : Pipe
4.2.8.1 Pipe Flow
In hydropower projects metal as well as polythene pipes are used to convey water
from intake to powerhouse. Pipes are used widely to convey water in mini
hydropower projects. It is easy in construction and cost effective for small scale
hydropower projects. Pipes are used as non pressure and low pressure pipe in
headrace water conveyance system and high pressure pipe in penstock pipe.

4.2.8.2 Headrace Pipe
It is low pressure water conveyance pipe. Pressure flow regime will be used in
water conveyance system of a hydropower plant like tunnel, RCC conduit and steel
pipe. Due to short construction period and less risk of water leakage, steel or HDP
pipes are popular for conveying small discharge for energy generation. It is fast in
construction and cheap in cost in comparison to headrace tunnel.



4.2.8.3 Design Considerations for headrace pipe
1) Velocity should be greater than the settling velocity of a given particle size.
2) High velocity should be avoided to minimize the head loss.
3) Pipe diameter should be optimized as it costs considerable amount of the
project cost. (A Spread sheet is provided to optimize the diameter of a steel
headrace pipe.)
4) An anchor Block is provided in each bend (horizontal or vertical) not exceeding
100m.
5) Saddle supports are provided in each 4 to 6 m spacing to avoid excessive
sagging in pipe.
6) One Expansion joint will be provided after each anchor block in exposed steel
headrace pipe to minimize the thrust from pipe to the anchor block due to
temperature variation.
7) In buried portion of headrace pipe expansion joint is not necessary.
8) Outer surface of buried headrace pipe should be painted with appropriate type
of paint to protect from corrosion.

The terrain condition indicating not favorable for excavation of canal may in some
case exhibit the possibility of the pipe option as the conveyance for hydropower
development because it will require minimum excavation space for pipe installation.
The geological and geotechnical study for the design of the pipe route should
emphasis on distribution and characteristics of the rock and soils, thickness of the
overburden soil, position of the unstable areas, and locations of foundation
problem.

(1) Structural Elements
The structural components required for conveying the water for power
generation depend on site conditions, since the layout is to be arranged
considering the available flow, head, topography of river and vicinity including
the geological conditions of the project area and specific sites where the
important structural components will be located.
For run-of-river projects, the conveyance system will comprise of:
Approach canal, connecting the intake and settling basin;
Settling basin and flushing structures;
Power conduit (open or closed canal, pressure or non-pressure
tunnel, flumes, aqueduct, siphon, cross-drainage works as
appropriate);
Forebay or Surge tank;
Penstock pipes (surface or buried); and
Tailrace canal



For smaller hydropower projects where construction cost is of prime concern, a
long non-pressure or low pressure headrace pipes as a water conveyance
system along geological fragile terrain ending at a stable forebay have become
more economical and practical.

(2) Water Flow in Pressure Pipes
In pressure pipes or pressure conduits, the flow will be mostly turbulent. The
Moody's diagram presented below will represent the flow classification of water
in pipes of different roughness.

Moody Diagram

Pipe Roughness
For a smooth walled pipe the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number.
A general approach, including absolute roughness k as a parameter, reveals
that is a function of R and k/D. The term k/D is known as the relative
roughness.

(3) Design Consideration
For flow calculation of non-pressure pipe, the design procedure applied for the
open canal using the formula for the circular section of canal could be applied,
while for the pressure pipes, the design of pipe includes alignment selection,
pipe diameter optimization and head loss calculation.

Alignment
The alignment of the pipe should be straight and short to the extent possible.
Large numbers of bends (horizontal or vertical) increases the head loss and
cost by increasing anchor blocks and expansion joints.

Submergence for pressure flow


Pressure pipe must maintain suction head at its entrance to avoid air entering
into the pipe for the smooth flow. The minimum suction head required for the
pipe flow is:

d * g
V
* d * S=
Where,
S - Suction head, m
d - Pipe diameter, m
V - Velocity in the pipe, m/s
- Co-efficient whose value is 1.8 for Symmetric and 2.2 for
lateral
g - Acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

4.2.8.5 Pipe Diameter Optimization
After finalizing the alignment, the economical diameter of the pipe has to be
determined. Economic diameter of pipe is based on the incremental cost of with
respect to the pipe diameter and the value of energy lost which is a function of the
pipe diameter. A larger diameter for a given discharge leads to smaller head losses
and hence greater will be the net head available for the energy generation. Thus
the power and energy production will be increased. On the other hand a greater
size pipe means less velocity and greater the capital investment. Therefore, a size
that will give the least capital cost over the lifetime of the plant is considered to be
the optimum diameter.

4.2.8.6 Economic Diameter and Shell Thickness
Please refer Section 4.3.1.5 (1) hereunder.

4.2.8.7 Head loss in pipe flow
Total head loss in the pipe is categorized in two major parts;
1) Friction loss along the pipe and
2) Local loss (bend loss, entrance loss, transition loss, etc)

(1) Friction loss along the pipe
Formula for the friction loss along the pipe depends on the nature of the flow in
the pipe. In most cases pipe flow in hydropower projects, flow regime is only
turbulent.

Turbulent Flow
Friction loss in length in turbulent flow is calculated using a number of formulae.
Among them the Darcy Weisbach equation is popular and commonly used.



gD
fLV
h
f
2
2
=

f
- Darcys coefficient of friction, 'D' is inside diameter of the pipe.

Empirical Formulae for the friction factor
Prior to the publication of logarithmic formula the only design equations
available were those of purely empirical exponential type. Simplicity is their
chief merit, since they are particularly amenable to solution by means of
monograms and charts. They have been and still used extensively. Among
the most used empirical formulae, Mannings formula for the friction factor as
follows is most popular:

The value of n here is the value of Mannings coefficient that is widely used.
Mannings coefficient 'n' for several commercial pipes
Kind of pipe Manning coefficient n
Welded steel 0.012
Polyethylene (PE) 0.009
PVC 0.009
Cast iron 0.014
Concrete 0.014

4.2.9 Forebay
A forebay, also termed as head tank, is provided at the end of the headrace canal
and beginning of the penstock pipe. The forebay capacity shall be determined to
regulate upsurge and down surges of water level in the forebay due to fluctuation in
the generation load at the powerhouse. Generally the capacity of the forebay can be
adopted between 2 and 3 minutes of the full design flow for mini hydro plants. The
main components of a forebay consist of a basin with sloping bed, a side spillway to
facilitate overflow excess water and the penstock bulkhead and uppermost penstock
anchor block. A sediment sluice is also provided in a forebay. A trash rack should be
provided to prevent debris from entering into the penstock. The velocity through the
trash rack is kept below 0.5 m/s. Spacing between rack bars kept about 20mm and
the bar thickness adopted 10mm. The penstock intake should be provided sufficient
submergence.

4.2.10 Powerhouse
The powerhouse supports and houses the generating units and their accessories. It
provides passage of water through the turbines and tailrace. The powerhouse design
3
1
2
5 . 124
D
n
f =


and layout should satisfy (1) good performance of the plant (2) economic
construction and (3) easy inspection and maintenance. The layout and dimensioning
of powerhouse can be carried out based on data in some references and existing
mini hydro. The final design and construction of the powerhouse should be made on
data of the equipment manufacturer. The structural design is not difficult and can be
carried after the general layout and dimensions have been defined.
In mini hydropower plant, single floor type of powerhouse is recommended due to
easiness in operation and maintenance. In mini power plants, number of units will be
minimized because electromechanical cost is high in small projects in comparison to
civil cost. So, one or two units are recommended for mini hydro projects. For small
units horizontal axis turbines are more suitable because it is easier to monitor all
equipments in a single floor. Layout of a small power plant consists of turbine,
Generator, Governor, Regulating Panels, Low voltage control Panels and Service
bay.

Design Consideration in Powerhouse Design:
1) Location of powerhouse should be safe from flood.
2) Geological condition of powerhouse site should be satisfactory
3) Setting of turbine should match with the suction head provided by the machine
manufacturer
4) Tailrace should be free from the influence of design flood
5) Machine arrangement should be such that the width of powerhouse i.e. Span of
overhead traveling crane be minimum
6) Service bay should be sufficient to use as loading and unloading purpose,
7) Columns should be isolated from the machine foundation
8) Each Block of Machine foundation should be safe in sliding, overturning, and in
bearing capacity.
9) Foundation stability should be checked in different load condition provided by the
machine manufacturer especially during synchronous fault condition.

Tail Race BoxCulvert (1:500)
Tail water Level


Fig. Powerhouse Plan


4.2.11 Tailrace Canal
Geometric design of tailrace canal is same as of headrace canal design. In horizontal
axis reaction turbine and impulse turbine, just after the draft tube poundage of about
1m deep should be provided to dissipate the residual energy of water coming out
from the turbine. In case of two units in a power plant, two tailrace canals discharging
the tail water from each turbine will be merged in a single tailrace canal and
discharged in natural river stream. In such case the water level in down stream to the
confluence of two individual tailrace canal should not be higher than the water level
upstream to the confluence, because it may cause back water effect and influences
in the efficiency of the turbine. Water depth in tail race canal is fixed to match the
water level before and after the confluence. At the end of tailrace canal, an overflow
weir crest can be formed to check the sediment entering in to tailrace canal during
flood period. Discharge capacity of overflow weir provided at the end of tailrace canal
will be checked. To raise the bed of the canal, width of canal will be widened and the
angle of widening will be about 300.
Tailrace canal of a power plant is recommended to equip with at least one tailrace
gate to protect from the probable maximum flood in the river stream. In normal cases
each tailrace canal is equipped with one tailrace gate just after the draft tube, which
will be helpful during operation and maintenance period.
Tailrace canal may be either buried or open type depending on the volume of
excavation work in tailrace alignment.

4.3 Hydro-mechanical Equipment
4.3.1 Penstock
4.3.1.1 General
A Penstock is a pressurized water conduit which conveys water under pressure to
the turbine from a free water surface. This free water surface may be either surge
chamber devices or a reservoir or Forebay. The penstocks should be as
hydraulically efficient as practical to conserve available head, and structurally safe
to prevent failure which would result in loss of life and property. An economic study
will size a penstock from a monetary standpoint, but the final diameter should be
determined from combined engineering and monetary considerations.
The penstock can be made from the following type of materials:
1) steel pipe
2) concrete pipe
3) Other pipes such as GRP, HDPE, wood Stave penstock.
Penstocks can be fabricated of many materials as mentioned above, but the
strength and flexibility of steel make it best suited for the range of pressure
fluctuations met in the turbine operation. For designs with long sections of low
pressure pipes, GRP pipes should be considered for economy as steel costs are
steadily going up against other synthetic materials.
Present design standards and construction practices were developed gradually,
following the advent of welded construction, and are the result of improvements in


the manufacture of welding-quality steels, in welding processes and procedures,
and in inspection and testing of welds.

The design considerations of penstock pipes in general depend on the following:
1) Preferred material and design type
2) Plant operation requirement
3) Annual cost of capital investment and cost of power and revenue loss
4) Inspection and maintenance provisions
5) Applicable internal and governmental guidelines, criteria, and design requirements
6) Terrain configuration
7) Site geology, hydrology(groundwater conditions) and soils
8) Applicable codes and mandatory requirements
9) Other site-specific considerations

4.3.1.2 Type of installation
The type of installation selected should reflect the above consideration. Penstocks are
classified into different types depending on their general features. Three types have
been designed and used in recent years:
1) Supported penstocks (Exposed Penstock)
2) Buried penstocks (Underground)
3) Steel Tunnel Liner (Underground)

(1) Supported penstocks (Exposed Penstock)
These are usually fabricated from steel, plastic fibreglass or wood stave pipe.
They can be located the ground or in a none encased tunnel and are usually
supported on either steel or concrete support systems. Plastic or fibreglass
penstocks should not be exposed to sunlight because ultraviolet rays break down
the material.

(2) Buried penstocks (Underground)
These are usually fabricated from steel, concrete, plastic or fibreglass. They can
be either partially or fully buried.

(3) Steel Tunnel Liner (Underground)
These are located in a tunnel and fully encased in concrete or encased in a
portion of a dam. The type of installation selected should reflect the cost-effective
penstock system which should consider the technical, environmental, economic
and constructability factors. Each penstock type has different associated design,
material and construction costs.
In this guideline, supported type of penstock only will be discussed.



4.3.1.3 Conditions governing the adoption of a Pipeline
Having decided to adopt a pipeline and having provisionally located the centreline in
plan and elevation, it is necessary to determine the water pressures to which it will be
subjected. These pressures are plotted on the Design Pressure Diagram as shown in
Figure 1.1 below, and include the static pressure due to the level of water in the
reservoir, plus and increase on account of surge and water hammer to give the design
head.

Figure 1.1: General Profile of Penstock

It can be assumed that the maximum pressure thought the pipeline due to surge is
equal to the head resulting from the maximum level of water in the surge shaft.
It should be noted that the water-hammer pressure wave travels from the valve to the
surge shaft in a few seconds. The pressure is maximum at the turbine valve and
decreases to zero at the free water surface at forebay.

(1) Economic Diameter and Shell Thickness
The inside diameter of headrace or penstock pipe should be determined to be
economical diameter. The economical diameter is a diameter which minimizes
the sum of annual cost of penstock pipe and annual value of power loss due to
loss of head in the penstock line. The governing criterion is thus to regain
economically the last incremental kilo-watt-hour made available by reducing the

Concrete Lined
Tunnel
Steel
Lining
Pipe Line
Expansion J oint
Anchor Block
Portal Valve
Expansion J oint
D
e
s
i
g
n

H
e
a
d

T
u
r
b
i
n
e
s

Net Head
Reservoir Head
Water Hammer
S
u
r
g
e

S
h
a
f
t

Max. Surge
Test Head


head-loss through using a larger diameter. Based on the above concept, the
following equations are obtained:
a) For upper portion where thickness of pipe is determined by minimum
thickness

b) For portion where thickness of pipe is determined by design water
pressure

Where,
D : Economical diameter (m)
Q
m
: Annual mean discharge (m
3
/s)
C
p
: unit price of energy (US$/kwh)
f : Coefficient of friction in pipe (=124.5n
2
/D
1/3
)
n : coefficient of roughness in mannings formula=0.012
: Allowable tensile stress of pipe = 1200 kg/cm
2

: Overall efficiency of turbine and generator
: Ratio of annual expense, maintenance, interests tax etc to cost= 0.09
C
c
: unit construction cost of steel pipe (US$/ton)
: Specific gravity of steel (=7.85 ton/m
3
)
g : Acceleration due to gravity (=9.8 m/s
2
)
t : shell thickness of pipe (m)
: coefficient for increment of steel weight due to stiffeners, etc =0.15

In the above equations, the design water pressure is adopted to be larger
value between the pressure due to water hammer and due to surging under
the maximum inlet level in surge tank or forebay.
The economic diameter will be calculated at each anchor block and the
applied equation will be one of the above mentioned. Since the formulae for
economic diameter and shell thickness of penstock pipes are also applicable
for pipes and closed conduits.

(2) Water Hammer
Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit
causing elastic waves to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin.
The elastic waves, in turn, cause increase or decrease in pressure as they travel
( )
1/2
m
1/6
3
c
p
Q
1 t g C
f C 8760 78.4 5
D

+

=
( )
3/7
m
1/7
3
c
P
Q
1 P g C
f C 8760 78.4 5
D

+

=


along the line, and these pressure changes are variously referred to as water
hammer, surge or transient pressure.
The value of water hammer to be taken for different turbines is presented in
Table1.
Table1: Water Hammer values for different Turbines
S.N. Turbine
Type
Water Hammer Pressure to be added
to the net head (% of net head)
1 Impulse 15 to 25
2 Reaction 30 to 50

Accurate results of a water hammer analysis depend on knowing the various
hydraulic and physical characteristics of the system. The velocity of the pressure
wave is a fundamental factor in any water hammer study, as the water hammer
pressures are directly proportional to its value. This velocity depends on the pipe
diameter, wall thickness, material of the pipe shell, and density and compressibility
of the fluid in the pipe.

4.3.1.5 Structural Design
(1) Principle Design Criteria
The design, manufacturing, installation, testing & commissioning of Penstock pipe
should be carried out in conjunction with the design of the civil works, hydraulic
steel structures and Power house equipments. The basis for design will be a set
of design criteria, which shall ensure that the penstock shall meet stringent safety
standards and confirm to the associated civil, Electromechanical and transmission
structures.

(2) Materials
The purpose of this section is to assist in the selection of the proper materials for
the design and construction of penstocks and tunnel liners. This section only
covers the use of steel in the manufacture of penstocks. The use of plastic,
fibreglass, wood staves and concrete in regards to material properties is not
discussed. The specific manufacturers of these materials should be consulted for
their properties, performances and uses for pressure system.
Table 2: Materials used in pressure pipes

Material Young's
modulus of
elasticity
E(N/m
2
) x 10
9

Coefficient
of linear
expansion
(m/m
0
C)x 10
-
6

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(N/m2)x 10
6

Manning
Coefficient,n
Welded steel 206 12 400 0.012
Polyethylene 0.55 140 5 0.009
Polyvinyl chloride 2.75 54 13 0.009
Asbestos cement n.a. 8.1 n.a. 0.011


Cast iron 78.5 10 140 0.014
Ductile iron 16.7 11 340 0.015

(3) Allowable Stresses
The allowable stresses and the factor of safety to be adopted depend upon the
yield point stress and ultimate tensile strength of the steel, loading condition and
the location where steel penstock is provided. The design stresses should not
exceed one-third of the minimum ultimate tensile strength or 60 percent of
minimum yield point stress of steel, whichever is less.
For the steel material of penstocks a factor of safety of from 3.0 to 3.5 based on
the tensile strength, is usually adopted, thus the allowable stress s for a
material having and ultimate tensile strength of 3,700 kg/cm
2
is not higher than
1,200 kg/cm
2
. The allowable stress is usually reduced for e / blows and wyes (a
factor of safety of 5 to 6 is used).

