1401

NOVELS TROUBLED YEARS
OF THE
NOVELS
OF THE
A study of Shahnon Ahmads Novels, 1965-1978
TROUBLED YEARS
MOHD.YUSOF HASAN
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 1989
K.K 889 -4379 -4101 ISBN 983 - 62 - 1232 - 9
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT CHAPTER ONE: SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS CHAPTER TWO: THE RURAL STRUGGLE CHAPTER THREE: SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND RELIGION CHAPTER FOUR: MALAY POLITICS AND NATIONALISM CHAPTER FIVE: TENSION AND CHANGE CHAPTER SIX: THE RENEWED SOCIAL COMMITMENT CONCLUSION NOTE APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY TABLEI TABLE 2 vii
xi xxiii
35 66 95 140 185 231 247 274 279 56 15
This thesis represents the original research of the author, except where otherwise due acknowledgements are made. (Mohd. Yusof Hasan) November 1984
ix
INTRODUCTION
Shahnon Ahmad is recognized as a leading contemporary Malay writer. He established himself as an outstanding figure among Malay writers during a crucial period for the Malay society in Malaysia. Between the years 1956-1978 in which Shahnon developed as a writer, there were notable changes in his country: Malayan independence and the formation of Malaysia; the settlement of the communist insurrection; the struggle to enlarge the position of Malays in society; the struggle to establish the Malay language as a genuine national language for a multi-racial society, social and racial problems which climaxed in the 1969 riots; and the economic problems that led to the 1974-1975 peasant demonstrations. It was a time of shaping a political, economic, social and cultural Malay consciousness. From the rapid pace of change there arose a discussion about the conflicting values or tradition and modernism in Malay society. These events shaped and influenced both modem Malaysia and the concerns of Shahnon Ahmad as a Malay writer. Since Shahnon reflects this conflict in his writings, his readers have little difficulty in recognizing the contemporary issues in his novels. This study examines the ten novels Shahnon Ahmad wrote during these years. It argues that his own life and works mirror the developments in Malay society from Independence to the present. Although he is well-known as a short story writer and some of his short stories are of a high standard, his novels have made the greatest impact. In his book Gubahan xi
NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS
Novel 2 (Composition of Novels), he states that he sees the novels as the most effective literary form through which to communicate his sense of
ideas and values. 3 The novel is a new genre to Malay literature. However, it is by no means the first form of narrative fiction to appear in Malay. The traditional hikayat ~ a form of prose narrative of considerable length.
Shahnons novels have their roots in this traditional form of literature which reflect Malay traditional values and social stratification. The novel has been used in Malay literature since the 1920s. By the time Shahnon started writing it had been the Malay environment. Since the development of the novel is relevant to Shahnons use of it, it is worth while to outline briefly its history.
The first prose fiction resembling the novel appeared in the 1920s, and throughout the pre-Second World War years, it grew increasingly popular. Pit-War novels fall into three groups5 depending
on the authors background and education. There appears to be a correlation between an authors education and the issues he addresses in his writings. At the turn of century, the British educational system had little influence upon the lives of Malay peasants.6 Malays who did not belong to the upper classes were ineligible for British education; they found an outlet for their ambitions either in the religious schools, which derived from the Middle East and qualified them for specialized occupations such as religious teachers, or in the Malay educational system which qualified them as local primary school teachers. The teachers that emerged from these two streams were respected and regarded as leaders; and hence they assumed many social responsibilities. The two streams also provided Malays with an education suitable for the practice of journalism. In the early twenties, those Malays educated in the religious tradition who took up writing were clearly influenced by the Islamic reform movement coming out of Egypt.7 In the later twenties and the early thirties, some of the teachers who were the product of the Malay educational system began to write; their works tended to be on Malay
social problems. In the late thirties, they were jointed by Malay journalists educated under the British system who also wrote novels indicating a realization that Malays were oppressed by the British. They were
instrumental in the development of Malay conciousness towards their

position in society. All these early-writers, regardless of their education
xii
INTRODUCTION
and background, were concemed with Malay problems and Malay society. Two important writers in the early twenties were Syed Syeikh alHadi (l867-l934)~and Ahmad Rashid Talu (1889-1939? They both wrote stories which communicated Islamic reformist ideas. Syed Syeikh al-Hadi, a Malay student who had studied in Egypt and was a supporter of reformist ideas, postulated these ideals in his novels Hikoyat
Setia Asyik kepada Maksyuknya atau Faridah Hanum. Tale of a

Lover to a Beloved or Faridah Hanum) published in 1925-1926. Although set in Egypt and about Egyptian characters, the publication of these books marks the take-off point of the Malay novel. Thematically,
the novels reflected modem Islamic reformist views and teachings. One of the issues it raise was womens emancipation, a serious issue which provoked both support and condemnation. With this book, Syed
Syeikh al-Hadi brought two elements to Malay literature: the new form
of the novel and the message of Islamic reform. Shahnon was to use his
novels in a similar way and for the same purpose: to portray the troubles of society.
Ahmad Rashid Talu was influenced by Syed Syeikh al-Hadis form of fiction and his themes. He received his early education in Penang. He produced two major novels, Kawan Benar 2(A True Friend) in 1927 and Jakah Salmah3 (Is She Salmah?) in 1928 and 1929. These two works are considered the first real novels in Malays literature, they are set in Malaya, they are peopled by Malay characters, and they deal with Malay issues. The theme of womens rights, as advocated by the reformist movement, continues to be dominant. Although Ahmad Rashid Talu can be seen as a genuine pioneer of the authentic Malay novel, his message is at times propagandist and his characters do not always behave in a Muslim manner. The same ambivalence towards Islamic teaching can be seen in Shahnons early short stories and novels. In the late twenties and early thirties the focus of the Malay novel shifted more clearly to social problems. Muhammad Yusuf Ahmad
(1900-1981)4exemplifies this trend. He was educated in a local Malay school in Negeri Sembilan, joined the Malay Teacherss College at Malacca and later worked at Sultan Idris Training College. He used
fvlajalah Guru,5a teachers magazine, to disseminate his ideas on Malay society and also wrote novelettes about social problems of the time. Zaman Sari6 (The Good Old Days) attacks unscrupulous religious teachers and condemnes forced marriage; Mencari Isteri7 (To find a
Xlii
Wife) deals with the generation gap and the power of the older generation to cause unhappiness for young people by making decisions that control their childrens marriage and future; and Cerita Sill Maznah8 (The Story of Siti Maznah) shows the disastrous consequences when a father does not accept responsibility for the children of his divorced wife. In all of his writings, Muhammad Yusuf Ahmad voices his concern for social injustice by criticising the autocratic behaviour of husbands, religious teachers and the older generation, and he condemns the lack of education in Malay society. In a similar way Shahnons novels of social concem derive from his commitment as a teacher. During the late thirties, a sense of Malay identity began to crystallize as feelings of nationalism developed. At this stage there emerged a group of writers among the journalists9 who used literature to portray political themes. A typical example of this group is Ishak Haji Muhammad (1909)20 wrote both novels and short stories. The growth of nationalist feeling is strongly reflected in his two novels Putera Gunung Tahan2 (The Prince ,of Gunung Tahan); published in 1937 and Anak Mat Lela Qua22 (The Mad Son of Mat Lela), published in 1941. These two novels differ from the earlier works of the twenties and the thirties by expressing explicit resentment towards British colonial rule and the emergence of a sense of nationalism. Ishak Haji Muhammad uses rhetoric and satire to arouse a sense of national awareness in this readers. He uses supernatural forces, foreign characters and symbolic events to create a sense of detachment and alienation from the immediate struggle for survival which is his major theme. Shahnon also uses themes of Malay politics, nationalism, and supernatural powers in his novels. The Japanese occupation of Malaya in 1942 brought about a tremendous convulsion in Malay society. During the three years and eight months of occupation, the Japanese government used the Malay language and sponsored literary works in Malay to communicate propaganda and spread its idea of Asia for Asia. Although no Malay novels were published during occupation, short stories and poetry23 were produced as propaganda and as an attempt to cover up the turbulence and upheaval resulting from Japanese administration and exploitation. During this period, literature was explicitly used as a political tool. The Japanese surrender in 1945 was followed by the creation of a British Military Administration, an attempt to impose a new constituxiv
INTRODUCTION
tion known as the Malayan Union,24 and the communist insurrection which resulted in a state of emergency being declared. The events sharpened support for the struggle for independence and contributed to increased feelings of nationalism. The widespread recognitions that the country was being exploited intellectually, spiritually and materially by foreign powers is a theme Shahnon develops in his novels. The post World War Two period of communist insurgency known as the Emergency resulted in severe government control of speech, assembly and writing. Many of the Malay intelligentsia found these regulations oppressive and moved to Singapore where the regulations did not apply. On 6 August 1950 an association called Angkatan Sasterawan Lima Puluhan or ASAS 5025 Generation of Writers of the Fifties, was formed. One aim of ASAS 50 was to use literature for society under the slogan Seni Untuk Masyarakat art for society. The writers in ASAS 5Q26 shared a sense of social responsibility and viewed art as a tool in their struggle for racial unity and independence. In the late fifties A. Samad Said (1935- )27a member of ASAS 50, emerged as a writer of a significant pioneering work. His first novel, Sauna26 published in 1961, has been acclaimed by critics in Malaysia and abroad as an important landmark in Malay Literature29 The back ground of Salina is ~ew for Malay literature; it is neither a village nor a city, but a shanty settlement. The central character, Sauna, is a prostitute with a heart of gold; this is also an innovation in a literature which traditionally focuses on upper class heroes and characters of blameless reputation. He uses technical innovations such as dreams, flashback and interior monologue to portray the complexity of his characters. In this way, A. Samad Said opened new doors and revealed new options for Malay authors. Shahnons early writing efforts were clearly influenced by the new element and literary techniques of Sauna; Shahnon often refers to the novel and its author in his book Gubahan Novel. The elements he acknowledges as fascinating are the choice of setting, the use of dialogue, characters, points of view, local colour, philosphy of ideas, the effects of war, the meaning of life, and the use of dreams, flashbacks and interior monologue in creating his characters. Although Shahnon was clearly indebted to A. Samad Said, he has since reassessed his view of Salina. In the October 1979 issue of Dewan Sastera, he wrote a critical review in the light of his own development as a novelist and his new appreciation of the role of Islam in Malay literature30 xv
NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEAR5
Shahnon Ahmad emerged in his own right as a Malay novelist in 1965, with the appearance of Rentung3 (Rope of Ashes). However, he began writing short stories as early as 1956. These short stories served two functions in relation to his development as a novelist. Firstly, they enabled him to practise techniques of story telling; secondly, several of the stories were developed and extended into novels. Between 1965 and 1978 Shahnon wrote ten novels portraying Malay society during these troubled years; in these novels he tried to reflect the events, moods and attitudes of Malays both in rural and urban settings. Shahnons first novels, set in rural Malaysia, draw on his knowledge of the daily life and problems of the village of his birth, Kampung Banggul Derdap in the district of Sik in Kedah Darul Aman. He does not portray the village as an idyllic place, but treats it with honest realism, focusing on the disharmony and tension among its people. As in SaUna, the early novels embody the perception of the novelist that simplicity of life and acceptance of suffering are almost pit-conditions for man to free himself from the unhappy and corrupt material world in which he is trapped. Through the novels Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan32 (No Harvest but Thom, 1966) Shahnon attempts to portray the dark side of the villagers life in their struggle for survival. The villagers, despite all their faith in Allah, all their hard work, and all their courage and honesty, are confronted by both the wickedness of man himself and the cruel forces of nature. Shahnon shows village life as full of tribulations. He portrays the struggle of man against man and against nature through realistic and vivid descriptions of mans behaviour and reactions to misfortune, enhanced by a sensitive use of language and dialect. Shahnon is the first writer in Malaysia to write about life in the village with a full appreciation of its problems and disasters. This distinguishes him from his contemporary writers33 who are preoccupied with problems of life in the towns. Thus, these rural novels represent a break through in the development of Malay literature and have been well received by critics. Gaining confidence from his rural novels which established his literary reputation, Shahnon moved to urban themes. Those novels which are set in the town, focus on individuals who give way to vice and weakness. In the novel Terdedah34 (Exposed, 1967) he exposes the absence of idealism and responsibilities and probes into the problems of human relations based on the search for sexual pleasure and personal xvi
INTRODUCTION
satisfaction. He draws examples from many groups in society, aristocrats, leaders and common people, however, his primary concern is always with Malay people: non-Malays rarely and only fleetingly enter his novels. In the early sixties Shahnons work as a secondary school teacher in Kedah Darul Aman brought him into close contact with young people. His experience observing school debates about religion and society prompted him to write a novel introducing new elements into his work. The novel Protes (Protest, 1967) is a portrayal of the younger generations attitudes to their Islamic religion. The novel explores the growing self-consciousness of Malay youth and their restlessness when confronting spiritual issues and personal problems. Protes is unrelated to his works dealing with social and political concerns because he was attempting to delve into the philosophy and theology of Islamic belief He deals with the question of Allahs existence, Allahs creations, and Allahs attributes and virtues; he also shows mans struggle to find the path of Allah. This novel marks Shahnons first step towards an increasing concern with Islam as a force in literature. By the mid-seventies, he believed that literature should be written for Allah~s sake. He now writes both short stories and novels on Islamic themes. The years of the second half of the sixties mark a difficult period for both Shahnon and Malay society. After a decade of independence, Shahnon realized that the political leaders had achieved very little progress for the Malays. As a political activist, he observed the weaknesses of both state and national political leaders. He saw that Malays society was facing the problems of survival in a multi-racial state, and the economic imbalance among the races was a major cause of racial disharmony. Shahnons next novels Menteri36 (Minister, 1967) and Perdana37 (Premier, 1969) reflect this period of political conflict and intensified Malay nationalism. 1968 marks a shift in Shahnons development as a writer. He left Malaysia at a time of political upheaval to work and study in Australia. The socio-economic instability and political uncertainly in Malaysia coupled with his feelings of personal insecurity admist an alien culture cause Shahnon write fiction about internal dilemmas and tension. During this period of exile, he also wrote short stories about the struggle of his village people against their enemies and the self-centred attitude of a Malay diplomat in Canberra who feels no concern about the race riots in his country. xvii
Shahnons anger and distress at the fate of his country are indirectly expressed in the novel Srengenge38 (the name of a hill), published in 1973, Almost instinctively, Shahnon had begun to use internal characterization in Terdedah, but his exposure to western literature during his stay in Australia introduced him to the stream of consciousness technique. Shahnon began to use the technique to give a new depth to his Malay characters. This is evident in Srengenge, but is most effective in the novel, Sanzpah39 (Trash, 1974). Both Srengenge and Sampah show Shahnons succesful adoption of new literary techniques. While he was away from Malaysia and exploring western literature in Canberra, Shahnon was looked critically at the strengths and weaknesses of modern Malay literature. He recognized that Malay literature, especially fiction, was still traditional because of its reliance on external and physical portrayals of character. He therefore concentrated on incorporating the literary techniques from his reading of western authors, most notably the stream of consciousness, to give new dimensions to his characters. In this way he moved further than A. Samad Said in the development of complex characters. 1974 and 1975 were a restless period among the lower-income group in Malay society, who had been the focus of Shahnons concern during the sixties. The fishermen at Penang, where Shahnon lives, suffered because of water pollution; peasants suffered because of inflation. Shahnon transforms these real incidents into fiction. He shows his renewed concern for social issues in the novels Kemelut4 (Crisis, 1977) and Seluang Menodak Baung,41 ( a small fish skewered a big fish, 1978). Both novels display Shahnons love and concern for the Malay peasant and explicitly attacks irresponsible leaders. In dealing with social change in Malay society through these ten novels, Shahnon writes from within his own society and on behalf of his own people. In this way he realizes the role of literature as contributing to national development and consciousness. Through his creation of new techniques, he has contributes to the development of Malay as the national language. His more recent writings indicate a further stage in his literary development. These display Shahnons concern with Islamic themes,42 a concern which reflects Islamic revivalism in Malaysia. In contrast to his earlier interests in characters, individuality and social responsibility, Shahnon now believes that the writing of fiction should solely be for the sake of Allah. Jn this way, he has attempted to find a resolution of xviii
INTRODUCTION
the human, moral and philosophical problems of the troubled years. In his continuing portrayal of the development of Malaysia, Shahnon attempts to contribute to the spiritual development fo Malay society. There have been many studies of Shahnon Ahmads works43 studies focusing on particular novels and discussions of Malay literature which emphasize Shahnons works. One of the more perceptive criticisms is the article by A.H. Johns entitled Man in a Merciless Universe: The Work of Shahnon Ahmad, published both in Malaya and English. Using sociological and psychological approaches, Johns examines Shahnons works from the viewpoint of man as the victim of a merciless world. The survey is an important step in the recognition of Shahnon Ahmad as a major writer because it gives a general account of the authors achievement and insights up to 1970. There are also critics such as Pena Patriot45 and Kassim Ahmad46 who have viewed Shahnons rural novels from a socialist perspective and find them wanting. No adequate study has yet been made of Shahnons whole range of novels that relates them to changes in Malay society and Shahnons own development as a novelist. This study attempts to show how Shahnon develops both themes and style to express his own changing ideas during a period of national change and upheaval. In these novels, he deliberately focuses on the realities of Malay society and transformed these, through his imaginative creativity, into literature enabling his readers to reflect on their own society and behaviour. He constantly raises the issues of national consciousness, national development and national identity. By revealing social problems, he led his Malay readers to consider solutions in terms of their own moral and social responsibilities. It can be seen that the issues raised by Shahnon are of national importance to Malays and Malaysia. By setting his novels among ordinary people, living their daily lives in surroundings familiar to all Malays, readers can respond almost instinctively to his writings; they can share the feelings of the author and the characters found in his novels. Shahnon also displays a willingness to use literary techniques borrowed from other cultures. He does not limit himself to a single style, but experiments with new techniques and tackles new themes. His literary tools are very broad, ranging across Indonesian,41 Western and Australian literatures. At the same time, he is self-critical of the weaknesses found in his own writing; for instance, with his new Islaxix
mic orientation, he radically rejects and condemns some of his early writings. Three main overlapping stages are discernable in Shahnons development as a fiction writer; 1956-1968, the early period when he wrote and translated short stories; 1965-1978, his emergence as a novelist; and 1976 to the present, marking his concern over the relation between Islam and literature. This study focuses on the second stage of his development: the novel writing stage. The first chapter provides a summary of the writers early development as a short story writer and as a translator of short stories, a period when he laid the foundations for his craft in novel writing. Chapter three analyses the novels concerned with social problems and religion; and chapter four discusses the novels about Malay politics and nationalism. Chapter five covers some short stories written after 1968 which were transformed into novel. Finally, chapter six deals with the short stories which were developed into novels of renewed social commitment. The study attempts to examine Shahnon Ahmads emergence as a Malay novelist in relation to his selection of themes and settings, his portrayal of characters, his manipulation of technical devices, his exploitation of language and style, and his attempt to draw on the findings of allied disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, religion, history and sociology. Shahnon is appreciated by Malays both as a social commentator and as author48 because of his social conscousness which underlies all his writings. He consistentley relates his social message and personal commitment to the society in which he lives and makes clear moral judgements according to his personal values. Shahnon writing has clearly been influenced by changes in his country. In his works, he shows the conflict and trouble in the community, the corruption and irresponsibility of the leaders, and the problems and struggle of the lowincome group. Above all, he is concerned with promoting Malay identity and status. As a writer, he is fully committed to the role of literature as an agent of change. It is both the range of his interests and the inventiveness of his style that make Shahnon Ahmad a central figure in Malay Literature and Malay society. As a writer, Shahnon shows concern over the development of his literary techniques; as a Malay, he is concerned with the feelings of himself, his people and his characters. Shahnons development as writer has derived from a deepening perception of his society. This has resulted in deeper and more complex xx
NOVELS OF THE TROUBLEI) YEARS
characterization and a greater flexibility of his use of the Malay language. Most importantly, Shahnons themes have progressively grown more serious. While some of his early short stories and novels are cynical and light-hearted, the novels that follow explore the depths of human relations, and reach out to explore mans relationship to Allah.
xxi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am pleased to acknowledge my gratitude and appreciation to a number of institutions and persons without whose assistance, guidance and advice this study could not have been undertaken. I wish to thank the Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, which offered me a three and a half year scholarship under their Academic Staff Higher Education Scheme to pursue my studies at the Australian National University, Canberra, from July 1981 to December 1984. To Professor Anthony H. Johns, Head of the Southeast Asia Centre, Faculty of Asian Studies, I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude, admiration and appreciation for his boundless patience in supervising my work and for the facilities and access to his personal library through the various stages of the thesis. He unceasingly and conscientiously read the whole thesis and spent many hours with me in numerous discussions bestowing intellectual stimulation, guidance, encouragement and kindness. I thank Dr. Supomo Surhohudojo, the co-supervisor, for his tremendous effort in assisting me organizing the study and his endless encouragement through the stages of the work. At the last stage of the work, Dr. Virginia Matheson kindly consented to become another cosupervisor. At this crucial stage, she constantly and pains takingly rendered all the assistance in going through the thesis. I thank her for guiding me through the final stages ofthis study andfor her thoughtful andsensible advice in matters pertaining to the larger theoretical and structural issues to arrive a coherent interpretation of some of the finest points. Above all, I appreciate her friendship, care and concern given to me and my family. xxiii
There is no way to adequately express my indebtedness to my three supervisors for their unwavering confidence in me and their invaluable help and meticulous commitment in seeing this work to completion. To them: Saya ucapkan berbanyak-banyak terima kasih di atas kebaikan
hudihicara dan ketinggian hemah tuan puan sekalian.
Special mention must also be made to those individuals who have helped me with my English. Thanks must go first and foremost to Ms. Brigid Ballard of the Communication and Study Skills Unit, for the marvellous and tremendous help in the organization of the work, particularly with regard to English. She spent a considerable amount of time and dedication in going through every chapter of the work with extreme skill and care, sharp criticism and constructive suggestions. I am greatly indebted to her for her patience and persistence in helping me in this work. Mrs. NoraFleming also gave valuable help with the first draft of my work forwhich lam very grateful. To Ms. Patricia Woodcroft-Lee, Mrs. Wendy Coutts and Ms. Jutta Bluhm, lowe my gratitude for their help in my English. However, the responsibility for the facts, interpretation, analyses and the shortcomings which follows rests with me alone. To the staff of the Southeast Asia Centre: Bapak Dr. Soewito Santoso, Ibu Yohanni Johns, Mrs. Jan Lingard, Mrs. Muna Sabbagh, Mrs. Robyn Stokes and the Centre secretaries: Mrs. Siew Bail and Mrs. Bob Pinkerton, I also grateful to my fellow post-graduate students at the Faculty for various discussions we shared during the course of my study. I am particularly indebted to the Dean of the Faculty of Asian Studies and the Secretary ofthe Faculty, Mr. Ken Healey for the facilities given to me. I thank Mrs. Barbara Tkalcevic and Mr. Stan Tomaszewski for help with printing and technical facilites. In preparing the drafts, I had access to word-processing facilities in the Faculty. I wish to thank Mrs. Sue Layton and Mrs. Jessica Radnell, the operators, and Mr. John Gardiner-Garden for their instruction and assistance in operating the machine until I was quite competent with it. I should also like to express my appreciation andadmiration to Prof. Datuk Haji Shahnon Ahmad, the author who is the subject of my study. I regard myself as very privileged to be associated with him. As a friend, colleague and former dean, he has become a tremendous source of inspiration through his constant correspondence, words of personal advice and encouragement. Thanks are also due to the writers Jihaty Abadi, A. Wahab Ali, Ali Ahmad, Muhammad Haji Salleh, Noorjaya. AnwarRidhwan, Kemala, Wahba, Jumaanoh Abdul Bunga and others for xxiv
their moral support. Last but not least, I wish to thank my late mother, Allahyarhamah Hajah Wan Pah Wan Ahmad; my wife, Fatimah Saad and children, Fahainis, Shafiz Affendi, Shafiza Nawal and Siti Ilyana; members of the family, relatives, friends and colleagues, both back home in Malaysia and in Canberra, for their prays and blessings.
xxv
1 SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