(4) Shell Thickness of Penstock Pipe
For internal pressure, the pipe shell thickness is given by the relation:

f
PR
t + =
Where,
t : Thickness of pipe shell in cm
P : Internal pressure in kg/cm
2

R : Internal radius of pipe in cm
f : Allowable stress in kg/cm
2

: Welding joint efficiency 0.9
: Corrosion allowance 0.2 cm

Minimum plate thickness of pipe shell is to be calculated considering handling
and transportation for the case where calculated thickness, using relation for
internal pressure is very small.

t
min
= D/288 .. (1) (Pacific Gas & Electric's formula)
t
min
= (D+20)/400.. (2) (Bureau of Reclamation Formula)

Where,
t: Minimum thickness of pipe shell in mm
D: Internal diameter of pipe in mm

Calculated larger value should be adopted.
a) Internal Pressure Design for Free-Standing Penstocks:


The minimum required plate thickness should be computed considering
the maximum pressure rise due to full load rejection on all penstock units
operating at full or partial gate discharge. Turbine wicket gates or needle
are assumed to close in the normal governor closure time during load
rejection.

b) Hoop stress for penstock Design
The pipe shell thickness calculation for internal pressure is mentioned
earlier. Conservative values must he used for allowable hoop stress,
depending on the type of steel shell material strength characteristics and
the most likely factors of safety that will be considered for the installation
type. The internal design pressure must be at least equal to the maximum
static head at the point of the penstock being investigated. Some
refinement to this is possible by performing a hydraulic transient pressure
analysis using preliminary hydropower equipment characteristics and
plant operating data.

4.3.1.6 Expansion Joints
Expansion Joints are installed in exposed penstocks between fixed point or anchors to
permit longitudinal expansion, or contraction when changes in temperature occur and
to permit slight rotation when conduits pass through two structures where differential
settlement or deflection is anticipated. The expansion joints are located in between
two anchor blocks generally downstream of uphill anchor block. This facilitates easy
erection of pipes on slopes.
Expansion Joints should have sufficient strength and water tightness and should be
constructed so as to satisfactorily perform their function against longitudinal expansion
and contraction. Depending on the internal pressure, diameter of pipe and magnitude
of movement expected.
The following types of expansion joints are used for penstocks:
1) Sleeve type expansion joint, and
2) Bellows type expansion joint.

The expansion of the pipeline can be calculated as follows:
DL = x DT x L
Where,

L = Length of the pipe section, (m)
DL = Change in length due to expansion (m)
= Coefficient of linear expansion of steel
= 12 x 10
-6
m/m
o
C
DT = Change in temperature (
o
C)



To be safe, it would be recommended that the expansion joint can be capable of
accommodating a length change of double this amount.

4.3.1.7 Branch Pipe
Depending on the number of units, a single penstock feeds, the penstock branching is
defined as bifurcation when feeding two units, trifurcation when feeding three units and
manifold when feeding a greater number of units by successive bifurcations. Branch
pipes of bifurcating type are generally known as "Wye" pieces which may be
symmetrical or asymmetrical.

4.3.2 Gates, Stoplogs and trashracks
4.3.2.1 General
Gates, stoplogs and trashracks are hydromechanical equipment used in
hydropower projects. Hydraulic gates are used for regulating the discharge for
power generation. The stoplogs are used to regulate discharge at the time of gate's
maintenance. Trashracks protect equipment and water ways from objectionable
large or damaging debris. The selection of Gates, Stoplogs and trashracks for mini
hydro power Projects are as follows:

4.3.2.2 Gates
The different types of gates are used for regulation and flow control. For such small
project slide type gates with manual operating system is suitable and recommended
for use. The rubber seals are used for preventing water leakage. The gates are
manufactured from the following materials:
1) steel
2) wooden planks
The wooden plank's gates are used for small opening of water passage and small
discharge while steel gates are used for bigger opening of water passage and
larger discharge.

4.3.2.3 Stoplogs
Stoplogs are made from steel, wood and concrete. Concrete blocks are not used for
such small projects as stoplogs. If opening of water conduit is small then wooden
type stoplogs are economical otherwise steel stoplogs are used.

4.3.2.4 Trashracks
Trashracks usually consists of rectangular cross-sectional vertical bars held
together with lateral bars made from steel or structural shapes.

(1) Velocity requirement in trashrack
A major design consideration for trashracks is the approach velocity. This value
is the overall trashracks area divided by the maximum flow. The approach


velocity for each structure has to be determined on a case by case basis. An
approach velocity of 0.3 to 0.6 m/s is desirable but not always practical. The
slow approach velocity reduces the tendency to collect debris against the racks,
minimizes the possibility of trashrack vibration. To limit the physical size of the
structure and thus decrease the capital cost, larger approach velocities of up to
1.5 to 2 m/s can be used.
If a trashrack is to be raked, special consideration must be made. Different
raking methods require different slopes for the trashrack. The slope of trashrack
varies 5 to 30 degrees from the vertical.

(2) Trash bar Spacing
The spacing of trashrack bars should be as large as feasible and the thickness
as low as practicable to minimize head losses. Trash bar spacing is selected to
suit the equipment being protected. The usual practice is to provide as large a
clear opening as possible and still protect the downstream equipment. For
Francis turbine, the trash bar spacing must be less than the opening of wicket
gate. The trash spacing in case of Impulse turbines must be less than the clear
opening of the nozzle.
The headloss through trashracks depends upon the shape, size and spacing of
bars and velocity of flow. The head losses through the trashrack may be
computed using the following formula (IS: 11388 1995):

Where, h
r
= loss of head through racks
t = thickness of rack bars
b = clear spacing between rack bars
v = velocity of flow through the trash rack
a = angle of bar inclination to the horizontal, and
k = factor depending on bar shape, determined in
accordance with Figure 1:
t
k=2.42 k=1.83 k=1.67 k=1.035 k=0.92 k=0.76
k 1.29
0.25 t
0
.
3
0

t
0.15 t
2

t
t

Values of trash rack coefficient for different bar shapes (IS:
11388 1995)

sin
2g
v
b
t
k h
2
8 1
r

=


4.4 Powerhouse Mechanical Equipment
4.4.1 Introduction or general outline
Powerhouse mechanical Equipment outlines the selection of and describes the major
power plant equipment proposed for the hydro power project. This chapter provides
the information related to turbine dimensioning and powerhouse sizing and hence
only related matters will be focused rather than defining all the terms. The
powerhouse mechanical equipment for Mini Hydroelectric Project mainly consists of
the followings:
- turbines
- governors
- turbine inlet valves
- speed increaser (if required)
- Other associate equipment

4.4.2 Turbine Type Selection
The turbines are the main equipment for converting hydraulic power to the shaft
power (mechanical power) and hence it is very important to select the proper turbine
for the given site conditions. The selection of turbine for the specific hydropower
project is influenced by net head, design flow, nature of load, cost of the turbine and
associated equipment, rotational speed, cavitations etc.
Depending on the above mentioned factors, one of the following turbines will be
used:
1) Reaction Turbine
- Francis Turbine (Medium head and Medium discharge)
- Kaplan Turbine (Low head and high discharge)
2) Impulse Turbine
- Pelton (high head and low discharge)
- Cross flow (low to medium head and low discharge)
- Turgo (medium head low and medium discharge)
The selection of type of turbine primarily depends upon the net head available and
design discharge. The turbine selection monogram is used for selecting the turbine
for a given net head and design discharge. Sometimes two or more type of turbines
will be fitted for the given site condition. The project designer and or the developer
should study the nature of load, operational difficulties of the turbine and associated
equipment, cost of the turbine etc. for such cases. For instant, for the given net head
and discharge some times both Francis and Pelton Turbine can be used. In such
case the following points are to be considered for selecting the turbine type:
Francis turbine will be the better option if the turbine is to be operated in full load
throughout the year. The full load efficiency of the Francis turbine is better than
the Pelton turbine. For Nepalese rivers, Francis turbines undergo frequent
maintenance and hence, if number of turbines is only one, Pelton should be
preferred over Francis.


Pelton turbine will be the better option if the turbine is to be operated in variable
load conditions. The part load efficiency of the Pelton turbine is better than the
Francis turbine and operational condition is more favorable for Pelton turbine.
The turbine selection monogram is presented in Figure: 1

The above monogram is extracted from the data given by a particular turbine
manufacturer, although this monogram is found generally similar to other
manufacturers also. When the selection point lies in the border areas between two or
three turbine types, then both turbine types can be considered and selection is based
further on other parameters such as efficiency curve, specific speed range,
maintenance requirements etc..
4.4.3 Unit Selection
The selection of unit capacity is based on the assumption that minimum number of
units could be installed for the more economic development of the project, reliability
of generation, and minimum loss of power during maintenance and operation at
difference stage of time. Unit capacity is generally determined by considering the
available discharge throughout the seasons, load demand, type of operations,
efficiency of the machine, etc. For small plants (below 1000 kW), unit optimization is
not required. Table: 1 is helpful for determining the minimum flow required for the
operation of different types of turbines based on the design flow.
Table 1: Minimum allowable flow for turbines
Turbine type Minimum flow

(% of
design flow)
Fig. Turbine Selection Monogram


Francis 50
Semi Kaplan 30
Kaplan 20
Pelton 30
Turgo 25
Cross flow 30
Propeller 75

If the design flow varies drastically in yearly dry season, the designer or developer
must not forget the above fact while selecting the number of units. For instant,
operation of Francis turbine below 50% of design flow will create vibration and
hunting and hence efficiency of the turbine will be reduced (technically not
recommended to operate below the minimum recommended flow). Such kind of
problem can be managed by installing two units with more flexibility of operation in
comparison of single unit. One should not forget the fact that plant outage should be
minimum for required repair and maintenance works of the power units. If number of
units is more than one, repair and maintenance can be performed in the yearly dry
season in such a way that no energy loss will occur.
Minimum number of units gives the most cost effective selection. This is due to the
number of auxiliaries to be installed and the control and protective relaying as well as
generator switchgear to be installed. These increase with the number of units and the
cost factor varies nominally with the capacity ratings. It means, with more number of
units, these costs will rise accordingly. However the multiple units may be necessary
to make the most efficient use of water where flow variation is great. Factors such as
space limitations by topographic and geologic characteristics or existing structure
may dictate larger or smaller units. Difficulty of transporting larger units /runners
sometimes make it necessary to limit their size. The number of units for installation
in mini hydro projects should consider the mode of transportation of the heavy
generating equipment. If the powerhouse site is accessible by vehicular road larger
units can be selected. If the equipment have to be transported by air lifting then the
size and number of units should be chosen based on heaviest single piece of
equipment part which can be transported by available helicopter.

4.4.4 Turbine Speed
One of the most important parameter of the hydro turbines is the rotational speed
and specific speed. Most of the turbines, generator and powerhouse dimensions are
based on speed of turbine and hence the proper selection of the turbine speed is
most necessary. In the mini hydro schemes standard generators should be installed
where possible, so during turbine selection it must be considered that the generator
be either coupled directly or through a speed increaser to the turbine, and should
reach the synchronous speed. As the generator is above 100 kW in most of the
cases I mini-hydro, use of gear for speed matching is not practiced as it entails
unnecessary loss of energy and the cost of the gear box as well as the maintenance
costs are high compared to selecting a speed range that matches with the generator
synchronous speed.
The relationship between specific speed and turbine speed is defined by the
following equation:


Where N
s
= specific speed
N = turbine speed in revolution per minute
H
d
= design head of turbine in meter
P = turbine power in kilowatts
There are many free software available which calculates and give specific speed and
a choice of synchronous speeds for turbine selection. In such cases, selection of
turbine speed is a question of selecting lower or higher side of N. Generally, lower
r.p.m. means a larger machine and higher initial cost. But higher r.p.m. means more
wear and tear of turbine and rotating parts.
Specifying a range of acceptable speeds is a safer option as strict and specific
requirements will tend to increase the cost of the generator and turbine. Specifying
speeds above 1000 r.p.m. should be justified with other turbine characteristics such
as cavitation, efficiency and vibration. It means these concerns should be adequately
addressed when selecting higher speeds.
The selected turbine speed should also be at synchronous speed which, for a 50-H
Z
system, is obtained from the relationship.

Where, f = frequency, 50 Hz.
The number of generator poles should be a whole number; divisible by 2. The ranges
of specific speed, head and runaway speed for different turbines are presented in
Table: 2.
Table: 2 Specific Speed and head range for different turbines
S.N. Turbine
type
Range of
specific
Speed
Range of head Range of runaway
speed, rpm
1 Kaplan 300 1000 4 m to 40 m 2.0 to 2.2 x normal
speed
2 Francis 50 450 30 m to 450 m 1.9 to 2.2 x normal
speed
3 Pelton 10 70 100 m to 2000
m
1.8 to 1.9 x normal
speed
4 Cross-flow 20 70 5 m to 200 m 1.8 to 2.0 x normal
speed
5 Turgo 20 80 30 m to 300 m 1.9 to 2.0 x normal
speed

1.25
d
0.5
H
P x N
Ns=
poles generator of number
f x 120
speed Synchronus =


4.4.5 General Efficiency Trend
The general efficiency trends for different types of turbines and their best efficiency
for calculation purpose is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: General efficiency trend for different turbines
Turbine type General efficiency trend Best efficiency
Kaplan Good efficiency range for full and part
load condition and can be operated up
to 20% load.
0.88 to 0.91
Francis Full load efficiency is good and part
load efficiency is poor and not
recommends operating below 50%
load.
0.85 to 0.94
Pelton Good efficiency range for full and part
to 30% load.
0.8 to 0.90
Cross flow Good efficiency range for full and part
to 30% load.
0.7 to 0.80
Turgo Good efficiency range for full and part
to 25% load.
0.75 to 0.85

While calculating the energy and power, the actual efficiencies achievable for
the particular turbine should be obtained from the prospective supplier or
manufacturer. Depending upon design, workmanship and material, the
efficiencies can vary from manufacturer to manufacturer for the same type,
capacity and rating of turbines.
4.4.6 Design Criteria
The general design criteria for the powerhouse mechanical equipment are based on
the standards issued by IEC, IS-12800 Part III) and other publications such as
Modern trends in selecting and designing Francis and Kaplan turbines by F. de
Siervo and F.de Leva, Modern trends in selecting and designing Pelton turbines by F.
de Siervo and A. Lugaresi, Water Power Development by Emil Mosonyi, Part 2
Guide on how to develop a Small hydropower plant- Final-2 (ESHA), Small
Hydropower in China, Experience and Technology etc.

4.4.7 Description of Equipment
4.4.7.1 Turbines
The hydraulic turbine is a mechanical device that converts the potential energy of
water into rotational mechanical energy. The power developed by the water turbine
is given by the equation .
Power () = Q H x g


Where,
= Power in Kilowatts (kW)
Q = Design flow in m
3
/s
H = Net head in meter and
= efficiency of turbine
g = 9.81 acceleration due to gravity
Turbines can be either reaction or impulse type. The turbine type indicates the
manner in which the water causes the turbine runner to rotate. Reaction turbines
operate with their runner fully flooded and develop torque because of the reaction
of water pressure against runner blades. Impulse turbines operate with their
runners in air and convert the potential energy of water into kinetic energy of a jet
that impinges onto the runner buckets to develop torque. The turbines can be
aligned either horizontally or vertically and some Kaplan turbine (bulb, semi-Kaplan
etc.) can be aligned in inclined position as well. The main parameters of different
types of turbines for preliminary design are presented as follows:
(1) Reaction Turbines
A reaction turbine is one in which the major portion of the pressure drop takes
place in the rotating wheel. As a consequence the proportions must be such that
the water fills all the runner passages completely. This makes it necessary that the
water be admitted to the rotor around its entire circumference. Francis and Kaplan
are the main reaction turbines. The main components of reaction turbine are spiral
case, fixed stay vanes, movable wicket gates, a runner and draft tube. The main
diameters of different types of turbines are presented below:
a) Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine is one of the most familiar and used turbine for
generating power. The one of main parameters for specifying Francis
turbine (runner) is its discharge diameter and inlet diameters. These
diameters can be calculated using de Seirvo and de Leva method.

Cross-section of Francis runner

The value of discharge diameter (referring to above cross section) is given by
D
3
= 84.5 k
u
(H)
0.5
/n
Where,
D
3
= Discharge diameter in meter
Fig. View of Francis Turbine


H = Net head in meter
n = rotational speed in rpm

k
u
= Peripheral velocity coefficient

k
u
= 0.31 + 2.5 10
-3
n
s

n
s
= specific speed
D
1
/D
3
= 0.4 + 94.5/n
s

D
2
/D
3
= 1/ (0.96 +0.00038n
s
)

H
1
/D
3
= 0.094 + 0.00025n
s

H
2
/D
3
= 1/(3.16 0.0013n
s
)
The above formula is derived from the above stated source. However, there
are other design guidelines also. This is only given as an indication. The
developer shall mention the source or basis if other formula are used.

(2) Impulse Turbine
Impulse turbines operate with their runners in air and convert the potential
energy of water into kinetic energy of a jet that impinges onto the runner
buckets to develop torque.
a) Pelton Turbine
The runner of the
Pelton turbine
normally operates
in air at near
atmospheric
pressure with one
to six jets of water
impinging
tangentially on the runner. Multi jet turbines slightly more efficient than
single jet turbines. The preliminary sizing of Pelton turbines are presented
below:

If we know the runner speed its diameter can be estimated by the following
equations:
D
pcd
= 38 x H
n
0.5
/n d
jet
= 0.55 x
(Q/z*1/(H
n
)
.5
)
.5

Where n is the rotational speed in rpm and z, the number of nozzles and H
n
is
the nominal head.
D
pcd
is defined as the diameter of the circle describing the buckets centre line.
As a general rule, the ratio D
pcd
/ d
jet
must always be greater than 10. If this is
not the case, then a new calculation with a lower rotational speed or more
nozzles has to be carried out.
The above formula is derived from the above stated source. However, there are
other design guidelines also. This is only given as an indication. The developer
shall mention the source or basis if other formula are used.
Fig. Pelton Turbine


b) Turgo turbines
The Turgo turbine can operate under a head in the range of 50-250 m. Like
the Pelton, it is an impulse turbine, however its buckets are shaped
differently and the jet of water strikes the plane of its runner at an angle of
20. The efficiency is lower than for the Pelton and Francis turbines.
Compared to the Pelton, a Turgo turbine has a higher rotational speed for
the same flow and head. A
Turgo can be an alternative
to the Francis when the flow
strongly varies or in case of
long penstocks, as the
deflector allows avoidance of
runaway speed in the case of
load rejection and the
resulting water hammer that
can occur with a Francis.

c) Cross-flow turbines
This impulse turbine, also known as Banki-Michell is used for a wide range
of heads overlapping those of Kaplan, Francis and Pelton. It can operate
with heads between 5 and 200 m. The Cross-flow turbines have low
efficiency compared to other turbines and the important loss of head due to
the clearance between the runner and the downstream level should be
taken into consideration when dealing with low and medium heads.
Moreover, high head cross-flow runners may have some troubles with
reliability due to high mechanical stress. It is an interesting alternative when
one has enough water, defined power needs and low investment
possibilities, such as for rural electrification programs.

4.4.7.2 Governors
A governor adjusts the water flow to maintain the generating unit's speed and the
system frequency. Also, it maintains a balance between the water input to the
turbine and the power requirements of the system. The primary functions of the
Fig. Principle of Cross-flow Turbine
Fig. Turgo Turbine


hydraulic turbine governor when controlling a unit directly connected to a system
are:
1) To maintain and adjust unit speed before the unit goes on line;
2) To maintain system frequency after synchronization by adjustments to be the
output of the turbine;
3) When operating on a system parallel with other units, to share load changes
with the other units in a planned manner in response to system frequency error;
4) To adjust the output of the unit in response to operator or other supervisory
commands; and
5) To protect the unit from uncontrolled runaway speed following the sudden load
through or to initiate a unit shutdown in response to an abnormal condition.

Figure : Basic Block Diagram of a governor
6) Selection and application of governor is based on the type of connection of the
plant, whether it is isolated and connected to isolated load center or it is grid-
connected or connected to a mini-grid with other small generators but
disconnected from the national grid. For grid-connected power plants, it is not
necessary to have a fully automatic governor as such power plants contribute
or assist very little in the system frequency control. Here, a manual control of
speed during synchronization and an emergency trip and closing mechanism is
sufficient in many cases.
7) For large generator-turbines of range more than 200 kW per unit, use of
Electronic Load Controller (ELC) is not practical as the equipment required to
sink the excess generation will be too large and the controller is not easily
available for such ranges.
8) For isolated operation, the unit should have good speed controlling capability
using governor and servomotors or direct motors. As the frequency of supply
should not vary with load and remain constant as much as possible, the


governor should have isolated operation capability. If the unit or plant is to be
connected to grid also, then the governor should have switching option of
isolated mode and network mode operation.
9) Governor controller can be mechanical-hydraulic or electronic. When the
governor is electronic, it can be again integrated electronic or digital or
numerical / PLC based. There is no definite basis for selection, but in Nepal
after sales service and repair capacity as well as in-house trouble-shooting
ability plays a vital role in selection. Mechanical-hydraulic governors are simple
and allow trouble-shooting by general mechanics with general skills, but they
are prone to frequent failures as well as unintended damage to turbines due to
tampering and wrong settings. Digital governors are reliable but prone to failure
due to voltage surges in the power supply. Trouble-shooting is difficult if
qualified personnel are not available.
10) Availability of reliable service and at short notice should be the basis of any
governor selection.
4.4.7.3 Inlet Valves
Valves are mechanical devices that control flow in conduits or piping systems.
Closure valves installed at inlet of spiral casing or distributor pipes are used to shut
off flow to the turbine and stop the unit if the turbine wicket gate or nozzles fail to
close. These closure valves are called inlet valves or turbine shut-off valves. The
most common types of valves are:
a) Butterfly Valves ( used up to 250 m water head for mini/small hydro
application)
b) Spherical Valves ( used for high head application)

4.4.7.4 Drive System (Speed Increaser)
When the turbine and the generator operate at the same speed and can be placed
so that their shafts are in line, direct coupling is the right solution; virtually no power
losses are incurred and maintenance is minimal. Turbine manufactures will
recommend the type of coupling to be used, either rigid or flexible although a
flexible coupling that can tolerate certain misalignment is usually recommended.
For such power range (100 to 1000 kW), the turbine runner is coupled directly to
the generator's shaft with suitable bolting connection in case of Pelton, turgo and
Francis turbine. In case of Cross flow and low speed Kaplan turbine, belt or gear
drive (speed increaser) will be used to match the synchronous speed of the
generator. However Cross-flow type of turbine will not be recommended due to its
low efficiency for this output range.

Speed increaser types
Speed increasers according to the gears used in their construction are classified
as:
Parallel-shaft using helical gears set on parallel axis and is especially attractive
for medium power applications.


Bevel gears commonly limited to low power applications using spiral bevel
gears for a 90 drive.
Belt speed increaser that is commonly used for small power application and
offer maintenance facilities

4.4.7.5 Other Accessories and Equipment
The other accessories and equipment are:
1) Suitable ventilation fans (both inlet and exhaust) mounted on the powerhouse
wall for circulating fresh air.
2) CO
2
bottles at suitable location to extinguish fire should be placed.
3) Cooling water system (if required).
4) Power backup system for black start.
5) Powerhouse lifting equipment or crane, etc.

4.5 Electrical Components
Electrical equipment consist of generator, transformer, switchgear equipment, control
and protection devices, equipment for transmission and distribution system etc.
Important considerations should be given while selecting these components.

4.5.1 Generator
4.5.1.1 Types and Selection
Induction or synchronous generators can be used to convert the mechanical energy
output of the turbine into electrical energy. Most installations of mini hydro projects
utilize synchronous generators. Induction generators are only used when system
conditions and economics permits as the induction generators have much lower
efficiencies and at capacities larger than 100 kW, this loss in efficiency accounts to
a high ultimate cost in lost revenue over the years. Additionally, such generators do
not have Reactive power controlling capability and hence, voltage control is not
possible in isolated operation.
The main advantage of a synchronous generator for mini hydroelectric plant
applications is its capability to operate with either a lagging or leading power factor,
by control of its excitation. Power factor ratings of generators are determined by the
requirement of the local load, or the connecting electric utility system, or both, which
commonly ranges between 0.8 and 0.95. The default power factor rating is 0.8.
Furthermore, synchronous generator has ability to establish its own operating
voltage and maintain frequency while operating isolated. Thus, if the
interconnection to the power system is separated, the generator may continue
supplying the local load. To utilize this advantage governor (accurate and
responsive speed and power output control system) and automatic voltage
regulator (voltage and reactive power control system) is required. These increase
the cost of synchronous generator.
The advantages of an induction generator are lower initial installation cost as well
as equipment maintenance costs from elimination of the exciter, voltage regulator,
and synchronizer. But the disadvantage is its lower efficiency throughout the


operating range. The induction generator draws its excitation (magnetizing) current
from the electrical system.
It is recommended that for mini hydro projects (100 kW to 1000 kW), three phase
synchronous generator should be used. Now onwards, only the features of
synchronous generators, which are applicable in mini hydropower projects, will be
discussed.
General parameters of synchronous generators for mini hydro projects are
summarized below:
(i) Rated output kVA
(ii) Power factor 0.8 0.9
(iii) Frequency 50Hz
(iv) No. of Phases 3
(v) Rated terminal voltage between phases kV
(vi) Range of voltage variation between phases
for rated output 10%
(vii) Range of frequency variation 5%
(viii) Stator winding connection star connection
(ix) Speed rpm
(x) Short Circuit ratio more than 0.8
(xii) Generator efficiency not less than 92%
(xiii) Generator cooling open cooling

4.5.1.2 Generator capacity and power output rating
The generator should have sufficient continuous capacity to handle the maximum
output available from the turbine (kW rating) at 100 percent gate without the
generator exceeding its rated temperature rise.

Generator de-rating factors

Maximum ambient
temperature(
o
C) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
A Temperature
factor 1.1 1.08 1.06 1.03 1 0.96 0.92 0.88

Altitudes (m) 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750
B Altitude factor 1 0.98 0.96 0.945 0.93 0.915 0.9 0.88
Altitudes (m) 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000 4250 4500
B Altitude factor 0.86 0.845 0.83 0.815 0.8 0.785 0.77

C Power factor
0.8

Generator kVA= 1.3 Installed capacity per unit in kW
A B C


Factor 1.3 is for safety margin of 30%. If ELC is used, the generator is to be
oversized up to 20% to take the consideration of large circulating current due to the
use of thyristors. In this case, the above formula is to be multiplied by another factor
1.2.
(Up to 200 kW capacity, load control governing system (Electronic Load Controller-
ELC) can be utilized in isolated systems using synchronous generators. There should
be enough availability of water while using ELC. In addition, emergency tripping
device leading to cutting off of water is required to stop the machine to prevent from
reaching the runaway speed to use this technology. For higher capacities of
generators and/or grid-connected mode, flow control governors shall be used.)

4.5.1.3 Generator voltage
The operating voltage of the generator increases with power. In case mini hydro
generators (100kW to 1000 kW) the standard generation voltages of 400 V, 690 V
or 3300 V can be used. These voltage levels may be different depending upon the
country of manufacture. For economy, special designs and voltage requirements
should be avoided and the prevalent voltage levels and design should be accepted
to reduce the costs. However, a separate station transformer to convert to our
accepted voltage level of 400V three-phase for applications and power transformer
to convert to 11 kV or 33 kV as necessary for distribution / supply to grid will be
required.

4.5.1.4 Generator Speed
Almost all of the hydraulic turbine-driven generators produce electrical energy by
the transformation of hydraulic energy. The mechanical design of each generator
must conform to the hydraulic requirements of its specific plant. Thus, in general,
the speed of the generator should be compatible with turbine speed; if not, speed
increasers should be used.

4.5.1.5 Insulation and temperature rise
Insulation shall be provided as follows:
(i) Stator winding class F
(ii) Rotor winding class F

Temperature rise shall be provided as follows:
(i) Stator winding Class B temperature rise
(ii) Rotor winding Class B temperature rise

4.5.1.6 Excitation System
Direct current field excitation is required for synchronous generators. Brushless
exciters are generally provided for smaller, higher speed generators. Larger, slower
speed generators generally utilize static exciters with solid-state equipment that


converts alternating current to direct current. For the mini-hydro range of
generators, it can be safely assumed to employ brushless excitation system. These
offer basically more reliable and less maintenance requirements. The control and
High voltage protection equipment are simpler and it is normally preferred by
developers. The devices are common and many can be exchanged with AVR
controllers of similar rated Diesel generators, which means replacement and repair
would be easier.
Automatic voltage regulators compare measured generator voltage with a reference
value, and adjust the exciter output accordingly to reduce the difference to zero.

4.5.1.7 Generator Neutral Grounding
For mini hydro generators of capacity up to 1000 kW and generation voltage 400 V,
neutrals of generators may be earthed directly to ground through an isolation switch
if there is only one generator in the plant and a transformer is employed to distribute
power through the distribution line. Generators of higher rating or higher generation
voltage may be earthed through a resistance. In the case of high resistance
grounding, the effective resistance should be such that the generator neutral
current during a phase-to-ground is limited between 100 and 150 percent of the
generator full-load current. In case of low resistance grounding, the short-circuit
current through the neutral may be higher but there should be effective protective
relaying against over-current. Employing low resistance has the advantage of lower
insulation failure risks for stator and more sensitive relaying. If the generating
voltage is more than 3300 V, high resistance grounding is recommended.
Especially, when two or more generators are connected to a single bus at the
generating voltage level, the generator grounding calls for special arrangement. In
this case, an interlocking of the neutral grounding with only one generator to be
connected to ground at a time with the other generator neutral to be isolated. This
arrangement avoids circulating current, faulty tripping and reduced earth-fault
current.

4.5.2 Transformers
4.5.2.1 Generator Transformer
In case of power plants connected to a distribution system with voltage different
from generating voltage, generator transformers are required. These are called
power transformers and should be differentiated from distribution transformers.
Distribution transformer are normally designed with maximum efficiency at 55%
loadings.
To upgrade the generation voltage to the transmission voltage, transformers of
following parameters can be used:
(i) Type 3-phase, oil immersed
(ii) Installation outdoor
(iii) Rated capacity kVA
(iv) Rated H.V. (Secondary) kV
(v) Rated L.V. (Primary) kV


(vi) Cooling ONAN
(vii) Rated frequency 50 Hz
(viii) Primary connection Delta
(ix) Secondary connection Star
(xi) Efficiency maximum efficiency to be not
less than 98% and occurring at not less than 70% rated load.
(xii) Grounding primary - ungrounded
Secondary - solid grounding

a) Rating
The full load kVA rating of the step-up transformer should be at least equal to
the maximum kVA rating of the generator or generators with which they are
associated.
Provided that the voltage ratio and levels are matching the requirements,
distribution transformers can be used for the reasons of easy availability. But
while doing this, the transformer capacity rating should be upgraded by a
factor of at least 1.25 to obtain best efficiency performances.

b) Transformer Voltage
Ratios and voltage ratings of transformers should conform to preferred ratings
wherever possible. The transformer low-voltage winding rating should match
the generator voltage rating and the high-voltage rating should be suitable for
the voltage of the transmission system, to which it will be connected. In
general, transformer ratios for the use in mini hydro projects are: 0.4/11 kV,
0.4/33 kV, 3.3/11 kV, 3.3/33 kV etc.

4.5.2.2 Station Transformer
Indoor, non-inflammable liquid- filled or dry-type of station service transformer of
suitable size and rating should be installed. The transformer should meet the
power consumption of lighting and station auxiliaries which require from 1 to 3
percent of the plant capacity. Usually station transformers are lightly loaded but
should be able to meet motor starting current demands. For a power plant of
1000kW capacity, 100kW capacity station transformer is adequate. It also means
that the transformer should be distribution type.

4.5.3 Switchgear equipment
The main purpose of switchgear is to protect the generators and to connect them
with the utility system (either grid or isolated system). The generator circuit breaker is
used to connect or disconnect the generator from the power grid. Potential
transformers (PTs) and current transformers (CTs) are used to transform high
voltages and currents down to more low values for metering and protection. Figure 1
shows a single-line diagram of a mini hydro plant with a single unit. The high voltage
side is equipped with a line circuit breaker and a line disconnection switch with
earthing switch, which disconnect the generating unit and main transformer from the


transmission line. A station transformer provides power for the operation of auxiliary
units. Some of the switchgear equipment can be designed as follows:
An edited single line diagram is given in the Annex.

Generator
Switch
(Single unit mini hydro scheme)
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
R (Neural Grounding System)
Battery Set
Figure-1
Protection
Metering
Charger
~
=
LOADS
CT
AVR Generator
Ex.
G
Transformer
Station
Switch
Y
PT
Fuse
SA
Breaker
and
Power Transformer
switch
LA
Y
Metering
Protection
and
Line Breaker
Distribution Line
Earth Switch
Transmission /

4.5.3.1 Circuit breakers and isolators
Different types of circuit breakers that can be used in small power stations are:
a) Air circuit breaker for 400 V, 690 V and 3.3 kV systems.
b) Vacuum circuit breaker for 11 kV systems and 33 kV systems.
The operating voltage of the circuit breaker should be 110% of the nominal system
voltage. Hence, for 3.3 kV system, the circuit breaker shall be rated for 3.6 kV
The continuous current rating (I) of the circuit breaker can be calculated as:
I Maximum power to be delivered/ (3 * Line Voltage * Power Factor)
To specify the correct continuous current rating, one should refer to the R10 series of
current values as per I.E.C. which is given below.


1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.15 4 5 6.3 8 and multiples of 10 of the given
values.
Hence, from calculation if the current comes to be 505 Amperes, then the rating
should be the nearest higher side rating of 6.3 x 100 = 630 Ampere.

For determining momentary rating and the interrupting ratings of circuit breakers,
short circuit currents available at the power plant at the given voltage levels should
be calculated. For simplicity and in absence of more reliable data, the circuit
breaker short-circuit breaking or making capacity ratings should not be equal to or
more than the same voltage level switchgear employed at the nearest grid or
distribution system.
Assuming this short circuit level, further short-circuit ratings can then be calculated
for station service switchgear and other plant switchgear.
Short-circuit current rating is a very important specification not only for circuit
breakers but for many other equipment in the plant such as cables, busbar, neutral
grounding resistor, fuses etc.
The continuous current of the isolators can be calculated same as that of circuit
breakers.
4.5.3.2 Surge Arresters
Mini hydro stations should be equipped with suitably rated surge arresters to protect
the equipment especially transformers and generators form lightning and switching
surges. The interrupting current of surge arrestors should not be less than 10 kA.
The voltage ratings of lightning arresters are:
System Voltage Surge arrester voltage rating
3.3 kV 3 kV
11 kV 9 kV
33 kV 30 kV
When Vaccuum type circuit breaker are employed in the system, then a surge
capacitor of suitable rating dependent upon the voltage level should be installed to
protect from steep front surges. It is particularly mandatory for generator side of the
Vacuum circuit breaker.
4.5.4 Control and Protection Systems
4.5.4.1 Control system
For mini hydro installations, sophisticated control system is not suggested.
Simplicity of control is essential to keep total installed equipment cost as well as
maintenance, repair, and test costs at a minimum. A simpler system would have
greater reliability because of its few installed equipment.
The control system should provide the following control modes:
(1) Local manual control of the individual components and systems from hard
wired control panels located in a room or dais near the respective units.
(2) Optionally, an additional control point such as Local automatic control of
generating units from control panels located in the control room as well as near
the respective units by PLC based unit controller may be installed. This is
additional cost and normally not necessary, but if there are many generators


(more than two) or if the generator-turbine create very high noise due to high
speed or any other reason, then a control room with acoustic separation can be
justified.