Shahnon Ahmad was born on 13 January 1933 at Kampung Banggul Derdap, a remote village in the district of Sik, Kedah, a northern state of Peninsular Malaysia. Neither of his parents were from Sik. His father, Haji Ahmad bin Haji Abu Bakar, came from Medan, Sumatera. His mother, Hajah Kalsum binti Haji Mohd. Saman, came from Pattani, a southern province of Thailand. Strong willed and resourceful migrants, his parents held different attitudes from the Sik inhabitants. These characteristics led them to bring up their children in manner different from what was usually practised by village people of that timer Shahnons mother was a second generation descendant whose family migrated from Kampung Poseng in Pattani. Migrating from Pattani at the turn of the century because of economic, political and religious reasons, they came to settle in Sik. Haji Ahmad traveled widely in Sumatera and Malaya, before settling in Kampung Banggul Derdap where he married Hajah Kalsum. He worked in a government survey department and later became a postman. As a postman during the Second World War, he was an agent for British intelligence. After the war when he was offered a pension for his service from the British government, he took the money in a lump sum and spent it on his childrens education. He became the first man in his village to send his two sons, Mohd. Noh and Shahnon, to an English-medium college in Alor Setar, sixty kilometres from Sik. The decision to send his sons to an outside school caused a stir and bred hostility among the villagers who were suspicious of sending their children to secular 1
schools which they believed were harmful to their childrens religious upbringing. At that time, children in the Village usually attended traditional pondok schools where religious instruction was given. A basic primary education and Islamic religious education were considered sufficient for a man to survive in the village. Shahnon spent his childhood in his native village where he received his early primary education at Sekolah Melayu Sik from 1940 to 1946. In the morning session he studied secular subjects, and in afternoon session he received Islamic religious instruction. From 1947 to 1953 Shahnon attended the English boarding school Sultan Abdul Hamid College in Alor Setar. Here Shahnon found himself in an urban environment that was very different from the remote rural village of his birth. Coming in contact with young people from different backgrounds gave rise to a sense of detachment and alienation from his family and village. Immediately after passing the Senior Cambridge Examination, Shahnon left his home state for the first time to teach English in the English Grammar School in Kuala Terengganu in the east coast state of Terengganu. After a year, in 1955, he enlisted in the Malay Regiment. After training at Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan, for a year he was forced to resign from the regiment because of an accident, he returned to teaching. Returning to Kedah in 1956, he taught English at the primary schools, Sekolah Melayu Gunung and Sekolah Melayu Bukit Besar. In 1960 he was transferred to his alma mater, Sultan Abdul Hamid College, to teach Malay language and literature where he remained until 1963. He was then transferred to Sekolah Menengah Sultan Abdul Halim, a Malay-medium residential school at Jitra to teach Malay language and literature. Reflecting on this transition from teaching English to teaching Malay language and literature Shahnon says: Akhirnya saya ditukar terus menjadi guru bahasa dan kesusasteraan Melayu di sebuah sekolah menengah yang terbesar di Kedah. Ini pada saya satu keanehan tapi kehendak Allah siapa pun tidak boleh menghalanginya. Ini dia saya, seorang guru yang terlatih mengajar Bahasa Inggeris di sekolah rendah tiba-tiba tanpa sebarang latihan diperintah mengajar bahasa dan kesusasteraan Melayu di sekolah menengah atas.2 2
SI-IAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS
This shift of responsibilities marks a turning point in Shahnons development as a writer because it created a love for his own language and showed him its potential. It was during this period that Shahnon became active in politics and literary organizations. He became a publicity officer and head of the information bureau of the United Malays National Organization UMNO Jitra Division. On 6 November 1966 in his house in Jitra, Shahnon along with other local writers formed a literary organization called Gabungan Sasterawan Sedar, or GATRA.3 In mid-1968 he accepted an appointment as a research assistant on the English-Malay Dictionary Project, Department of Indonesian Languages and Literature, Australian National University, Canberra. While working there he studied part-time in the same faculty. After four years he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (Asian Studies) specializing in Malay and returned to lecture Malay language and literature at Sultan Idris Teachers College in Tanjung Malim, Perak. However, that same year, 1972, he left to pursue a post-graduate course at Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang where he also tutored Malay Literature at the School of Humanities. Shahnon completed Master of Arts degree in 1975. His thesis, entitled Sajak- sajak A. S. Amin, traces the development of modern Malay poetry with special reference to the poet A. S. Amin. On completing his Masters degree, Shahnon was appointed lecturer of Malay literature in the School of Humanities at Universiti Sains Malaysia. He later became Deputy Dean of the School. In 1980, he became Dean and Associate Professor Madya. He was both a member of the University Senate and the University Council. In July 1982, he was granted full professorship in modern Malay literature by Universiti Sains Malaysia. Shahnon has received numerous literary awards and honours. For three consecutive years, 1972, 1973 and 1974, his short stories won national awards: Kalau Ibu Sampai Takah Tiga in 1972, Lagu Kitkitkit in 1973, and Tak Keruan in 1974. In 1974 his novel Srengenge, was the only novel to receive the national award for novel writing. In 1975 Shahnon along with five other writers4 were awarded the title Pejuang Saster (fighter for literature) by the Federal Government. In 1978 Shahnon made the pilgrimage to Mecca, an experience which profoundly moved him and gave him the right to be called Haji.
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In addition to receiving literary awards and honours, Shahnon has also served on numerous literary panels. During 1980-1981 Shah-non represented Malaysia on the panel of judges from the five ASEAN countries for the the Short Story Writing Competition sponsored by the magazine Asiaweek5. In 1981-1982, he was appointed chairman of the Novel Writing Competition organized by the Sabah Foundation and GAPENA (Gabungan Penulis-penulis Nasional), and was also chairman of the Islamic Short Story Writing Competition organized by the Prime Ministers Department of Malaysia. In October 1982, he received the prestigious Anugerah Sastera Negara, National Literature Award, from the Government of Malaysia. The prize includes $30,000 (Malaysian ringgits). a letter of National Honour, facilities for writing and publishing, and entitlement to first class ward medical facilities. Shahnon Ahmads literary achievements have brought him government recognition and titles. In 1974 he was made a Kesateria Mangku Negara (K.M.N.), Order of Chivalry Fourth Class by the Yang di Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, and in 1980 the Sultan of Kedah bestowed on him the title Datuk. Shahnons interest in literature began when he was a student in Sultan Abdul Hamid College-His early literary interests developed through writing, reading Malay and Indonesian literary works and involvement in school drama activities. Of this, Ismail Hussein, his college mate, says that Shahnon was an exceptional anak desa, a village boy.6 His difficulties in settling in at school were compensated by his abilities in oral expression, especially in acting as a comedian. By acting, he was able to overcome his shyness and gain self-confidence, while displaying a talent for theatre and literature. Ismail Hussin, his classmate, noted that Shahnon was an excellent example of anak desa the village boy. Shahnon was aware that as a village boy he was different from most of his college mates. Shahnon himself said that he became obsessed with reading and writing, gila dan gatal membaca dan mengarang, after his college days. Sepatutnya saya perlu membaca buku-buku sastera Inggeris kerana sejak tahun 1947 saya dididik di sekolah Inggeris sehingga tamat pengajian dalarn tahun 1953. Kemudian saya mengajar pula Bahasa Inggeris sejak tahun 1955 hingga ke tahun 1962. Saya juga rnembaca karya-karya dalam Bahasa lnggeris tapi tidak Sebanyak dalam Bahasa Melayu. Sama sekali bukan bermaksud 4
SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS
hendak membanggakan din, tapi pada waktu itu boleh dikatakan seluruh novel Indonesia yang dikarang oleh pengarang-pengarang Angkatan Balai Pustaka, Pujangga Baru dan Empat Puluh Lima, saya baca. Betul-betul satu macam kegilaan waktu itu. Paradoxically, it was his career in teaching English which generated his interest in Malay-Indonesian literature. His background in English literature made Shahnon read Malay literature with new eyes. His reading made Shahnon aware of the potential of the Malay language to convey the emotions: Secara automatik saya menguasai Bahasa Melayu. Saya dapati Bahasa Melayu amat indah sekali, berdaya mengekspreskan aspek-aspek perasaan dengan puasnya. Bahasa itu hidup bila saya cuba menggambarkan sesuatu yang tidak mampu digambarkan oleh bahasa sehari-hari. ~ Shahnons literary activity falls into five broad, but not exclusive stages of development. These divisions, based on thematic and structural approaches, overlap between his short stories and novels. The stages are outlined in the following table: Table I: Stages in the Development of Shahnon Ahmad as a Fiction Writer Stages, Dates and Chapters 1 1956-1968: (i) Shahnon Ahmad and His Early Works Short Stories
Setanggi (1960)
Novels
(Translated)
Anjing-Anjing (1964) Debu Merab (1965) Rentung (1965) Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan (1966) Terdedah (1965) Protes (1967) Menteri (1967) Perdana (1969)
1965-1969: (ii) The Rural Struggle (iii) Social Problems and Religion (iv) Malay Politics and Nationalism 5
1969-1974: (v) Tension and
Selesai Sudah (1977)
Change
4 1974-1978: (vi) The Renewed Social Moyok (1975)
Srengge (1973) Sampah (1974)
Kemelut (1977)
Seluang Menodak Baung (1978)
Committment
5 1976-: (vii) The Islamic
Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur (1975) Mr. Proudfoot (1975)

Kemelut (1977) Ada (1978)
Riak (1976)
A!-Shiqaq (1983) - a fragment
Mayat dan
Keluarga (1981)
Toni! Purbawara (1982)

Dongeng Merdeka
(1982)
Although his study focuses on his ten novels written between 1965 and 1978 covering the second, third and fourth stages, it is worth examining Shahnons development as a writer by briefly reviewing his writing and translation of short stories. The short stories he wrote during the period reveals his interest in social and human issues. These themes and the use local setting are further developed in his novels. Shahnon Ahmads early works are discussed in three parts; the first short stories translated by him in the collection Setanggi (Incense,196O) compiled between 1957 and 1963; and short stories in the collection Anjing-Anjing (Dogs,1964, and Debu Merah (Red Dust, 1965) written between 1960 and 1968.
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The First Ten Short Stories (1956-1960) The ten short stories Shahnon published between 1956 and 1960 reveal a style he would later develop and the thematic concern over the abuse of power. 6
The four short stories that exemplify his developing technique and style are Bingung (Confused, 1956); Bercuti di Kampung (A Village Holiday, 1959); Tua (Old Age, 1960); and Di Tengah Keluarga (In the Midst of the Family, 1960). The six short stories exhibiting his concern over social issues and the abuse of power are Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat (Friends and Status, 1958); Tiga Kali Gagal (Three Failures, 1958); Ayam dan Manusia (Fowls and Man, 1958); Nasib Seorang Buruh (The Fate of a Labourer 1958) ; Kisah Malam Lustrum (The Story of a Fifth Anniversary Night. 1959); and Sesudah Merdeka (After Independence, 1960). Whether in the village of his childhood or the towns of his adult life, the basic material for Shahnons short stories is his own experience. This is evident from the first person narrations. Shahnons first published short story is Bingung. The narrator, a small boy, is confused by a change in his brothers behaviour. The theme, astonishment at discovering the ways of the adult world, examines the human relationships and the perceptions of a young man entering adulthood. This first story contains technical weaknesses. For example, in his use of language to describe objects, events and people.9 The only story to use a village setting is Bercuti di Kampung. The story, describing how village life appears to an outsider, is told by a man who brings his city-born wife on a holiday to his village. Structured around the cycle of rural life, the story exposes the governments mismanagement of rural development and the hypocrisy of the political leaders who are represented by si gendut pendek (a thick-bellied shorty) who makes campaign promises and manifestos at election time, but does nothing. Even at this early stage of his development as a writer, Shahnon focused his attention on the plight of peasant facing drought, flood and other natural threats to the rice crop that cause poor harvests and, of course, poverty among the village people. He demonstrates his skill as an observer when he realistically describes the objects found in the river during the dry season. In this story, Shahnon has realized how writing is a craft that requires a conscious effort. The story Tua focuses on Dasimah who is facing the social disgrace of remaining unmarried as she grows older. Living in distress, agony and shame, she suffers physical and behavioural changes until she meets an army officer pretending he is single. After ma,
NOVELS OF THE TROuBLED YEARS
king her pregnant, the man refuses to take her as a second wife. This story a womans predicament demonstrates Shahnons skillful technique of describing human characteristics such as the hypocrisy of the army man who behaves like an unmarried man; the boastfulness of Dasimah during her affair with an army officer; and cruelty, in the final desertion of a helpless, pregnant woman. Unlike the previous stories, Shahnon uses third-person narration which gives objective distance to the events. Di Tengah Keluarga, is a moving story revealing character failings in a father and his son. The story is told by another son who describes how his brother was the source of family pride because he was selected to go to Sandhurst, England for military training. However, he does not live up to his parents expectations. Going against the wishes of his father, the young man marries an English woman. The father refuses to accept the wife purely on racial grounds. FurthermoYe, she is barren. The father, orders his son to marry a Malay woman so that he may have grandchildren, but the son rejects his fathers request. Instead h adopts a Chinese baby with the hope of pleasing his father. In Di Tengah Keluarga Shahnon skillfully portrays the developing conflict and tension between father and son through the eyes of the narrator. He is in a dilemma because he is caught in the middle of this conflict between the people he loves most. The narrator believes the only way to resolve the conflict is to please the father by marrying and giving him the grandchildren he desires. After the birth of his child, the narrator feels his sacrifice has brought relief to his parent. Shahnon has shown how conflict between a father and his son is resolved by a third person, another son. Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat reflects Shahnons own teaching experience and social criticism. The narrator is a primary school teacher who is disturbed by the actions of four groups of friends. He attacks the nepotism of the first group. The second group, university students, are criticized for their arrogance. The third group, teachers, are criticized for looking down on their own language and culture, and the last group are people who are influenced by western culture and look down on their Malay way of life. From a stylistical perspective, this is the first time Shahnon; corporates repetition into his sentence structures as a means of emphasis.1 The poetic diction with its strong sense of rhythm, rhetorical language and irony is remarkably effective in building up to the climax. 8
5HAHNON AHMAD AND H15 EARLY WORKS
One month later, Shahnon wrote Tiga Kali Gagal. The story records a fathers advice to his son on the path to successful life. The story is told from the sons perspective who, in spite the advice, experiences three failures. First, he perceives himself as a failure in love because a girl does not reciprocate his love. Then, lacking influential relatives, he fails to secure a job. His final failure is his inability to fulfil his religious obligations because of his lack of religious knowledge. In this short story Shahnon brings out new themes while developing previous themes and improves his narrative techniques. This technique of advice from one party to another is used by Shahnon to demonstrate the value of knowing oneself before knowing others; to attack both people puffed-up with self-importance (pegawai herperut gendut) and people with materialistic attitudes; and to exhibit concern for peasants, (petani-petani). In this story he introduces the phrase sawo matang to contrast the brown skin of the Malays with that of the other races. It was a productive period for Shahnon; two months later he wrote Ayam dan Manusia the story of an attempted rape by a respected government officer. According to the narrator, human sexual behaviour is analogous to that of a rooster and a hen. The attempted rape takes place at a neighbours house while her husband is out. When the intruder comes into her house, she screams and alerts people who catch the man. Shahnon uses combines realistic details and animal metaphors to describe the officers behaviour. Shahnon adds a touch of irony by having the action, the government officer committing a sin, take place on the night of lailatul-qadar, the sacred night in the most sacred month of Ramadan, a time when people are supposed to pray and turn away from sin. The narrator in Nasib Seorang Buruh relates the fate of Utut, his neighbour. Utut, unemployed for a long time, is ecstatic at finally getting a job, even as a night soil collector, and celebrates with a feast. However, Ututs good fate does not last. Soon after Utut begins his new job, the labourers stage a strike over their low wages. The strike is a threat to society, but the modern technology of waste disposal which employs fewer people is a greater threat to the workers who will be displaced and out of work. Shahnon further develops the themes of unemployment and nepotism which he first raised in Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat and Tiga Kali Gagal. Shahnons vivid descripTion of objects and people makes this 9
story more realistic than previous stories. He effectively uses humour when describing the peoples panic after the night soil collectors go on strike and the stench of human waste fills the town. Shahnon broadens his net of social criticism by attacking the elite class of rulers, ministers and top-ranking government officers. Shahnons sympathy towards the labourers contrasts with the contempt he feels towards the well-to-do people. Shahnon continues to examine and develop themes around these attitudes. The first story in which Shahnon shows explicit concern for politics is Kisah Malam Lustrum, published in a leftist magazine, Majalah Fajar, at the University of Singapore in 1959. Shahnon once again focuses on the perut gendut group in society by relating the story of a party organized by an alumni association celebrating its fifth anniversary. As in Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat- pangkat, the narrator observes how government officers have adopted the language, food and drink, and other cultural aspects of the west. The central figure Tamu Agung who comes from the aristocratic class, is being honoured that evening for his contributions to the independence struggle. Shahnon ~kiIlfully points to the irony of these peoples independence. They are independent only in a physical sense, but as long as they imitate the life-styles and are mentally dependent on their former colonizers, they will never be truly independent. In this story Shahnon demonstrates his nationalistic and patriotic commitment. He questions the lack of national identity and the integrity of government officers who he sees as opportunists and hypocrites. Looking at the factionalized social structure made up of traditional royal elites, English-educated, Malay-educated, government officials and peasants, Shahnon seems to ask, who are gaining the most from the countrys independence? Sesudah Merdeka assesses the first three years of Malayan independence. From the top of a new five-storey building in Alor Setar, the narrator observes the changes which have taken place since independence. From this vantage point he is able to see the vast difference between the English schools and the Malay schools. He also sees the construction of a nearby town that will eventually affect the livelihood of the Malays in the area. These sights open the narrators eyes to the plight of the Malays who are poor and oppressed by the authorities of their own country. Shahnon again raises the issue of poverty in this story by com10
paring the lives of the poor to those of the rich and describing the conditions of Malays prior to independence and those after independence. Shahnon ends his story with a cynical and ironic statement about the building. The narrator stands on top of a building that is the pride of the people of the town, a building that is used by the elite sector of society for parties and luxurious living. Shahnon develops the Malay literature of his predecessors by experimenting with a wide range of structural techniques and language. In his use of language, he evolves a highly individual style in which the repetition of words and phrases plays important part in creating, through the use of similes and metaphors, a genuine poetic sense. His distinctive style of describing characters, settings, events and feelings go beyond simple reportage into the realm of art. Shahnons critical eye moves from a single family to embrace the neighbourhood, village and town. Beginning with members of a family, Shahnon extends his field of fire to neighbours, friends, village folk, government officers and political leaders. Individuals especially aristocrats, political leaders and government officials, are targets of his criticism because of their hypocrisy and arrogance. This critique of the ruling class is apparent in nearly all of Shahnons stories which expose lifestyles, appearances, and the hypocrisies of what might be termed the fat cats of society. Shahnons concern over social issues and his resentment against the ruling and bureaucratic classes reinforces a sense of commitment to the country and the Malay race. These ten early short stories demonstrate Shahnons early technique and theme of social criticism which he later develops into novels. The Translated Short Stories (1957-1963) Shahnons efforts at translation correspond with a general trend in the late fifties and early sixties of translating world literature into Malay. Between 1957 and 1963, Shahnon translated short stories. Ten appear in the collection Setanggi, one in the collection Cepu Kencana, and seven others in the magazine Mastika. In 1960, a remarkable year in his early development, Shahnon wrote not only nine stories of his own but also translated 13 short stories. Like other Writers of the time, Shahnon selected stories that he believed would be meaningful to Malay readers. These transla11
all from English versions, brought him into intimate contact with the techniques of other writers and served as models for his own literary development. Since some of these works clearly influenced his own writing, it is worthwhile examining a few in detail. The stories discussed in this section are those that influenced Shahnons writing both thematically and stylistically. His translated short story, Pelajaran yang Penghabisan (The Final Lesson) by Alphonse Daudet, was first published in the September 1957 issue of Majalah Gui-u and later included in the collection Setanggi. Daudets story concerns Monsieur Hamel, a dedicated teacher of French, who is forced to leave his job because his service is no longer needed in German occupied France. A teacher for 40 years in the same school, he burst into tears when French is replaced by German as the medium of instruction and removed from the curriculum. The story shows how a teachers love of his country and language causes him to be troubled at the loss of the peoples birth right their language. The introduction of a foreign education system creates an awareness towards the national language which leads to a renewed sense of patriotism. Daudets story shows how the loss of the mother tongue in his country creates an inner tension a rising from the loss of national pride. It is an example of how writing can portray the strong feelings of nationalism under foreign occupation. For Malay readers who regarded Malay as a symbol of national identity, the national
tions, language theme was significant.
Shahnon Ahmad translated three stories by Guy de Maupassant,3 one of the greatest masters of the short story. Cerita Gadis Desa (The Story of a Farm Girl), Hilang di Laut (Lost at Sea), and Syarat (A Condition) were all first published in Setanggi. The first story is about Rose, a maidservant, who has troubles both with her boyfriend, Jacques. and her employer, the landlord Vallin. Jacques deserts her when she becomes pregnant before their marriage. After giving birth to a boy, she lives in misery and eventually marries her master. The second story deals with the cruelty of a fisherman towards his wife. For ten years he humiliates his wife until he met his death at sea. After his death, the wife buys a parrot to keep her company. When the bird turns out to be as talkative as her late husband, she throws it into the sea where her husband drowned four years before. The third story relates how Baroness de Gangerie enjoyed a sexual relationship with a stranger who treats her like a pros12
titute and gives her money. However, worried about having been unfaithful to her husband, she consults a friend who advises her to give the money she earned for the sexual encounter to her husband. These three stories of Maupassant deal cynically with the sexual and family life of three female characters, the farm girl, the humiliated wife and the respectable wife turned prostitute, trapped in their social environment, who become the victims of those around them. The innocent farm girls is first victimized by her boyfriend and then her master; Mrs. Patin is the victim of a vicious husband; and Baroness de Gangerie becomes the victim of her own sexual gratification. These stories dealing with sexual relationships influenced Shahnons later writing, especially the stories in the collection Anjing-Anjing and the novel Terdedah. The story Menunggu Kebenaran dan Tuhan is a translation of Watching for the Truth from God by the Russian author Leo Tolstoy.4 It is a story about a businessman, Aksionov, who was convicted for a murder he did not commit. After serving 26 years of a life sentence, he meets the real murderer who wishes to confess. His confession comes too late for Aksionovs release; Aksionov dies in prison the next day. This story deals with the profound mystery in Gods dealing with man and mans own conscience. Tolstoy shows how the struggle for survival forces people to face the ordeals and torments of injustice; Aksionov faces this injustice with a continued trust in God. His reward is knowing before his death that his truthfulness has been proven and his good name preserved. This literary exploration of deep religious themes may have encouraged Shahnon to consider Islamic themes in his own work. A Story in 1957, a short story by the Indian author and philosopher, Rabindranath Tagore~was translated by Shahnon as Kisah dalam Tahun I857~~.b6 It portrays the hardship faced by a woman from an Indian noble family during the time of the struggle for the countrys independence. The woman, a Muslim, has an encounter with a Hindu nationalist, Kesharlal. Although prim?rily a portrayal of religious pluralism, this story of a relationship between a Muslim woman and a Hindu nationalist, also touches on elements of nationalism, patriotism and sacrifice. During the course of the nationalist struggle, treachery and religious differences between the two groups causes disunity and chaos among the people. Tagore deals with the problems of a multicultural society and intercommunal relationships; 13
Shahnons will later deal with similar themes. Lin Yutang from China was another author whose stories Harimau (Tiger) and Chien-niang were translated by Shahnon. Harimau relates the story of Cheng Fang who uses his ability to turn into a tiger to kill Chin Cheng of Foochow. At the end of the story, Chin Chengs son takes revenge on Cheng Fang. Chien-niang is the story of the love between Wang Chau and his cousin, Chienniang. Unable to marry because Chien-niang is engaged to another man, Wang Chau leaves home with Chien-niang following him in the form of a spirit. They marry, have a child, and eventually return to their parents to live happily. Unlike the other authors which Shahnon translated, Lin Yutang is not particularly well-known for his short stories. Perhaps it was the supernatural elements in Harimau and Chien-niang that attracted Shahnon. Harimau set in a region where there were many tigers, demonstrates the influence of the environment over man. In Chien-niang, the young woman who turns into a spirit is overwhelmed by the conflict in her life. These stories deal with mans life in relationship to his environment, themes Shahnon takes up and develops. As with the short stories of Lin Yutang, the stories of Edgar Allen Poe and Stephen Leacock,9 are of minor importance to Shahnons later work. He probably selected these works because they contain strong elements of humour. Shahnon translated Poes story entitled Takut (Fear) and Leacocks story Aku Hilang Seringgit (I Lost a Dollar). These two stories deal with human conscience in relation to ones fellow man. Fear tells how a murderers fear of his own conscious leads him to reveal his guilt. The second story is about of a man who forgets to repay a debt of just one dollar to his friend; but the friend is always hoping for the repayment. These stories, simple in plot development and thematic treatment, employ humour to point to a moral. Shahnon responded to his exposure to other writers by employing the techniques and themes he discovered. This exposure to other writers, as A. H. John notes, was critical:
-
Thus every serious writer of Malay, whether in its Indonesian or Malay variant, has had to borrow significantly from a variety of sources, and to search both for the themes and attitudes of per14
sonal significance to him, and the forms in which he wished to express himself.2
Themes, particularly social criticism and the position of women, used by Shahnon is his short stories correspond to the themes in the stories he translated. With the themes and styles of these translations in mind, we can look at the relationship between Shahnons own stories and his translated works. The 10 stories in Setanggi had some influence upon Shahnons own stories, especially his first ten short stories and the stories in the anthology Anjing-Anjing. As the followir~ table indicates, between 1957 and 1963 Shahnon was tremendously prolific, producing both his own short stories and translations:
Table II: Production of Shahnons Short Stories and Translation: 19571963
Year
No. of Original Stories
No. of Translated Stories
1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 9 5 6 8 34 4 0 13 2 0 I 18
15
NOVEL5
OF THE TROUBLED YEARS
The translated stories which focus on the predicament of women are Cerita Gadis Desa, Hilang di Laut and Syarat by Guy de Maupassant; Harimau by S. Rajaratnam; Hilang dara by Khushwant Singh; Namanya Emile by Erskine Cardwell and Kisah Dalam Tahun 1857 by Rabindranath Tagore. The themes of these translated stories are similar to Shahnons own Catatanku (My Diary). Malam Begitu lndah (The Night is so Beautiful), Tua (Old) and Guntur (Thunder). The focus of Maupassants story Cerita Gadis Desa is similar to Shahnons Tua and Catatanku. Cerita Gadis Desa relates the experience of a woman who has an affair wtth a man who leaves her after she becomes pregnant. Shahnons story Tua is also about a woman, Dasimah, who gets entangled with a married man who leaves her when she is pregnant. Another story, Catatanku, is about a woman whose lover leaves her when she becomes pregnant; she is sent to the village to give birth and to avoid shame. These three stories depict the lives of young women who fall victim to irresponsible lovers. Unlike Shahnon, Maupassant ends his story with the woman being accepted by society through the master who marries the woman and accepts the son as part of his family. Shahnon ends his stories by showing how women who disgrace their parents are treated as social outcast. The stories Malam Begitu Indah and Guntur show evidence of an indirect influence from Syarat by Maupassant. The prostitutes Kiah, Kak Don and Kinah in Shahnons stories struggle to survive in their profession. Their hardships are a result of the conditions of the society in which they live; being poor, they must try to make ends meet by what ever means are available to them. On the other hand, the character in the story Syarat comes from a wealthy family; Baroness de Gangerie is simply promiscuous. There is a similar concern with sexuality in the stories Ayam dan Manusia, Siplis, (Syphilis), Dunia Tuhan yang Indah (Gods Beautiful World) and Ombak Kecil Berkocak (The Rippling Wavelets) in the collection Anjing-Anjing and the translated stories Hilang di Laut by Maupassant, and Harimau and Chein-niang by Lin Yutang in the collection Setanggi. Shahnons translated stories on social criticism include Aku Hilang Seringgit by Stephen Leacock; Pertanda (Executioner) by Honore de Balzac, Warganegara yang Baik (A Good Citizen) by 16
Dok Mai Sod, Interview by Patrick Ng Kah Onn, and Mata