4.5.4.2 Protection Systems
Protection system shall be provided to isolate faulty systems as quickly as possible,
to limit damage and to maintain healthy systems in stable operating conditions. The
system shall feature a high degree of selectivity and discrimination between faulty
and healthy circuits.
Electrical protection relays may be electro-magnetic, static or numerical type. For
generator protection, a single numerical relay providing all the protective relay
functions can be used with a back-up relay for over-current and earth-fault over-
current. Using electro-magnetic or static relay requires one relay each for each of
the functions required. Selecting any type of protective relay should be based on
the availability of qualified personnel to at least identify the faulty relay and replace
with a spare one. Numerical and static protection relays require knowledgeable staff
about electronics.
Protection systems shall be provided for turbines, generators, transformers,
switchgear and feeders with an indication of the relaying given as below.
a) Turbine Protection
The turbine shall be protected in the following conditions:
- Bearing temperature high / extremely high
- Failure of governor
- Over speed
- Oil level and / or pressure of oil tank low or high
- Regulating pond / reservoir water level below the setting etc.

b) Generator Protection
A typical Generator can be protected with the following schemes:
- Differential protection (for unit capacity > 500kW)
- Field loss protection (only if connected to the grid)
- Reverse power protection
- Over voltage and over current protection
- Ground over current protection and earth fault protection
- Out of synchronization protection(only if connected to the grid)
- Stator/Rotor earth fault protection etc.
The particular protection scheme is typical to the generator, generator
grounding, transformer connection and ratings of the generator. Since the
generators are small, simple protective relaying is sufficient, which should
include at least 1. Loss of Field (46) protection 2. Voltage restrained over-
current (51V) overcurrent protection 3. a simple Stator Earthfault protection
(59G or 51N) 4. Over-voltage protection (59) 5. Reverse power protection (32)
in case of Francis / Kaplan turbines.


Further relays can be added for safety of the generator at added cost. If
numerical relay is used, adding the functions will not add any significant costs,
but differential protection is normally obtained with a separate relay unit.

c) Transformer Protection
The power transformers may be protected with the following schemes:
- Differential protection and / or restricted earthfault protection
- Overcurrent and earth fault protection
- Oil temperature indicator with alarm and trip
- Buchholz relay with alarm and trip control (for unit capacity > 500kVA).
- Winding temperature indicator with alarm and trip control
- Oil gauge with low-level alarm.

d) Feeder Protection
- Phase Overcurrent in all three phases Inverse and Instantaneous
- Earth Fault Protection (Suited to local supply system) Inverse and
instantaneous
- For Grid-connection, synchro-check relay (25) and Directional over-current
relay (67) shall be installed at both ends of the feeder line.

4.5.5 System Grounding
A safe system grounding design has two objectives: to carry electric currents into
earth under normal and fault conditions without exceeding operating and equipment
limits or adversely affecting continuity of service and to assure that a person in the
vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of electric shock. After
preliminary layouts of the dam, powerhouse, and switchyard have been made,
desirable locations for ground mats can be determined. Grounding conditions in
these areas should be investigated, and the soil resistance measured. IEEE outlines
methods for field tests and formulas for computing ground electrode resistances as
well as the size and length of the grounding mat and its grid. Sufficient calculation of
the step and touch potential during the prospective fault current should be done for
the ground mat coupled with a determination of average soil resistivity at the
proposed location.
For reference for grounding design, the recommendation in the "Guide for Safety
Substation Grounding IEEE No 80 shall be referred. The grounding resistance
should not be more than 1 Ohm.
Copper is the most commonly used material for conductors in grounding design but
due to increasing cost of copper other materials are preferred more often. Other
materials such as copper-clad-steel, aluminium or steel may be used for grounding
grid. Special attention should be given while using these materials, especially for
corrosion. The reinforcements used in the concrete of the powerhouse foundation is
also used as grounding grid with connection to the iron mesh at different points.


Additional to this, a grid of usually 2 m x 2 m cell-size with suitable steel strip or
copper conductor is laid on the ground prior to concreting in the power house.
Similar grounding mat is also laid below the substation or switchyard area. Better
grounding resistance is obtained by inserting grounding electrodes as determined
during above calculation.

4.5.6 DC power supply
DC power supply is critical and paramount to normal and safe operation of a power
plant. Very careful specification should be prepared and attention given during
installation and commissioning of it. Care for protection against over-voltage both
from outside as well as its own output should be built-in in the system. Over-voltage
appearing at the sensitive electronic equipment and relays used in the power plant
can destroy them easily and make the plant inoperable.
Power stations require a DC system with a battery charger, station batteries and a
DC distribution panel for control, protection, emergency lighting, communication
system etc. The ampere-hour capacity must be such that, on loss of charging
current, full control is ensured for as long as it may be required to take corrective
action. 110 V DC or 48 V DC systems should be adopted. A battery charger suitable
to maintain boost and float charging for the above battery shall be installed.
Generally, the ampacity of the battery is selected with estimate of the total DC power
consumption of the station, assuming that for 2-3 hrs full load and for 8 hrs about
25% of the maximum load will appear. With such load appearing the voltage of the
battery should not fall below 10% of the rated voltage.
For single unit or two unit power plant, a bank of 110V Lead-acid batteries with total
ampacity of 70 Ah can be considered adequate. These batteries should be deep cycle
batteries that are suited for deep discharge. The SLI batteries available for vehicles
are not suitable for this purpose and they will require replacement more often.
4.5.7 Lighting system
Lighting system shall be adequately installed in the entire plant, covering all the
buildings, switchyard, outdoor areas, roads, yards etc. Following lighting level shall be
maintained -
1. Powerhouse M/C floor 100 lux
2. Control Room 300 lux
3. Equipment Rooms 100 lux
4. Outdoor Switchyard 20 lux
5. General/Roads/ Headworks area 10 lux
The working floor in the turbine hall or machine floor and the control room should have
redundant lighting fixtures so that work is not interrupted with failure of the lamps. The
outdoor area is normally lit using SON ( low/high pressure sodium vapour lamps) or
mercury lamps or properly protected fluorescent lamps (tube light). In the control room
and machine floor, in addition to the lux, the colour rendition of the type of the lamp used
should also be considered. Halogen lamps may be necessary to improve the colour
rendition in machine floor. Increased use of Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) is
recommended for efficiency and lifetime.


4.5.7.1 Normal AC lighting system
In this system, the lighting circuits shall be fed by the 400V, 3 phase, 4 wire normal
AC supply available from the normal lighting distribution boards. All the lighting
fixtures connected to this system shall be available as long as supply is available
from normal source.

4.5.7.2 Emergency DC lighting system
During station emergency involving total AC failure, incandescent or CFL lamp DC
lighting fixtures from 110 or 48 V DC supply shall be provided for movement of
personnel in powerhouse building at strategic locations viz. near entrance,
staircase, landings etc. and for lighting the control room.

4.5.8 Communication System
In mini hydropower stations, the communication link (usually a telephone link)
between powerhouse and the dam area and also with grid or distribution system
should be established. If the plant is to be grid-connected, means of communication
using either the PSTN (Public switched telephone network) or wireless media
(CDMA) or VHF (very high frequency) radio should be provided with the nearest sub-
station from the power plant.

4.5.9 Modes of Mini hydropower station operation
4.5.9.1 Isolated Mode
For operation of mini hydropower projects in an isolated mode, the provision for
black start facility of the plant is essential. Therefore, each mini hydro generator
should able to be started without grid power requirement. In isolated mode, mini
hydropower plants can be operated independently from its own station service and
provide electrical power to the limited consumers. Typical drawing for isolated mode
is shown in figure-2. It normally means installing a small Diesel generator of
sufficient capacity to start the unit auxiliary of at least one unit.
In many small units, black start may be obtained without diesel generator, by
manually opening the inlet valves and pumping the oil pressure units. In such
cases, the unit should be designed to sustain slow start without oil injection at the
bearings.

4.5.9.2 Interconnection with grid
When mini hydropower plant is to be connected with existing grid, it should fulfill the
following requirements:
i) Power evacuation study
Before connecting mini hydro power plant to the existing grid, necessary
technical study for evaluating the impact on the grid due to new connection
(power evacuation study) should be carried out. The connection of project
should not result in the degradation of the quality of the grid. For this purpose,
a comprehensive load flow study should be carried in the vicinity of the
interconnection point taking account of the new project. If the study shows


negative impact on the grid, either some modifications on the system are
desirable or selection of new interconnection point is essential.
In such a study, following system parameters are found out for evaluation
a. Voltage regulation of the line These should be within +/- 5%.
b. Efficiency of the line energy loss for the transmission of power to grid or
vice versa The loss should be less than 4%. In case of higher losses, the
delivery point has to be shifted to the point of connection so that the losses in
the line are covered by the developer.
c. Stability of the local system It should not introduce new elements of
instability into the local system.
d. Reliability It should not introduce more elements of unreliability into the
existing system such as a pi or tee connection in a given transmission or
distribution line.
e. Improvement in the local system status The local system status should not
be degraded by introduction of the new power plant. It means the reactive power
balance should be improved and the power quality of the area already connected
to the grid should not be degraded if not improved.

ii) Power Quality Standards:
Power Quality shall be defined as the quality of the voltage, including its
frequency and the resulting current that are measured in the normal
conditions.
a. Frequency Variations
Small hydropower station should be designed and operated
maintaining the system frequency within the limits 2.5% of 50 Hz.

b. Voltage Variations
The long duration voltage variation at any connection point during
normal conditions shall be within the limits of 5%.

c. Power Factor
Small hydropower station shall maintain a power factor not less than
0.8 lagging at the connection point.
For a radial connection of the power station at the connection point,
from the supply direction, it should be able to improve the power factor
as required from 0.8 lagging to 0.9 leading. When the system requires
the station to supply reactive power to the grid, it shall be capable to
maintain the power factor at least 0.8 lagging if instructed.
If the power station is connected along with local distribution network,
then the power factor of the total network from the connection point
shall be not less than 0.8 lagging, in order to avoid extracting
excessive reactive power from the grid.



d. Protection Requirements
The minimum protection at the interconnection point required for a
small hydropower plant connected to the grid will vary according to
type, size, method of connection and earthing of the grid. It shall have
the following protection facilities for 33 or 11 kV systems:
o Three Phase Overcurrent
o Directional overcurrent
o Earth Fault Protection
o Synchro-check relay
o Other if necessary

e. Equipment Short Circuit Rating
All Equipment at the connection point shall comply with the
requirements given by the grid code.

Typical interconnections with grid are shown in figure 3 (figure 3a and figure
3b). Figure 4 is the arrangement of mini hydro project for grid connection as
well as grid isolated mode.

Existing Line
Figure-3b
Figure-3a
CB CB
Metering
W VAR Wh PF A Y
LA
CB CB
Substation
WITH GRID
LA
Y
INTERCONNECTION
From MH
A PF Wh VAR W
Metering
Interconnection
Figure-2
11 kV line
Distribution
ISOLATED MODE
Refer fig. 1
transformer
Refer fig. 1 Refer fig. 1
From MH
Existing
Interconnection
Figure-3
From MH



From MH
11/0.4kV
11/0.4kV
11/0.4kV
Distribution
transformer
11 kV line
CB
ISOLATED LOAD+ GRID CONNECTED
Figure-4
3a or 3b
Refer fig.
Refer fig. 1

4.6 Transmission and Distribution
1. Transmission lines can either be buried cables or conductors suspended
overhead on poles. Overhead lines are more common as they are less expensive
and easier to install. Overhead lines are also easy to repair and maintain.
However, when house are densely located or heavy snowfall is expected during
winters, underground transmission lines may be preferred, they require little
maintenance.
2. The design of transmission and distribution lines should be such that a voltage
drop at any distribution line end is limited to 10% of nominal value (11 kV or 33
kV line-5%, distribution transformer-3% and service wire-2%)
3. The maximum transmission line-to-line voltage level permitted in isolated system
is 11 kV. Transformers should be a least 20-25% over-sized than the existing
demand and keeping load extensions in the future in mind. For service
connection, following voltage system should be used:
i) Low Tension supply
-230 V, single phase for loads up to 30 A
-400/230 V, three phase for loads more than 30A
ii) High Tension supply
11 kV and 33 kV three phase systems for load more than 100 kVA
4. ACSR conductors are generally used for overhead transmission lines.
Conductor size to be used in 33 kV line is 100 sq. mm ACSR and conductor size
to be used in 11 kV line is 100 sq mm or 50 sq. mm ACSR. Arial bundled cables
(ABC) may also be used for overhead lines if poles are expensive. ACSR
conductors are available in various sizes ad designations. Their properties are
presented the Table below.

Sizes and designations of ACSR conductors used in mini hydro schemes
Name Current Resistance Inductive Approximate


rating in still
air
(A)
(/km) reactance at 50
Hz ad 50 cm
spacing((/km)
weight
(Kg/km)
Squirrel 76 1.374 0.355 80
Gopher 85 1.098 0.349 106
Weasel 95 0.9116 0.345 128
Rabbit 135 0.5449 0.335 214
Otter 185 0.3434 0.328 339
Dog 205 0.2745 0.315 394

5. Armoured cables should be used for underground systems. PVC-insulated
armoured cables may also be used but should be limited to short distribution
lines, service lines, overhead distribution box (DB) connections and in and
around the powerhouse.
6. The clearances of overhead conductors with ground, trees and other structures
should maintained in accordance with the values presented in tables below
i. Minimum Ground Clearances
S.N. Voltage Level Across Road
(m)
Along Road
(m)
Other places
(m)
1. above 230/400 V
and below 11 kV
5.8 5.5 4.6
2. 11 kV to 33 kV 6.1 5.8 5.2

ii. Minimum Clearances between live wires and structures or trees.
S.N. Voltage Level Minimum Clearance (m)
1. 230/400 to 11 kV 1.25
2. above 11 kV and up to 33 kV 2

Note: Maximum deflection of wire due to wind pressure should be considered
while fixing the minimum clearances.
7. The minimum sag for cables up to 11 kV can be calculated by:
d= (L/172.8)
2

where, d= sag in m
L= length of span in m

Sag for spans of overhead cables
Span (m) 20 30 40 50 60 80
Minimum sag ( mm) 13 30 54 84 121 210

The value of sag should be included when determining the ground clearance of a
transmission line.
8. Transmission poles should be made of hardwood, reinforced concrete, or
galvanized steel. All poles carrying 11 kV and 33 kV circuits shall 11 meters high.
Pre-stressed reinforced concrete poles are economical for the plain terrain. Steel
telescopic poles are used at difficult hilly terrain. In case of wooden poles, only


treated poles should be used. The basic span shall be maintained within the
following limits:-
33 kV line: 50m to 55 m
11 kV line: 50m to 55 m
Suitable dimensions for the wooden poles which can be used for three-phase
transmission are given in the following table.

Pole specification for hardwood poles
Minimum length (m) 6 7 8 8.5 9
Maximum span (m) 35 35 35 35 35
Buried length (m) 1 1.2 1.5 1.7 2
Minimum top diameter (mm) 125 140 150 175 175
Minimum ground clearance (m) 4 4.6 5.5 5.8 6.1

9. Shackle insulators of appropriate voltage should be used I overall lines with
voltages up to 1000 V. Stay insulators shall be provided on all stays sets along
overhead lines of more than 1000 V. Insulator dimensions and appropriate
conductors are listed in the table below.

Insulator specifications

S.N.
Size Dimensions Weight Corresponding
conductor
1 Small 55 mm 55 mm 200 gm Squirrel, service wire
2 Medium 75 mm 90 mm 600 gm Gopher, weasel and rabbit
3 Large 100 mm 110 mm 1300 gm Dog

10. Pin, disc, strain and post insulators are used for high-voltage transmission.
11. The voltage and span determine the minimum spacing of the conductors.
Generally conductor spacing on the poles should be at least 300 mm in case of
up to 400 V, 400 mm in case of 1000 V an 600 mm in case of 11 kV lines. For
aluminium conductors in horizontal or triangular alignment, spacing is given bye
the formula:
Spacing= (d+(V/150))
where, Spacing is in meters
V= voltage in kV
d= sag in meters
In general, 70% should be added as a safety factor on the value calculated
above.
12. A stay set should be provided at the first pole at all poles set at an angle and at
line ends. For safety and protection from storms, every fifth pole is generally
stayed on both sides even if the poles are in a straight line.