(Eyes) by K. T. Mohamed. The themes of these stories correspond to Shahnons Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat., Tiga Kali Gagal, Nasib Seorang Buruh and Sesudah Merdeka.
Shahnons interest in themes of social criticism influenced his

choice of stories for translation. These stories, both original and
translated, sharply criticize society by expressing concern for human attitudes such as sincerity, perseverance and integrity. They also express feelings of nationalism and the desire for independence; a distaste for nepotism and favouritism; and sympathy for the poor mans fortunes in his daily struggles for survival. The stories Warganegara yang Baik and Sesudah Merdeka introduce views on nationalism, independence and the effects of government on the lower class. Interview and Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat are concerned with the search for a job and livelihood. Mata and Nasib Seorang Buruh portray the plight of poor people, and Menunggu Kebenaran dan Tuhan and Tiga Kali Gagal show how mans trust in God is justified in the end. One significant element which Shahnon gained in traflslating these stories is realism as a literary style, as evident in his descriptions of settings. For example, the description of the filthy atmosphere in Cerita Gadis Desa is reflected in the story Ayam dan Manusia. The dialogues between Marchioness and the Baroness in the translated story Syarat by Maupassant uses the technique of distinctive speech of women a particular class. Shahnon employs the same technique in the conversation between Kak Don and Kiah in his story Malam Begitu Indah. Also in the story Guntur the dialogue between Kinah and Samsi is particularly effective. For example: Baru aku ingat! Samsi berseru, Ada lagi malam mi Ada apa?. Jantan. Siapa. Jantan. Aku tahu orang jantan. Tapi siapa? Peduli siapa. Kau takut? Takut? Takut apa? Takut kena gomol. Cih! Barua kau. Lantas dikutil bahu Samsi.
,
17
NOVELS OF THE
TROUBLED YEARS
as malam,jantan titutes in a brothel.
The dialogue is simple, short, coarse and direct, and words such gomol and barua are appropriate for pros,
Taking foreign literature as a model, Shahnon channelled his personal experience of life to develop his own style of writing. Writing fiction became a way of re-experiencing, re-working and rethinking themes in the material he had translated. Shahnon has acknowledged the importance of reading other writers works that unconsciously may influence the style and themes of a writers own creative writing: Pendek kata seorang pengarang itu mesti juga menjadi pembaca yang rajin meskipun seorang pembaca yang rajin itu tidak semestinya menjadi pengarang. The Anthologies Anjing-Anjing (1964) and Debts Merah (1965) The year 1960 was a productive year for Shahnon; he wrote nine stories during the year. Four of these were discussed above. The other five are: Bung ZakIul (the name of a man), Dr. Zaqiul (the name of a man), Malam Begitu Indah, Borang G. 147 (Form G. 147) and Siplis .The two short stories Malam Begitu Indah and Siplis are included in the collection Anjing-Anjing while the other two stories, Dr. ZaqIul and Borang G. 147, appear in the anthology Debu Merah. Many of Shahnons short stories written in the early sixties are about different aspects of human sexuality. Shahnon sees this period in the development of modem Malay literature as being full of stories with sex, love, promiscuity and prostitution which are intended to arouse the readers passion; there is only occasional social criticism: Dalam tahun-tahun 60-an perkembangan sastera Melayu moden deras sekali. Boleh saya namakan satu zaman grandeur zaman kegemilangan Tapi aspek grandeur mi lebih merupakan kuantiti saja sedangkan soal kualiti meragukan .Tema-tema novel dan
... ..
cerpen zaman mi hampir sama saja, iaitu mengisahkan soal- soal
jantina yang kadang-kadang terasa amat melulu benar. Hubungan di antara dara dan teruna, di antara isteri orang dengan suami 18
5HAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS orang lain, soal pelacuran dan semuanya menggiurkan sekali. Motif-motifnya pada umumnya cuma untuk menimbulkan keberahian pada pembaca di samping di sana sini terselit soal-soal sosial kritik. Shahnon also participated in this trend; many of the stories found in the collection Anjing-Anjing reflect this. In 1971, he described this
period of his development as a period of passion:

Sekali-sekala mahu saya namakan zaman mi zaman hawa nafsu. Saya banyak juga menulis cerpen- cerpen yang termasuk zaman hawa nafsu in Sebahagian besarnya terkumpul dalam antologi Anjing-Anjing Again, in 1979, he raises this idea of being trapped by a literary fashion. He notes that although his aims of writing were good, his obsessions during this period turned these aims negative. He sees this as part of the natural process of developing creativity and stresses the importance of learning from past mistakes: Saya sendiri terperangkap dalam jebak yang sama seperti Ahmad
Lutfi sewaktu saya mula-mula mengarang dalam pertengahan

tahun 50-an dahulu. Gelora untuk mengarang itu begitu tinggi sehingga segala-galanya tergoda oleb hawa nafsu. Akibatnya banyak cerpen-c.erpen saya waktu itu pada dasarnya bertujuan baik, tapi dibawa oleh gelora muda sehingga tujuan balk itu berubah menjadi tidak baik. Banyak cerpen-cerpen saya yang memperolehi
idea dan gagasan-gagasan menentang mi terdapat dalam kumpulan cerpen Anjing-Anjing. Demikianlah proses penciptaan seseorang pengarang yang tidak matang, tapi semua itu perlu dianggap sebagai takah-takah ke arah yang lebih mumi. Kita perlu 4 belajar dan segala kesalahan kita. There are seven stories in the anthology Anjing- Anjing: Ayam dan Manusia (1958), Malam Begitu Indah (1960), Siplis (1960),
Dunia Tuhan yang Indah (1961), Guntur (1962), Catatanku (1960), and Ombak Kecil Berkocak (1964). Although all the stories deal with sexual themes, the way in which they are related is neither erotic nor pornographic. Shahnon uses sex as a device to 19
comment on human behaviour rather than to expose vulgarity or obscenity. A. I-I. Johns commenting on the anthology states:
His earliest volume Anjing-Anjing (Dogs), a collection of short stories, published in 1964. At times it is somewhat disconcerting.
A first reading reveals a certain vigour of style, social concern and a touch of melodrama. Yet reflection, and perhaps hindsight
shows that a very distinctive literary talent is at work.
The story Ayam dan Manusia has no erotic flavour. Its message is clear: a man of good standing in the community loses the respect of his neighbours because of sexual misconduct. The three stories Malam Begitu lndah, Guntur and Siplis deal with prostitution.These stories of two prostitutes and an anguished men are portrayed through the conflicts of the people around them in the context of political, social and economic circumstances. The first story Malam Begitu Indah is about a young girl, Kiah, who comes to Alor Setar to seek her livelihood in a brothel. Kiah and her colleagues are forced to leave Kota Bharu to seek work as prostitutes in
other towns throughout country because of the political climate in

the state administered by an Islamic political party which the prostitutes hated. This story follows the activities of a brothel managed by
Kak Don at Lorong Merpati, a notorious lane in Alor Setar. Kak Don
feels too old for the profession. As manageness of the brothel, she recruits younger women to replace the older ones. In her interview
with Kiah, the madam condemns the political situation which jeopardizes their businesses. The second story, Guntur, is about a prostitute, Kinah, who is seeking a living and money for her daughters education. She has to
work as a prostitute as she has no alternative way to earn money. Kinah is furious when her daughter sleeps overnight at a neighbours
house because she might be telling stories about her. In her anger,
she scolds her daughter saying the neighbour has nothing to do with them. This is followed by a flashback in which Kinah recalls her past life: her marriage and her husbands death. She realizes that she is
now old and bursts into tears over the social ignominy and torment she has had to endure in society.
Her daughter, Si Sunting who is just about to finish her schooling, also suffers because she has to face the shame of her mothers activities and bear the loneliness at night while her mother is out. All 20
these hardships make her more determined to finish school, to secure a job and leave the disgrace behind. Si Sunting is terribly embarrass-
ed when Kinah talks with her fellow prostitutes because they use
indecent, vulgar and filthy language in her presence. However, one
night when Si Sunting is left alone at home during the midst of thunderstorm, she is overwhelmed by a feeling of pity towards her mother
who works for her future. The two stories Malam Begitu Indah and Guntur portray the plight of five prostitutes: Kiah, Kak Don, Simah, Kinah and Samsi, and a school girl, Si Sunting. They are forced to become prostitutes because of shattered marriages. Kiah was divorced because she is
barren; in Kak Dons case, the divorce was due to a purely arbitrary decision on the part of the husband. Kinah becomes a prostitute after her husband dies. She has to see her daughter complete her education in accordance to her late husbands wish. All are forced to survive through immoral means. The lives of Simah, Samsi and Si Sunting
are closely related to Kiah, Kak Don and Kinah. Simah, an aging
prostitute, is threatened by Kiahs arrival at Kak Dons brothel;

Samsi depends on the commission from Kinahs income; and Si
Suntings schooling depends on her mothers source of livelihood.

The third storySiplis is about a married man, Kudin, who suffers from gonorrhea after frequenting brothels in various towns. The
main theme of this story is mans lust. Kudin, wild with desire, accuses his wife of not giving him sexual pleasure and uses this as his excuse for womanizing. His wife, needing love and attention from her husband, is distressed because she has been left alone on many
occasions. Their unsatisfactory sexual relationship generates mutual
hostility.
The story focuses on Kudins harrowing agony as a Victim of
venereal disease. During the attack, he is unable to bear the severe

pain. In addition to the agony of gonorrhea, Kudin suffers feelings of remorse and curses the prostitutes who caused his pain. In the past,
he accused his wife of being ignorant about sex and treated his children cruelly, but he now repents. His immorality causes suffering not only to himself but also to his wife and children. While in pain, he
weeps with regret and seeks repentance.
However, once his disease is cured and he is free from pain, there is another change in Kudins attitude. Commenting on the story, A. H. Johns says:
21
The moral is that promiscuity is a bad thing and may result in

venereal disease. The description of the (anti-?) heros ailment is excruciatingly detailed, although one should point out that the author appears to have confused the symptoms of gonorrhea for those of syphilis. His portrayal of the mental anguish of repentance, and the misery and congenital ill-health of the heros children is harrowing. But once again interest in character gets the better of commitment to message. The man, so penitent while in pain, is cured by an injection of penicillin. Within a short time he is back at the gay round, humming to himself, as he skips up the
stairs of the next bordello, you only live once.6
The stories Malam Begitu lndah, Guntur and Siplis reveal
two weaknesses in the prevailing social system. Firstly, it is socially

unjust that a divorced woman should be left without means of support even if she has no children. Secondly, government policies and bureaucracy force prostitutes to move continually around the country seeking a livelihood.
The other two stories Catatanku and Ombak Kecil Berkocak

deal respectively with the conflict of a young woman and the predicament of a young man. Catatanku unfolds the unhappy love affair
between Rokiah and her lover who work together in the office of the chief minister. Her parents boast to the neighbours about her good
fortune at finding work in such a prestigious place. As time passes,
Rokiahs behaviour and lifestyle change. She begins coming home late from work escorted by her boyfriend in his Holden car, a status
symbol in Malaysia at that time. Her relationship with the young A.D.O., assistant district officer, soon becomes common gossip.
When a rumour goes around that Rokiah is to marry the young officer, her parents spread the news to the entire neighbourhood. However the wedding is canceled because, according to the parents, the bride price was too low. Rokiah is then married off to a rubbertapper from another village but after a week she is sent back to her
parents home because she was pregnant before the marriage. She is then sent to a distant village where she will stay until giving birth.
The story Catatanku, told in a diary form, traces the unfortunate downfall of Rokiah from an innocent working girl to a partici-
pant in a complicated affair in which she disgraces her parents and

becomes the source of neighbourhood gossip. 22
The writer subtlely blends the story of Rokiahs personal conflict with that of the gossiping neighbours. Shahnon brings out the problems that exist among neighbours who indulge in gossiping about other people and their affairs. Shahnon closely observes this kind of social behaviour whereby people like tO compete and parents
want to boast of their children. Ombak Kecil Berkocak, begun three days after Shahnon completed Catatanku, is about a young District Officer, Nirwan, who is faced with the problem of whether to stay with his girlfriends in
town or to take a job in a rural area. He has just received a letter of appointment as ADO, in the state civil service and is to be posted to Sik, a remote district in Kedah. He is taken aback by such a remote
posting because his parents know the officials responsible for arranging postings; he assumed he would be posted to a town. The story is a critique of patronage, nepotism and arrogance. Nirwans reaction to Sik is exaggerated when he says he cannot
even breathe among those illiterate people. His mother, who is a political party activist, is also upset over the matter. She describes the people there as like cows. Like Nirwan and his mother, Nirwans girlfriend, who looks like Shirley MacLain, criticizes rural
areas complaining that the people there are uncivilized and wear no
clothes.
Rokiah in Catatanku is trapped in a relationship with an A.D.O. at her work place. In this story Nirwan, who is going to become an A.D.O., is troubled about his posting that will take him away from the flamboyant town life. Rather than give up meeting the nurses at the Nurses Hostel and the teachers at the Lady Teachers
Quarters, Nirwan decides to commute everyday from Alor Setar to
Sik which is about 60 kilometres away. The story portrays political corruption in a state where there is nepotism, favouritism and people seeking political favours for their
personal gain. For Nirwan the job interview is a mere formality as he
knows he will receive a position. That he is sent to Sik is totally unexpected. His mother always seeks the favour of the Menteri Be
sar, and his father has close contact with influential political leaders both at the state and federal levels. Accustomed to an urban lifestyle it was difficult for Nirwan to adjust to a rural area like Sik. His re-
lationship with the nurse, Sabariah, and the teacher, Hayati who is his Shirley MacLain, make his move to the rural environment even
23
more difficult. Furthermore, Nirwan is a graduate from a local university so he expects a good posting to a town like Alor Setar where he can meet his girlfriends.
The theme of a girl deserted by her boyfriend found in Catatanku somewhat parallels the theme in Tua. Rokiah and Dasimah
share the same fate. Both are unwed mothers who, helpless and alone, must face the condemnation of society. Both Nirwan in Ombak
Kecil Berkocak and Hamid in Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat

get their jobs through nepotism. Both stories are attacks on the influential people in society who abuse their power and influence for
their own interests and personal gain. The Catatanku and Ombak Kecil Berkocak extend the social critique of the emerging Malay middle class found in Shahnons
earlier stories. In Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat, Tiga Kali Gagal, Tua, Kisah Malam Lustrum, Sesudah Merdeka and Nasib Seorang Buruh delves into the hypocrisies of the people of this class. Shahnons favourite target for criticism is bureaucratic machinery and the people involved in it, especially the Menteri Besar
and other high ranking officials.

Dunia Tuhan yang Indah reveals the private life of an unmarried English school teacher who has a homosexual relationship with
a pupil. The story examines his background as a teacher including

his association with a friend at home in England and his unmarried status. With his big monthly income and high status, he could many
any woman he likes, but he chooses a lifestyle abhorrent to the Malay society in which he lives. Through this story Shahnon shows criticism of foreign influences in society. In the anthology Anjing-Anjing, Shahnon wrote prefaces to each
story, giving the background or synopsis of the story and a few com-
ments or view-points on the particular story. In these introductions,

he affirms that they are taken from real events in the daily life around
him. The introductions are illuminating; Shahnon relates his own attitudes towards and opinions about his stories. The story Malam Begitu Indah is about the rampant prostitution in Alor Setar along the
notorious Lorong Merpati. Siplis, presented as a true story about a

friend, relates how the two men became friends and how his friend
became involved in womanizing. Shahnon wrote the story as a means of advising his friend. In his introduction to Guntur, Shahnon
claims the story is based on his association with a prostitute who 24
asked him to help register her daughter at the school where he was teaching. He explains how he came to know the woman and about her marital background. According to Shahnon, Catatanku is based on his neighbours who are overly proud of their daughter who brings shame not only to her parents but also to the entire neighbourhood. In its introduction, Shahnon mentions his hatred of kepura-puraan (hypocrisy) that for-
ces an unwed mother to live like a stray dog. Ombak Kecil Berkocak is based on real events and current social attitudes. The story reflects his observation that some graduates refuse to work in the rural areas. It also draws from his observations of the social life of the nurses and women teachers in an urban setting. Dunia Tuhan yang Indah is based on observations and reflections made while Shahnon was a student and a teacher. As the stories in Anjing-Anjing indicate, Shahnon, like many young writers, based his stories on personal experiences and memories from his birthplace, Sik, from the places he had lived, Alor Merah and Alor Setar. He combined them to presents a vivid and accu-
rate picture of life, transformed by his imagination into a creative literary experience. The places are also familiar to his readers. Lorong Merpati in Malam Begitu Indah and Siplis and the Tai Tong Hotel in Guntur are actual places in Alor Setar notorious for their brothels. Sultan Abdul Hamid College in the story Dunia Tuhan yang Indah is the school where Shahnon studied and worked. The office of the Menteri Besar mentioned in Catatanku is a wellknown landmark in the town. The railway station portrayed in the story Malam Begitu Indah is close to Lorong Merpati. Sungai Korok in Siplis is at the outskirts of Alor Setar. All these local details add authenticity and realism to Shahnons stories. The title of the collection, Anjing-Anjing, suggests the characters are like dogs which in Malay Muslim culture are regarded as
unclean. Presented as the writers neighbours and friends, or as local

figures such as prostitutes, government officers and political leaders, these less than respectable characters are treated with contempt by
the writer. The characters are portrayed as struggling selfishly for

survival, sexual satisfaction, material gain, self interest and social status at the expense of others. The respected neighbour in Ayam dan Manusia seeks sexual satisfaction from another mans wife. Kudin in Siplis also craves for sex; his philosophy is you only 25
live once. Rokiah in Catatanku is portrayed as sacrificing her honour for the hope of prestige. In Ombak Kecil Berkocak Nirwan, his parents and his girlfriends appear as status seekers using the political situation to achieve their selfish purposes. Shahnon is careful
to differentiate between illicit sex for pleasure and sex in order to survive. Rather than condemn the prostitutes Kiah, Kak Don, Kinah, Simah and Samsi who are looking for money in order to survive, Shahnon treats these characters, whom society morally condemns, with sympathy and compassion. The unique and original technique used by Shahnon in this anthology is the diary technique found in the story Catatanku. The narrator begins his diary on Saturday. January 1st; 1962 and ends on Tuesday, December 4th 1962. And records casual occurrences and daily routines. The diarist diligently records events from his own domestic life and the lives of his neighbours: Pak Saud, Mak Meah, Rokiah, and Pak Karim. This technique is effective because it creates
a sense of immediacy in responding to daily events. Also, Shahnons use of everyday expressions and sayings is note worthy. These forceful and imaginative expressions vividly bring to life the situation in each story. They also reflect Shahnons sensitivity to religious symbols and his own experiences in the army. Shahnon effectively uses the flashback technique in some of the
stories in the anthology. In Siplis, Kudins flashback is effective because it vividly shows his involvement with prostitutes. Kak Dons
flash back to her previous marriage serves as a contrast to her activities as a madam. Si Sunting in Guntur recalls with emotion her life after her fathers death and her sorrow when thinking of her mothers subsequent physical and emotional changes. The techniques used in these short stories mark a further stage in Shahnon Ahmads early development as a writer and are a signpost for the future. The themes of human immorality, the position of women and the hypocrisy of man form the basis for the later novels Terdedah and Menteri. These earlier stories show Shahnon Ahmads talent emerging. The stories published between 1960 to 1968 show a continuing development of a talent that is clearly established and becoming richer. These stories are found in the anthologies Debu Merah (Red Dust, 1965), Perajurit yang Pulang2 (Home coming Soldiers, 1964), Dua Zaman1 (Two Eras, 1964), Angin Retak9 (Cracked Wind, 1966),
26
5HAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS
Kon,flik3(Conflict, 1967), and in newspaper and magazines. In addition to writing short stories during this period, Shahnon Ahmad tried his hand at writing plays. His four plays, two of which are related to his short stories, are found in the collection Anak Rempang Karam di Kota (A Crazy Child Drowned in Town, l968).31 Debu Merah contains 19 stories written between the years 1960 and 1965. In chronological order they are as follows: 1960: Di Tengah Keluarga; Dr. Zaqlul and Borang G.l47. 1962: Pak Utih, the name of a man; Babi Hutan, (A Wild Boar); and Penyambutan (Celebration). 1963: Tertikamnya Wakil Menteri 32 (The Murder of Ministers Representative) and Gelungnya Terpokah (His Dike is Breached). 1964: Nafsu, (Passion), Jangan Beritahu Orang Lain( Dont Tell Anybody Else); Kahwin Kerekot Tiga Tiga a number calling in lotto game; Bapa (Father) and Suamiku (My Husband); 1965: Kekosongan, (Emptiness); Barang, (A Thing); Nadinya Masih Berdenyut, (Her Pulse is Still Moving); Kepulangan, (Homecoming); Bung Besar Punya Fasal, (For the Sake of the Big Boss); Angin Timur Angin Barat (East Wind West Wind). The stories chosen for discussion are those which Shahnon later developed into novels. One way of grouping them is according to the background against which the action is set: those with a rural background, those set in an urban environment, and those with a mixture of both. The four rural stories are: Gelungnya Terpokah, which concerns rivalry over the distribution of water; Bapa, which examines challenges to dignity and self-respect; Nadinya Masih Berdenyut, which looks at faith and presumption in a family conflict; and Babi Hutan which, set among the Malaysian aborigines, describes the ruthless determination of the main character.
27
Elements found in the plot of Gelungnya Terpokah are later developed in the novels Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan. Gelungnya Terpokah deals with an intense emotional confrontation between Jusuh and the villagers as they struggle to survive during the rice planting season. After spending the whole day preparing his rice plot, Jusuh plugs the holes in the dikes to retain the water. During the night Jusuh expects the water to soften the ground, but in the morning, he is surprised to find all the water drained away. To Jusuh, gelung air takes on a symbolic meaning, representing the very source of life. He is furious and suspects Berahim, a neighbour, of opening the holes in the dike to enable the water to run down into his plots. He wants to kill Berahim, but his wife suggests the alternative of secretly putting acid on their surrivals buffalo. Berahim loses a useful beast, but he remains silent and does not appear antagonistic. Jusuh and his seven children depend on rice and nature for their survival. Shahnon develops this situation more fully in his Novel Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan. One night while Jusuh is guarding his field, his wife comes to
him sobbing that she has been raped by Berahim. Jusuh becomes
wild with fury wanting to kill Berahim. The villagers believing he has gone mad, seize him and send him to mental hospital as he cries out, angrily : Berahim, mana Berahim! Aku mesti tetak dia!CBerahim, where is Berahim! I must kill him!)
The plot, based on a quarrel over water distribution, displays a wide range action, moods and emotions. The rural vengeance in the story is tied to the most critical period of the rice season. Since rice is the source of life, the struggle for it becomes a matter of life and death. Shahnon never makes clear who is at fault. He never states whether Berahim opened the holes in the dike; Jusuhs actions are based on suspicion. The villagers do not know the real cause of Jusuhs raging urge to kill Berahim; they suspect he has gone mad.
Thus everything is based on suspicion. Throughout the story,

Shahnon is concerned with harmony in village life that is achieved through meetings for thrashing out differences and achieving unanimity.
The first paragraph of the story, covering nearly two pages, is full of local words and phrases portraying the typical rural atmosphere and style of life. In this paragraph Shahnon sets the scene with details such as the amount of time Jusuh takes to finish ploughing the 28
land; the work already completed; the behaviour of his buffalo after work; the plugging of the holes in the dikes to store the water. Then Shahnon describes what Jusuh anticipates when water is in the plot for the three or four days to come; the hope that his children will be secure because there will be a sufficient store of rice in the days to come; and his returning home with the buffalo after the days work in the field. Shahnon effectively uses the local dialect adding vividness to the dialogues and local colour to the themes, settings and characters. His choice of language to describe actions that is both vivid and precise is based on the close observation of rural activities. These detailed descriptions of actions and objects add a sense of realism and immediacy. Shahnon has a fondness for coining striking similes that fit well with the rural environment. For example, his description of the agony and miseries of the buffalo after the acid attack is particularly effective. Later Shahnon will extend this portrayal of suffering to describe Lahumas agony in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, the killing of a bird in Srengenge and the death of fish in Seluang Menodak
Baung.
Di Tengah Keluarga, Pak Utih, Tertikamnya Wakil Menteri, Angin Timur Angin Barat and Kepulangan are the stories in Debu Mera/j which are set in both rural and urban areas. The stories Kepulangan and Angin Timur Angin Barat focus on the internal conflict facing young people, a theme which Shahnon returns to in the novel Protes. Both stories relate how young people who migrate from the villages to the city are influenced by its lifestyle. In Kepulangan the main character, Hamdan, leaves his village to work in the city. He marries a woman from the city and is ashamed to bring her back to his village where his father and other peasants anxiously await his homecoming. The great expectations turn sour when Hamdans wife refuses to go to her husbands village and makes plans to go to a holiday resort. This story focuses on a fathers hopes and subsequent despair caused by his son. The father had convinced his wife and villagers that the son would return, but the son does not turn up. The long period of waiting turns into a nightmare for the father; he feels ashamed to face the villagers. The fathers trauma is caused by the inconsiderateness of the son who has alienated himself from village life and his parents, relatives and neighbours. The city lifestyle leads 29
NOVELS OF TIlE TROUBLED YEARS
him to abandon his family responsibilities and become selfishly unaware of other peoples feelings. He has become like his city-dwelling wife who tightly controls his life. This portrait of the unfaithful son is set in an environment where people, obsessed with materialism and worldly satisfaction, are no longer concerned with the human values. This contrasts with the positive portrayal of village life where traditional behaviour is still valued, potrayed as good. Although villagers may look foolish in the city, they value their village and its traditions. The story Angin Timur Angin Barat is about Cikgu Maimunah whose behaviour changes after living in England. Her colleagues call her Miss London because her behaviour is more English than the English. She speaks Malay with an English accent, and when she arrives at the staff room in the cool of the morning, she shows off her ability to withstand cold (as she had experienced in England) by turning on the fan. Shahnon Ahmad portrays Cikgu Maimunah as living in two worlds. At school she shows off about her life in England, but outside of school, she lives just like an ordinary village girl in an old shack in a poor part of the town. Cikgu Maimunah lives this dual life until she quarrels with Cikgu Husin, who criticizes her for her selfdeception and shallow arrogance. Cikgu Husin taunts her about her behaviour at school which is in such contrast to her home background. He criticizes people who are trained overseas and forget their own tradition and culture. As a result of this incident, Cikgu Maimunah resolves to integrate the two worlds and not live in pretence. This story of the alienation of a young woman from her own culture is a study of tension. Although she experiences internal conflict arising from the contrast between her home background and her overseas experiences, when she is among her colleagues she acts superior because she feels her overseas experience gives her a wider outlook. She is not embarrassed at being called Miss London, she is obviously proud of the nickname. Her downfall comes when she counters Cikgu Husins comment about the heavy traffic in town saying that Trafalgar Square in London is much busier. At this point, Cikgu Husin, feeling scorned and annoyed, reveals the real background of Cikgu Maimunah. Like Hamdan in Kepulangan, Cikgu Maimunah has become detached from her own society. Hamdans detachment arises from his city lifestyle; Cikgu Maimunah alienates herself from her society 30
because of her overseas study. Shahnon develops these elements of arrogance, self-deception and hypocrisy among young people further in the novel Protes. The remaining 10 stories in Debu Merah, which were later expanded into novels, are mainly set in urban areas. Jangan Beritahu Orang Lain, about a corrupt and immoral politician, and Nafsu, about a sexually frustrated young widow from the aristocratic class, are further developed in the novel Terdedah. The story Penyambutan, which is about the cynical attitude of a high government official towards the national language policy, is dealt with again in the novel Menteri. Bung Besar Punya Fasal, a story about an irresponsible woman politician concerned only with her own leisure, is indirectly dealt with again in Perdana. Urban poverty which is evident in some of the short stories is later used in the novel Seluang Menodak Baung. Shahnons tone in the story Penyambutan is growing more cynical. It is directed at a government department head Tuan Sutan, who after living in England for 12 years, feels ambivalent about his own culture. Like Cikgu Maimunah in Angin Timur Angin Barat, Tuan Sutan is sarcastic about the governments effort to use Malay as the national language in place of English. He feels ashamed when the orders to the guard of honour are given in Malay for the first time during the opening ceremony of the National Language month celebration. When, Tuan Sutan shakes hands with a deputy minister he feels that it is not as warm and tight as hand shakes in England. Then, to his embarrassment, the deputy minister finds out that the posters used during the celebration in Tuan Sutans department are out of date. After an official visit from the political leader, Tuan Sutan orders all the offending posters to be burnt. Shahnon treats his main character with contempt. By deliberately referring to the main character by his full name,Tuan Muhammad Sutan Ali Muda, J.P., Shahnon emphasizes the characters pretensions. Tuan Sutan is fond of making jokes about Bahasa Kebangsaan in front of his secretary, Cik Mahaya, who is not confident in using Malay. Tuan Sutan preferring English over Malay, advocates the use of some English words in Bahdsa Kebangsaan. Shahnon makes it obvious that he favours the development of Malay and rejects English with its colonial overtones. Through this story, Shahnon reveals the disagreement amongst 31
the government officers over the implementation of the national language policy. As a result of the long period of British colonial rule, many officers lack confidence in the viability of the native language. This theme of government officials lack of commitment to the national language policy is used again in the novel Menteri. The story Bung Besar Punya Fasal is about a woman politician, Hayati, who is so involved in politics that she pays no attention to her husband. Her involvement in politics enables her to visit many countries and meet many people. She refers to Japan as a progressive country. She takes up golf in order to meet important people. One evening, after her husband, Asrul, arrives home late from his office in the car Hayati wanted to use to go to the golf course, they have a row. The husband is fed up and embarrassed by his wife. He suspects people are gossiping about his domestic problems. He shows his anger, and Hayati is surprised. Initially she thinks somebody incited or influenced her husband, but upon reflection, she realizes her mistakes as a wife. She is preparing to be reconciled and repent when night comes. The story strongly attacks political leaders and their luxurious lifestyles. Hayatis position as a peoples representative brings her many privileges and facilities. Enjoying all these advantages, she forgets her responsibilities as a wife. She has no time to devote to her husband and household chores. Her husband is left alone when she goes away from home. The husband loses his dignity when his domestic affairs become the talk of the town. No longer able to tolerate the situation, he resolves expresses his anger to his wife so that she might see his point of view and change her ways. A similar exploration of the betrayal of trust and the failure of leadership is dealt with in Perdana. Shahnon again uses the theme of politicians sexual immoralities in Jangan Beritahu Orang Lain. The story focuses on the sexually promiscuous politician, Muluk. He has already had many affairs with women including Melur and Salmah who are now pregnant by him; Sophia Loren, a strip teaser; and Tanjung, with whom he is about to have an affair with in Penang. Muluks womanizing goes beyond the limits of propriety. Even his driver and accomplice surrenders his sister to his master in order to make money for his family needs. Muluk and Hayati use their leadership status and money to be32
tray people who trust them. As leaders they are expected to fight injustice and poverty, instead they betray the peoples trust and deliberately destroy moral standards. Nafsu looks at Sharifah Berlian who is of royal descent, but is now well past the conventional age of marriage. She curses her high academic qualifications that make her appear inaccessible and feels her life is meaningless. She begins to indulge in sexual fantasies involving the gardener Doltah. She longs to ask her servant about sex, but she refrains. She finally goes to own to forget her frustrations. The story examines the dilemma facing women who are torn between social status and physical frustration in their search for internal personal satisfaction. In these five stories, Shahnon portrays the life-styles and the predicaments of urban middle class characters. Shahnon is harsh towards them and reveals their emptiness, insincerity, hypocrisy, immorality and arrogance. The two stories about political hypocrisy, corruption and human sexual gratification, Jangan Beritahu Orang Lain and Nafsu, Shahnon later develops into a novel of social problems, Terdedah. Shahnons next five stories concentrated on the problems facing the urban poor. Borang G.147 is about an unemployed man; Suamiku is about a second-hand car dealer; Barang is about an opium smuggler; Kahwin Kerekot Tiga Tiga is about a gambler; and Kekosongan is about a school leaver desperately looking for a job. This theme of urban poverty is further developed in the later novels Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung. The Early Works Shahnons original and translated short stories written between 1956 and 1968 deal with human problems at the individual and society levels. The early stages in Shahnon Ahmads writing career were important to his later development as a novelist. Firstly, writing short stories helped to sharpen his craft. Secondly, some of the short stories provided styles and themes that were extended into longer works. His novels of the day-to-day struggle of village people are extensions of previous short stories with rural themes. The urban settings of Shahnons novels Terdedah and Protes in many aspects correspond to previous short stories dealing with urban problems. The roots of Mente,-i and Perdana, which deal with Malay politics and 33
nationalism, can be found in earlier short stories. Shahnons studies of human tension, written during and shortly after his stay in Australia, are mostly found in the anthology Selesai Sudah. These became the basis of his novels Srengenge and Sampah. The following chapters trace the thematic and stylistic development in Shahnon Ahmads novels. The final chapter presents an examination of the authors renewed social commitment having faced social, economic and cultural problems. The short stories written during this period are Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur, about a conflict of value systems; Mr. Proudfoot, about a conflict of cultural values; and Monyok, about a student demonstration against the establishment. This third short story foreshadows the theme of protest which is developed more fully in the novels Kemelut and Seluang Menodak
Baung.
34
2 THE RURAL STRUGGLE

Shahnon Ahmads first novel, Rentung1 was published in 1965; a year later Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan2 was published. As with many of his short stories, both novels are set in a village and both examine the conflicts faced by peasants in their struggle for survival. Rentung focuses on the conflict between man and man while Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan examines the conflict between man and nature. This chapter examines the main characters found in the novels: Pak Senik, Semaun and Dogol in Rentung; and Lahuma, Jeha and Sanah in Ranjau Sepanjang la/an.3 By studying these characters, it is possible to examine Shahnons portrayal of the relationship between man and his environment. As the village headman of Kampung Banggul Derdap, Pak Senik has to struggle for his communitys welfare. He faces two problems: The first arises when Pak Kasas family refuses to cooperate in a development project because they feel that they have been discriminated against; the second is caused when his own right-hand man Dogol hopes to replace Pak Senik as leader; he accuses Pak Kasas son, Semaun, of being wicked in order to discredit Pak Senik. Semaun claims his family has done nothing wrong. He uses traditional beliefs as an excuse for not cooperating with the other villagers who he hates. Dogol persuades the villagers to boycott the family with the hope that they will witness Pak Seniks weakness in dealing with problems. Thus the struggle against -the evil in man, shown as a struggle between the sincere leader, the ambitious contender for power and the family which is detached from the community, causes 35
NOVELS OF THE TROUHLED YEARS
a division in the village which, in the ends, is resolved harmoniously. In Shahnon Ahmads second novel, Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, the family head Lahuma struggles against nature by striving hard to survive on his land using his familys labour. He trusts in Allahs power and his own providence. However, as the result of an accident, he dies, and the burden of growing the rice falls on his wife. Under constant pressure from threats to the crop and lack of support from her fellow villagers, his wife cracks under the strain and has a mental breakdown. Her eldest daughter Sanah is then left to carry on the struggle to provide a life for her six sisters. The Novel Rentung (1965) Rentung has five chapters: Jamung (Torch), Kerbau Jantan Terluka (Wounded Male Buffalo), Melarat Hingga ke Senja (Dragged on Till Dusk), Jelaga Hitam (Black Soot) and Harimau (Tiger). Each chapter is a self-contained section with each chapter title having symbolic and metaphorical relationship to the content and marking a stage in the development of the continuing drama. The first chapter Jamung opens with a meeting between the men of Kampung Banggul Derdap in which they are to decide whether to support a government project to plant two crops of padi a year. The meeting, held in the house of the village headman Pak Senik, is attended by Dogol, the Assistant Headman; Tuk Imam, the religious leader; Lebai Debasa; and Jusuh. On the way to the meeting in the darkness of night, Jusuh is preoccupied thinking about one of the villagers sons, Semaun, who is a notorious troublemaker. At the meeting, the headman describes the proposed project as one which will benefit all the villagers. However, it cannot be undertaken without total agreement among the villagers. Those present at the meeting bring up the problem of Pak Kasa and his family.The family is known to be uncooperative, and everyone is convinced that they will refuse to participate. The villagers are particularly wary of the son, Semaun, who is regarded as a person with a violent temperament. By using this meeting to reveal disharmony in the village and the reputation of Semaun, Shahnon directs the reader to the heart of the problem facing Pak Senik. At first, Pak Senik suggests that the men go as a group to persuade Pak Kasa and his family to participate in the government project. However, they all refuse so Pak Senik must go alone. 36
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
The next chapter Kerbau Jantan Terluka describes Pak Seniks meeting with Pak Kasas family. Pak Seniks attempts to win cooperation are rejected by Semaun. His family will not violate the customs and traditions of their ancestors; his family will not abuse the land by demanding too much from it. Semaun says, One crop a year is more than sufficient. Man only thinks of himself. Man feels nothing for the earth. It too has feelings. Only those feelings are never voiced. He states that earth should be respected or else it shall crush their bodies when they are laid in the graves. He vehemently refuses to participate, calls Pak Senik an idiot and orders him out of the house. In the end, Pak Kasa also rejects the project with the excuse that he has a sufficient supply of rice. The third chapter Melarat Hingga ke Senja tells of Pak Kasas illness that is becoming increasingly serious. In this crisis, Semaun is forced to seek help from the villagers, but nobody is willing to help him. As a last resort, Semaun apologize to Pak Senik and turns to him for help. Just as Pak Senik arrives, Pak Kasa dies. Pak Senik assumes the responsibility for the funeral in order that the body can be buried before maghrib, the evening prayer time. The matter is urgent because Pak Senik realizes nobody is volunteering to help. The business of preparing the body of Pak Kasa goes on until dusk when the body is laid to rest. In chapter four Jelaga Hitam Shahnon changes the focus of attention to Dogol and the cow he is tending at the edge of the jungle. After he is finished, Dogot proceeds to Pak Seniks house to inquire about the stand Pak Kasas family has taken on the double-cropping project. Pak Senik replies that he will try again to persuade Semauns family. Dogol then denounces Semaun by listing all his crimes. Pak Senik, tired of all the dishonesty, in turn accuses Dogol of cheating Pak Kasas family. It is at this stage that Pak Senik learns that Dogol has not given Semauns family their share of a government distribution of cattle. Dogols own greed has been the cause of this injustice. Dogol leaves the headmans house and returns to where he had earlier tied his cow. On finding that his cow is no longer at the place where had left it, he suspects that Semaun has stolen it, killed it and sold the meat in town. He starts inciting the people of the village against Pak Senik, saying that he is weak. Claiming that Semaun stole his cow, he rounds up the villagei-s, and as a mob they march to Semauns house to destroy it. When the mob reaches the house, they 37
find Pak Senik. He gains control of the situation and challenges the village people to look for the carcass of the cow. It is found in the jungle, obviously the victim of a tiger. The village people now turn on Dogol with the intention of murdering him. The final chapter Harimau describes the Villagers decision to hunt out the tiger. Dogol, hoping to reinstate himself in the village, decides to stalk it alone. Pak Senik is making plans with the villagers to kill the tiger. One night during a heavy downpour, Pak Senik, Jusuh, Lebai Debasa and Semaun station themselves in a tree-house awaiting the appearance of the tiger. Meanwhile, Dogol is on the ground waiting for an opportunity to kill the tiger. When Dogol realizes that the villagers are hidden in the tree, he cannot restrain his hatred and aims his gun at the four men in the shelter. At that instance, the tiger appears, and Semaun shoots it. It attacks and leaps toward Dogol, breaking his neck. The villagers spend the next day disposing the tigers carcass and burying the body of Dogol. With the death of Dogol, Semaun and his family are accepted back into the fold of the community. Pak Senik has demonstrated leadership and restored harmony to the village. The double-cropping project can now be implemented. The plot of Rentung is structured around the three main characters of Pak Senik, Semaun and Dogol. As the village headman, Pak Senik plays a central role in all chapters. Semaun appears in the chapters Kerbau Jantan Terluka, Melarat Hingga ke Senja and Harimau. Dogol comes into prominence only in the final chapters Jelaga Hitam and Harimau. As the plot unfolds, the three characters develop and change their attitudes. Shahnon uses description, action and dialogue to realistically follow the relations between these three personalities. The author portrays Pak Senik4 as a good headman who is willing to compromise in a crises situation, but is very firm in his decisions. This is in accord with the traditional image of a good Malay leader who should be selfless, responsible and compassionate. Shahnon uses Pak Senik to depict the qualities of a good leader burdened with great responsibility. Pak Senik solves problems with kindness and patience while enduring insults. He has a deep understanding of all the people in the village. He is a man of peace and works for peace by appealing to the rules that govern village life. Pak Senik is able to avert violence by proving Semauns innocence. 38
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
He emphasizes reconciliation, not punishment or vengeance, by saying that he does not want to force and hurt people. He wants to live in peace as he is responsible for every person in the village: Aku hafaz setiap bucu dalam Bariggul Derdap in Siapa baik, siapajahat. Orang jahat aku boleh humban dalamjel. Tapi aku tak mahu. Aku tak suka memaksa orang. Aku tak mahu menyeksa
orang. Aku
suka hidup aman.
Anak-anak
kampung Banggul Der-
dap mi semua anak buahku, termasuk Pak Kasa dan anaknya S em aun (p. 9) During the initial meeting, Pak Senik displays patience and goodwill towards the family of Pak Kasa even though the villagers are not prepared to do so. Pak Senik defends Pak Kasas family on the grounds that there are rumours, but no evidence against them. If there is trouble in the village, he is going to tackle the cause and not the symptoms of it. He asks that the villagers understand Pak Kasa and his family and accept them back into the community. The following demonstrates his unique method of argumentation: Pak Kasa bukan punca keganasan itu. Semaun belum tentu menakik keting lembu. Cuma kita menuduhnya. Kalau pun ia, dia pun bukan punca pergaduhan. Yang bertanggungjawab ialah keadaan mereka. Mereka tak pemah bergaul dengan orang. Mereka tak pernah muafakat dengan orang. Hal-hal luar tak pernah diambil tahu. Mereka hanya tahu keadaan di rumah mereka. Dan kitalah wajib menyedarkan Pak Kasa sekeluarga itu. (p. 10) When nobody else is willing to attempt to persuade Pak Kasas family to take part in the double-cropping, Pak Senik knows that he must use his leadership position as headman to persuade Pak Kasas family. He has to think of various ways to convince the family. Unlike the others who are frightened of Pak Kasa, Pak Senik shows courage and believes that they will not attack him for no obvious reason. He has concrete ways of showing something right:
39
NOVELS OFTHE TROUBLED YEARS
Dia harus memikir cara-cara memujuk Pak Kasa dan Semaun. Dia mesti pergi ke rumah Pak Kasa. Sebuas-buas manusia dia tidak akan menakik kepala manusia dengan tak bersebab. Pak Kasa bukan binatang. Mereka ada otak. Mereka ada hati perut. Dan manusia yang ada otak dan hati perut tidak akan bersikap semberono. mi dipercaya oleh Pak Senik. Dan dengan kepercayaan itulah dia sanggup memegang peranan pemujuk itu. (pp.6 18-19) In the second chapter. Pak Seniks authority as a leader is challenged when he confronts Semaun. He reasons with the family in his attempt to persuade them to participate in the proposed project. He argues that double-cropping will not repudiate the customs and traditions of their ancestors who had always revered the land. Their ancestors were ignorant, but now they lived in an independent, selfgoverning nation and must learn to help themselves: Mereka tidak tahu. Tuk nenek kita semuanya pekak-pekak. Sekarang bukan zaman tuk nenek moyang lagi. Sekarang bukan zaman orang putih. Sekarang kita sudah merdeka. Kita perintah din kita sendiri. Dan kitalah mesti menolong din kita sendiri. (pp. 39-40) When asked to leave by Semaun, Pak Senik does not resist. However, he shows his perseverance and does not give up; he is determined to get Semaun to admit he was right. Pak Senik again displays his sense of responsibility when Pak Kasas illness becomes critical; he is the only person to respond to the pleas for help. Semaun acknowledges Pak Seniks goodness and asks forgiveness for forcing him out of the house the previous day. Pak Seniks help prompts Semauns mother to say, We leave it all in your hands, Pak Senik (p. 57). Pak Senik understands this to mean that Semaun and his family have changed their minds and the way is clear for total agreement to planting two rice crops a year. He feels confident that his struggle to restore harmony among his people will be successful. In the fourth chapter, Pak Senik reveals his strength as a leader. Believing that Dogol is looking after the welfare of the community, he had trusted Dogol as a righthand man. However, he discovers 40
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
Dogol has betrayed that trust. When distributing the government cows to the villagers, he excluded Semaun because he claimed that the boy was a trouble-maker. Dogol, who has always regarded Pak Senik as a weak leader, receives a jolt when Pak Senik lashes out at him for not dividing the cows fairly. Pak Senik is so upset with Dogol that he looses his control and accuses Dogol of being the troublemaker and aggressor: Kerana kau tidak bersikap adil. Aku serah tugas pada kau suruh bahagikan lembu-lembu itu sama rata. Pada Semaun seekor pun kau tak ben. Fasal? Pak Senik jarang-jarang bersikap begitu. Anginnya sukar dinaiki. Dolah dan ibunya yang berada dalam rumah nampak gelisah; gelisah kalau-kalau terjadi sesuatu antara Dogol dengan Pak Senik. Kerana Semaun bersikap ganas. Dia tidak ganas. Dia ganas. Tidak ganas. Ganas. Kau yang mengganaskan. Kau yang ganas. Bukan Semaun. (p. 72) As village headman, Pak Senik practices his own philosophy that truth is the path to security and peace. He believes truth is on his side, and one day it shall prevail. Although Shahnon casts Pak Senik as a highly moral leader, the reader does not feel Shahnon is preaching because of the vivid and convincing depiction of Pak Seniks qualities: Dia sedar dia berdiri di atas kebenaran. Sikapnya yang lembut dan menyerah kalah terhadap Semaun itu berfaedah besar. Dia juga sedar bahawa tindak-tanduknya itu tidak akan diingini oleh Dogol, Jusuh, Lebai Debasa dan anak-anak buahnya yang lain. Tetapi kebenaran adalah kebenaran. Kebenaran adalah kemenangan. Dan Pak Senik sanggup berada di pihak kemenangan meskipun dia tidak disukai oleh anak buahnya. (p. 73) Confronting the mob Dogol had gathered to burn down Semauns house, Pak Senik demonstrates his authority as head of the 41
village. He confronts Dogol with the law of evidence. He says the only way to solve the problem is to look for the carcass of the animal as evidence. Knowing that Dogol lives by deceit, Pak Senik is sure Semaun did not kill the cow. If he is proved wrong, he promises the people that together they will burn down Semauns house: Kita pergi mencari bangkai lembu itu, seru Pak Senik, kita mesti tahu siapa bersalah dan siapa tidak bersalah. Kalau tak ada bangkai rumah Semaun mi kita bakar. Kita bakar sampai rentung. (p. 95) When the dead cow is found, Dogols wicked schemings to seize Pak Seniks powers as the village headman are exposed. Following the revelation of Dogols plot through the discovery of the carcass of the cow killed by the tiger, Pak Senik, sensitive to the mood of his people, senses a change in the atmosphere of the village. The final chapter shows Pak Seniks success in restoring harmony to the village. He believes that with peace many projects can be implemented, including the double-cropping of rice. He does not want this useful project to be abandoned just because of a misunderstanding between Dogol and Semaun. He believes Semaun will obey him: Ketenteraman membawa kebahagiaan. Dan dalam ketenteraman banyak rancangan boleh dijalankan. Pak Senik tidak suka rancangan menanam dua kafi setahun itu tergendala akibat ketidaksefahaman antara Semaun dan Dogol semata-mata. Semaun kini pasti akan menurut telunjuknya. Lapanglah dada Pak Senik kalau telunjuknya itu juga dituruti oleh Dogol. Pak Senik hanya ingin pada keamanan. Dia rasa bila tugas telah terlaksana Pak Senik sanggup menemui maut dengan segala senang hati. (p. 104) It is Pak Seniks vision to restore harmony and peace to Kampung Banggul Derdap. He stresses his ideal of a peace in which there will be no more grudges amongst the villagers. He is optimistic he will be able carry on the projects as scheduled: Tak ada lagi penduduk-penduduk kampung yang merendamkan dendam antara satu sama lain. Semaun sekarang sudah berubah. 42
THE RURAL SmUGGLE
Meskipun perhubungan dengan seluruh penduduk belum begitu mesra, Pak Senik sudah menyakini semuanya. Dia akan berusaha mengembalikan ketenteraman di kampung. Ketenteraman sajalah yang akan menjayakan segala rancangan yang tersimpan dalam kepalanya. (pp. 114-115)
In his struggle to bring progress and peace to the village, Pak

Senik finds himself caught between Semaun who adamantly claims he is right and is been maligned, and Dogol who is struggling for power. Shahnon uses the villagers criticisms to reveal Semauns char5 Jusuh calls Semaun quarrelsome, arrogant and a acters weaknesses. loner. He says Semaun has inherited his fathers evil ways and calls both of them devils: DuIu Pak Kasa. Candungnya tak pernah kering darah. Mahu saja ia menetak sesiapa. Silap batu perenggan pun sanggup mengoyak kulit kepala orang. Silap gelung air pun mahu mengamuk. Tak boleh orang, binatang disesahnya. Sekarang turun benih setannya pada Semaun anaknya. Bulan sudah keting lembu Dogol ditakik orang. Siapa lagi kalau tidak Semaun dajal itu. (pp. 2-3) Semaun kepala besar, Jusuh meningkah. Lebih besar kepalanya daripada Pak Kasa. Tak pemah campur dengan orang kampung. Tak pernah datang kenduri. Talc pernah tegur sapa. Silap langkah angkat candung. Silap mulut Semaun mengamuk. Dan kita mahu juga muafakat dengan jin-jin itu? (p. 15) Lebai Debasa does not, consider Pak Kasas family worthy of being included in the development programme so rejects Pak Seniks pleas to persuade Pak Kasas family. There are grounds on which Lebai Debasa does not agree with Semaun. He blames Pak Senik for his weakness in dealing with Semaun. He compares Pak Kasas family to wild buffaloes, and says it is a waste of time speaking to them: Lebai Debasa bergelisah mendengar ketegasan Pak Senik yang tak habis-habis bersikap perempuan itu. Bosan dia mendengamya.
43
Pak Kasa dan Semaun bukan sembarangan orang yang boleh dibawa berunding. Tak ada guna barang sekerat beras pun berusaha mencari persetujuan dengan manusia-manusia yang suka menonjol-nonjolkan taringnya.
(p. 16)
Tuk Imam asserts that since Pak Kasas family will refuse to participate in the rice project, the condition that everyone must agree to plant twice a year should be canceled. Trying to find a simple way out of the difficulties of implementing the project, he says: Kita batalkan syarat iw, Tuk Imam memberi syor secara tak disangka-sangka.
(p. 14) Dogol voices the most violent attack against Semaun and his family.
Since the family never agrees with the other villagers on small matters, he is sure that they will never participate in the project. He refuses outright to try to persuade them to accept the project: Tak mungkin, balas pula Dogol, muafakat hal-hal kecil pun tak mahu. Inikan pula muafakat besar. (p. 15) The first three people base their opinions on experiences with Pak Kasas family, but Dogol is only maliciously interested in himself. In an assumed self-righteousness style, Dogol says that he dare not come face to face with people whom he accuses of injuring his cow: Aku? Dogol bersuara terkejut, aku tak suka bertentang mata dengan orang yang pernah menakik keting lembuku.
(p. 16)
For thSe four leaders of Kampung Banggul Derdap, the mention of Semauns name brings evil associations. It suggest ferociousness, cruelty and inhumanity at which they feel revulsion. Only Pak Senik holds a different view:
Sebutan nama Pak Kasa samalah seperti menyebut nama Semaun.