13. Distribution lines and branches with more than 100 households or 10 kW should
have a back-up breaker in a distribution box in order to be able to identify faults.
14. For easy management and faultfinding, the distribution system should be divided
into different area separated by switches and fuses.
15. Drop-out fuses and gang-operated switches of suitable ratings shall be provide at
high voltage points.
16. Distribution transformers should be oil-immersed, natural-cooled single and/or
three-phase, suitable for outdoors installation on 11 kV and 33 kV, 50 Hz
distribution systems. The design of transformers should conform to the latest
edition of the appropriate IEC specifications and/or other recognized international
standards.
Features for distribution transformers
Type Three-phase,
11/0.4 kV
Three-phase,
33/0.4 kV
Single-phase,
11/0.23 kV
Rated capacity
Rated system
voltage
- Primary
- Secondary

11 kV
400/230 V

33 kV
400/230 V

11 kV
230 V
Highest system
voltage
- Primary
- Secondary

12 kV
440 V

36kV
440 V

12 kV
250 V
Rated Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz
Connection
- Primary
- Secondary

Delta
Gnd. Wye

Delta
Gnd. Wye

NA
Cooling System ONAN ONAN ONAN
Vector group Dyn 11 Dyn 11 NA
BIL for windings
and
bushings for
primary side

75 kV

170 kV

75 kV
Withstand voltage,
50 Hz, 60 S.
- Primary
- Secondary

28 kV
3 kV

70 kV
3 kV

28 kV
3 kV
Maximum
allowable noise
level at 3 metre
hemispherical
radius

<44 dB

<44 dB

<44 dB


Applicable
standard
IEC IEC IEC

Lightning protection
1. Lightning arrestors should be provided for all current-carrying conductors at the
start and end of transmission and distribution lines. Moreover, in lightning prone
areas, lightning arrestors should be provided every 1000 m along high-tension
lines and every 500 m along distribution lines.
2. In lightning-prone areas neutral lines should be earthed approximately every 200
m using 2 m long, 25 mm diameter GI earth piping and GI wire/ strips or ACSR
conductors with a minimum area of 20 mm
2
.
3. Earthing should be provided at each lightning arrestor along the electrical lines.
Earthing should be provided at the transformer body and at the transformer
neutral on the secondary side of the distribution transformer. Earthing should be
carried out using a minimum 600 mm 600 mm 3 mm ground plate of copper
or GI piping/strips with adequate depth, fill material and maintenance provisions (
soaking, tightening connections, earth-resistance measurement) in order to
achieve the least-resistance earth path for faulty current and lightning strikes.
4. In lightning-prone zones, overhead ground wires shall be used to protect high-
voltage transmission lines. This provision is not, however, recommended for low-
voltage distribution networks.
5. Varistors should be used for better protection, for electronic equipment.

Service wire
Guidelines for service wire are discussed below.
1. Service wire should be double insulated: they should be PVC cable (concentric or
multi-core) and additional voltage drops should not exceed 2%. Underground
service connections should be either armoured cable or PVC cable in protective
circuit.
2. Service wire should be of the same material as the line conductor (aluminium) to
avoid the galvanic corrosion.
3. For spans exceeding 20 m, in consideration of the mechanical strength required,
service wire of minimum 4-6 mm
2
(depending on the span) should be used for all
lighting loads regardless of the actual power supply. However, if the distance
(span) between a pole and a house is very short (i. e. less than 20 m), then a twin
flat cable of 2.5 mm
2
can also be used.
4. A switch fuse unit (main unit) should be installed in each house.
5. The fuse of the main switch should be rated to protect against exceeding the
maximum current ratings of the service ad house wiring.
6. To avoid overloading a plant, a load-limiting device (ECC, MCB or PTC) should
be installed in each household.
7. Service wires should be clamped to poles to avoid creating tension in
connections.


5. POWER AND ENERGY
5.1 Introduction
The purpose of developing a power plant is to generate energy. The amount of energy
that can be generated from a power plant is dependent on the quantity of water
available and the head of the system plus the efficiency of the generating equipment.
The capacity of a power plant is defined by the available discharge of the river, for a
particular duration of time.

5.2 Methodology
The general methodology to determine the design discharge for a power plant is
based on the flow pattern of the source river. It is called as dependable flow of the
river and shown by the flow duration curve of the source river.
The usual method of determining the quantity of energy that can be generated from a
power plant is to fix the capacity of the power plant as per the dependable discharge
of the river.
From the viewpoint of energy generation, the duration of a year is divided into dry and
wet period and the energy produced called the dry period energy and the wet period
energy accordingly. The inflow of the river is much greater in the wet period, whereas
but the demand of energy is greater in dry period.
The long-term mean monthly flow of the source river is calculated or generated from
the hydrological study. The monthly flow for power generation is calculated by
deducting the minimum flow essential to be released for environmental purpose of
and other releases for water supply, irrigation etc., if any, from the available flow in the
river at the intake site. In some cases additional flows of nearby streams can be
augmented to the flow from the source river in the water conveyance of the hydro
project. If irrigation release is provided from the tail water of the power plant then it will
not effect the power generation.

5.3 Outage
In consideration to the records of the power plant operation in Nepal an outage of 6%
can be adopted and shall be considered to derive the monthly power and energy.

5.4 Input Data
Hydrology: The average monthly discharge of the source river is used to calculate
the power generation. The available flow for power generation shall be calculated by
deducting downstream releases for environmental and for water supply, irrigation,
water mills etc. from the flow in the river. Specific requirement of downstream release
shall be determined in the field investigation period. The environmental release is
practiced to be adopted 10% of the minimum river flow.
In case of isolated power plants the power and energy generation shall be worked out
based on demand analysis.

Head loss: The total head loss in the headrace conveyance and penstock is
calculated and deducted from the gross head to determine the net head or the rated


head of the plant. As head loss depends upon the discharge and subsequently the
water velocity in the pressure conduit the rated head is variable according to the flow
variation for power generation. The hydraulic loss is calculated for each month
considering the particular inflow for that month.

Equipment Efficiency: The efficiency of turbine, generator and power transformer are
multiplied to get the overall efficiency of the plant. The efficiency of the equipment
depends upon the type of equipment and they are variable for different flow
conditions.

Other Assumptions: The following additional assumptions shall be made for the
computation of the power and energy produced by the project:
The minimum downstream release shall be taken as 10% of the minimum
monthly inflow.
The loss due to evaporation can be neglected
The generation loss due to scheduled outage and station consumption can be
taken as around 6% of generation of each month
In isolated schemes daily load factor should be considered for determining the
energy consumption .

5.5 Results of the Study
The following table is illustrated to calculate the monthly power and energy generation
from the power plant.

A spreadsheet model has been prepared for the calculation of the monthly power and
energy generation from a power plant and is appended in the Annexure.

Month Monthly Energy (MWh)
Total Outage Net
Jan 31 1.36 1.30 951 708 14 693
Feb 28 1.02 0.96 951 639 13 626
Mar 31 0.74 0.68 808 601 12 589
Apr 30 0.57 0.51 605 436 9 427
May 31 1.47 1.41 951 708 14 693
Jun 30 3.39 3.33 951 685 14 671
Jul 31 8.20 8.14 951 708 14 693
Aug 31 14.14 14.08 951 708 14 693
Sep 30 9.34 9.28 951 685 14 671
Oct 31 4.53 4.47 951 708 14 693
Nov 30 2.32 2.26 951 685 14 671
Dec 31 1.75 1.69 951 708 14 693
365 7,816
Days
Monthly
Flow
(m
3
/s)
Available
Flow
(m
3
/s)
Available
Power
(kW)


6. PROJECT CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION
ESTIMATION OF POWER POTENTIAL AND DETERMINATION OF INSTALLED CAPACITY
6.1 General
The installed capacity of a project depends on the load demand of the power market
and power potential of the river. The two factors of power generation are the available
head and flow of the potential site given by the equation:
P = 9.81x
t
x
g
x Q x H (kW)

Where,
P = Power in kilowatt
Q = Discharge in m
3
/s
H = Head in meters

t
= Efficiency of turbine

g
= Efficiency of generator

The installed capacity should match with power demand of the load centers. Two
approaches suitable for mini hydro have been discussed here for the determination of
the installed capacity of a project.

1. Isolated and mini grid system
In this system at first the power and energy demand of the load centers is
made and a project site with matching power potential is identified and
studied. Generally the installed capacity is determined on the basis of about
90% of the dependable flow in the source river is calculated and the project
configuration are worked out to meet the peak power demand usually for
evening peaks. If the flow can generate power exceeding the power demand
of the load centers the installed capacity is adopted the peak load demand
and the design flow is calculated back. However it is experienced that after
the electrification of load center the power demand increase rapidly so the
installed capacity is recommended to be fixed on the basis of future load
demand. If the peak demand is not met by the river potential then power
demand is curtailed by decreasing the load centers to be served by the power
plant. If site conditions are favorable to construct a peaking reservoir to cope
with the evening peaks then the reservoir capacity is worked out to supply
water for power generation at peak demand period.

2. System Interconnected with Central Grid
In grid connected system the installed capacity of a power plant is optimized
by techno economic evaluation. In this system it is assumed that all the power
generated from the given project is supplied to the grid and the local load
centers are interconnected with the main grid that of NEA in Nepal. In practice
NEA desires that a 65% of the dependable flow from small hydropower
projects be supplied in its grid although it is not binding for projects below
1000 kW.


Determination of the optimum plant capacity for a particular site, a number of
alternative plant capacities are considered with respect to the available head
and different) flows. Then the annual energy and corresponding revenue is
calculated. Then the cost of development and annual costs of each
alternative capacity is worked out tentatively. After that the net benefit and
cost of production of each alternative is calculated. The alternative
demonstrating maximum benefit or the least cost of production is the most
economic alternative. The corresponding plant capacity is selected for detail
design and analysis of the project.



7. Project Cost Estimate
7.1 Introduction
This section describes the methodology for derivation of the total project cost. The cost
estimate shall be based on the final layout of the project structures carried out in the
feasibility study. The basis of arriving at a reasonable rate per unit work or supply of
particular items will be (i) detailed survey of materials, labour, equipment and their
prevailing rates and (ii) its specification. Work volumes shall be estimated based on
the design drawings. The estimate process shall be carried out in parallel with
Construction Planning, as these two activities are complementary to each other.

7.2 Assumptions
Certain assumptions shall be made before the estimation of unit prices for each item of
works. The following criteria and assumptions will be considered:
Costs shall reflect the price level at the time of feasibility study.
All figures shall be expressed in Nepalese rupees or US$ or combination of them.
An exchange rate of US$ with Nepalese rupees for currency conversion at the
time of feasibility study.
Whether construction equipment costs included in each item of work.
The cost and prices shall be based on the assumption that all goods, materials,
and services used in the project have been included all local taxes, duties and
royalties.

7.3 General Methodology
The project shall be divided into a number of major components for the estimating
process as follows:
Land and support: The cost components include land acquisition and lease,
compensation to Forest Users' Committee, camp and other physical facilities,
local development, access roads, if any, and environmental mitigation. This cost
also shall include cost of relocation of existing infrastructure facilities which lie in
the project construction site.
Main civil construction works
o Temporary river diversion
o weir, intake, canal, settling basin, forebay/spillway
o headrace canal/pipe, , saddle supports, and anchor blocks
o powerhouse, and tailrace and outdoor switchyard
o protection works
Electro-mechanical equipment
o turbines
o generators
o transformers
o auxiliary equipment
o gates, valves and hoisting devices


o switchyard and transmission line
Developer's cost
Engineering and management costs
Physical and price contingencies
Interest during construction

7.4 Cost Estimate of Civil Works
The estimating process for the civil construction works will be as followings:
a) Division of the project area into a number of working fronts like headworks,
settling basin / forebay, headrace pipe/penstock pipe, powerhouse and tailrace
etc.
b) Identification of distinct construction tasks or measurable pay items, such as
overburden excavation, rock excavation, stone masonry, backfill work, concrete
works, shuttering &scaffolding, steel reinforcement etc.
c) Quantity calculation of each item
d) Development of unit rate of construction works based on designers past
experience with reasonable adjustments for the site specific conditions of the
project. The construction method to be adopted and standard norms and
practices of the country including prevailing market rates shall be given due
consideration.
e) Calculation of cost for each activity by multiplying quantity obtained in (c) by rates
derived in (d).
f) Calculation of cost for each structure by summing up costs calculated in (e) of
different works required for the structure.

7.5 Unit Rates/ Unit Prices
Unit rates will be derived for the major work items. Standard norms of practice and
designers in-house experience shall be utilized in derivation of the unit rates.
Wherever applicable, norms published by Ministry of Works and Physical Planning
can be used. The prices of material and other equipment can be obtained from local
market and also from projects under construction. A provision of 15~25% of the unit
cost shall be adopted for overhead and profit. The following four sub-heads shall be
estimated and the summation of these will be the rate of an item of works.

7.5.1 Labour Costs
For estimating purposes, the labour force is subdivided into five categories, namely
unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled, and highly skilled and supervisors. It shall be judged
whether the work force required for the project will be available in the local areas or
not. Normally, specific skilled labour will be hired from outside the project area.
Labour costs shall be based on the District Rate (Available from Office of the District
Development Committee of the every district and updated in the beginning of each
fiscal year) of study year.


7.5.2 Cost of Equipment tools and Plants
For rate analysis purpose, equipment rates shall be derived from a widely used
publication named Cost Reference Guide for Construction Equipment.

7.5.3 Cost of Construction Material
It shall be assumed that major construction materials like cement, reinforcement
steel, structural steels etc can be supplied from the nearest market or city center.
Unit rates of construction materials shall be derived from rates of local markets
adding transportation cost and loading and uploading charges. Specific materials like
penstock pipes, gates which may be imported from India or overseas and their costs
shall be calculated accordingly.

7.5.4 Overhead and profit
A profit at the rate of 10~15% will be reasonable for the Contractors after allocating
all charges of equipment, establishments etc. The overhead includes items such as
office rent, camp facilities, power supply, depreciation of equipment, salaries of office
staff, bank & insurance charges, etc. This overhead charge will be taken as 5~10%
of the net cost of unit rate. Hence, a provision of 15~25% of unit cost can be adopted
for overhead and profit.

7.6 Cost components
The cost components included in the project cost are: land and support, pre-
operating expenses, main civil works, hydro mechanical works, transmission line and
switchyard, electromechanical works, taxes and duties, physical and price
contingencies and interest during construction.

7.6.1 Land and Support
Land and support include the following costs:
Land acquisition and lease
Compensation to Forest Users' Committee
Camp facilities
Local development
Temporary access road
Environmental mitigation

7.6.2 Pre-operating expenses
The pre-operating expenses include the cost of engineering and administration
and developers cost.

(I) Engineering, Construction Management, and Supervision
A total of 6 % of the total construction cost is considered to cover the
following:


o detailed field investigations
o preparation of detailed construction drawings
o supervision of construction, testing and commissioning
o management of procurement and transportation
o administration of construction materials
o measuring the work
o preparation of tender documents
o supervision of construction, testing and commissioning
o Management of procurement. transportation
o measuring the work and preparation of interim certificates
o cost of owners and consultants equipment, supplies, communication and
transport

(II) Developers Cost
A 2% allowance shall be added to cover owners administration and other
miscellaneous costs.

7.6.3 Main Civil works
The main civil works for the headwork includes the hydraulic structures like: diversion
weir, intake structure, gravel trap and overflow spillway, settling basin, forebay and
associated other structures. Similarly, the civil works in the water conveyance system
includes headrace pipe/penstock pipe, powerhouse, switchyard and tailrace etc.
River protection works at headworks and powerhouse as well as drainage and slope
stabilization works shall be included in the civil cost.

7.6.4 Hydro mechanical works
The cost of Hydro-mechanical Works such as conveyance pipe, penstock pipe,
gates, trashracks, gates and stoplog will be estimated from the information provided
by the manufacturers/suppliers. Quotations from local manufacturers shall be
solicited, as cost of hydromechanical equipment supplied by local fabricators is
cheaper compared to imported one.

7.6.5 Electrical and Mechanical Equipment
The costs of the electrical and mechanical equipment will be estimated by a
combination of methods including:
Interpretation of quoted prices supplied by potential suppliers, mainly for the
larger and more expensive equipment such as turbines, generators, power
transformers, and main inlet valves.
In-house estimates using established international prices and/or relationships for
more routine items. The in-house information is based on years of collection of
price data, and often elements the errors of variations of prices occurring due to
changes in supply and demand.


Percentage or lump sum provisions on a ratio basis based on experience, for
lesser miscellaneous items.

The costs of the switchyard components may be based on:
partly on quoted prices supplied by potential suppliers, and
partly on in-house estimates using established international prices, and
experience

7.6.6 Transmission Line
The cost of transmission line will be based on the current costs practiced in
transmission line constructed by NEA or quotation of manufacturers/suppliers.

7.6.7 Value Added Tax (VAT)
In accordance with Government of Nepal's Rules, a Value Added Tax (VAT) of 13%
is applied on the total civil construction cost and in the cost of hydro-mechanical
works. VAT is exempted for electro-mechanical equipment.

7.6.8 Contingencies
The estimated costs should include physical contingencies which allow for
unforeseen cost increases that may become necessary as more information is
obtained and evaluated. In view of the extent of investigations and study, the
following contingencies shall be considered:
Civil Works - Surface & Infrastructure & General Items 10%
Hydro- & Electromechanical and Transmission 5%

A price contingency of 4% of the construction cost can be considered in the project
estimate.

7.6.9 Interest During Construction (IDC)
Interest During Construction (IDC) is usually capitalized as part of the investment
program because it must be financed during construction and recovered through
depreciation charges. IDC is the interest that is paid on the funds drawn down from
loans taken to finance the projects. IDC is based on the debt-equity ratio, interest rate,
construction years and cash flow disbursement.

7.6.10 Annual operation and Maintenance Cost
The annual operation and maintenance (O & M) cost of a hydropower plant is
generally adopted 1.5% to 3% of the total construction cost. It is less for larger plants
and high for smaller plants. Alternatively this cost can be calculated with the
breakdown of cost items. The cost items are:
- salary and benefits to the operation crew
- cost of materials


- cost of spare parts
- regular repair and maintenance cost
- insurance cost
- local development cost
- other costs

Experience of similar type of power plant is also an appropriate method to determine
the annual operation & maintenance cost.

7.7 Project Cost
On the basis of the analysis described above, the cost of the Mini Hydropower Project
will be calculated. Financial cost of the Project includes applicable taxes and duties
applicable to hydropower projects as per Nepal Government Rule, custom duty @1%
of the price for import of electromechanical equipment, price contingency during
construction and interest during construction on debt portion of the cost.



8. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
8.1 General
The feasibility study of a hydropower project essentially prepares the construction
planning and scheduling of the project construction works. It is generally presented in
a bar chart, critical path method diagram (CPM chart) or some computer programs
like MS Project. The cash flow required for the project construction is calculated on
the basis cost required for construction of various project components. The
construction plan and schedule list outs construction activities and work items of the
project components in a vertical column and the time duration required for each
activity or sub activity are shown in horizontal rows.
The construction phase of a mini hydro project starts after the generation license has
been received by a developer from the concerned government agency and power
market to supply the energy from the envisaged power plant has been established. In
grid connected mini hydro schemes the developer has to conclude a power purchase
agreement with an electricity utility like the Nepal Electricity Authority.

8.2 Phases of Construction Activities
The construction schedule of a mini hydro project generally covers the following
items.
1. Preconstruction schedule
The main activities of the preconstruction schedule are detail design of the project
components, preparation of bid documents and selection of contractors for the
construction works. Other activities in this phase are construction of access to the
project site, arrangement of land for the project, establishment of construction power,
appointment of contractors and suppliers and organization of project management
group.

2. Construction schedule
Based on the detailed design the volume of different works is determined and time
required to complete the items are calculated. The time calculation is based on work
volume and productivity of work depending upon construction technology. The
sequence of work is also worked out. The construction works in a mini hydro project
generally consist of the following works:
Preparatory works: Land acquisition, establishment of construction facilities,
arrangement of borrow area of construction materials.
Civil works: River diversions works and construction of diversion facilities,
desilting facilities, water conveyance system (headrace canal or conduits)
forebay, penstock support and anchor blocks, powerhouse building and
tailrace canal.
Hydromechanical works: Fabrication, transportation, erection and testing of
gates, trash racks, penstock pipes etc. Generally the civil works for these
steel structures are completed and then the installation works are performed.
Electromechanical works: The electromechanical works are carried out after
the civil works have been substantially completed. It is planned in such a way
that the powerhouse civil work is completed first and the powerhouse building


is handed over to the equipment erector. Interference of these works has to
be coordinated by the project management to avoid conflicts and
unnecessary delays.
Transmission Line work: The transmission line work may be started slightly
behind the civil works depending upon the transmission length or time
required to complete it. The transmission line construction must be ready
before the testing of electromechanical equipment is to be carried out.
Commissioning of Power Plant: The commissioning of the power plant can be
completed after successful testing of the power plant facilities like testing of
waterways, testing of generating equipment and charging of transmission line.
The commercial generation of the project starts at after the commissioning of
the power plant.



9. Financial Analysis
9.1 General
The power project must be technically feasible as well as financially viable. Apart
from the technical, environmental and socio-economic aspects of the project, the
financial analysis provides the most important indicators for the acceptability of the
project for investment. The financial evaluation is aimed at giving potential investors
an overview of the risks and benefits associated with financing the project. The
analysis is based on the use of real time monetary values of the cost and benefit and
makes use of market prices and, therefore, includes any taxes which will be levied on
the factors of production and any subsidies, capital or operating costs, which may be
received as part of the development. All costs are charged and all revenues credited
to the analysis in the actual amounts expended or received at the time of
expenditure. For this analysis the financial rate of return and cash flow is assessed
from the perspective of a utility owner/operator.
The financial analysis is carried out by the usual discounted cash flow technique. The
financial indicators are: the Internal Rate of Return on Equity Investment, Net Present
Value and Benefit Cost Ratio. The analysis is carried out in Nepalese Rupees (NRs.)
as the price for the energy that will be sold from this project will be in NRs. The
relevant specific parameters applied for the financial analysis in this study are the
following:

9.2 General Assumptions
Analysis Period: The analysis period starts with cash flow investment for project
construction works which is distributed for each year of construction period generally
1.5 to 3 years. Then the cost and revenue are spread over the economic life of the
plant from the date of commercial generation. Generally, 25 years can be adopted as
the economic life of a mini hydro plant.

Reference Date: A reference date for costs, exchange rate and discounting is
established on the date of project evaluation.

Investment Cost: The financial cost of project investment is made up of total
construction cost with contingencies, price escalation, taxes, duties, value added tax
and the interest during construction. Interest during construction is calculated with
prevailing interest rate on the total investment. The format for the cost is presented in
Format.

Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Costs: Annual operation and maintenance cost of
the plant is made up of salary of staff, repair & maintenance cost, taxes and duties,
overhead of the company, depreciation cost. The O&M cost is generally adopted as 1
to 3% of the project cost.

Insurance Premium: Annual insurance premium of the plant can be assumed to be
less than 2.0 percent of the total financial cost of the project.

Financing Mix: The project is assumed to be developed with long term loan and
equity investment of Developer. Generally the financing mix of loan and equity lies


between 70% to 30% and 60% to 40%. The medium term loan is assumed to carry
the annual interest rate for the repayment period following commercial operation of
the project. Interest during construction (IDC) has been capitalized.

Discount Rate: A discount rate has to be chosen and used to calculate the Net
Present Value and the Benefit Cost Ratio of the project as well as to compare with
the calculated IRR on Equity Investment. The choice of a discount rate should be
based on the prevailing market interest rate say between 8 to 10 %.

Energy Benefits: Energy benefits of a project are based on the energy consumption
in the supply area multiplied by the electricity tariff. The price of energy is generally
based on prevailing tariff in similar projects or the electricity tariff of NEA. If the
project is connected to the central grid of NEA the energy benefit from the project is
calculated on the basis of a power purchase agreement between the Developer and
NEA. The Developer can supply the monthly deemed energy under PPA. For the
purpose of bulk purchase of electricity from the private developers developing hydro
plants of capacity less than 5 MW, NEA is paying NRs. 5.52 per kwh for the dry
season, i.e., for the months of Poush (December / January), Magh (January /
February), Falgun (February / March) and Chaitra (March / April), and NRs. 3.90 per
kwh for the wet season, i.e., for the remaining months. It is to be noted that the
energy purchase rate of NEA is subject to review from time to time.

Royalty: According to the Electricity Act, 2049, royalty on electricity production up to
1000kW is exempted.

Depreciation: The depreciation rate of 4 percent per annum has been applied by
straight line method is used.

Tax Rate: As stipulated in the Income Tax Act 2058, the applicable corporate tax rate
for enterprises undertaking electricity generation is 20 percent and an income tax of
1.5%. However, income tax is not applicable for systems up to 1000 kW.

9.3 Financial Analysis Spread Sheet Model
The present Guideline has developed a spreadsheet model to carry out the common
financial analysis of a mini hydro project which is appended in the Annexure part of
Expert System. The spreadsheet grouped in 4 sections together with a Cash Flow
Table of the analysis. The first 3 sections are the input data and parameters received
from the feasibility study report and the 4
th
section shows result or output of the
financial analysis.
The financial analysis is carried in Nepali rupees and the prices shall be that of base
year of the cost estimation.
The spreadsheet details are briefly explained in the following paragraphs.

Section 1: Annual Energy Balance
The input parameters in the first column are Project Name, Project location: district
and Grid type: interconnected with main grid or isolated supply system. It is assumed
that in case of central grid connection all the energy produced by the project is


absorbed by the central grid operator. Whereas the isolated or off-grid system might
absorb only part of the total generation capacity of the plant and is based on load
demand of the load centers. The input for energy supply is referred from the load
demand spreadsheet model of this guideline.

The second column needs to fill in the installed capacity of the project in kW.

The third column is for energy generation parameters like total annual generation, dry
season energy and wet season energy. The breakup of energy consumption in dry
and wet seasons is designed in the perspective of NEA as the sole purchaser and it
has the practice of purchase energy rates different for these two seasons. In case of
isolated system only a single tariff has been considered round the year.

Section 2: Financial parameters
The parameter in the first column is the equity investment of the developer to match
the loan part. The prevailing loan equity proportion is 70:30 and 60:40 in Nepal. Then
input for expected return on equity has to be filled in manually. The developer
generally expects return on equity above or at least equal to the opportunity cost of
the capital. The range of 15% and above is considered satisfactory in the present
hydropower industry.

The next input parameters are the dry and wet season energy price and annual rate
of tariff increment for a certain period. These parameters can be referred from the
prevailing NEA purchase rates of Rs. 3.9 /kwh and Rs. 5.50 /kwh for dry months and
wet months respectively. The dry months are Poush to Chaitra according to
Nepalese calendar.

The depreciation rate of 4 percent per annum is applied on the straight line method
considering 25 years of the economic life of the plant. The financial analysis is
carried out for 25 years from the date of commercial operation.

The parameters in second column are the proportion of loan part against the equity
investment. The market interest rate on loan varies between 8% and 10%. The GoN
does not impose royalty in hydropower industry up to 1000 kW and hence not
considered in this spreadsheet. The corporate tax differs district wise in Nepal
therefore it is considered correspondingly.

Other financial parameters are construction period, start of construction and
commission year which are referred from the project implementation schedule. The
discount rate is selected to bring down all the costs and benefits to present value and
ranges between 8% and 10%.

The third column starts with the subsidy presently provided by AEPC based on
capacity of the power project and subsidy for transportation of equipment and
materials to the project site. The input parameters are number of households
electrified by the project and the distance of transportation to the site. The sum of
capacity and transportation subsidies is calculated in this column.


Section 3: Project Costs
The project costs are divided into investment cost for the implementation of the
project and into the annual and periodic cost. The invest cost of the project is made
up of financial cost which is composed of equity and invest investments and the other
part is subsidy investment in the project from various agencies. The financial cost
part of investment is derived from the cost estimation of the feasibility report and the
subsidy investment referred from section 2.
Under annual cost the operation & maintenance (O&M) cost has been adopted as a
percentage of the total construction cost ranging from 1 to 3%. The insurance cost is
generally less than 2%. Similarly welfare fund and bonus to the staff can be adopted
up to 2% of the net profit for grid connection only. Under periodic cost the
replacement cost of electromechanical equipment is considered after 20 years of
operation. Other minor maintenance and repair costs are considered in O&M cost.
The disbursement of cost is considered within two years of construction. This cash
flow required for these two years should be calculated from the volume of work of
project components as indicated in the project implementation schedule.

Section 4: Financial Feasibility
This section provides the result of financial analysis as the Financial Internal Rate of
Return (FIRR), Debt Service Coverage Ratio, simple pay back period, the Net
Present Value and Benefit Cost (B/C) Ratio.
Both the investors, the developer and the financer, check these financial indicators
for deciding on whether to invest I the given project or not. The NPV must be positive
with the expected FIRR and the B/C ratio above 1.1. The bank or the financer checks
the debt service ratio and desires that it is over 1.45. The simple payback period
cannot be considered as a primary indicator to evaluate a project rather it is one kind
of indicator to judge the level of risk of an investment. Small entrepreneurs desire to
see the time period within which his investment pays back.

9.4 Results of Financial Analysis:
Financial Indicators
Net Present Value (Mill Rs)
IRR on Equity Investment (%)
Benefit Cost Ratio (B/C)
Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR)

9.5 Sensitivity Analysis
It is essential to carry out sensitivity analysis to justify the project feasibility under
various changes in the basic parameters which might influence the financial indicators
of the project. The base case should be tested with possible changes in the basic
parameters. The following cases should be tested for financial viability.
1. Investment cost increased by 10% or decreased by 10%.
2. With or without subsidy
3. Discount 8%, 10% and 12%.


10. Risk Assessment
10.1 General
The financial analysis of a mini hydro projects should be re-examined under
reasonable range of alternative assumptions with regard to the underlying
uncertainties of variables through sensitivity analysis. The following sensitivity analysis
should check the financial indicators of the project at least for the following variables
which are considered sensitive.
Financial Risk
Hydrological Risk
Market Risk
Construction Risk

Some of the risks are site specific and they should be assessed during the field
investigation and design period. Absence of adequate data/ information on the
project might lead to risks, so the feasibility study should be able to analyze all risks
which might harm the project construction and operation. Appropriate measures
should be suggested by the consultant on risk management.
A risk matrix shall be prepared by the consultant listing and categorizing all
the relevant risk factor according to its impact and probability.
Table: Risk evaluation
S.N
o
Description Very
High
High Medium Low Mitigation
Measures
Remarks
1 Financial risk
Interest rate
Market risk
Project Delay IDC,
loss of revenue

2 Hydrological risk
3 Construction risk
market price increase,
penalty, force majeure

4. Environmental risk
5. Political risk
6. Social risk
7. Design and
Technology risk

8. Other risks

10.2 Financial Risk
The financial risk should be checked under variable interest rates on loan. Interest
rates may be floating or fixed interest. It should be checked during negotiation with the
financing institution with respect to trend of the market interest rates. For mini hydro


projects fixed type of interest is adopted. The range of variation in the interest is
recommended up to plus or minus 5%. Market risk is also a financial risk. If the power
market becomes less than the projected one then the revenue and the profit will be
less and the viability of the project comes under question. Other financial risks are
inflation, change in legislation, change in hard currency rate etc.
Delay in completion of the project also leads to increase in project cost. Market risk is
also one of the financial risk. Guaranteed market should be assured before
implementation of the project. A long term PPA with a distribution utility may be a
solution to this risk. Similarly payment risk is also associated with capability of the
utility to pay the energy purchased.

10.3 Hydrological Risk
Power generation from a run-of river scheme is directly related to the hydrology of the
source river. Generally mean monthly flows are used for determining the monthly
energy generation. Hydrology of rivers vary depending on the precipitation and other
climatic conditions. Moreover, mini hydro projects are generally constructed in
ungauged rivers/ streams and the flows generated through various indirect methods
may not reliable fully. The revenue of the scheme should be checked under variable
hydrological conditions. Decrease in revenue loss due to lower generation flows can
be taken 5% to 10% based on the reliability of hydrological data of the project.

10.4 Construction Risk
Risks related to construction are cost overrun due to delayed construction which
causes increased IDC, advance loss of revenue due to late generation, increase in
market price, penalty for late delivery of energy. Accidents during construction and
injury to personnel and damage to equipment are a major risk during construction.
These risks can be mitigated by adopting standard safety practices. But even then
untoward events cannot be avoided completely, for which the mitigation measure is to
adopt an insurance for such injury and damage. Other construction risks are geological
risk, contractors performance risk, force majeure risk (unforeseen conditions). The
probable degree of risks should be loaded by the consultant in the sensitivity analysis.

10.5 Other Risks
Other risks in mini hydro development can be:
Environmental risk: It is also associated with the environmental causes. Information
collected from interaction with beneficiaries and people of project area are much
reliable. Environmental risk are related to water rights, acquisition of land, relocation of
existing structures (road, bridge, canal etc.), use of forest area etc. Timely negotiation
and receiving permissions shall be done made to avoid delay and interruption in
construction and operation phase. This risk can be minimized through reliable study
conducted for the project and suitable mitigation measures adopted during project
implementation and the operation period.
Political risk: It is also sensitive to the timely project completion and at the estimated
cost. Disturbances due to political instability lead uncertainty in project implementation.


Assessment of this risk is recommended to be done by qualitative methods. The
political risk may be categorized in force majeure risk.
Social risk : Social risk are faced sometimes if the project is implemented without the
acceptance of the project by the people residing in the project area. This risk can be
minimized if timely interaction with the local people is made. Providing project related
information in a transparent way. The issues might be excessive use of local resources
(water, land, forest, construction materials etc.) by the Developer, intervention in the
living style or tradition of the locals. During socioeconomic and environmental study
issue related to social risks need to be identified mitigation measures designed to
avoid possible social conflict.
Design and Technological risks Equipment procured may or may not function as
designed and some designs itself may be faulty due to lack of information or lack of
expertise. To mitigate these risks, while procuring equipment or services, prior
experience record should be checked and Users certificate should be sought to
reassure that the product will be reliable.
Insurance coverage as a measure of mitigation of risk is the easiest way to cover
losses for any such failures or risks occurring. However, proper insurance advice is
necessary to avoid unnecessary incurring of costs. Taking appropriate measures as
indicated during the detailed study and covering only the dire risks through an
insurance is recommended for a project of small sizes.



11. Feasibility Report Standard
11.1 General
The detailed feasibility study report shall be prepared in a concise manner with
necessary project data/information, analysis, drawings, tables and annexes. The
reporting shall be prepared in separate chapters. The executive summary of the
feasibility study is provided at the beginning of the report, which provides basic
information, and outcome of the feasibility study in a summary. The executive
summary starts with briefs on the project followed by hydrology, geology, project
configuration, power & energy output, socio economy, power transmission, project
cost estimation, financial analysis and project evaluation and finally conclusion and
recommendations of the feasibility study.