Nama Semaun melambangkan keganasan, kekejaman, ketidak44
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
perikemanusiaan. Dan mereka yang berada di balai rumah Pak Senik malam itu memang jijik dengan keganasan, kekejaman dan
ketidakperikemanusiaan kecuali Pak Senik. (p. 12) The negative feelings towards Semaun and his family brought out in the first chapter are heightened in the following chapter. Here Semaun is described as behaving like a wounded male buffalo which violently charges disregarding everyone. He exhibits this characteristic when Pak Senik comes to his house with good intentions. Semauns aggressive nature is depicted by both his words and his actions. When Pak Senik addresses him, Semaun does not respond with words; only his eyebrows are raised. He reacts rudely to Pak Seniks double-cropping proposal by saying So what! and rejecting it outright:
Jadi? balas Semaun. Jadi kita sama-samalah menanamnya.
Aku tak mahu. (p. 30) There are other instances of his aggressive acts. Firstly, he says: Orang tak mahu apa pula hendak dipaksa-paksa. Why should you keep on attempting to force those who are not willing? (p. 39) Secondly, he says: Kita menyeksa tanah pusaka, Pak Senik bodok, We will be ill-treating our inherited land, Pak Senik is stupid. (p. 40) Thirdly, he ousts Pak Senik: Balik!,Go home! Finally he again drives Pak Senik out of his house in a rude way of behaving: tempik Semaun lagi sambil kedua-dua belah tapak tan gannya menepuk paha, Go home, again Semaun shouts slapping his palms against this thighs. (p. 41) Shahnon Ahmad exhibits his perceptive understanding of human psychology as he reveals the character of Semaun. Initially, he presents apparent reasons for his behaviour and then the real motives. Semaun at first offers the excuse that by planting two crops a year the land will be maltreated and because of this when he and members of his family are laid to rest in their graves, the earth will take revenge by crushing them. He later shifts his argument by raising old grievances concemin~the way he has been excluded from 45
consultations on other matters. Why now is he asked to cooperate? Why has his family never been given access to even a single cow issued by the government? For a long time now his family have been isolated and humiliated. He returns to his earlier argument that while some people may double crop rice, he cannot risk offending his land. The rice-fields are his familys heart and soul, he says: Kalau mereka hendak tanam, biar, mereka tanam, sambung Semaun lagi. Kalau hendak tanam tiga empat kali setahun pun biar mereka tanam. Kita tanam setahun sekali pun cukup. Kita tak
sanggup menyiksa tanah pusaka kita. Tanah bendang itu nyawa kita. Nadi kita. Kita dijadikan dan kepalan tanah. Kita mati pun
disimpan dalam tanah. Bagaimana kalau tanah yang berupa nyawa kita itu hendak disiksa. Kita mesti dimarahinya. Bagaimana kalau
tanah itu marah. Padi tak jadi. Mati kita dibuatnya.
(pp. 33-34) Semaun and his father both express their views on the land and its role on mans life. To consider a system such as double-cropping indicates that man is concerned about material possessions and wealth; he cares nothing for the consequences. Man has become covetous and puts his own needs above everything else. When Pak Senik asks for consent from Pak Kasa, the latter replies rudely that he has enough rice to eat. Aku tak boleh setuju Mengapa tak mahu setuju sedangkan semua orang dalam Kampung kita dah setuju? Beras aku dah cukup. (p. 37) Thus revealing the selfishness which is characteristic of a loner. Pak Senik is under pressure from two directions. On the one hand, he is pressured by Semaun; on the other hand, from Dogol. Dogols6 attitude and conduct are summed up in the fourth chapter where he is labeled the black soot, a trouble-maker who threatens the harmony of Kampung Banggul Derdap. Black soot is a dirty, pervasive substance that can blemish and ruin clean objects. Dogols hatred for Semaun is shown in the very first chapter. He says, His 46
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
(Semauns) heart is evil. And a man whose heart is evil will do as he desires. From that first accusation, Dogol never ceases to abuse the family. After Pak Kasa dies, he feels pleasure:
Dan mulut Dogol mengoyak senyuman tipis. Dan ketipisan senyuman itu dibiar merebak bagaikan benita itulah yang ditunggunya selama
mi.
(p. 69)
In his discussion with Pak Senik concerning the reluctance of Pak Kasas family to participate in the double-cropping project, Dogol condemns the family. He accuses them of hindering progress by subverting other peoples initiatives. He challenges Pak Senik asking whether the whole village should be forced to abandon the project because of the accursed family. He further attacks the family by alleging that Semaun often tampered with other peoples rice fields and had even seriously injured his cow. It is in this conflict that Shahnon shows how Pak Senik is caught between Dogol and Semaun. If Pak Senik is a good leader, he will have to resolve the destructive forces represented by Semaun and Dogol. Pak Senik thust endeavour to bring his people into a life of peace and harmony in order to take them on the road towards progress. He wants all misunderstandings among his people to be settled. He truly hopes that villagers such as Dogol will cease hostilities against Semauns family. Pak Senik has a vision of what life could be like for his people. Dogol interprets Pak Seniks gentleness as a sign of weakness.~ Although he is Pak Seniks right-hand man, Dogol is only concerned with his own interests. He hopes Pak Senik fails in his attempts to achieve consensus about the government scheme so that he will be able to usurp Pak Seniks position as headman for himself. Semaun feels that he and his family have been maligned and isolated by the village community. He feels he too is entitled to certain rights -if he is to live as a member of the community. The excuses he gives for rejecting the double-cropping project are merely a means of expressing the rage and the pain he feels. The root cause that prompts his rejection is made plain in the words of Pak Senik when reprimand Dogol: Kau yang mengganaskan. Kau yang ganas.
47
Bukan Semaun, You are the aggressor. You are aggressive. Not Semaun. (p. 72) In this novel, the three main characters each represents a value in opposition with one another. By the end of the novel, the conflict in this community has been resolved through the wise leadership of Pak Senik. Due to his patience and selflessness, harmony is achieved in the village. Semaun has been led to rejoin the community. And Dogols ambitiousness and corrupt self-interest have resulted only in his death. In this novel Shahnon is depicting the positive qualities of leadership which bring harmony and prosperity not only to individuals but to the whole community. The Novel Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan (1966) In contrast to the struggle found in Rentung, the struggle in Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an is against the overwhelming and seemingly arbitrary forces of nature. In Rentung, Shahnon reveals his skill at developing the tensions resulting from man confronting man and showing how they are capable of being resolved by man. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Shahnon examines the complex struggle of man against the calamities of nature that lay beyond the control of man. Furthermore, there is the fact of mans belief and trust which views such trials as decrees of Allah which must be accepted. The contrasting themes in these two novels, Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, display Shahnons versatility. He convincingly portrays not only the conflicts that arise between men but also those that pit man against nature. Unlike the former, conflicts between man and nature have a bleak resolution of despair and destruction. The disasters in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan are more critical and have more impact than those in Rentung. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Shahnon is more symbolic in depicting the struggle of man during his lifetime. Rentung emphasizes physical struggle whereas Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan emphasizes the spiritual and mental struggle. Although both novels have a rural setting, each has a different focus and message. In Rentung Shahnon examined individuals in relation to their community; in Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an he examines individuals in relation to nature and Allah. The sixteen chapters of Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan (literally Stakes Along the Way but translated as No Harvest but a Thorn by 48
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
Adibah Arnin) cover the cycle of the rice year from the preparation of nursery plots to harvest. Within this short time frame, the characters struggle against a series of natural disasters. The afflictions that the family of Lahuma must overcome represent the No Harvest hut a Thorn of the title. The first chapter sets the scene and introduces the characters. All the characters are from one family in the village of Banggul Derdap. The family is made up the father, Lahuma; the mother, Jeha; and their seven daughters, Sanah, Milah, Jenab, Semek, Liah, Lebar and Kiah. The author depicts the light-hearted relationship between the father, the mother and the children by describing their daily activities. The tone becomes more somber when Lahuma,8 the owner of fourteen relungs of paddy-field, talks about rice and providence. Towards late afternoon, he begins to get ready for the annual struggle with the land to make it produce rice for his familys livelihood. The preparations for the new rice crop opens the second chapter. After performing the isyak prayer, Lahuma and Jeha pray that Allah will protect them from all calamities during the coming rice year. At midnight, Lahuma goes to contemplate his paddy-field and to warn all the enemies of the paddy not to destroy his crops. Lahuma thus shows his respect fqr the hard toil he faces and his recognition of the coming challenges of rice planting season. The firsi day at the nursery plot is narrated in the third chapter. Lahuma and Jeha go down to prepare the nursery at the edge of a thicket. While in the thicket, Jeha suddenly finds herself facing a cobra. Lahuma kills the snake, but Jeha cannot get it out of her mind. Suffering from shock, she is no longer able to work with her husband in the field; Sanah and Milah must take her place.The incident arouses a feeling of dread in her because it is an omen of future disasters. It is during this stage that they begin to worry about the plagues which may threaten their paddy. Lahuma, Sanah and Milah continue the work of clearing the menerung grass from the flooded fields. Jeha, still weak, is determined to continue with the work in the field. She returns to the field, but slips on the mud, falls and is forced to return home. As the clearing proceeds, Lahuma treads on a nibung thorn in the flooded fields. Now Lahuma is forced to stay at home to nurse his foot. Jeha returns to the field with Sanah and Milah. Despite his injury, Lahuma, like Jeha, is determined to keep working. He returns 49
to the field to supervise his wife and children, but the pain in his foot forces him to return to the house. He tires in vain to pull out the thorn. In frustration, he kicks the house pillar with his injured foot, causing the wound to worsen. In chapter seven, Lahumas wound becomes infected and blood poisoning sets in. His stomach becomes distended and the poisonous fluids keep discharging through his ear holes, nostrils and anus. After about two weeks, Lahuma dies. The next chapter relates the reactions of the people in Kampung Banggul Derdap towards Lahumas horrific death. People gossip saying that he must have done something evil to deserve such an end. Jeha carries on the work in her fields always remembering her departed husband. Tuk Penghulu, the village headman, repays a moral debt to Lahuma by ploughing the field with his tractor. Yet the problem of planting the rice without a man remains heavy burden and responsibilities. At this crucial stage in the cycle of planting the rice, Jeha faces heavy burdens and responsibilities. She is harassed by dreams of rice, the enemies of rice, her family and the future. The period of relief after the rice is planted is short lived. Soon afterwards, a plague of fresh water crabs attacks Jehas paddy. The whole family slaves away day and night destroying the crabs to protect the paddy. Exhausted and on the point of giving up, Jeha has a terrifying nightmare of Lahuma descending on the fi~ldin a most horrible form. Jeha believes the dream is a sign that her husband is displeased with her efforts to fight the onslaught of the crabs. Pulling herself together, Jeha resumes the struggle against the crabs. In the next. chapter, a change becomes apparent in Jeha. She begins to walk aimlessly around the village, and the villagers begin to taunt her as the widow of the bloated Lahuma of many children. One evening, she wanders about tearing up the rice plants. Later at midnight, she takes her youngest daughter into the field to weed the rice. Deranged and violent, Jeha is placed in a cage by the villagers. The monsoon breaks and the rain falls relentlessly throughout the day. From her cage, Jeha watches the floods sweep across her paddy field and begins to scream. As the flood waters rise, Jehas insanity becomes uncontrollable and is sent to a mental hospital by the village head. The 17 year old Sanah now assumes the role as head of the family. From chapter 14 onwards, she plays the central role in the 50
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
novel. As she prepares for the ripening of the paddy, she hopes for a good harvest, but fears further disasters. Another trial does come when the tiak birds swarm the ripening rice fields. Sanah and her sisters struggle against this latest adversity by trying to chase away the birds. In these moments of anxiety, her thoughts linger on her parents. In order to save as much as possible of the grain from the birds, the girls harvest the rice throughout the night. Yet despite working day and night for five weeks, the seven girls manage to
gather only a small harvest.
The final chapter describes the villagers depression caused by the poor harvest. Sanah sadly contemplates her fate while she and her sisters await the return of their mother from the mental hospital. Their mother returns, but must be put back into the cage. The novel ends with the mother in the cage where she coutinues screaming all through the night. This novel is structured around the cycle of the rice year. The misfortunes coincide with different periods in the cycle and successively fall upon the three leading characters. During the period of preparing the field for sowing and weeding the father is struck; the mother facing insurmountable problems during the periods of ploughing and planting and later, when fighting to protect the paddy from the fresh-water crabs, is driven to insanity; the eldest daughter is faced with the tremendous tasks of clearing the debris caused by the flood and fighting the swarms of tiak birds and is in despair when all their efforts culminate in a poor harvest. With Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Shahnon places the three principal characters amidst all the disasters and vicissitudes possible in a rice year. The novel is tightly organized. Increasing responsibilities are handed down from the husband to the wife and, finally, to the eldest daughter. The first seven chapters centre on Lahuma, revealing his beliefs and principles of life and his ultimate death. The second part, covering chapters eight to 13, focuses on the character Jeha as she caries on the struggle for survival. In the final part, chapters 14 to 16, Shahnon shifts the readers attention to Sanah who shoulders a burden that leads to despair. In the first seven chapters Shahnon presents the rural background of the family. He depicts Lahuma as trusting and accepting of Allah and whatever providence may bring. The author builds up Lahumas characteristics by showing his humour, his courage, and 51
his reverence towards the land and rice fields. Then Shahnon shows how he courageously bears his misfortunes. In his roles as farmer, member of the village community, father, husband, and servant of Allah, Lahuma is presented as a typical God-fearing peasant worthy of admiration. Lahumas basic belief is that:
[Mati hidup dan susah senang dipegang otch Tuhan. Dipegang Allah Azzawajalla.] With strong conviction, Lahuma holds fast to his faith in the power of Allah. Lahuma is content with his belief that life and death, happiness and misery are all in Gods hand. With this unshakeable faith, he appreciates all the blessings that come to him and bears all burdens with resignation. As he says, God gives and I can only accept. (p. 2) He realizes that there is no chance of increasing his 14 relungs of rice field because this is part of what providence has de-
creed for him. He expresses his utter submission to Allah and willingness to accept all that Allah decrees:
Terserah kepada Allah Azzawajalla. Apa boleli buat kalau Allah suruh makan bangkai. Apa nak kata kalau Tuhan suruh anak cucunya bertelanjang.
(p. 5) If Allah dictates that his family is to eat carrion or that his descendants should go about naked, Lahuma cannot rebel. Shahnon presents Lahuma as a man who has total faith in Allah and who orders his life by this faith.
Lahumas life is led with a perfect peace of mind. He dreams of
rice filling the barn, of fish from a bountiful river, and of bamboo
shoots and the many kinds of leaf shoots found in the jungle so that
he can spend his time eating and sleeping. Having this attitude, Lahuma feels content and does not worry too deeply about his daily
life; in his dream, there is enough of everything and everything is left in the hands of Allah. Shahnon provides a vivid scene, of loving hu-
man relationship. Lahuma is happy joking with his wife while watch52
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
ing his children happily at play. He compares the smell of a kind of rice with the stink of Jehas hair, he says to her:
Sekurang-kunangnya nasi serindit itu sedap masuk hidung juga. Lebih sedap dan bau hangit rambut kau. (p. 6) Jeha retorts, saying her stinking hair has not kept him away; their seven children are proof of that:
Itu apa? Itu apa? Yang tujuh onang itu apa? Busuk-busuk nambut mi pun kau kerabat juga siang malam. Busuk-busuk rambut mi
pun dapat juga anak tujuh orang. (p. 6)

Shahnon depicts Lahuma as conscientious in his work, yet at the same time, conscious of the powers of God. Lahuma sees work in the paddy field as a crucial part in lifes struggle. He says, As long as the paddy has not been safely stored in the rice barn the struggle is not yet over. (p. 9) Before beginning any project, he performs the appropriate religious ceremony with prayers. On the eve of the commencement of work on the paddy field, Lahuma and Jeha pray: Oh Tuhanku yang Maha Besan yang Maha Agung. Benarkan aku mula bekenja esok dan bianlah selama itu aku dilindungi olehmu. Jauhkan aku dan segala bencana alam. dan segala penyakit, dan lipan-lipan dan ulan-ular dan kala jengking yang bisa-bisa. Singkirkan segala banjir yang besar yang boleh melimpah padiku. Singkirkan kemarau panjang yang mengeringkan tanah bendangku. Jauhkan segala malapetaka yang menghatang kami, Jauhkan segala ketam-ketam putih yang mematahkan anak- anak padi kami selama mi. Jauhkan segala ribut dan taufan. Jauhkan dan tikus dan babi dan juga manusia-manusia yang mencuni padi kami. Lanjutkanlah usia aku, biniku Jeha dan anak-anakku Sanah, Milah, Jenab, Semek, Liah, Lebar dan Kiah. Jauhkanlah kami dan segala malapetaka.
(p. 10)
In these prayers Shahnon shows Lahuma seeking Allahs protection over his whole lifes cycle, not just the annual paddy cycle,
53
along with the continuity of his family. He requests permission from Allah to start work; he prays he and his family will be protected from misfortunes and catastnophes while they work; he prays for protection from all the enemies of rice; and he prays his family members will live long lives.
Shahnon significantly shows the deep bond between Lahuma

and the daily cycle when Lahuma goes down to his rice fields in the
quiet of midnight. He does not know himself his intentions for coming down to paddy field at midnight but his feet seem to direct him
there step by step. (p. 13) Because of the intensity of his feelings towards his rice field, he desires to be linked with his surroundings and nature; he feels a bond of intimacy with the earth, the air, the
water, the grass, the leeches and the crabs. Thus, he is able to establish a spiritual and physical bond with the battle-field of his struggle during the forthcoming rice year.
In a formal tone Lahuma addresses his enemies. He warns the leeches, If you suck my blood I will annihilate you completely. He
tells the crabs~ You will be killed if you attack my paddy stems. He then whispers silently to the wind which can bring storms and floods. In the middle of the field surrounded by the silence of night, he prays for safe deliverance from all harmful things. Thus, on this night before he is to start to work in the field,
Lahuma solemnly and with intense concentration of his five senses prays to Allah: he seeks reconciliation with the elements of air, earth, water and grass with which he has to work; he speaks to the leeches, crabs and the wind, his potential enemies; and he touches his farming equipment as weapons of livelihood. His entire body and soul in all
its faith and conviction are committed wholly to the coming struggle.
On returning home, he reaches for his farming tools, getting the feel of the hoe and plough. Shahnon further develops Lahumas role as a father and husband in chapter three. As a father, he realizes his daughters are growing up. He reflects on how they will eventually marry and be taken away by their husbands, These children are also given by God. And if God decrees that they are to be taken far away, Lahuma will not try to intervene. (p. 21) As a husband, Lahuma is shown to possess
great courage by the way he saves his wife from the cobra. When the
snake menaces Jeha, Lahumas mind spins between planning a way to rescue his wife and wondering what would happen to him if Jeha 54
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
wene to die from the snake bite. For him, It will be like losing my right arm if the poison from that misbegotten snake were to penetrate my wifes body. Bravely he immediately leaps at the snake and seizes its neck, but the snake twists and winds its body on his arm. He pulls out his knife with his left hand, and with a great swing, he chops the snake into pieces. This is an extraordinary feat. Lahuma thinks back on it and realizes he had almost lost his reason at the time; he had not given a thought to the possibility of disaster. Shahnon then constructs a picture of Lahumas dedication to his
land. Some villagers suggest shifting the nursery because the snake
is a bad omen, but Lahuma has no intention of shifting even if
attacked by a thousand such snakes. He stands firmly by his decision: Lahuma tidak akan berganjak dan tanah bekas semainya; malah dan bendang 14 nelung itu pun dia tidak akan berganjak. Sesungguhnya tidak boJeh dia berganjak ke mana-mana. Tanah itu tanahnya. Itulah satu-satu tanahnya. Samalah seperti tanahairnya yang barn mendeka mi. Tak ada tanah lain baginya. Tak ada tanahain lain baginya dan bagi keluarganya. Hidup mati
di tanahairnya sendini. Musuh dan malapetaka hanya dapat dilawan saja. Dan di antara dia dengan musuh cuma ada satu keputusan saja iaitu mati salah seonang.
(p. 29) Lahuma is then shown in the fourth chapter concentrating mainly on his work as a farmer. In working the rice field Lahuma carefully sees to it that every stage of the planting is fulfilled on schedule. To accomplish this, he and his wife work unremittingly. Thus, when
Jeha is unable to work because of her shock, Lahuma worries and

feels as though his right arm is missing and useless. Jeha has been
his helper since he first worked his land; in fact, she can no longer be thought of as merely a wife for she is part of his own life. Lahuma is
helpless without Jeha by his side down in the rice field. The spirit of Lahuma is in Jeha; he is part of her and she is part of him. Now the children have to take their mothers place in helping
him in the field. They have to be taught the spirit of hard work. They have been brought up to identify their fate with the soil so they ac55
cept the fact that they themselves were created from a handful of
mud:
Lumpur dan lintah dan matahani dan hujan tak dapat dipisahkan dan kehidupannya dan kehidupan anak bininya turun-temurun. Lahuma hidup dan lumpun. Jeha hidup dani lumpun. Sanah hidup dan lumpur. Milah hidup dani lumpun. Jenab hidup dani lumpun. Semek hidup dan lumpur. Liah hidup dan lumpur. Leban hidup dani lumpun. Dan Kiah pun hidup dan lumpur juga. Lambat bangat Sanah dan Milah akan ke sawah juga. Bila jadi bmni onang, Sanah dan Milah akan benlumpur dan berlintah kerbau juga. Hal itu tidak boleh dielakkan. Mereka tidak boleh tinggal di rumah menanak nasi dan mencari kutu di kepala bendul saja. Sejak datuk nenek dulu lagi lumpur dan lintah dan matahani dan hujan telah menguasai kehidupan ketununan Lahuma. Tak ada lain jalan untuk menyambung hidup mi. (p. 36) Here Shahnon emphasizes the indivisible relationship between the peasant and the land. Lahumas last moments in his fields are portrayed in chapter six. On that fateful day, Lahuma and his two daughters are working on the third plot when he accidently treads on a nibung thorn. Shahnon shows technical skill by portraying the scene vividly through the eyes of Jeha, who watches from a window in the house: Tiba-tiba pandangannya melompat ke arah Lahuma kembali. Lakinya benhenti menghayun tajak. Nampak dan tingkap rumahnya itu bagaikan Lahuma sedang menani sebelah kaki sedang kakinya yang sebelah lagi diampu dengan kedua belah tangan. Kemudian Lahuma jatuh ke dalam air. Nampak sedikit air mercik ke atas akibat kejatuhan itu. Kemudian nampak Sanah berhenti menajak. Dia Ian ke arah bapanya. Kemudian Milah pun benhenti dan Ian ke anah Lahuma yang terjatuh. Meneka memanggil sesuatu dan panggilan iw sayup-sayup ditangkap oleh Jeha yang benada di tingkap.
(p. 55) 56
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
Lahuma, suffering from such pain, is forced to stay home, but the paddy field never leaves his mind. At first Lahuma does not express great concern over his foot: Lahuma tidak mengendahkan suruhan ito, bagaikan di antana kakinya yang sakit dengan tajak di bendang adalah dua faktor hidup yang berat sebelah.
(p. 60)
He rejects Jehas suggestion of poulticing his injured foot. Despite throbbing pain, Lahuma follows his wife and daughters to the field to watch them work. Although this activity aggravates the wound, Lahumas concern for the rice field overrides his physical pain. Lahuma tells himself: Besok akan turun juga, fikin Lahuma lagi. Biar kakinya sakit. Bian bengkaknya menanah hingga bosan. Lebih sakit dan itu dia boleh tahan. Bian bengkaknya metarat hingga tertampan jantung. Tuhan itu adil. Dia tahu siapa perlu hidup, siapa perlu mati. Aku akan turun ke sawah juga besok, fikinnya lagi. Dan di antana sawah dengan maut, Lahuma mulai serba salah. Tak turun ke sawah benerti kelaparan kesudahannya. Anak-pinaknya hendak makan. Sawah tidak boleh diabaikan walau bengkak sebesar busut jantan sekalipun.
(p. 66)
At the height of his agony, he cuts his foot with a razor blade in an attempt to extract the thorn. When he is unable to dig out the thorn, he becomes exasperated and kicks the house pillar with his
infected foot which increases his agony.

Lahuma is shown in the last stages of blood poisoning in chapter seven. His condition is serious. No longer able to move, Lahuma is forced to eat and bathe where he lies. As his eyesight fails, his view of his field begins to fade: Dan Lahuma di rumah jelas kelihatan bentambah banyak bengkaknya. Dan bengkak itu sekarang sudah setengah tubuh bahagman bawah. Dia tidak lagi sanggup mengheret tubuhnya ke tingkap.
Jenab dan Semek tidak ke sekolah lagi. Bapanya mandi di tempat

57
NOVELS OFTHE TROUBLED YEARS
tidun. Benak di tempat tidun. Makan di tempat tidun. Tapi Jeha tunun juga ke sawah. Tak lama lagi selesailah menajak. Tapi Lahuma sudah tidak dapat bergerak lagi. Kini pandangannya cuma tertumpu ke bumbung numah yang serba kaya dengan jelagajelaga dan sawang itu. Bendang di luan tidak dapat dijamah dengan mata lagi
(p. 83)
The entire lower half of his body is swollen. Lahuma no longer has the energy to maintain his struggle, and his spirit begins to fail. The pain wipes out any soothing thoughts he might have: Lahuma sudah kalah dengan semangatnya. Dia sudah tidak dapat memandang sawahnya lagi. Sedikit demi sedikit gambanan tajaknya hilang. Sedikit demi sedikit lumpur di bendangnya hilang. Lahuma tidak teningat lagi kepada hutan menenung dan rumput bulu landak yang menangkup petak-petak sawahnya. Kesakitan memadamkan segala ingatan yang lunak itu.
(p. 83) Lahumas blood-poisoning soon reaches the acute stage where his swollen belly oozes foul-smelling fluids. Three days later the stinking poisonous liquid begins to ooze from all his orifices filling the room with a stench:
Bengkaknya telah masak betul. Selunuh tubuh menjadi besan. Pada awalnya bibir mulut Lahutha boleh lagi bergerak. Jeha cuba juga cenitakan tentang bendang dan padi. Tapi kini bibin itu telah terkunci. Giginya atas bawah tenkaacing. Jeha cuba memokah gigi itu tapi tersangat kejap terkancing. Makanan sudah lama tidak masuk ke dalam penut. Kini air sudah sukar hendak dihulun masuk. Dan bila muka Lahuma menjadi biru, Jeha baru memanggil jiranjinan malam itu. Tapi kedatangan mereka cuma untuk membaca surah-surah Yasin saja. Busung itu hanya menunggu ketika akan pecah. Tak ada jalan lain lagi untuk mengendurkan busung Sebesar itu. (pp. 85-86)
58
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
When it is clear that Lahuma is dying, one or two persons read the Surah Yasin from the Quran, but they are forced to stand outside his room because the stench is unbearable. The time is midnight. It was at this time at the beginning of the season when he went out to his fields; now he struggles for his life. The neighbours who have come to the house are chatting about various things conceming the rice fields. The Tuk Penghulu has just promised to send his tractor to help Lahuma.The help is too late. There is bitter irony; the modem machine so desperately needed by Lahuma in his life time is promised only at the moment of his death. So ends the life of this unyielding fighter whose weapon was the hoe, whose flesh and blood was of the rice field, whose heart and pulse beat to the dictates of the ricefield and whose entire life was dedicated to the rice-field. 9 In chapter eight, Shahnon shifts the focus of the story to Jeha. Jeha is shown struggling against the attitudes of the kampung people towards her husbands death and herself. They say that Lahumas unnatural and bizarre death is a fate usually reserved for terrible sinners. Jeha, however, remains convinced that her husband is without sin. The physical exertions make her exhausted. Eventhough the Tu/c Penghulu helps her with his tractor, Jeha is left with the tremendous task of pushing back the undergrowth, pulling out the weeds, irrigating the field, pulling up the seedlings from the nursery and replanting the seedlings in the field. For five successive weeks Jeha and her daughters are engaged in this back-breaking work. Jehas resolution to continue with the task of working the paddy-field, as had been the wish of her late husband, does not waver. The accomplishment of the work gives her peace of mind and promises a bright future. Her life becomes more tranquil and she has sweet dreams after the planting season. The paddy grows well. However, it is only a momentary respite. Fresh-water crabs invade the field damaging the crop. Firstly, she is totally exhausted from three continuous days and nights of struggle andthe effort of replanting the seedlings from the nursery. Her physical exhaustion prompts a dream about Lahuma who seems to appear in all his wrath to chide her for the misfortunes threatening the paddy. After this dream, Jeha redoubles her efforts to annihilate the crabs. This struggle against the crabs that ravage her paddy crop continues until Jeha is almost in despair. As a result of physical and psychological pressures, Jeha grad-
59
ually loses her reason. The villagers mock and laugh at her breakdown; they call hen names and taunt her. They start with a widowwith-many-children then a wild-widow-with-many-children and finally a wild-widow-of-swollen-Lahuma-with-many-children. This persecution does not stop at abuses and insults; the village children start throwing stickss at the unfortunate Jeha. It is the responsibility for her family, the work in the paddyfield, the struggle against the enemies of the paddy and finally, the harassment from her neighbours that drives Jeha insane. The madness becomes apparent one morning when she goes to Tuk Penghulus house to convey Lahumas greeting as though he was still alive. She jumps in glee while claiming she single-handedly works her field and cares for the children. She announces that her children
have reached adulthood and their breasts, which she compares to her
own that she displays, have developed. She offers anyone of her elder
daughters
Sanah, Milah, Jenab or Semek
to Tuk Penghulu. She
then rushes to the nursery, pulls up the seedlings and casts them into the thicket. She runs madly about the uncleared land calling out Lahumas name. Still screaming Lahumas name, she rushes into the neighbouring rice-field and tears up the paddy. Her maniac activities
continue into the night. At midnight, Jeha imagines she hears Lahuma summoning her
to come down to the rice-field to pull out the weeds. Jeha follows this order and brings her youngest daughter Kiah to help with her weeding. Her other daughters and the villagers look for them everywhere; eventually they find the two in the middle of the rice-field. When questioned by the Tuk Penghulu, Jeha replies, Lahuma told me to do the weeding. As dawn approaches, Jeha is forced into a cage the villagers have built in her house. She shakes the bars, continuously screams abuses and struggles fiercely far into the night. Chapter 13 describes the insane Jeha growing more disturbed as she watches the flood destroy her paddy. With her mother rendered
helpless, Sanahnow emerges as the principal fighter against this

disaster.She takes over the responsibilities of the family, becoming at once father and mother to her sisters. For the six days the flood waters pour over their paddy fields, Sanah and her sisters go to the field clear away the logs and debris that is crushing their paddy. Throughout these days, Jeha can be heard screaming from her cage.
She becomes submissive when the Tuk Penghulu and a policeman 60
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
come to take her to a mental hospital because she believes she is being taken to meet her husband. Sanah and her sisters continue to tend the rice fields. When the paddy begins to ripen, Sanah prepares the baskets and straw mats needed for the harvest. She plans for the future: Sebahagian dan padi Malinja itu akan dihirik dan dijemur. Lebih kurang lima enam gantang beras akan diambil sesudah ditumbuk dalam lesung. Kenduni untuk bapa akan dibuat... Dan kenduni padi baru itu akan dibuat untuk bapa dan emaknya juga.
(pp 166-167)
However, just as the paddy is ripening, disaster strikes again. This time tialc birds attack and feast on their paddy. Sanah and her sisters go down to the field to chase away the birds. The birds return, they chase them again. And again the birds come. Again they frighten them away. This continues right to the end. (p. 172) Sanah and her sisters yell at the birds until their voices become hoarse. The sisters, exhausted and with their voices hoarse from yelling at the birds, develop an irrational fear of the birds, What if all the birds were to converge on Kiah attacking and pecking at her flesh? What if they were to peck at Lebars eyes? Unable to chase the birds away, the girls harvest throughout the night hoping to save some of the rice. For the next five weeks Sanah and her sisters struggle to save the rice, but much of the crops has
been eaten by the birds:

Namun begitu padi baru akan dijemun dan ditumbuk juga hingga jadi beras dan nasi. Dan kenduri untuk bapanya Lahuma akan diadakan juga apabila Jeha emaknya pulang dan perjalanan yang jauh itu.
(p. 179)
The final chapter of the novel describes the despair felt by the
entire village after the poor harvest. But Lahumas children confront
the added sorrow of their mothers continued insanity. Their misfortune is movingly pictured in the last sentence of the novel. Dan
Jeha menjerit juga sepanjang malam itu. (p.188) Jehas never ending screams symbolize the grief of Lahumas family and the villagers 61
know that their ordeal of the past rice year is no different that which has plaqued their families for generations. Lahuma, trying to overcome all his adversities, dies at the time of hoeing; Jeha is defeated by all the bitter struggles and loses her reason just when the paddy begins to flourish; and Sanah gets the first bitter taste of adult life when confronted with despair and hopelessness as the paddy ripens. Shahnon Ahmad portrays the cycle of life, full of bitterness and heart break, as coming in waves and in various forms: nature and its floods; animals in the forms of snakes, crabs and birds; and the plants in the forms of menerung grass and nibung thorns. It is these three hostile elements that drive the three characters, Lahuma, Jeha and Sanah, to death, insanity and despair. Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan has significant elements which give it a special place in modern Malay literature. It was the first Malay novel to highlight the grip of poverty holding rural Malays. By structuring the novel as a single year within the ceaseless rice cycle, the author succeeds in showing how the battle with nature is waged not just
once but year after year. Shahnon Ahmad successfully portrays his
peasant characters through the flow of language and technical devices that build up to a suspense and climax. He effectively uses local dialect to portray characters and reinforce the struggle of man 2 says of Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan: in the rural setting. A. H. Johns The book has an overwhelming impact: in part due to the sheer writing skill of the author, Lahumas agony and death, and Jehas madness are presented in a way that impresses their horror on the reader, but it is not these scenes alone which give the book as a whole its particular power. This derives rather from a tight formal structure, and a cunning, if unconscious selection or archetypes and overtones. The opening, Life and Death, Joy and Sorrow ane in the hands of God, sets a key chord sounding. In itself this is a simple, pious ejaculation. But it becomes at once something deepen. The structural framework of the book is the nice year. It is the nice year and all that happens within it that is in the hands of God; it is the rice year that is building block of time out of which the span of eYeny human life is made, and through which every generation of Man has lived.
62
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
The Rural Struggle Shahnon Ahmad uses a rural setting where the soil is the source of life and men must cooperate in their struggle against nature for both Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan. However, he uses these elements and the characters struggles differently. In Rentung, Shahnon focuses on community disharmony that arises from individual selfinterest. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan he focuses on individuals as they struggle against the forces of nature. It is of interest to review how
Shahnon develops the elements in each work that lead to the crisis, the kind of emphasis in the depiction of characters and the kind of
resolutions yielding either hope or despair respectively in the two
novels. In Rentung, a crisis causes a breakdown of community harmony which creates tension in the village. In contrast, the crisis in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan leads to misery in a family. These conflicts call for different responses from various characters. Shahnon uses the struggle between man and man to show mans
vices. Dogol is depicted as greedy and ambitious in his struggle. It is
his greed that drives him to distribute the government cows unfairly. It is his ambition to be headman that drives him to accuse Pak Senik of being weak. Shahnon uses Semaun to portray pride and individualism. He maintains his own ideas about the land and shows no concem for the rest of the villagers. As a consequence of isolating themselves from the other villagers, Semaun and his family become targets for rumour, distrust and suspicion. Pak Senik serves as a balance to these characteristics. In him, Shahnon provides a model for humility, patience, selflessness and courage. He never shows despair or anger. He works not out of self-interested or self-gain, but for the good of the community. He tries to ensure that all the villagers feel a part of the community. Here we have the moral dilemmas which cause the breakdown of harmony in the village community. The crucial issue is whether the disruptive characters in the village will accept Pak Seniks solution. Semaun accepts the solution; he is ready to bury his pride and rejoin the village community as a form of reconciliation. On the other hand, Dogol refuses to accept it. He remains an egotist. Rather than admit he was wrong, he insists on maintaining his attitude of arro63
gance. His selfishness contrasts with the selflessness of Pak Senik.
Therefore, the choice has to be made. People who make the wrong choice, such as Dogol, are left behind; people who made the right choice, such as Semaun, are accepted and participate in the restoration of village harmony. The conflict of man against man; tests mans ability to exercise human virtues in seeking a solution. However, the conflict between
man and nature, tests mans belief in God. Since nature is in the hands of God, man must accept mortal weakness when facing the powers of nature. Therefore, Lahuma has to accept that Mati hidup
dan susah senang dipegang oleh Tuhan. Dipegang oleh Allah Azzawajalla. Islam teaches the acceptance of fate as the sixth pillar of Faith. This is the core of Shahnons View of life as developed in this novel. The opposing elements of life and death and of joy and sorrow are opposite elements which are to be reconciled and accepted. Shahnon is attempting to show that the Malay villager not only faces the forces of nature but also economic exploitation. Lahuma must mortgage the land to the Chinese, and the rich Tuk Penghulu
keeps his tractor for his own use. While economic factors can be
changed and improved, the threat from natural calamities remains.

Man must leave his fate in the hands of God and never lose his faith. Islam teaches man to accept the situation, but never to surrender.
Therefore, Lahuma is not fatalistic in the face of natural calamities; he wGrks and struggle constantly in order to survive. For instance, he
has the courage to try desperately to cut the thorn out of his injured foot. Jeha accep~sher duties and responsibilities as a head of family
after her husbands death. It is her desperate concern for her familys survival that precipitates her insanity. The ending of each of the two novels signifies resolution and despair as an outcome of human conflicts. Rentung ends with the cheers of the villagers at the birth of new hopes and the elimination of the evils. Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan ends with the deranged screams of Jeha and the hopeless future of her children. The overall mood of despair and tragedy in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan is unusual in modern
Malay literature. There are two significant elements that emerge from the endings
of the novels: death and the movement of time. The stories end with the deaths of Dogol and Lahuma, and with the madness of Jeha and the despair of Sanah. The two novels end during the evening with the 64
THE RURAL STRUGGLE
approach of night, and night with the approach of day light. This movement of time symbolizes the fate and tragedy of mankind as it struggles while approaching ultimate death. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, the hardship which Lahumas family endures and the courage with which they face the calamities are emphasized by Shahnons structuring of the events. The novel follows the rice cultivation cycle; it begins with the planting and ends with the harvesting. It also follows the cycle of the day; it begins in the morning with Lahumas fresh and enthusiastic approach to a new days work and ends in the darkness of night when Jeha is mad and
the children have little hope. These natural cycles reflect the failing fortunes of Lahuma and his family. The natural cycles emphasize the
unceasing continuity of life which must be endured. Thus, Shahnon Ahmad has chosen different characters to face each challenge and to struggle in the tension of the rural community.
Semaun, an aggressive young man, has to face his enemies in the

struggle of man against man. Lahuma meets his death in the struggle
against nature. He feels at a disadvantage against the forces of nature even with modern technology. Shahnon Ahmads next two novels leave the village setting; they concentrate on the social problems and the practice of religion in the towns.
65
3 SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND RELIGION

With Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Shahnon Ahmad established himself as a novelist with a gift for writing about rural peasant life. The themes and settings were considered innovative. However, the narrative technique was traditional; Shahnon chose the voice of the omniscient narrator to describe his characters and settings. Shahnon turned his attention to urban life to probe the themes of social problems and religion in his novels Terdedah (1965) and Protes (1967). The novels were written when Shahnon was actively involved in politics. Shahnon used his keen sense of observation to examine the immoral behaviour of those elected to office when he wrote Terdedah. His work as a teacher made Shahnon aware of the problems facing adolescents. He was especially interested their attitude towards religion as they faced the problems of love and relationships
with their peer group. Based on his perceptions of these problems, Shahnon portrays the questioning attitude of young people towards Islam in the novel Protes. The Novel Terdedab (1965) The novel Terdedah is an important step in Shahnons literary development not merely because it is his first urban novel but also because he turns from describing external qualities of characters to exploring their internal motivations.
The story is set against the social background of the early six-
ties. At the time, friction arose within Malay society because of the 66
SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND RELIGION
continued existence of hereditary titled groups, such as tengku or syed. These groups constituting the top stratum of society, were extremely conscious of their descent and status and demanded they be
treated with great respect. Nearly a decade had passed since independence and there was growing concern about political leadership and the responsibilities of politicians. Some politicians and leaders had abused their power, using it for their own personal ends and sexual gratification; hypocrisy and arrogance were common. These social problems become the main focus of Terdedah. With strong
passion and insight. Shahnon explores these social problems. The
novel also opens new dimensions in literary techniques. There is a richness of texture as Shahnon explores the psychological complexities of his characters. Human irony and ambivalence is revealed with
subtlety.
The soeial themes evident in Shahnons earlier short stories, including the hypocrisy and licentious lives of members of parliament, are developed further in this novel. The novel draws on elements from Miting di K.L. (1961) which deals with the hypocrisy
of a female political activist; Nak Serang Tuan D.O. (1962) which explores political influence and development problems; Catatanku (1963) and Jangan Beritahu Orang Lain (1964) which explore the scandalous sex lives of politicians. Nafsu (1964) is probably a preparatory sketch for the novel Terdedah. Both stories are about two ladies of royal descent, their maid servants and gardeners and both
deal with human sexual frustration.
As the title implies, Terdedah is an exposure; it exposes moral emptiness. On one level, it develops around the sexual problems, misdemeanours and temptations of its characters, but, at a deeper
level, it also offers an acid comment on the standard of social and
political morality in Malay society. The first chapter, Tubuhnya Separuh Jinggang (Well-Shaped Body), begins at nine oclock in the morning when Sharifah Shuhada awakes. Immediately, her thoughts turn to the memory of her late husband and her two male admirers. Encik Adnan is a peoples representative, and Syed Mohsin is a Malaysian Civil Service officer. Both have been her lovers since the death of her husband, and she desperately longs for the company of one or the other of the two. She lies in bed considering her social superiority to Encik Adnan with whom she makes love because one day he may become Prime Minis67
NOVELS OF TUE TROUBLED YEARS
ten. In a torment of frustration, she calls out her gardeners name, but he does not hear her. She decides to arrange a rendezvous with Syed Mohsin because he has royal blood. She telephones his office, but he is not there so she telephones Encik Adnan. He agrees to come to her house at nine oclock that night. The title of the second chapter, Liku-Liku (Bends and Corners), refers to Encik Adnan who plays a central role in the chapter. Shahnon skilfully portrays Adnans indecisiveness between meeting his political obligations or fulfilling his sexual needs. He day-dreams about his rendezvous with Sharifah Shuhada that is scheduled at the same time as a political meeting he is chairing. He debates about canceling the political party meeting, but feels he ought to give priority to his party as it supports his present standing. In a state of anxiety, he makes a series of wrong telephone calls. Firstly, he tries to telephone his secretary in order to cancel the party meeting, but mistakenly rings Sharifah Shuhada. Then, he asks his wife a question he had intended to ask Sharifah Shuhada. When he does reach Fakar to cancel the meeting, he immediately changes his mind. Encik Adnan shifts his thoughts to his wife Rohana whom he suspects of being unfaithful to him, but recalls times when she had proved to be sincere. He needs Rohanas support and blessing in his struggles, but he feels she cannot understand the demands of his political situation. Moreover, Rohana is starting to become fat and unattractive. He also thinks of Fakars dubious attitudes and conduct in the party struggle. Encik Adnan therefore divides his love and time between his family, his country and his pleasures. In the following chapter, Tunggul-Tunggul (Tree Stumps), Encik Adnans mental confusion is developed further. On his way to the meeting at the partys headquarters, his thoughts dwell upon his wife, whom he regards as a mere tree stump. He also realizes that Syed Mohsin is having a relationship with Sharifah Shuhada. Ironically, in her presence he perceives himself as a stump in the eyes of Shanifah Shuhada. When the meeting opens at Bumiputera House, Encik Adnan is pre occupied with thinking of ways to end the meeting early so he can go to Sharifah Shuhadas house. Fakars request to add another item to the agenda is turned down. Throughout the meeting, he pictures the inviting body of his mistress rather than political issues. 68
Fakar must deal with party members who know very little about basic politics and show little concern for the aspirations of the people. He is disappointed with committee members who have no more intelligence that the stumps of rubber trees. When he brings up the issues of national importance, there is hardly any response from the other members. Fakar raises up the matter that out of numerous job applicants to be recommended for jobs, only one is a Malay. Since Encik Adnan and the others do nof regard this as a serious matter, Fakar is forced to agree with their decision or he risk losing his job. Fakar is torn between the temporary self-interest which forces him to accept the improper behaviour of his superiors and his responsibilities as public servant towards the values of Malay society. Aware of Encik Adnans destination after the meeting, he also knows that the day will come when the people will reject these unworthy leaders. Chapter four, Di Antara Wajah-wajah (Among the Faces), describes Fakars anger over attitudes of the committee members. He reflects on the plight of his backward race and the fate of future generations. Encik Adnan returns to talk with Fakar in the meeting room as he does not want to reveal his overwhelming anxiety to Sharifah Shuhada. Encik Adnan advises Fakar not to be so obsessed about his peoples struggle. Fakars reply is to advise his boss to mind his conduct before the people. Shahnon subtlety hints at tension between the two men. After Encik Adnan leaves, Fakar reflects on Encik Adnans credibility. He is slowly losing his popularity because of his preoccupation with pleasure seeking. Ironically, Fakar knows what Encik Adnan is up to, but Encik Adnan does not recognize Fakars game. Fakar considers his own future in politics and is determined to become a public figure in his own right. He leaves the office heading
towards Encik Adnans house and assignation with Rohana.
Daging dan Nafas (Flesh and Breath) is set in the house of Sharifah Shuhada. She is thinking about Syed Mohsin while awaiting the arrival of the Encik Adnan. She reflects on the differences in birth and status of Syed Mohsin, Encik Adnan, and Tijah and Hamid, her servants. She is aware that contemporary society no longer values status by birth over ability and achievement. However, she still regards Adnan as commoner, but Encik Adnan has the potential to become a person of political importance so she maintains their rela69
tionship. She prepares herself for his arrival and feels time is passing far too slowly. While awaiting Encik Adnans arrival, Sharifah Shuhada is surprised by the unexpected arrival of Syed Mohsin. Shortly afterwards, Encik Adnan arrives, resulting in a restrained confrontation between the two men. Encik Adnan believes he has been tricked. He wants to remain, but sensitive about his low social standing in the presence of Sharifah Shuhada and Syed Mohsin. However, he takes his leave and shortly after Syed Mohsin follows suit. Sharifah Shuhada, frustrated and disappointed, thinks the two men behaved like children in their anger. There is .a good psychological touch when Shahnon describes Encik Adnans continuing indecisiveness. On his way home, Encik Adnan considers returning to Sharifah Shuhadas house but he suspects Syed Mohsin may be doing the same, so in the end he continues on his way home to be with Rohana. Chapter Six Goncang (Upheaval), continues chapter four by following Fakar to his meeting with Rohana. His company helps to fill the emptiness of her life. While they discuss Encik Adnans loss of popularity in his political career, Fakar considers plotting Encik Adnans downfall but he~ restrains himself out of consideration for Rohana and her children. He would rather resign from his post in the party than hurt Rohana. When Encik Adnan reaches his home, he finds Rohana and Falar together. Although Rohana uses the excuse that their child is sick, Encik Adnan is suspicious and jealous. They all feel guilty. Realizing the error of his immoral conduct, Encik Adnan wishes to be reconciled with his wife and enjoy the beauty of the night together. The book concludes with Sebuah Impian (A Nightmare), a description of the night Sharifah Shuhada spends alone after Syed Mohsin and Encik Adnan have left her. In her frustration she repeatedly calls out Hamids name. At the same time, she thinks about Encik Adnan and the possibility of his becoming Menteri Besar. She falls asleep and dreams that she is the wife of Encik Adnan who is now Menteri Besar. Hamid is his chauffeur; Tijah has married Syed Mohsin, and Rohana has married Fakar. At a grand reception for the Sultan, Rohana murders Encik Adnan. She sees herself and Encik Adnan trampled by the vast crowd. Sharifah Shuhada screams out Fakars name until she is awakened by Tijah in the morning. 70
In explaining his reasons for writing novel Terdedah, Shahnon says that the word Terdedah is meant to convey the sense of the vacuum in the characters souls that leads to human bestiality. The novel is a social criticism of the aristocratic class and the emerging political elite in Malay society. From the stand point of technique there is a shift from the outward description of characters towards an examination of the inward motivation for actions: Apa yang saya maksudkan dengan Terdedah yang menjadi judul novel mi, sebenarnya membawa pengertian vacuum satu macam kekosongan dalam jiwa manusia; kekosongan jiwa yang terdapat dalam semua watak penting dalam novel mi. Shanifah Shuhada mempunyal kekosongan i. Begitu juga Encik Adnan. Syed MohsiQ, Fakar, Rohana, tukang masak Tijah mahupun tukang kebun Hamid. Di samping kekosongan-kekosongan dalam jiwa mi, sayajuga ingin menunjukan satu aspek lain yang membuahkan pengertian manusia selunuhnya. laitu aspek kebinatangan manusia yang juga terdapat dalam semua watak Terdedah; tenu-
tama dalam din Sharifah Shuhada, Syed Mohsin dan Encik
Adnan. Shahnons criticism of society centres around the desolation of the spirit and the animal-like behaviour that arises from the sexual needs and weaknesses of his characters. Because of the descriptions of immoral sexuality, Shahnon called Terdedah a story of human bestiality in a day and a night. The novel may be understood on two levels. The sexual elements are sell-evident; sexual desires expose basic moral weaknesses. Less obvious are the political implications. Since this is a novel of social criticism set in Malaysia shortly after independence, it is to be expected that each character will have more general significance. The author uses the characters to make a comment on current society such as social status, the attitudes and behaviour of political representatives, snobbishness, hypocrisy, ambivalent values as well as language and racial issues. Through the character of Sharifah Shuhada, Shahnon displays attitudes which can poison society. He raises social issues such as the prestige associated with good birth and the importance of aristocratic descent in a status conscious society.2 Status conscious and 71
arrogant, Sharifah Shuhada places the nobility of her birth and royal bloodline above everything else. She regards people such as Encik Adnan, Tijah and Hamid as different and apart because they are commoners or rakyat biasa: Darjatnya sebagai berketurunan baik-baik mesti dijaga. Meskipun dia sedar tentang usaha-usaha setengah-setengah golongan hendak membasmikan kasta-kasta dalam masyarakat sekarang,
namun padanya itulah satu-satunya pusaka yang hendak di-
banggakan. Hamid hanya orang biasa, orang biasa yang banyak

menjadi nakyat negeni mi. Encik Adnan juga cuma orang biasa.
orang kebanyakan dalam negeri mi. Yang membeza mereka cuma sifat-sifat kelahiran. Kebatinan senupa sahaja. Darah Hamid tukang kebun dengan darah Encik Adnan wakil rakyat tidak ada perbezaan apa-apa. Sekuku beras pun Lidak ada perbezaan. Tetapi darahnya dengan darah Encik Adnan memang tersangat jauh mutunya. Tersangat jauh susunan peningkatnya. (p. 4) Encik Adnan recognizes Sharifah Shuhadas contemptuous attitude towards the common people: Dia memang tidak ada perkiraan kepada orang-orang biasa yang menjadi nadi negara mi. Rakyat biasa cuma anjing-anjing sahaja.
Anjing-anjing yang boleh dijinak dan disunuh-suruh apa sahaja. Anjing-anjing yang sanggup memungut tulang-tulang (p. 28)
Fundamentally, Sharifah Shuhada is na better than anyone else; she is as much subject to sexual passion as the poorest maid servant. When faced with the loneliness and emptiness of her life, Sharifah Shuhada reverts to hypocritical behaviour to achieve her desires, particularly sexual gratification: Meskipun ingatannya pada mutu darah dan darjah keturunan masih belum hilang tetapi kadang- kadang dirasainya terpaksa dibantah. Hidup kepura-puraan tidak salahnya. Manusia tidak boleh hidup terus-menerus mempertahankan ideologinya. Kadang-kadang kepuna-puraan juga membawa kemumian hidup. (p. 7) 72
Her moral emptiness and snobbery even find expression in the inanimate objects around her. She discriminates between the facilities designed to serve the physical needs of her servant and those for herself. For example, The bathroom and lavatory had been built for the sole use of the servants. She herself cannot have anything to do with the property of the commoners: Minta sediakan tangki! Tijah cepat-cepat meninggalkan tugasnya. lstilah tangki itu sebenarnya tidak tepat, tetapi Shaniah terlalu ingmn menggunakan-
nya. Istilah itu boleh membawa penbezaan yang besar juga. Ia

menyebabkan penasaannya lebih besar. Ia menyebabkan nadinya
berdenyut tenang. Ia boleh merendahkan darjah Tijah yang hanya

layak mandi di bilik air yang kecil yang tidak ada tangkinya. Tangki yang besar memanjang itu hanya dibuat untuk menerima tubuh-tubuh yang separuh jinggang seperti tubuhnya sahaja.
Hanya sanggup menerima tubuh-lubuh yang memiliki darah-darah yang bermutu sahaja. (p. 10)
Her former life-style with her late husband had been different
from that of the commoners. That room was once a dancing floor
for those occasions when her husband returned with several other friends and their partners. At that time, her life was filled with parties, buffet luncheons and dinners and she was not concerned whether
the food was ha/al or haram. She and other guests even made jokes about the chickens which were being slaughtered according to Muslim rites:3
Waktu di rumah Datuk Goh Eng Kong dahulu mereka begitu ben-
gelut mengunyah daging ayam yang dikatakan disembelih oleh

seorang lebai. Para tamu ketawa bila mendengar jaminan itu dan
mulut Datuk Goh Eng Kong sendiri. Shanifah Shuhada juga ketawa. Dan ketawa itu bukan pura-pura lagi. Dia sedar bagaimana
setengah-setengah orang Melayu begitu pantang makan gulai ayam di rumah orang Cina. Sembelih atau tidak sembelih tidak ada perbezaannya. Ayam itu sudah tidak bemyawa lagi. Kemudian di Setiausaha Negeri juga Sharifah Shuhada tidak dapat melupakannya. Tangannya ditanik ke sudut oleh Syed Mohsin dan 73
dibeninya gelas sejengkal tinggi. Ke dalam gelas itu dituanginya sejenis air berwarna hitam dan berbusa macam warna tahi besi berkarat.
(p. II)
This shows that Sharifah Shuhada is not worried whether the meat is permissible or forbidden. To her, it is all the same. She also drinks alcohol, which is forbidden by Islam, and is promiscuous. Thus, Sharifah Shuhada has been living in dire impiety.
Sharifah Shuhada is condescending towards Encik Adnan who

she is sure will come to her house because these common people would not afford to miss the opportunity. Yet Sharifah Shuhada is of two minds when it comes to her relationship with Encik Adnan. Although he does not come from the line of syed on tengku, he has won a bright future through his own efforts: Tapi Encik Adnan bukan nakyat biasa lagi. Dia sudah menjadi wakil rakyat. Peluangnya untuk meningkat sedang terbuka. Mengingatkan 1w wajah Syed Mohsin lesap dan ingatan Sharifah Shuhada. Sharifah sedan tentang penkembangan pergolakan dunia sekarang. Syed dan tunku tak ubah macam manusia biasa juga. Tak ubah macam rakyat biasa juga. Encik Adnan seorang wakil rakyat. Dia boleh jadi menteri kalau peluangnya ada. Seorang wakil rakyat dan lembah rakyat juga boleh jadi menteri sekarang.
(pp. 69-70)
Sharifah Shuhada feels at a loss when faced with those who have achieved success through their own talents and abilities rather than through lineage or ascribed status. She is aware that the rakyat
biasa or commoners have changed their attitudes towards feudalism. She is aware of social change and the emergence of new elite.
After both Encik Adnan and Syed Mohsin leave, Shanifah Shua bitter sense of deprivation. A wounded pride and tension brought about by the absence of a lover results in sexual
hada experiences
frustration. This psychological trauma4 causes her terrifying nightmare.