Table of contents Page no
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT II
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Power market
1.3 Previous studies
1.4 Project
1.5 Location and accessibility
1.6 Objectives and scope of study

2. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY AND MAPPING
2.1 Existing maps
2.2 Surveying
2.3 Topographic mapping
3. HYDROLOGY AND SEDIMENT STUDY
3.1 General
3.2 Basin characteristics
3.3 Data available
3.4 Climatology and Meteorology
3.5 Stream flow
3.6 Hydrological analysis
3.6.1 MIP method
3.6.2 Catchment correlation method
3.6.3 HYDEST
3.6.4 Flow measurement
3.6.5 Summary of flow estimation
3.6.6 Mean monthly flows
3.6.7 Flow duration curve
3.6.8 Water sharing issues and riparian release
3.6.9 Available flow for power generation
3.6.10 Low flow
3.6.11 Extreme flood flows
3.6.12 Rating curves
3.7 Sediment study



4. GEOLOGY AND GEOTECHNICAL STUDY
4.1 General
4.2 Regional geology
4.3 Project geology
4.3.1 Rock types
4.3.2 Debris flow soil deposit
4.3.3 Alluvial soil deposit
4.3.4 Colluvium
4.3.5 Residual soil
4.3.6 Landslides
4.4 Geological descriptions of major project sites
4.4.1 Headworks
4.4.2 Waterways
4.4.3 Forebay
4.4.4 Penstock alignment
4.4.5 Powerhouse site
4.5 Construction materials
4.6 Geological problems
4.7 Conclusions

5. ALTERNATIVE STUDY `
6. PROJECT CONFIGURATION
6.1 Headworks
6.1.1 Diversion weir
6.1.2 Intake
6.1.3 Gravel trap
6.2 Settling basin
6.3 Waterway pipe inlet
6.4 Waterway
6.5 Forebay
6.6 Penstock
6.7 Anchor blocks and saddle supports
6.8 Powerhouse and tailrace
6.9 Access road
7. POWER AND ENERGY OUTPUT
7.1 General
7.2 Firm energy
7.3 Secondary energy
7.4 Energy generation
7.4.1 Power and energy benefits
7.5 Demand Analysis

8 HYDROMECHANICAL AND ELECTROMECHANICAL WORKS
8.1 Hydromechanical Works
8.2 Electromechanical Works

9. STUDY ON POWER TRANSMISSION
9.1 Transmission system


9.1.1 Transmission line
9.1.2 Interconnection
9.2 Distribution network
9.3 Load centres

10 ACESS CONDITION
11 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
12 PROJECT COST ESTIMATE
12.1 Cost estimates
12.2 Basis of cost estimate
12.3 Construction cost estimate
12.4 Operation and maintenance cost
13 PROJECT EVALUATION
13.1 General
13.2 Evaluation of the project
13.3 Assumptions
13.4 Financial analysis
13.5 Sensitivity analysis
13.6 Risk Analysis
13.6 Conclusion and Recommendations

14 CONSTRUCTION PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
14.1 Infrastructure
14.2 Construction power
14.3 Transportation of materials and equipment
14.3 Construction schedule of project works
14.4 Construction planning
14.5 Organization Structure

15 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
15.1 Conclusions
15.2 Recommendations

Appendices No of pages
APPENDIX A TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY ..
APPENDIC B FLOW MEASUREMENT DATA SHEET
APPENDIX C DRAWINGS
APPENDIC D COST ESTIMATION .
APPENDIX E FINANCIAL ANALYSIS ..
List of tables Page no
Table 2.1 Precipitation data
Table 3.1 Stream flow data of Station No ,,,,, located at ., m
3
/s
Table 3.3 Monthly flow prediction based on MIP method, m
3
/s
Table 3.4 Flow estimation using MHSP at the proposed intake
Table 3.5 Flow estimation using catchment correlation method
Table 3.6 Exceedance level of flow in different reliability level
Table 3.7 Monthly flow using HYDEST at the proposed intake
Table 3.8 Estimation of average monthly flow at the proposed intake site


Table 3.9 Adopted mean monthly flow at the proposed intake
Table 3.10 Flow duration values for the proposed intake site
Table 3.11 Water distribution amongst different water users
Table 3.12 Available flow for power generation
Table 3.13 Daily low flow of the (source stream) Khola at the proposed intake site

Table 3.14 Flood estimates of the . (source) Khola at intake
Table 3.15 Flood estimates at the proposed powerhouse site
Table 4.1 Rock mass quality in the Intake area
Table 4.2 Properties of joints
Table 5.1 Optimization of headrace open canal on the basis of slope
Table 5.2 Optimization of low-pressure pipe
Table 5.3 Capacity optimisation
Table 5.4 Optimisation of penstock pipe
Table 5.5 Basic design parameters and design table for transmission line
Table 5.6 NPV of the power evacuation system, cost in NRs 000
Table 5.7 Cost estimate for transmission line options
Table 6.1 Settling basin trapping efficiency
Table 6.2 Protection system for power transformer
Table 6.3 Construction program
Table 7.1 Input parameters and assumptions
Table 7.2 Monthly energy generation
Table 8.1 Project cost estimate
Table 8.2 Sensitivity analysis on cost over run
Table 8.3 Sensitivity analysis on energy selling price escalation
Table 8.4 Sensitivity analysis on discount rate and interest on debt
Table 8.5 Sensitivity analysis on discount rate and interest on debt
Table 8.6 Sensitivity analysis due to currency inflation
List of figures
Page no
Figure 1.1 Project location
Figure 2.1 Project area ..
Figure 2.2 Catchment area
Figure 3.1 Rating curve of . (source)Khola at the gauging station
Figure 3.2 Hydrograph of the . (source)Khola at intake
Figure 3.3 Flow duration curve at the proposed intake site .
Figure 3.4 Rating curve at headworks
Figure 3.5 Rating curve at tailrace outlet ..
Figure 4.1 Photographs on important geological features of the project ..
Figure 4.2 View of the proposed weir axis towards downstream:
Figure 4.3 View of the proposed settling basin site.
Figure 4.4 Views of waterways .
Figure 4.5 View of Penstock Alignment ..
Figure 4.6 View of Power House Site
Figure 5.1 Optimization of headrace water conveyance
Figure 5.2 Plant capacity optimization .
Figure 5.3 Optimization of penstock pipe .
Figure 6.1 Single line diagram ...


Figure 6.2 Transmission line alignment .......
Figure 6.3 Distribution network

List of abbreviations
ACSR Aluminium conductor steel reinforced
AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
B:C Benefit Cost ratio
BS Bikram Sambat
cm/s centimetre per second
DCS Distribution and Consumer Services
DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
DoED Department of Electricity Development
EIRR Economic internal rate of return
EPR Environment Protection Rule
FIRR Financial Internal Rate of Return
GWh Giga watt hour
GoN Government of Nepal
Hz Hertz (cycle per second)
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
INPS Integrated Nepal Power System
km kilometre
km
2
square kilometre
kmph kilometre per hour
kV kilovolt
kVA kilovolt ampere
kW kilowatt
kwh kilowatt hour
m meter
m
3
/s cubic meter per second
masl meter above sea level
MBT Main Boundary Thrust
MGSP Mini Grid Support Program
MHP Minihydro Project
MIP Medium Irrigation Project
mm millimetre
mm
2
square millimetre
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt hour
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority
NPC National Planning commission
NPV Net present value
NRs Nepali currency rupees
PMF Probable maximum flood
PSD Particle size distribution
REDP Rural Energy Development Program
SHPP Small Hydropower Promotion Project
ToR Terms of Reference


UNDP United Nations Development Program
US$ United States currency
V Volt
VDC Village Development Committee
WECS Water Energy Commission Secretariat
Yr Year
Yrs Years

Conclusions and recommendations
The conclusions of the feasibility study report should present major findings of the study in
brief. They are supported by text of report, design, data and analysis. The project features
like design features, hydrology & energy generation, project cost and benefits, transmission
line, supply and electrification area, financial indicators like FIRR, NPV, B/C ratio under
assumed inputs and the same under sensitivity analysis. The report on a feasibility study of
a mini hydro project essentially provides specific recommendations for the construction and
operation of the proposed project.

Appendix
The appendix part shall contain documentation of supporting data, design & analysis,
drawings, calculation sheets, details of quantity estimate, cost estimate, financial analysis &
sensitivity analysis, findings and results of field survey & investigation, load survey,
photographs, hydrological and flow measurement data sheets, laboratory test reports, duly
filled-in detailed feasibility formats, etc. This data and documentation are required during the
construction as well as operation phase. This part shall be appended at the end of the
report. If it is large it shall be presented in a separate volume.


12. Glossary
12.1 Electricity Glossary
ACTIVE POWER
see real power

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
electrical current which reverses direction repeatedly, usually several times per second, due to
a change in voltage which occurs at the same frequency. Often abbreviated AC or ac.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
the surrounding temperature.

AMPLITUDE
the magnitude of change in a varying quantity from it's zero value. Usually measured in
Voltage, or decibels, can denote volume.

AMPERE
the measurement unit for electrical current. Electric current produced by one volt applied across
a resistance of one ohm. It is also equal to the flow of one coulomb per second. Named after
French physicist Andre M. Ampre (1836).

AMPERE-HOUR
the flow of electricity equal to one ampere for one hour. Commonly used to rate the capacity of
batteries.

APPARENT POWER
the mathematical product of voltage and current on AC systems. Since voltage and current may
not be in phase on AC systems, the apparent power thus calculated may not equal the real
power, but may actually exceed it. Reactive loads (inductance and/or capacitance) on AC
systems will cause the apparent power to be larger than the real power.

BATTERY
a group of two or more cells connected together to provide electrical current.

BLACK-OUT
a complete loss of power lasting for more than one cycle. A black-out can damage electronics,
corrupt or destroy data, or cause a system shutdown. Blackouts can result from several
problems, ranging from atmospherical events (hurricanes or other high winds, ice storms,
lightning, trees falling on power lines, floods, geomagnetic storms triggering by sunspots and
solar flares, etc.) to situations such as cables being cut during excavation, equipment failures at
the utility, vandalism, corrosion, etc. Also known as power outage.

BROWN-OUT
a prolonged sag, occurring when incoming power is reduced for an extended period. Usually
caused when demand is at its peak and the line becomes overloaded.

CAPACITOR
a device that stores electrical charge usually by means of conducting plates or foil separated by
a thin insulating layer of dielectric material. The effectiveness of the device, or its capacitance,
is measured in Farads.

CAPABILITY
the maximum load that a generating unit, generating station, or other electrical apparatus can
carry under specified conditions for a given period of time without exceeding approved limits of
temperature and stress.

CAPACITY
the amount of electric power delivered or required for which a generator, turbine, transformer,
transmission circuit, station, or system is rated by the manufacturer.



CIRCUIT
a conductor or a system of conductors through which electric current flows.

CIRCUIT BREAKER
a device designed to open a circuit either by manual action or by automatic action when current
exceeds a certain value longer than permitted. A circuit breaker can provide overcurrent
protection.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
a circuit diagram shows the arrangement of electrical components and wires by using symbols.
It is an electrician's map.

COIL
a physical assembly of one or more electrical coil sections generally surrounded by common
insulation.

CONDUCTOR
usually a metallic substance capable of transmitting electricity with little resistance. The best
conductor at normal temperature ranges is silver. The most common is copper

CONTINUOUS LOAD
a sustained electrical load current for three hours or more.

CRITICAL LOAD
equipment that must have an uninterrupted power input to prevent damage or loss to a facility
or to itself, or to prevent danger of injury to operating personnel.

CURRENT (ELECTRIC)
a flow of electrons in an electrical conductor. The strength or rate of movement of the electricity
is measured in amperes. Current may be either direct or alternating. Direct current refers to
current whose voltage causes it to flow in only one direction. Common direct current sources
are batteries. Alternating current refers to current whose voltage causes it to flow first in one
direction, then the other, reversing direction periodically, usually several times a second. A
common alternating current source is commercial/household power. This current reverses
direction 100 times each second, thus passing through 50 complete cycles each second for a
frequency of 50 Hertz.

CYCLE
one complete revolution of e.g. a generator, from 0 to 360. One cycle is said to be one
wavelength long and takes one period in time to produce. All cycles can be measured in
frequency and amplitude.

CYCLES-PER-SECOND
a measure of the frequency in an AC electric system. Abbreviated cps or cycles. Now replaced
with the unit Hertz.

DECIBEL
a logarithmic measure of the ratio of two quantities. Abbreviated dB. For electrical power, 1 dB
= 10 x log10 P1/P2. For electric voltage or current, 1 dB = 20 x log10 E1/E2.

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)
electrical current that normally flows in one direction only. Abbreviated DC.

EARTH-LEAKAGE CRCUIT BREAKER (ELCB)
a device used to prevent electrical shock hazards in mains voltage power systems, including
independent power systems. Also known as residual current devices (RCDs).

EARTH (WIRE)
a wire connected to the metal parts of some appliances to provide a safe route for electricity to
flow in the event of a live wire accidentally touching the metal. (See also Live wire, Neutral
Wire).


EMI/RFI
Electromagnetic/Radio Frequency Interference. These high frequency signals are generally low
level (<1V) and range from 1MHz up. EMI/RFI filters are generally not suitable for large
amplitude surge suppression.

ENERGY
the capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of doing work (potential energy) or
the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has several forms, some of
which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form useful for work. Electrical
energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours.

FILTER
a device made up of circuit elements designed to pass desirable frequencies and block all
others. It typically consists of capacitors and inductors.

FREQUENCY
the number of complete alternations or cycles per second of alternating current. It is measured
in Hertz.

GENERATOR
a rotating machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

GRID
a term used to refer to the electrical utility distribution network.

HARMONIC
a sine wave which is an integral multiple of a base frequency. Certain types of electrical
equipment generate harmonics which interfere with the proper functioning of other devices
connected to the same system.

HARMONIC DISTORTION
a measure of the degree to which the impedance of a protection equipment affects the shape of
the output voltage waveform. Distortion is stated as a percentage and may refer to any single
harmonic or to the total waveform, in which case it is referred to as "total harmonic distortion"
(THD).

HERTZ (Hz)
unit of frequency. One Hertz equals one complete cycle per second of an AC source.
Abbreviated Hz. Named after the German physicist Heinrich R. Hertz (1894). This unit replaces
the former "cycles-per-second."

HORSEPOWER
a unit of power equal to 746 watts.

IMPEDANCE
the total effects of a circuit that oppose the flow of an AC current consisting of inductance,
capacitance, and resistance. It can be quantified in the units of ohms.

INDUCTANCE
the characteristic of an electric circuit by which a voltage is induced in it by a variation of
current. This can be a variation of the current in the circuit itself (self-inductance) or in a nearby
circuit (mutual inductance). The magnitude of the characteristic is measured in the units of
Henries.

INDUCTOR
a conductor, usually wound in a spiral or coil, which introduces (induces) a magnetic field into
the surrounding atmosphere.

INVERTER
an electrical device which is designed to convert direct current into alternating current.


JOULE
a unit of work or energy equal to one watt for one second. One kilowatt hour equals 3,600,000
Joules. Named after James P. Joule, an English physicist (1889).

JOULE'S LAW
defines the relationship between current in a wire and the thermal energy produced. In 1841 an
English physicist James P. Joule experimentally showed that W = I2 x R x t , where I is the
current in the wire in amperes, R is the resistance of the wire in Ohms, t is the length of time
that the current flows in seconds, and W is the energy produced in Joules.

KILOVOLT (KV)
unit of electrical potential equal to 1000 volts. Abbreviated kV

KILOVOLT AMPERES (KVA)
- a unit of apparent power equal to 1000 volt amperes. Here, apparent power is in contrast to
real power. On AC systems the voltage and current will not be in phase if reactive power is
being transmitted. Usually abbreviated kVA.

KILOWATT (kWw)
unit of power equal to 1000 watts. Abbreviated kW.

KILOWATT-HOUR (kwh)
unit of energy or work equal to one kilowatt for one hour. Abbreviated as kwh.

LIGHTNING
a natural spark produced between charged layers of cloud or between a cloud and the ground.

LOAD
a device which consumes electrical power and is connected to a source of electricity.

NEUTRAL
a conductor of an electrical system which usually operates with minimal voltage to ground.
Depending on the type of system, it may carry little current or only unbalance current. Systems
that have one conductor grounded use the neutral for this purpose.

NOISE
noise is the result of distortion of the normal line power sine wave by hundreds or thousands of
small increases in voltage similar to EMI/RFI, though it encompasses lower frequencies. The
amplitude of this type of disturbance is less than a surge but may be as low as EMI/RFI.

OHM
a unit of electrical resistance. A circuit resistance of one ohm will pass a current of one ampere
with a potential difference of one volt. Abbreviated using the Greek letter omega (W ). Named
for the German physicist George Simon Ohm (1854).

OHM'S LAW
defines the relationship between voltage, resistance, and current. In 1828 the German physicist
George Simon Ohm showed by experiment that the current in a conductor is equal to the
difference of potential between any two points divided by the resistance between them. This
may be written as I = E / R where E is the potential difference in volts, R is the resistance in
Ohms, and I is the current in amperes.

OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
the maximum voltage produced by a power source with no load connected.

OUTAGE
the period during which a generating unit, transmission line, or other facility is out of service. A
complete loss of power (see also black-out).



OVERCURRENT
any current beyond the continuous rated current of the equipment. This may be value slightly
above the rating as in the case of an overload, or may be far above the rating as in the case of
a short circuit.

OVERLOAD
operation of electrical equipment above its normal full-load rating. An overload condition will
eventually cause dangerous overheating and damage.

OVERLOAD CAPACITY
the overload capacity of an equipment is its ability to respond to sudden surges in load current
without allowing the output voltage level to decrease.

POWER
the rate at which work is performed or energy is transferred. Electric power is commonly
measured in watts or kilowatts. A power of 746 watts is equivalent to 1 horsepower.

POWER CONDITIONING SYSTEMS (OR MAINS CONDITIONERS)
a broad class of equipment that includes filters, isolation transformers, and voltage regulators.
Generally, these types of equipment ensure protection against line disturbances, except power
outages.

POWER FACTOR
the ratio of real power to apparent power delivered in an AC electrical system or load. Its value
is always in the range of 0.0 to 1.0 or 0% to 100%. A unity power factor (1.0) indicates that the
current is in phase with the voltage and that reactive power is zero.

REACTIVE POWER
the mathematical product of voltage and current consumed by reactive loads. Examples of
reactive loads include capacitors and inductors. These types of loads when connected to an AC
voltage source will draw current, but since the current is 90o out of phase with the applied
voltage, they actually consume no real power in the ideal sense.

REAL POWER
the rate at which work is performed or energy is transferred. Electric power is commonly
measured in watts or kilowatts. The term real power is often used in place of the term power
alone to differentiate from reactive power. Also called active power.

RESISTANCE
the characteristic of materials to oppose the flow of electricity in an electric circuit.

RESISTOR
a resistor is a small component designed to reduce the flow of electricity in a circuit.