After both Encik Adnan and Syed Mohsin leave, Sharifah
Shuhada experiences a bitter sense of deprivation. A wounded pride

and tension brought about by the absence of a lover results in sexual 74
frustration. This psychological trauma mare.
4 causes her terrifying night-
In her dream she is the wife of Encik Adnan who has become a Menteri Besar. During a journey in a car chauffeured by Hamid, the car overturns and the blood of the occupants is splattered ever5where. Another bigger and sleeker car is substituted for the damaged
one. At a reception in honour of the Sultan, Sharifah Shuhada and

her husband Encik Adnan are greeted by Tijah and her husband Syed Mohsin. In the midst of a crowd of shouting people, Rohana bursts forth and stabs Encik Adnan. The crowd stampedes, trampling the body of Encik Adnan and Sharifah Shuhada. This vivid and dramatic portrayal of the uprising ironically ends with Sharifah Shuhadas husband killed by Rohana, she is ridiculed by the people despite her status, and Rohana claims that Fakar as her husband.
In the dream, the dialogue between Sharifah Shuhada and Rohana reveals the hatred of the common people towards the upper class of tengku, syed and syarifah who claim to be superior to the common people. From this dream, several interpretations5 can be made regarding Sharifah Shuhadas state of mind, hen attitudes and desires. Her marriage to Encik Adnan who has become a Menteri Besar symbolizes her desire for power and sexual gratification. Her servant Tijahs marriage to Syed Mohsin suggests the possibility that the common people may achieve high status through marriage; this is an insult to her own status. Rohanas murder of Encik Adnan symbol-
izes the way Sharifah Shuhada is ruining the political and personal
life of Encik Adnan. It also suggests the inevitable revenge of the
oppressed people upon those who have betrayed their interests. The shouting of the commoners and their trampling of the bodies of Encik Adnan and Sharifah Shuhada may symbolize the uprising of the
people against those in power and those from the feudal class. The jeering crowd and Fakars marriage to Rohana may be seen as symbols that mock the hypocrisy of the upper class. Fakars marriage to Rohana is probably the most significant element of Sharifah Shuhadas dream because it shows the betrayal of the husband by the wife and the betrayal of the boss by the secretary. Shahnon uses the character Encik Adnan to question the credibility, attitudes and conduct of a peoples representative. Encik Adnan feels privileged to have been elected as a member of parlia-
men t:
75
Tetapi tuahny4 memang ada. Rakyat biasa juga yang memilihnya. Rakyat biasa juga yang membuatkan dirinya tidak biasa lagi. Mujur dia disukai oleh rakyat; sekurang-kurangnya buat waktu itu. Dan meskipun Encik Adnan tahu dia cuma nakyat biasa. rakyat yang tidak punya mutu danah, rakyat yang tidak punya apa-apa dan dipilih oleh nakyat biasa pula, namun sikapnya selalu membawa penasaan yang lebih. Dia tidak rakyat biasa lagi. Dia bukan rakyat biasa lagi. Dia wakil rakyat. Dan wakil rakyat mesti bersikap wakil rakyat. Bukan bersikap rakyat biasa. (p. 26) As a representative from the Parti Bumiputera, Encik Adnan publicly maintains that the stability of the family home is imperative. However, in his private life, he pursues satisfaction outside of marriage which makes him hypocritical: Ketentenaman rumahtangga juga satu faktor dalam penjuangan politik. Sekurang-kunangnya nakyat yang kebanyakan tolol itu menaruh kepercayaan kepadanya. Bagaimana hendak mentente-
ramkan pengolakan rakyat dan negara kalau ketenteraman rumahtangga sendini masih lintang-pukang. Sebelum berbakti kepada rakyat, kita mesti benbakti kepada din kita sendini dahulu, fikin Encik Adnan. mi telah menjadi dasar perjuangan dan asas hidupnya. Kita mesti benkorban kepada din kita sendini dahulu sebelum melangkah jauh pergi berkorban kepada orang lain. Sebelum benkorban kepada bangsa dan negara. Sama ada kebaktian
dan perjuangan pada din sendiri dan rumahtangga itu merupakan

kepura-puraan hidup adalah hal sisipan sahaja. Ia tidak penting.
(pp. 31-32) Since Encik Adnan regards hypocrisy as a universal phenomenon, he

is able to justify his own hypocrisy. Shahnon uses Encik Adnan to express other social criticism. He
represents people who upon attaining positions of power and privilege as a person who, on becoming an MP with all in government,
place themselves himself above others. Encik Adnan feels becoming
a political leader has transformed his attitudes and behaviour. He has

a great urge to taste life; he feels assured that as long as he holds his 76
present position, he will have no problem in finding a female body to fulfil his needs. From his new position in society he sees the vast
territories that await to be explored. Shahnon also explores the political attitudes of politicians. Encik Adnan is not interested in foreign policy, language policy or race relations. His attitude towards the position of own race in the political struggle becomes exploitative: Kau tak hanus memikirkan bangsamu sangat dalam perjuangan sekarang, kerana masalah bangsamu sekanang adalah punca pengaduhan dalam tanahair. Kau sedar mi semua. Kita hanya berjuang atas dasar sama. Atas dasar semua bangsa-bangsa dalam tanahair kita. (p. 61) In Shahnons view, Encik Adnan fails in all issues crucial for a political leader during the early years of independence. Shahnon endows Fakar with a great sense of national pride. As political secretary to Encik Adnan, Fakar shows interest in several political issues which he feels need immediate attention. Fakar is the only person at
the meeting with clearly formulated political ideas for foreign policy, the language issue and the Malay struggle. He plays a special role in the novel; through him, Shahnon challenges the integrity of political leaders. When discussing the countrys foreign policy with Encik
Adnan, he discovers that Encik Adnan is ignorant of these matters. He argues forcefully that when forming the national foreign policy, the diplomatic representatives should understand the aspirations of the people back home: Setiausaha-setiausaha di duta-duta kita di luar negeri umpamanya harus dan orang-onang yang berpengalaman; bukan dan
orang-orang yang berkelulusan sahaja. Orang-orang yang berpengalaman yang benar-benar cintakan tanahair. Tidak seperti setengah-setengah wakil kita yang hegitu tebal dengan pengaruh-pengaruh Barat
(p.48)
To Fakar, the language issue is a matter of life and death for the nation and the survival of the Malay race. He comments perceptively 77
that the enemy from without is less dangerous than the enemy from within: Masalah bahasa, umpamanya, masalah besar. Lebih berat dan konfrontasi. Masalah bahasa adalah masalah hidup atau matinya bangsa kita. Kerajaan tak boleh bentolak ansur lagi dalam hal mi (p. 49)
The survival of the Malay race is raised again during on the selection of Malays to government posts. Fakar says: Itu menupakan kecurangan yang maha besan. Mustahil seorang
sahaja yang dapat sedangkan bangsa lain lebih banyak. Sesuatu mesti diambil tindakan. Sesuatu yang berkesan mesti diambil. (p. 55) Fakan, taken aback by Encik Adnans lack of concerned and his cliche ridden response, says: Barangkali anak-anak Melayu kita itu tak ada yang layak. Bangsa lain lebih banyak yang layak. Kita mahukan onang-orang yang Iayak. Kita tidak boleh mementingkan bangsa lagi. Semua sekarang sudah ada hak. Siapa balk siapa bagus. (p. 55) Fakar becomes increasingly exasperated with these attitudes and
concludes that party memben and political leaders are nothing more than tunggul-tunggul getah6, dead rubber tree stumps, who had been elected by a spiritless and blind electorate. Since he regards the responsibilities of a parliamentary member as serious, he feels they should be selected with care:
Mengapa tidak ada satu tapisan waktu memilih wakil-wakil rak-
yat. Mengapa dibiar meneka-mereka yang macam tunggul getah itu mengecap kemerdekaan tanahair sedangkan meneka sama sekali tidak mengenal tanahair. Mereka-mereka mi hanus dibeni kursus tentang rakyat dan jeritan rakyat. Perjuangan mesti didasankan atasjenitan dan kehendak rakyat. Bukan kehendakpemenintah
semata-mata. Jenitan nakyat mesti didengan. Jeritan-jenitan rakyat

78
mesti diketengahkan. Tetapi untuk menjenit sekuat-kuat suara untuk didengan oleh tunggul-tunggul getah 1w cuma menupakan jenitan-jenitan kosong dan membuat tuli semata-mata. Wakil rakyat harus mengenat rakyat. Harus mengenal masyarakat. Harus hidup bersama rakyat, mendengarjeritan dan kemahuan rakyat. Dan atas dasan inilah perjuangan dilaksanakan. Atas dasar inilah perjuangan dalam zaman perjuangan didasankan. (p. 52-53)
When Fakar reminds Encik Adnan of his responsibilities, he displays his nationalistic commitment. He reminds Encik Adnan that it is his duty to serve the interests of the people. He advises Encik Adnan on how to get on with people, The hearts and the ears of the people are not closed. And they are able to see. And they can hear as well. And as long as they can use these senses, he cannot guarantee Encik Adnans invulnerability. Fakar sees nothing wrong with pursuing both politics and women as long as they are kept separate. Encik Adnan may do whatever he likes in his private life, but in the struggle for the people, he must do what should be done and so far he has not demonstrated he is effective in political matters. But Fakars najionalistic spirits waver at the prospect of his own survival in politics. He holds selfish political ambitions. In two years another general election will be held, and he is certain to be a candidate. One day I too will reach great heights, Fakar says to himself. Knowing that Encik Adnan is headed to Sharifah Shuhadas house, Fakar makes his way to Encik Adnans house to meet Rohana. Shahnon shows us that their relationship has been going for quite some time, when Encik Adnans youngest child does not regard Fakar as a stranger:
Budak itu mengubah semula mukanya ke muka Fakar. Lama dia
menenungi muka Fakan itu. Dia teningat kemudiannya. Muka itu

bukan muka asing baginya.
(p. 99) Ironically, the writer exposes Fakars hypocrisy in this affair with his bosss wife. Fakars denunciation of Encik Adnans behaviour while he is guilty of the same immoral behaviour. While he earnestly condemns deception and betrayal, he himself is guilty of
79
these faults. Yet there is something admirable in the way he takes charge of Encik Adnans domestic affairs by keeping Rohana company. He is just as loyal and conscientious towards Rohana as he is towards her husband, his boss. Rohana depicts other instances of
hypocrisy. Since Encik Adnan was elected representative, his attitude towards his wife has changed, especially now that Rohanas
body has become fat, shapeless and rich with flesh. Comparing her to Shanifah Shuhada, the rich, young widow with a well-shaped body; he finds her boring. Encik Adnans life as a member of parliament is filled with numerous meetings, conferences and endless political dialogues. Rohana is often reluctant to accompany her husband on his visits to his constituency. Rohana feels as though she were nothing more than a cook and nursemaid to the children. A gap appears in their relationship: Bila Encik Adnan hendak pulang sama sekali tidak menjadi pen-
soalan kepadanya. Dia boleh tidun bersama anak-anaknya ben~

jumlah tiga orang itu. Kalau Encik Adnan ada pun, Rohana merasai dirinya jarang-jarang sekali ditempuh. (p. 37) Rohana has been unfaithful to Encik Adnan in having an affair with Fakar. To fill the emptiness left by her husband, Rohana has the affair. However, she admits, I have been living a life of deceit all this time. Nevertheless, she continues living in deceit. Since her husband is having affairs with other women and living a life of deceit, she feels that she can do the same: Sengaja dia berpuna-pura menggenakkan gerak-gerinya itu. Dan sikap pura-puna itu sudah mulai sebati dengan darah dan dengan dagingnya. Encik Adnan yang membeni bahan untuk bersikap pura-puna itu. Di hadapan Encik Adnan dia berpura-pura tidak tahu apa-apa. Di hadapan Encik Adnan dia pura~punagiat di
dapur. Tetapi kepura-puraan hidup seumpama itu mulai tiba pada kemuncaknya. Dia tidak dapat bensaban lagi. Selain dani tidak sabar itu Rohana sendini merasai kepedihan hatinya bila mengingati
telatah Encik Adnan dengan perempuan-perempuan yang lain.
Lebih-lebih lagi bila dia teningat pada janda Syed Ghafar yang menjadi sasaran suaminya. (p. 94) 80
When Encik Adnan discovers the two lovers, Rohana quickly takes the initiative and invents an excuse to cover up their clandestine affair: Kakinya melangkah masuk kamar tidur. Pintu kelambunya diselak. Anak kecilnya tidur dengan nyenyaknya. Nadi besar di dada budak itu kembung kempis. Lama dia merenungi wajah mongel itu. Kemudian budak itu dicekak ketiaknya. lDiangkat cepat-cepat dan cuba mendirikan budak yang masih nyenyak itu. Budak itu terkapa-kapa terjaga. Rohana menampar kin kanan pipi budak itu. Dan usaha secara kejam itu menyebabkan budak itu menangis teresak. Dan tangisan itu kemudiannya melarat hingga menjeritjenit bagaikan dirasuk puaka. (pp. 97-98) Encik Adnan enters the house while the child is crying. Rohana calmly asks him where he has been and explains that Fakar is there because the child has stomach trouble. Thus, Shahnon shows the deterioration of Rohanas life from a happy woman living with her husband and three children to a woman who is trying to fill the emptiness in her life with a lover and would ill-treat her children in order to hide her deception. Although Syed Mohsin plays a less important role than the others, he is used as a means of criticizing social snobbery based on birth and blood. Encik Adnan does not see Syed Mohsin or the other of Syed as superior or any different from himself: Kadang-kadang Encik Adnan rasa orang-orang berketurunan syed-syed mi cuma indah khabar dan rupa sahaja. Merekalah keturunan Nabi-Nabi. Merekalah orang baik-baik, sedang manusia dalam dunia mi serupa sahaja. (p. 24) Sharifah Shuhada, however, believes that Syed Mohsin is like herself and is therefore above commoners: Dan antara Encik Ahmad dan Syed Mohsin yang serba lincah itu memang ada perbezaannya. Dia cuba mencari sebanyak-banyak perbezaan itu tetapi didapati pihak anak muda yang lincah itu juga 81
yang bertempat dalam kepalanya. Syed Mohsin seorang Syed. Seorang yang sama darjat mutu darahnya dengan Sharifah Shuhada sendiri. Selama mi Sharifah rasa hal itu patut juga difikirkari. Encik Adnan hanya seorang rakyat biasa. Tak ubah macam Tijah juga. Tak ubah macam Hamid juga; malah tak ubah macam rakyat-rakyat biasa yang banyak di tanahair kita mi. In Terdedah, Shahnon Ahmad portrays the lives of the lower class through the aristocratic Sharifah Shuhada. Tijah the servant and Hamid the gardener are regarded as very ordinary people with nothing to be proud of. After instructing Hamid to keep Tijah company on the night of her own absence, Tijah and Hamid begin a secret relationship. Tijah sees Hamid as has nothing special except his daging dan nafas, flesh and breath; she has a need for that flesh and breath. Tijah regards Sharifah Shuhadas thwarted plans to go out with Encik Adnan or Syed Mohsin ~s an obstacle to her own enjoyment. Even the sex lives of commoners are at the mercy of the aristocrats. It is through the characters in Terdedah that Shahnon Ahmad expresses his critical views on political and nationalist issues. The attitudes and the manner of conduct of a newly emerging politician are shown through Encik Adnan. The consciousness of blood and birth and social status is seen in the aristocratic Sharifah Shuhada. Fakar, the loyal party member, is endowed with the spirit of nationalism, yet proves to be morally weak. Self-deception is depicted in Rohana the politicians wife. Tijah and Hamid represent the common people who, caught in this intricate web of politics and aristocratic snobbery, are bystanders to their own fate. Shahnon was particularly concerned with technique in this novel and employed several technical innovations: Tadi saya sebut tentang kekosongan jiwa manusia dan sifat kebinatangan manusia satu campuran dua elemen yang pada pokoknya menjadi motif Terdedah. Tapi yang menjadi paling utama sekali waktu menulis Terdedah ialah untuk buat satu expenmen dalam soal gaya baru dalam penulisan satu gaya kemudiannya saya rasa banyak mempengaruhi penulisan saya. Gaya mi sebenarnya bukanlah gaya barn bagi dunia Barat ataupun bagai pengarang-pengarang Australia, tapi di tanahair saya, saya rasa 82
agak luar biasa. Saya anggap gaya mi sesual benar dengan keadaan manusia sekarang yang semakin han semakin sofistikated hidup mereka. In Terdedah, Shahnon telescopes time; the action of the story occurs in a single day. It opens with Sharifah Shuhada waking up and closes with her waking up the next morning after a dream-filled night. Concerning the use of a short time frame in his novel, Shahnon states that he may have been influenced by the Indonesian writer, Pramoedya Ananta Toer: Pertama saya pendekkan waktu cerita dan bertahun-tahun kepada hanya sam han satu malam. Mungkin mi dipengaruhi oleh Pramoedya Ananta Toer yang menghasilkan Keluarga Gerilya dalam masa figa han tiga malam. Saya kurang pasti. Tapi saya kim dalam masa dua puluh empat jam itu, banyak soal manusia bisa ditimbulkan; malah dalam satu minit pun fikiran manusia bisa ter8 bang keliling dunma. A second device employed by Shahnon is the use of interior monologues to portraj the inner conflicts of the seven characters. To maximize the impact of inner-self conflict, the author keeps physical action to a minimum. Sharifah Shuhada remains in the house throughout the story; Encik Adnan moves from his house to the meeting to Sharifah Shuhadas house to his home; Fakar moves from the meeting room to Rohanas house; Syed Mohsin goes to Sharifah Shuhadas house; while Tijah and Hamid remain within the limits of the house. The dream sequence in the final chapter is used to reveal the psychological tensions that have been building up throughout the day. Its symbolic images expose Sharifah Shuhadas hypocrisy and sexual obsession. In Terdedah, Shahnon makes some significant advances. He is now concerned with the complexity of imperfect human nature in which good and evil give rise to a perpetual state of inner conflict. There are no real heroes or villains in this novel only a variety of realistically portrayed people torn between duty and pleasure. Although the action is deliberately restricted to a twenty-four hour time frame, inner conflict and psychological stress are expanded through thoughts and dreams. 83
The Novel Protes (1967) The novel Prows is outside the mainstream of Shahnons creative writing. Shahnon wrote the novel as a result of his own faith in Islam. In his article, Mengapa Saya Menganang Protes,9 he explains his ideas towards the novel. It deals with serious issues of Islamic religious belief which teaches its followers they can expect happiness and bliss both in this world and the hereafter. When one character in this novel claims that Islam is concerned only for welfare in this world, he meets opposition and humiliation from his friends who defend Islam against this deviant interpretation. Shahnon believes that God encourages man to find the right path to Him. He argues that if Islam is only directed to life in this world, then there is no point in having a prophet or messenger of God. Shahnon wrote the novel as an attempt to answer questions related to Islam. He felt that there was a need to clarify religious beliefs to the younger generation. The main character, Ferdaos, doubts the transcendent elements of Islam, but he returns to the path of Allah, accepting that matters beyond his understanding are manifestations of transcendent powers. Like Rentung, the novel Protes is a novel about resolution of conflict. The roots of Protes are found in previous short stories written by Shahnon Ahmad on the problems of youth such as Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat, peer-group problems; Tua, about love problems; Jahanam, about the problem of relationships between young people; and Kekosongan, about unemployment among young people. The novel is constructed around two meetings, between a group of young people. During these meetings, they discuss the religious issues dividing them. The young people, Ferdaos and Lokman are the two main protagonists; Asrul, who serves as a foil, and Sopiah and Isril provide decoration. The book opens with Ferdaos explaining his attraction to Isril and his thoughts on religious truth. Isril has invited him to a party, but the invitation puzzles him. Isril seems off-handed and not wholehearted in her invitation; it was as if she were trying to hide something. He is right, for she has transferred her affections to Lokman. After Isril rejects him, Ferdaos becomes preoccupied with the search for a truth that is rationally acceptable. He realizes that Islam does not permit free thought on transcendental matters and wonders 84
whether transcendent values exist. He questions his belief in God and Eternity, Heaven and Hell, and asks himself whether Islam is merely set of rules for life in this world. Ferdaos is so troubled he decides at the last moment not to attend the party. The second chapter is set at Isnils house. There is a feeling of tension among the group. The panty, unusual because it is held in traditional style where guests sit on the floor and are served traditional dishes, adds to the tension. In Ferdaos absence, Lokman attacks his views and denounces him as an apostate and hypocrite. Asnul tries not take the matter seriously by making good-humoured jokes to relax the tension. Sopiah, realizing that Isril is attracted to Lokman, hopes to attract Ferdaos affection by defending him. She leaves the party, disgusted by one of Asruls sardonk jokes about inviting all his friends to become materialistic apostates like Datuk Maninggih, a character from the novel Siti Nurbaya who is the stereotypical avaricious miser. The third chapter opens with Sopiah at her home hoping Ferdaos will visit her. The butterfly she sees entering the house is interpreted as a sign that Ferdaos is coming. She had defended Ferdaos ideas in the hope o~attractinghim, but now she realizes that she was only deceiving herself. She feels her life is waste and her heart is a tangled mess. The fourth chapter focuses on Ferdaos alone in his house. He has developed his own views about many religious matters such as the role of mosques, the existence of God, the teachings of Islam, the purpose of life on earth, life after death, the laws of life, human rights, the kind of religious instruction he has received from the religious teachers, the rewards of vice and virtue, He is waiting for a suitable moment to confront Lokman and explain these new ideas to him. Asrul is also thinking about religious matters. The differences of opinion among his friends Ferdaos, Lokman, Sopiah and Isril puzzle him. He takes no particular stand on religion; he is ready to follow the crowd and go with the majority. Shahnon makes it apparent that Asrul has access to all his friends secrets and would not hesitate to exploit them to pit one friend against another. He knows Isrils party was planned in order to humiliate both Ferdaos and Sopiah, and that she had Lokmans support. He wishes to see the association active again and wants Lokman and Ferdaos to assume leading roles 85
in this association and be reconciled. For that reason, he wishes to bring these two to his house to find a way of reestablishing their friendship and resolving their diffenences. At the end of this chapter, Asrul decides to hold a surprise party at his house to bring about a Lokman-Fendaos reunion. The second meeting of the friends takes place at Asnuls house. Ferdaos takes the offensive by questioning traditional ideas of heaven and hell, virtue and vice, and life and death. Lokman tries to refute Ferdaos ideas, but Fendaos keeps demanding concrete proof and logical explanations. He holds fast to his new conviction that Islam merely teaches what is necessary for a happy life on earth. Eventually, howeven, Ferdaos begins to be overwhelmed by the verbal powers and persuasiveness of Lokmans logic. In chapter seven, the action returns to Isnils house. Lokman goes there to talk with Isnil, who is now seriously interested in him, about the discussion at the party. Isril tries to gauge the extent of Lokmans faith by questioning Islamic teachings. Like Fendaos, she cites the backwand state of the Muslim people, their morals and their negative attitudes. She ridicules the old religious teachers with their narrow-mindedness and hypocnisy. However, Lokman remains firm in his conviction that Islam advocates peace and pnosperity for its followers both in this world and the next. The final chapter returns to focus on Ferdaos who is trying to resolve his religious perplexity after his debate with Lokman. He is determined to reach the truth in Islam through rational thinking and logical explanation. He is still troubled that Islam appears to be only a guide for life on earth. All doubts are cast aside when he hears a voice inviting him to return to the right path by accepting Islam as a religion that is both immanent and transcendent. He resolves to make peace with his friends and take an active part in the youth group. Shahnon keeps the action to a minimum in order to focus interest on the personalities and opinions of the characters and their relationship with one another. The development of a set of strong religious beliefs is portrayed through Ferdaos in four chaptens. Chapter one concerning his early quest for truth; chapter four concerning his concept of Islam as serving worldly needs; chapter six concerning his ultimate solution to his dilemma; and chapter eight, portrays his return to Islam. 86
Lokman, portrayed as the true believer, is seen from various perspectives. At the beginning, we see his arrogance in denouncing Fendaos. Then, we see him as a debater arguing with Ferdaos. Finally, we see his tenderness towards Isril. Asrul is a minon character. He is by nature a joker and perhaps is included in the novel for light relief. He makes good-humoured jokes about religious doctrines, and he is absorbed in lotto and bilhands. He does not hold any senious beliefs strongly. Yet, he is very important in the structure of the novel because he initiates the confrontation between Ferdaos and Lokman and works fo.r their reconciliation in order to further the needs of his youth association. The two women are also minor characters. Isnil, as we have seen, humiliates Ferdaos in order to attract Lokman, and Sopiah enters the religious discussion only as a means of attracting Ferdaos to hen. Of the two, Sopiah is the more complex character as she is aware of her own private and selfish reasons for defending Islam. Ferdaos and other members of Malay society are adherents of Islam. Islam teaches that the transcendental elements cannot be substantiated by reason, the process of the intellect and the mind.10 Concepts of the soul, virtue, vice, heaven, hell and the attributes of God are transcendental and therefore beyond human intelligence. Fendaos, the central character in the book, questions these tenets. He seems Islam as restricting freedom of thought and that this restriction prevents achieving truth. It is his views that create the conflict with his friends, and it is his nepentance for holding these views that brings a reconciliation with his friends. According to Ferdaos, Gods creation and belief in Islam should be opened to reason and logical thinking which can establish truth or falsehood. Each one of Gods acts and every religious theory should be supported by proofs, axiom& and logical argument. Otherwise, according to Ferdaos, the great purpose of a Muslims life is no longer the quest for truth but merely to exist in a world of fantasy and day dreaming. He argues that in addition to indulging in dreams and fantasies, the followers of Islam can no longer be considered as thinking human beings because their minds are restricted. Ferdaos is looking for the real truth. To him, there is no such thing as transcendence; he describes it as a great fantasy: 87
Dan hati yang begitu knitis untuk mencani kebenaman ash itu datang lagi menghanukan otaknya. Ferdaos tidak dapat menyelesamkan hagi segala-galanya. Ferdaos masih mencani kebenanan ash. Islam wajmb bensifat immanent sahaja. Dan Islam hamus mengikiskan segala yang benbau transcendent kerana itu adalah unsur kebohongan yang paling besar dan agung darjatnya. (p. 2) In his struggle to defend these ideas, Ferdaos does not mind being labeled apostate, hypocrite, orthodox, conservative and out-of-date. There are other issues in Islam that Ferdaos questions such as the role of the mosque, the role of youth organizations and the role of Islam in this progressive age. He questions the relevance of the required performance of the daily five prayers and the values of fasting in the month of Ramadan.~ He views these beliefs and practises as geared towards promoting peace and happiness for mankind in this life and not for the hereafter. In connection with the role of mosques, Ferdaos claims that instead of being exclusively places of prayer and religious instruction, they should be utilised as venues for the staging of dramas, debates and poetry readings, and for fund raising: Apa salahnya kalau tempat suci itu dibuat pentas dan benonain sebuah drama. Apakah drama satu cabang seni yang koton? (p. 58) As to the role of the youth organization, Ferdaos believes that this religious orientated organization should serve society in general: Perlembagaan persatuannya menjunjung kedaulatan Islam selama mi. Fendaos tidak pernah membantah hal itu; malah dialah yang mengesyonkan agan sudut agama juga menjadi dasar penjuangan persatuan. Sekurang-kurangnya pensatuan meneka itu dapat juga membuat sesuatu yang menyedankan masyarakat yang serba sempit (p. 56) In this progressive age Ferdaos feels that Islam should play a positive role since the values of Islam are eternal: 88
Dia ingin menggunakan pemsatuan itu untuk menimbulkan sesuatu yang dipencayamnya. Membicamakan masahah agama bukan satu hal yang sudah hapuk. Agama Islam dapat disesuaikan kepada semua zaman; tenutama zaman pembangunan tanahain sekamang. Dia nasa orang-omang sepenti dia yang mempunyam pegangan seumpama itu memang banyak, tetapi sehagi masalah agama masalah rahsia, Selagi ituhah masalah mi menjadi lapuk dan hanya tertumpu pada akhinat semata-mata (pp. 65-66) Concerning religious rituals and obligatory observances, he strongly feels that the performance of five prayers a day is essentially geared for wordly needs. Performance of the prayers give a Muslim peace of mind, a clean heart and courage to face the challenges of this world; it contributes to physical health and promotes sensitivity towards others. As important, the communal prayer achieves equality among mankind irrespective of lineage and class: Sembahyang akan membeni keteguhan kepada tekad dan semangatnya untuk benjuang dalam hidup di dunia in Sembahyang
membeni satu macam kekuatan kepadanya untuk menentang segala bencana daham dunma in Sembahyang membeni pendidikan
jasmani kepadanya agar tubuh badannya sihat dan dapat hidup dengan sempunna daham dunia in Sembahyang membeni sifat perasa dan benpenikemanusmaan kepadanya agar membawa hidup atas dunia mi dengan penuh kasih sayang tenhadap selunuh umat manusia. Sembahyang dapat membeni sifat hormat menghonmati antana manusia dalam dunia mi agar tidak mengamalkan kasta. Sembahyang berjemaah dapat menanamkan sifat persaudanaan antana manusia tanpa memperhitungkan darjat dan danah. (pp. 61-62) He approaches the religious obligation to fast in a similar manner. Fasting is viewed as a good exercise for character building and developing an appreciation of the hunger pangs suffered by much of mankind. It also gives the digestive processes time tore cover and thus aids good health: Memadai kalau dikatakan puasa itu satu latihan untuk membentuk
penibadi manusia. Cukuplah kalau hanya setakat mengatakan ba89
hawa puasa itu akan menyedarkan manusia dan menginsafi manusia tentang pendemitaan dan boleh menimbuhkan sifat pemikemanusiaan antama manusia dalam dunia mi. Puasa boleh membentuk manusma ke arah kesempunnaan untuk hidup daham dunia mi. Puasa boheh membeni nehat kepada kenja-kenja daham badan yang tidak berhenti-henti itu. (pp. 74-75) Other facets of Islamic belief that Ferdaos questions include the concept of God and the significance of death. Although Ferdaos questions religious tenets, he never doubts the existence of God: Dia percayakan Tuhan. Ini tidak dapat disangkalnya lagi. Dan Tuhannya cuma satu: Allah Azzawajalla. Dan agamanya pun satu sahaja: Islam yang maha suci. Dan Islam yang maha suci yang dihawa oleh Allah Azzawajalla itu akan membawa umat manusia ke anah kehidupaan yang tentenam, tenatun dan aman sejahtera. (pp. 60)
Ferdaos disapproves of the methods of the religious teachers who use threats and inspire fear in their pupils in order to convey the teachings of Islam:
Dia teringat juga kepada undang-undang akhinat yang diajan oleh Tuk Guru Agama waktu dia di sekolah Melayu dahulu. Tuk Gurunya itu telah lama mati. Fendaos merenungi malam yang gelap itu dan cuba mengingati dongeng-dongeng itu memang penhu sebagai salunan pendidikan ke anah membentuk akhlak atau moral yang baik. Tetapi yang menjadi salahnya iahah saluran secama menakut-nakutkan budak-budak dengan jalan membohongi itu. (pp. 67-68) Ferdaos questioning of Islam was prompted by a socialist book he had read which made a deep impression on him. The book viewed Islam in the secular context of the rights and laws of mankind. This
approach persuaded Ferdaos that Islam was concerned with this life and not the hereafter. Thinking deeply about the problem of death,
he has come to the conclusion that mans life ends at death. Man will not rise again in the hereafter because there is no such thing as the hereafter:
90
Dia memandang jauh ke tengah malam itu tetapi kebuntuan itu mendatang juga tanpa mendapat jahan keluar, kerana setiap kali dia cuba memulakan hidup manusia sesudah mati, Ferdaos hanya dapat menamatkan fikinan itu setakat hidup sahaja. Manusia mati dan kemudian tamatlah niwayatnya. Manusia mati dan henyaplah kisahnya di dunia mi. Dan dunia akan bertenusan juga dengan manusia-manusia lain yang akan sembahyang untuk ketentenaman jiwa dalam dunia mi
(p. 62) Ferdaos therefone believes that mankind does not have to be concerned about virtue and vice on heaven and hell. Ferdaos is able
to hold firmly to his ideas of the exclusive wordliness of Islam
until he confronts Lokman who brings him back to a full understanding of Islam. Lokman represents the force that breaks Ferdaos ideas. At Isrils house, Lokman ridicules and condemns Ferdaos views with the words: Muntad! Muntad! sungut Lokman kepada sendak-serdak cucun yang sedang dibunuinya dalam pining-pining itu. Pengi jahanam sama dial Pengi jahanam sama dia. (p. 39)
Lokman and Ferdaos are brought face to face at the party held by Asrul designed for this purpose. During the ensuing debate bet-
ween the two parties, Ferdaos totally rejects the belief in unseen powers, and voices his opinion that Islam stresses the importance of life on earth. Lokman considers it his duty to clarify the fundamental
tenets of Islam. During the heate,d debate, Asrul, with his unending
good-humoured, jokes with his friends about religious issues. Shahnon juxtaposes three reactins to the concept of religion: uncertainly and mistrust, absolute faith, and the light-hearted jokes. The Ferdaos Lokman verbal exchange is triggered by Asruls provocative and deliberate mention of the question of virtue and vice, Gods forgiveness and reward in the hereafter. The two argue on the transcendent elements such as heaven and hell, virtue and vice, the hereafter, the Quran, the existence of God and the universe. In their argument, Ferdaos insists on proofs whereas Lokman says there can 91
be no proof because these are matters of faith. Ferdaos then accuses Lokman of being a great dreamer; in turn, Lokman accuses Ferdaos of being an apostate: Ferdaos: Kau hanya benkhayal dengan benda- benda yang tidak ada. Syurga tidak ada di mana-mana. Nenaka tidak ada di manamana. Pahala juga tidak ada. Bidadani juga tidak ada.
(p. 109) Lokman: Tidak semua ada bukti daham Islam. Tidak semua sampai kepada kemampuan pemikiran manusia. Tidak sampai kau dan
aku memikinkannya. Ada bahagian-bahagian yang bersifat transcendent. Ada yang bensifat immanent. Ada yang diluan dan kemampuan pengalaman manusia. Ada yang wujud meliputi alam mi.
(p. 110) Lokman continues by explaining some of the more important concepts of Islam. The power of God, he says, it is divine and absolute:
Itu adahah kehendak Tuhan. Itu adalah Inadah Tuhan. Dan Inadah adalah unsun ketuhanan. Dan Inadah Tuhan adahah satu unsur yang
mutlak. Satu unsur ketuhanan; sama sepenti noh yang menjadi satu unsun ketuhanan.
(p. 119) He continues by saying that Gods omnipotence and power to create are transcendent elements not open to questioning by man. Similarly, there should be no questioning about the different number of
rakaat performed at each of the five daily prayers:
Tuhan mempunyai hak. Inadah Tuhan. Hak Tuhan. Kau perlu pencaya. Kau tidak boleh soal-soal. Ada bahagian-bahagian daham agama yang bensifat transcendent. Sama seperti kau tidak boleh soal mengapa Maghnib tiga nakaat. Subuh dua nakat. Isyak empat
rakaat. Itu adalah hak Tuhan. 1w adalah Inadah Tuhan.
(p. 121)
92
By presenting this exchange of views, Shahnon provides no concrete evidence for Lokmans position, but bases the characters argument on the traditional teachings of Islam. Ferdaos questions have not shaken Lokmans faith in the least. His faith rests on the foundation of the Quran. What in fact he has shown Ferdaos is that God and Gods providence cannot be measured by human reason. Ferdaos now surrenders his will to Allah in his search for the eternal question of the purpose of life. It begins to dawn upon him that the search for truth is in itself an aspect of the transcendental element. He feels as if there is a voice beckoning him to the right path. He is no longer lost. In his acceptance of the omnipotence of Allah, he experiences a sublime tranquillity. Protes focuses on issues and principles of the Islamic faith which are closely related to the development of Malay nationalism and politics. These issues are challenged by Ferdaos when he asked, What is the purpose of life? From this question he stumbles upon the conviction that the purpose of life is the search for truth. To achieve truth man should use the faculties of the mind and rational thinking. But for Ferdaos, it is not rational thinking nor the intellect which resolves his doubts. Lokmans answers cannot convince him either. Ferdaos doubts are only quelled by direct illumination from Allah.
Protes, as an examination of conflicting ideas towards Islam, is
philosophical novel. In it, Shahnon makes an honest attempt to discuss current issues in Islam which are also issues in Malay society. Thus, some may view the novel as provocative. This was to be the
last of Shahnons novels based on Islamic issues until ten years later
when he reapproached religion with even greater conviction and dedication. Social Problems and Religion In the immediate period after independence, Malays looked to the Parliamentary House of Representatives for a resolution to the problems facing society. These problems are highlighted in the novel Terdedah. The novel also demonstrates how representatives were not living up to the expectations of the people. On one level, the characters in Terdedah function effectively in their public lives, but at the other level, in their private lives, their sexual behaviour reveals their 93
weaknesses. Despite its political setting and concern with social issues, this novel finds its roots in some of the earlier short stories in the collection Anjing-Anjing, which described sexual nelationships. Terdedah is Shahnons first experiment in the use of the interior-
monologue technique. He later further developed this technique in Srengenge and Sampah as stream of consciousness technique. Shahnon adopts a totally different technique with Protes; he
concentrates on presenting the religious beliefs of a group of young
Malays. Religious assume a considerable dimension in the rise of