RMS
"root-mean-square", a method of computing the effective value of a time-varying electrical
wave. For example, an AC current is said to have an effective or RMS value of one ampere
when it produces heat in a certain resistance at the same average rate as a continuous (or DC)
current of one ampere would in the same resistance.

SAG
a momentary decrease from nominal voltage lasting one or more line cycles. Also known as a
temporary undervoltage (TUV).

SINE WAVE
a periodic oscillation. The fundamental waveform from which other waveforms may be
generated by combinations of various group of harmonics. The characteristic shape of the
alternating voltage or current wave. This shape matches the trigonometric sine function of the
acute angle in a right triangle and equals the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the
hypotenuse.



SURGE
a surge is a prolonged over-voltage condition. Surges can damage electronics and corrupt or
destroy data.

SPIKE
a spike involves a sudden marked jump in voltage, which can damage electronics and corrupt
or destroy data.

SPIKE/SURGE PROTECTIONS
these products are inexpensive solutions that provide minimal protection against surges, but no
protection against sags and outages.

SHORT CIRCUIT
a low resistance connection unintentionally made between points of an electrical circuit which
may result in current flow far above normal levels.

SPARK
the sudden flow of electricity between two charged surfaces. A flash of lightning is the world's
biggest spark.

STABILITY
the property of a system or element by virtue of which its output will ultimately attain a steady
state. The amount of power that can be transferred from one machine to another following a
disturbance. The stability of a power system is its ability to develop restoring forces equal to or
greater than the disturbing forces so as to maintain a state of equilibrium.

SURGE CAPACITY
the ability of an electrical supply to tolerate a momentary current surge or inrush imposed by
the starting of motors or the energizing of transformers.

SWELL
an increase from nominal voltage lasting one or more line cycles.

SWITCH
a device for breaking the flow of electricity in a circuit.

TRANSFORMER
a device that converts one AC voltage and current to a different voltage and current.

TRANSFER TIME
transfer time can refer to either the speed with which an off-line UPS transfers from utility power
to battery power, or to the speed with which an on-line UPS switches from the inverter to utility
power in the event of an inverter failure.

TRANSIENT VOLTAGE SUPPRESSOR (TVS)
device used to reduce voltage surges.

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
a device that provides a constant regulated voltage output in spite of interruptions of the normal
power supply.

VOLT (V)
the quantitative unit of measurement of electrical voltage. The electrical potential difference
across a one ohm resistance carrying a current of one ampere. Named after Italian physicist
Count Alessandro Volta (1745-1827).

VOLTAGE
a term referring to the electrical force or potential. Voltage is the parameter of electricity which
causes current to flow when a circuit is completed.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR


a device designed to regulate RMS voltage by removing swells and sags.

VOLT AMPERE (VA)
unit of apparent power equal to the mathematical product of a circuit voltage and amperes.
Here, apparent power is in contrast to real power. On AC systems the voltage and current will
not be in phase if reactive power is being transmitted. Usually abbreviated VA.

VOLTAGE DROP
a voltage reduction due to impedances between the power source and the load. These
impedances are due to wiring and transformers and are normally minimized to the extent
possible.

WATT (W)
the quantitative unit of measurement of actual power. Actual power in an AC circuit is the
measurement of the effective energy available for doing work, represented by a current of one
ampere under a pressure of one volt. Actual power is normally less than apparent power (volt-
amperes) because of power factor considerations. Watts may be measured directly, by means
of a wattmeter, or may be calculated by multiplying volt-amperes by the power factor of the
equipment. Named after the Scottish engineer James Watt (1819).

WATT-HOUR (WH)
an electrical energy unit of measure equal to 1watt of power supplied to, or taken from, an
electric circuit steadily for 1 hour.

ZERO CROSSING
the instant when the line voltage reverses from positive to negative, or negative to positive. For
50 cycle power, 100 zero crossings occur each second.

12.2 Hydropower glossary
AQUEDUCT
a pipe, conduit, or channel designed to transport water from a remote source, usually by
gravity.

BLADE
the curved surface of certain types of water turbines (i.e., cross-flow turbines). Water striking
the blades causes the turbine to rotate. Some turbines, such as the Pelton wheels, have cups
instead of blades.

COGENERATION
simultaneous production of heat energy and electrical or mechanical power from the same fuel
in the same facility.

CONDUIT
a natural or artificial channel through which fluids may be conveyed.

CONSTANT POWER REGULATION
electronic and electromechanical regulation system with energy dissipation to keep the load
constant on the turbine-generator set. Used for stand-alone plants.

CROSS-FLOW TURBINE
a turbine where the flow of water is at right angles to the axis of rotation of the turbine.

DESALINIZATION
the removal of salts from saline water to provide freshwater.

DISCHARGE
the volume of water that passes a given location within a given period of time. Usually
expressed in cubic feet per second.

FLOW
the rate of water discharged from a source expressed in volume with respect to time.


FLOW REGULATION
\mechanical system to regulate the water flow at turbine input.

FRANCIS TURBINE
named after the American engineer Fames Francis (1815-1892). A water turbine that operates
on a low or medium head (from 15m to some hundred meters) and is often installed in large
hydroelectric plants. Contains a runner that has water passages through it formed by curved
vanes or blades. As the water passes through the runner and over the curved surfaces, it
causes rotation of the runner. The rotational motion is transmitted by a shaft to the generator.
Water enters the turbine radially and leaves axially.

GENERATOR
machine for power generation, usually connected with a turbine. The kinetic energy of the
turbine shaft generates electricity in the generator. This is caused by the movement of an
electrical conductor in a magnetic field.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
the presence of trace atmospheric gases make the earth warmer than would direct sunlight
alone. These gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, tropospheric ozone, and
water vapor) allow visible light and ultraviolet light (shortwave radiation) to pass through the
atmosphere and heat the earth's surface. This heat is re-radiated from the earth in the form of
infrared energy (longwave radiation). The greenhouse gases absorb part of that energy before
it escapes into space. The process of trapping the longwave radiation is known as the
greenhouse effect.

GROSS HEAD, OR TOTAL HEAD
the vertical drop between the intake of a pipeline (penstock) and the outlet (location of turbine).
Similar to Pressure.

INTAKE (WATER SUPPLY)
point of diversion of stream flow into a conduit or irrigation system conveyance.

HYDROELECTRIC PLANT
electric power plant in which the energy of falling water is used to spin a turbine generator to
produce electricity.

HYDROPOWER
power produced by falling water. The term is used to identify a type of electricity-generating
station or any energy output in which the main mover is driven by flowing water.

KAPLAN TURBINE
named after the Austrian engineer Viktor Kaplan (1876-1934). A propeller-type of water turbine
with variable pitch blades that adjust automatically in accordance with the head. The turbine
may have gates to control the angle of the flow into the blades.

KINETIC ENERGY
the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion.

MICROHYDRO
small-scale, water-powered systems used to produce mechanical power of less than 100
kilowatts. They commonly are used for homes, farms, or small industries.

MINIHYDRO
hydropower units that produce 100-1000 kilowatts.

NET HEAD OR DYNAMIC HEAD
the actual head used to calculate how much you will have after pipe friction loss is subtracted.



OSMOSIS
the movement of water molecules through a thin membrane. The osmosis is also one method
of desalinizing saline water.

PELTON TURBINES
named after the American inventor Lester Pelton (born in 1829). An impulse water turbine in
which the pressure of the water supply is concentrated through a few stationary nozzles. The
jets of water strike the cups or buckets, which are mounted on the runner, or wheel, which
causes the runner to rotate, producing mechanical energy. The runner is fixed on a shaft, and
the rotational motion of the turbine is transmitted by the shaft to the generator.

PENSTOCK
a large pipe or conduit to carry the water from the reservoir or dam to a turbine or water wheel.

POTABLE WATER
water of a quality suitable for drinking.

PRESSURE
the energy water has. Measured in kilograms per square centimeters. The more water that
flows through a given size and length pipeline the more energy will be lost due to friction of the
water against the inside wall of the pipe. Hence, the bigger is the section of the pipe, the fewer
will be the losses.

REACTION TURBINE
a water turbine that uses the mass or weight of water hitting the runner as opposed to being
driven by the velocity of the water.

RECYCLED WATER
water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural hydrologic system.

RENEWABLE ENERGY
energy that is produced from a renewable source, such as water.

RESERVOIR
a pond, lake, tank or basin, either natural or artificial, for the storage, regulation, and control of
water.

REVERSE OSMOSIS
(desalination) the process of removing salts from water using a membrane. With reverse
osmosis, the product water passes through a fine membrane that the salts are unable to pass
through, while the salt waste (brine) is removed .

RUN-OF-RIVER HYDROPOWER
the run-of-river project uses the river flow with very little alteration and little or no impoundment
of the water. .

RUNNER
the turbine wheel. .

SUBSTATION
a station at which high-voltage electricity from the central station is transformed to electricity
lower in potential..

TURBINE
a machine for generating rotary mechanical power from the energy of a stream of fluid (such as
water, steam, or hot gas). Turbines convert the kinetic energy of fluids to mechanical energy
through the principles of impulse and reaction, or a mixture of the two.

TURBINE WHEEL
the part of a water turbine that is attached to a drive shaft, and which holds the blades or cups
that cause the wheel to rotate when struck by a stream of steam or water..


WATER TURBINE
a device that converts the motion of the flow of water into rotational motion. Often used to drive
generators or pumps. (See cross-flow, Pelton, Francis, Kaplan turbines).

12.3 Lighting glossary
ADAPTATION
Eye's adjustment to the luminance level in the field of vision.

ARC
A sustained visible discharge of electric current across a gap in an electric circuit.

ARC DISCHARGE
An electric discharge characterized by high current densities and low voltage drop at the
cathode.

BALLAST
A device used in fluorescent and HID (high intensity discharge) luminaires to provide the
necessary starting voltage and to limit the lamp current during operation

BALLAST (ELECTRONIC)
A ballast that operates fluorescent lamps at high frequencies using semi-conductor
components to increase the frequency in combination with smaller inductive components to
provide the lamp current control.

BRIGHTNESS
Attribute of visual sensation according to which an area appears to emit more or less light. .

CANDELA
The international unit of luminous intensity. One candela is one lumen per unit solid angle, or
steradian.

CHOKE
An inductive electrical component used to filter electromagnetic interference and lamp filament
hum from electronic dimmers.

COLOR RENDERING
General expression for the effect of an illuminant on the color appearance of objects in
conscious or subconscious comparison with their color appearance under a reference
illuminant.

COLOR TEMPERATURE
Temperature of the black body that emits radiation of the same chromaticity as the radiation
considered. It is measured in Kelvin (K) typically between 0-6000 degrees K. High numbers are
considered "cool" colors and are blue in appearance. Low numbers are considered "warm" and
are more red/yellow in appearance.

COMPACT FLUORESCENT
Twin-tube fluorescent lamp used in some Emergency Lighting, Downlighting, and Fluorescent
products. The lamp life is about 10 times that of incandescent lamps and uses less power. Also
referred to as "PL", "Twin-Tube", or BIAX lamps.

DIMMER
A device in the electrical circuit for varying the luminous flux from lamps in a lighting installation.

DISCHARGE LAMP
Lamp in which the light is produced, directly or indirectly, by an electric discharge through a
gas, a metal vapor, or a mixture of several gases and vapors.



EMI
Abbreviation for Electromagnetic Interference. High frequency interference (electrical noises)
caused by electronic components or fluorescent lamps which interferes with the operation of
electrical equipment.

FIXTURE
The components which when assembled, make up the complete housing of a light fixture (this
includes parts such as a reflector, lamp socket, etc.)

FLICKER
Impression of fluctuating luminance or color.

FLOODLIGHT
A type of outdoor luminaire mainly used in parking lots or sports fields.

FLUORESCENT LAMP
Discharge lamp of the low-pressure mercury type in which most of the light is emitted by a layer
of fluorescent material excited by the ultraviolet radiation from the discharge.

GLARE
Condition of vision in which there is discomfort or a reduction in the ability to see significant
objects, or both, due to an unsuitable distribution or range of luminance or to extreme contrasts
in space or time.

HALOGEN LAMP
Gas-filled lamp containing a tungsten filament and a small proportion of halogens.

HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM (HPS) LAMP
A high intensity discharge lamp that uses sodium vapour in a high pressure arc tube as the
primary light producing element.

HOT RESTRIKE
The phenomenon of reinstating or re-striking the arc in an H.I.D. light source after a momentary
power loss. Hot restart occurs when the arc tube has cooled a sufficient amount.

HOUSING
The body of a fixture.

IGNITER
A device that generates a voltage pulse to start certain discharge lamps without having to pre-
heat the electrodes

KELVIN (K)
A measurement of temperature. 1 F = 256 K. 1 C = 274 K. Used to measure color
temperature.

ILLUMINANCE
Luminous flux falling on a surface, divided by the area of that surface. The symbol for
luminance is E. it is measured in lux (lx).

LAMP EFFICACY
A metric used to compare light output to energy consumption. It is the ratio of lumens per watt.

LAMP LIFE
The average life span of a large number of lamps. When tested under reference operating
conditions, lamp life is the time at which half the lamps in a sample have failed and half are still
operating.

LAMPHOLDER
The part of the light fixture that supplies the power to the lamp and also holds the lamp in place.



LIGHTING (OR ILLUMINATION)
Application of light to a scene, objects or their surroundings so that they may be seen.

LIGHT POLLUTION
Light distributed in outdoor areas where light is not desired. Light pollution is typically caused
by outdoor lighting fixtures that may emit a substantial amount of light in an upward direction.
This creates a "haze" of light in the atmosphere that cannot be utilized.

LOW-PRESSURE SODIUM (VAPOR) LAMP
Sodium vapor lamp in which the partial pressure of the vapor during operation does not exceed
5 Pa.

LUMEN
The luminous flux emitted within a unit solid angle (steradian) by a point source having a
uniform luminous intensity of one candela.

LUMINAIRE
A complete lighting fixture including one or more lamps and sockets and a means for
connection to a power source. Luminaires may include ballasts and elements to position and
protect lamps and distribute light.

LUMINANCE
Perceived brightness of a luminous or illuminated area. The symbol for luminance is L. It is
measured in candela per square meter (cd/m2) or candela per square centimeter (cd/cm2 ).

LUMINOUS EFFICACY
Luminous flux of a lamp divided by its wattage. Measured in lumen per Watt (lm/W).

LUMINOUS FLUX
Radiant output of a light source. The symbol for luminous flux is F = phi. It is measured in
lumen (lm).

LUMINOUS INTENSITY
The body of a fixture.

LUX
The metric unit of measurement of the luminance of a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen
per square meter.

MERCURY VAPOR (MV) LAMP
A high intensity discharge lamp that uses mercury as the primary light producing element.

METAL HALIDE (MH) LAMP
A high intensity discharge lamp that uses mercury and halide additives as light producing
elements.

METAL VAPOR LAMP
Discharge lamp such as the 'mercury (vapor) lamp' and the 'sodium (vapor) lamp' in which the
light is mainly produced in a metallic vapor.

MORTALITY RATE
The number of operating hours elapsed before a certain percentage of the lamps fail.

OVERALL UNIFORMITY
The ratio of minimum to the average luminance over the area of road considered.

PHOTOCELL
A Photovoltaic device used to control luminaires and dimmers in response to detected light
levels. May provide either daylight compensation or daylight tracking.

PHOTOELECTRIC CELL


A device used to convert radiant or light energy into the electrical energy, often used to control
outdoor light fixtures.

POWER FACTOR
The degree to which current is out of phase with voltage. There are various ways to determine
power factor, one being the ratio of circuit active power (watts) to total apparent power (volt-
amperes).

PROJECTOR
Luminaire using reflection and/or refraction to increase the luminous intensity within a limited
solid angle.

RADIANT POWER
Power emitted, transferred, or received in the form of radiation. It is measured in watt, W.

REACTOR
A type of ballast used with H.I.D. lamps; generally regarded as the simplest form of ballasting
(no transformer is included).

RFI
Interference to the radio frequency band caused by other high frequency equipment or devices
in the immediate area. Fluorescent lamps generate RFI.

REFLECTION
Return of radiation by a surface or medium without change of frequency of its monochromatic
components

REFLECTOR
Device in which the phenomenon of reflection is used to alter the spatial distribution of the
luminous flux from a source.

REGULATION
The ability of a ballast to hold constant (or nearly constant) the output watts (light output) during
fluctuations in the voltage feeding the ballast. Normally specified as + or - percent change in
output compared to + or - percent change in input.

RESTRIKE TIME
The time required for a lamp to restrike, or re-start, after the lamp is extinguished.

SOCKET
Component that holds the lamp base and supplies electrical power.

SPOTLIGHT
A (small) projector giving concentrated light of usually not more than 20 divergence.

STARTER
Device for starting a discharge lamp (in particular a fluorescent lamp) that provides for the
necessary preheating of the electrodes and/or causes a voltage surge in combination with the
series ballast.

VISUAL FIELD
Of the eye or eyes. The angular extent of the space in which an object can be perceived when
the eye(s) regard(s) an object directly ahead.

12.4 Power System Terms
BASE LOAD
The maximum continuous load (demand) experienced over a given period of time (usually for 1
year).

CAPACITY FACTOR


The ratio of average output to installed capacity from a generating unit over a given period of
time (usually one year).

FIRM ENERGY
Energy which is available for at least 95% of the time.

LOAD FACTOR
The ratio of average load to peak load over a given period of time (usually one year).

NON-FIRM ENERGY
Energy which is available for less than 95% of the time.

PEAK LOAD
The maximum load (demand) experienced during a given period of time (usually for - 1
hour).

PLANT FACTOR
The ratio of average output to peak output from a generating unit over a given period of time
(usually one year).

POWER FACTOR
The ratio of useful power dissipated in a circuit to the product of voltage and current applied to
this circuit.

AEPC Guidelines For Detailed Feasibility Study For Projects

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