Islam in Malay society. The novel clearly indicates the importance of
Islam in the character formation of young people. The lack of religious conviction and guidance among young people has led to the emergence of attitudes which deviate from the the spirit of Islam, whether they be apostate, fanatic, hypocrite or egotist. This novel also attempts to show the particular religious characteristics of groups from Malay society with different educational backgrounds: Malay education, Arabic and religious education, and English and secular education. In the novel Protes, Shahnon begins to expound the doubts and faith of young Malays about Islam. in the late seventies, Shahnons own experience of Islam was renewed and he began
to write on Islamic themes. He sees that stage of his writing as crucial in his own development and has coined the term Sastera Islam for Islamic literature which he sees as a form of ibadat, worship.
94
4 MALAY POLITICS AND NATIONALISM

The novels Menteri (1967) and Perdana (1969) reflect different aspects of Shahnon Ahmads life and experience. In these noveIs~ character and social aspects, though still important, are secondary to the political dimension. Therefore, the analysis in this chapter focuses on the political motive which Shahnon develops either directly on
indirectly.
It has already been mentioned that Shahnon had been head of the Information Bureau of United Malay National Organization
(UMNO). His membership and the leadership role he assumed are
an indication of his nationalism. This nationalism and his political commitment in general are expressed in different ways and with different emphases in the novels Menteri and Perdana. In order to better understand the novels, it is important to understand that Shahnons knowledge of the party and political life was gained first-hand through his own involvement. Close contact with political leaders and an awareness of their problems gave him insight
into their strengths and weaknesses and their capacity to withstand
the pressures and responsibilities of political life.

UMNO, the first national Malay political party was founded in 1946 in response to the British attempt to reorganize the components
of prewar Malaya, that is the Straits Settlements, the Federated and the Unfederated Malay States, into a structure to be called the Malayan Union.2 UMNO led the movement for political independence. Since independence in 1957, it has remained the dominant party in the government. 95
Menteri is a study of a minister who faces problems in the
struggle for his peoples economic and political survival. He has

become aware that his party, the ruling party, has failed to bring
political stability and economic well-being to the country. At the

same time, he realizes that those closest to him, his wife, daughter
and personal secretary, have not contributed any support to his struggle. Later, his secretary makes the comment that the countrys civil servants are responsible for the current plight of the Malays. This gives Minister Bahadur the courage to press for reform the next
party meeting. In Menteri, as in Rentung, Shahnon has created a novel in which
a problem is posed; there is a crisis; then there is a solution. The crisis is the gradual realization by Menteri Bahadur of the dangers facing his country. The solution is Sideks blaming of the civil servants. However, the betrayal by the civil servants is not the only cause of the nations problems. The role of politics and economics in Malay society is based on historical causes, including lack of education and competition with other races in the country. Perdana, both longer and more ambitious than Shahnons other novels, is an historical novel tracing the development of Malay nationalism from the Malacca Sultanate to the proclamation of Independence in 1957. The novel follows a group of Malay politicians from a newly formed nationalist party who are to decide on the terms of independence from Britain. The novel opens with Ketua Ahmad, a Kedah state political leader, preoccupied with the problems facing the Malay people. Lokman, the president of the party has betrayed his people by suggesting the party be opened to other races so as to fulfil the British government requirement for independence. Pak Nik, the leader from Kelantan, has his political ideology based on Islam. Abdul Rahim, who takes over Lokmans place, as a new leader is also asked by the British to work with the other races to achieve independence. Time and situation favour him when there is a need for racial cooperation to fight against Lokmans new opposition party in a municipal election. The novel ends on the eve of Independence with Ketua Ahmad in great distress, thinking of his past as a leader and of his future as a forgotten nationalist. The two novels end on different notes. In Perdana, on the day of Independence, Ketua Ahmad is very depressed and Abdul Rahim is looking forward to bringing his people towards independence. In 96
MALAY POLITICS AND NATIONALISM
Menteri, Menteri Bahadur is looking forward to bringing renewed
hope for the survival to his people. The two novels are a vivid portrayal of the histony of Malay nationalism and Malay communal politics. The Novel Menteri (1967)
Menteri, a short novel of 119 pages, is divided into ten chapters. The Menteri of the title is Menteri Bahadur who is struggling with the
responsibilities of being a minister. The novel opens in the morning with him thinking about the lives of his family, the lives of his people, his age and his struggle. There are two objects in the house on which he focuses his troubles: one is a dish carved in the shape of a dragon and the other is an oil painting of a fishing village in a carved wooden frame. These objects take on symbolic significance with the dragon representing the wealth of the Chinese and the fishing village representing the economic backwardness of the Malays. These symbols are meaningless to his wife, his daughter and his personal secretary. As a result of meditating on the fishermen, Menteri
Bahadur realizes that it is his duty to convince the ruling party committee that there is a challenge to the Malay community which they must face.
The second chapter introduces Puan Nurimah, the Ministers wife, who shares his worries and uncertainties. Before her husband became a minister, she had peace of mind, but now she is always troubled because she sees her husband repeatedly accused of failing to improve his peoples condition. She herself thinks he is a failure, and she is disillusioned about being a ministers wife. In chapter three, we are introduced to Sidek, the ministers secretary, in his office on the same monning. He holds a Bachelor of
Arts degree in Islamic Studies. He is a young man intent on enjoying
himself and finds his pleasune from the women he knows at the ministry. He is also an opportunist. On entering politics, he was fired with great ambitions and was quickly appointed as personal secretary to Menteri Bahadur. He pays attention to the ministers daughter, Hawa, in order to improve his own future. He is a hypocrite, which is an attitude that Shahnon often attributes to government officials and always condemns. His hypocrisy is exposed by the contrast between his advice to the minister on religious issues and his own behaviour
97
in sexual affairs. It can also be seen in his attitude towards ministerial correspondence. He is amazed at the anxiety people show when
waiting for an official reply, eventhough the response is only a formal acknowledgement with the empty promise that the letter is receiving attention. The action in the fourth chapter returns to Menteri Bahaduns house where Menteri Bahadun is trying to decide between his ambition and his ideals of working for the good of the people, and the lack of commitment of his party for these ideals. He also muses about Sidek who merely seems to nod his head to everything. In their next meeting, Menteri Bahadun wants to set the record straight with Pugusami, the opposition member who made accusations against him. Shahnon uses this opportunity to develop the different views
between Menteri Bahadur and Sidek concerning the plight of the Malays. Menteri Bahadur is accused of being over nationalistic whereas Sidek cannot be bothered with the people and their feelings.
When Menteri Bahadur seeks Sideks reaction to the painting of the fishing village, Sidek, like Puan Norimah, is unable to appreciate and
interpret the message of the painting which he had taken down from
the wall that morning. Menteri Bahadur is extremely disappointed with the attitudes and ignorance of both his wife and secretary.
In chapter five, Menteni Bahadun is still thinking deeply about the causes of the problems facing the nation. He tries in vain to justify his new ideas to Puan Nurimah, Hawa and Sidek. Feeling isolated
and .increasingly desperate to find a solution to these problems, he
becomes more and more serious as he tries to discover the meaning and implication of such political concepts as autocracy, democracy, feudalism, capitalism and chauvinism. His thoughts also dwell on problems of the countrys economy in relation to the Malays, taxation and lease agreements with London.
He rings up Sidek at his office telling him to note down the ideas he plans to present before the meeting, but he is filled with doubts and tells Sidek to tear up the notes. As noon approaches, Menteri Bahadur grows increasingly worried and begins to think of resigning from his post. He then collapses. A doctor advises him to rest, but he is determined to present his ideas at the meeting. In chapter six, Puan Nurimah is portrayed as not only concerned about her husbands health but also about his political position. In the meantime, Sidek returns to the house to offer the minister an
98
explanation of the cause of the backwardness of the Malays. He accuses the middle-men and civil servants of having failed in their duties. In other words, he blames the bureaucracy which has failed to carry out the policies that have been approved by the leaders for the benefit of the people. Menteri Bahadun welcomes Sideks ideas which he will present at the forthcoming meeting. This is the turning point of the story as Menteri Bahadur now feels he has identified the
enemy.
In chapter seven, attention is focused on the ministers daughter Hawa. She is not interested in her fathers responsibilities and does not want him to devote his life to the country. She ignores Sideks advice to give hen father encouragement, and she even tries to distract Sidek from his duties. That night, in front of Hawa, Menteri Bahadun praises Sideks views and announces his intention to put them fonwan in the meeting. That same night in chapter eight, we are shown Menteri Bahadur thinking of the betrayal of the peoples trust by the bureaucracy. Reform of the government administration must be given top
priority if the people are to benefit from their own government. If inefficiency spreads, it is the people who will suffer in the future.
The novel reaches a climax in chapter nine. In a frightful nightmare about the future in 1987, Menteri Bahadun finds himself standing on the peak of a mountain. When he looks down, he feels horrified because people with flat noses and dragons are filling up the
cities while his own people with light brown skin are forced to leave
the cities to live in the foothills. Voices from invisible beings start a dialogue with Menteri Bahadun concerning the fate of his backward and miserable people. The Sons of the soil who are driven to the
hills along with his own gardener and servant denounce him as liar.
Menteni Bahadur runs away and Sidek appears with a gun calling on the people to kill all the dragons and the government officials. As killing breaks out among the people, Bahadur awakes up confused. The dream symbolizes Menteri Bahadurs worry over the threat of the other races and Sideks view on the weakness of bureaucracy.
The dream strengthens his new resolve to expose the inefficiency
and corruption of government officials. The painting of the fishermen, which was a source of inspiration, is gently hung back in its place in the house. Menteri Bahadun is now able to look at the problem because he can also see a solution for it. 99
In Menteri, as in Terdedah, Shahnon Ahmad creates charactens who represent different attitudes towards political power and social
responsibility. In the novel such national problems as the economy of the bumiputeras, land tenure, national debt, democracy, feudalism, and chauvinism are raised in relation to the central characters role as minister. The hypocritical streak which Shahnon always sees in the political arena is depicted by the character Sidek whose attitudes towards the people, religion, his duties and his love reflect his own self interest. The selfish behaviour of a wife of a national leader is portrayed by Puan Nurimah who after being perpetually anxious and disillusioned, blames the people for her own problems. This attitude is carried to a further extreme by the daughter, Hawa, who resents her fathers duties and concern for his country and cares only for her own interest and pleasures. Menteri Bahadur is a complex figure who is filled with guilt
because of the misgovernment in the country. He lives in a constant

state of worry, torn between the needs of his family, his relatives and his race. In addition to his concern over national problems, he worries about his advancing age, his hopes, his ambitions, his political activities and his leadership. He reminisces about a life full of trials
and tribulations which are the typical lot of a Malay politician: Tentang usianya lima puluh tahun lebih itu Bahadur tak dapat
Icikis macam daki begitu saja. Lima puluh tahun hilang tanpa bekas yang sebenan-benamya. Dihitung-hitungnya dan awal hingga sekanang. Sejak dilahinkan ibunya. Benpenyakit. Masuk
sekolah Melayu. Sekolah Inggenis. Univensiti luar negeni. Masuk

panti. Parti dihanamkan. Tubuh parti lagi. Panti dihanamkan lagi. Undun din dani politik. Masuk kerja kenajaan. Tinggal aman. Ferang Dunia kedua. Diajak pimpin parti banu. Bengelut dengan teman. Pilihanraya. Menang. Tubuh kenajaan. Dan kini lantik jadi menteri. (pp. 2-3) Dia dan isterinya dulu pun bukan main susah. Dia tinggal di kampung di numah papan yang kadang-kadang tins atapnya. Ini adalah satu jenis tuah juga meskipun Bahadur sedan bahawa tuah
100
MALAY POLITiCS AND NATIONALISM
itu bukan setakat membian pengi macam angin saja. Dia hanus membuat sesuatu kepada bangsanya. (p. 15) Shahnon brilliantly symbolizes Menteni Bahadurs worries with two simple, but significant, objects found in his home. These objects disturb his thoughts and become for him symbols of poverty, on the other hand and of prosperity on the other. They arouse in him the emotional manifestations of a feeling of nationalism: Firstly: Dia benalih ke arah set hadiah-hadiah di atas almani kain yang besan empat pensegi. Sebuah cepen benukin bentuk naga jelas kelihatan. Dan gambar naga itu begitu bencahaya sekali. Bahadun teningat $da sesuatu: sesuatu yang melemaskan nafas tuanya. Naga itu menjelaskan gambanan yang sebaliknya. Ceper itu dihadiahkan oleh satu pentubuhan asing yang mengunjungi numahnya tahun yang lalu. Dan ceper hadiah itu Bahadun mengubah pandangannya ke penjunu lain. Satu peti kaca kelihing benkaki kijang kukuh bensanang di sudut itu. Bebenapa ekon ikan emas
kecil besan benbagai wama asyik mengembangkan ekon meneka.

Secondly: Dan situ Bahadun melangut ke dinding. Sebuah lukisan minyak dalam cenmin kaca benukinan kayu jati kelilingnya menarik penhatian.... ltu dangau nelayan banangkali. Tiangnya condong-condong dengan dinding pelupuh yang benlubang empat lima tempat. Ada kelihatan lima pohon kelapa yang meliuk pucuknya.
(p. 7) The dragon and the gold-fish suggest the prevailing economic situation in the country. The dragon symbolizes strength and greatness and the gold-fish symbolizes wealth and opulence of a particular race living in the country. While the painting of the fishing village symbolizes the poverty of the Malays. The carved dragon and the fishing village suggest the opposition of richness and poverty, of strength and weakness. The problems of the bumiputeras3 are associated with the presence of the dragons in the country. 101
These two conflicting elements disturb Menteri Bahadur who is
full of love for his people and his country. When thinking about his own old age, he feels disturbed about the future of his down-trodden
people: Tentang ketuaan dininya sendini. Ini yang puncanya. Angka lima puluh yang tenkapuk pada tubuhnya itu malas hendak diingatkannya. Angka itu terlalu buruk. Sama buruk dengan nasib isteninya yang serba lusuh. Sama buruk dengan nasib bangsanya yang tak habis-habis melarat dan mendenita semenjak timbulnya istilah Bangsa Melayu lagi. Sama buruk dengan tanahainnya yang dikerumuni oleh bangsa-bangsa lain yang datang berkunjung tanpa sebarang jemputan apa pun itu.
(p. 2) Menteri Bahadur is in a dilemma as a result of his conflict. The

pressure causes him to fall unconscious in his house. On his reco-
very, Sidek comes to talk about political affairs with Menteri Bahadur and makes the point that many of current problems are caused
by government civil servants who in their role as middlemen between leaders and the led, neglect their responsibilities. Menteri
Bahadur recognizes the significance of this interpretation. He then has a terrible dream concerning the bumiputeras, foreigners and the government officers which ends in clashes and killings. His dream shows a combination of his feelings towards the non-Malays and of Sideks suggestion of the betrayal of the bureaucrats. Filled with guilt, he blames himself for not having supported his own people who live in abject poverty in their own country and he is determined to suggest reforms to his party colleagues. As a minister, Menteni Bahadur has been accused of being irresponsible towards his own people by the opposition party: Pihak pembangkang banyak yang mengatakan dia bensalah. Caranya menyimpang dan dasar-dasar kebangsaan. Tidak menguntungkan bangsa Melayu. Bahadun pemah dengan kecaman-kecaman itu di mana-mana saja dia pengi. Onang tak habis-habis bencakap. Bahadun bukan hendak menolong bangsa Melayu. Bahadun hanya membenankan bangsa Melayu bennafas dan bemafas siang malam saja. Bahadur sebenannya telah membunuh bangsanya
102
sendiri, anak buahnya sendiri, keluanganya sendini dan barangkali akan membunuh dininya sendini bila telah tidak dapat menanggung pendenitaan hati lagi.
(p. 22) In his struggle to help his people, Menteri Bahadun feels caught
between his heart and his party policy. His heart urges him to do something for the Malay people, but the party which lacks dynamism, is prepared to let things coast along the way they ane. He resolves to serve his people and inject some new spirit into the party: Bahadur tidak mahu membisu lagi. Bian panti membuangnya tanpa sebanang honmat. Bian parti kecamnya habis-habisan. Dia akan
dedahkan sungguh-sungguh. Dasar panti kunang kukuh. Dasan parti tidak tegas dan benubah mengikut angin benedan. Dasan parti
tidak membeni keuntungan kepada bangsa sendini dalam jangka waktu yang panjang. Dasan panti hanya teoni-teoni yang sementana
saj a.
(p. 38) He acknowledges that as tong as he does not act accordingly, his people have a right to accuse him of betraying them: Bahadur nasa sudah tiba masanya dia akan menentang panti. Sekunang-kurangnya dapat melapangkan hidupnya. Dia tidak mahu melibatkan dini dalam satu-satu dasan yang bertentangan dengan jiwanya. Dasan yang salah benenti dosa tujuh tununan. Generasi akan datang akan mengutuk kubunnya dan kubun keluanganya. Meneka akan sinamkan kubumya dengan am-am busuk. Itu dosa besan. Bangsanya akan lenyap begitu saja kalau benan-benan dasan
situ longgan dan tidak tegas
(pp. 3 8-39) When Menteri Bahadur becomes so zealous in his struggle to improve the condition of his people, he is accused of being over
nationalistic:
Menteni (Bahadun) memang benubah sejak kebelakangan mi. Syanahan-syarahan yang disediakan itu kadang-kadang tidak diikuti 103
langsung. Bercakap fasal-fasal yang lain yang tenlalu sensitif. Sidek teningat beberapa han yang lalu waktu membuka masjid di
Kampung Cabang Tiga. Sedikit pun tak ada sangkut paut dengan masjid. Fasal nasib Bangsa Melayu. Fasal pendenitaan Bangsa Melayu hinggakan ada kecaman dalam akhban tentang Menteni yang tenlalu nasionalis. 46-47) (p. However, filled with exuberance and passion, Menteri Bahadun intends to pnopose two new policy measures for his party. The main reform concern economy: Yang pertama ialah tentang ekonomi. Ekonomi bumiputera. Ini yang melemaskan Bahadun. Dia nasa inilah puncanya yang paling besan. Selesaikan hal mi dan dia menasa yang paling besan. Selesaikan hal mi dan dia menasa benjaya kepada bangsanya. Masalah lain akan bangkit dengan sendininya kalau ekonomi sudah dapat ditegak. Masalah lain hanya bergantung kepada masalah meninggikan ekonomi bumiputena.
(p. 56)
Sesungguhnya masalah ekonomi bumiputera menjadi punca segala kemelanatan selama mi. Bahadun tidak dapat memisahkan fikinannya dani hal itu. Dia nasa puncanya tenletak pada itu saja. Bila hal mi dapat dikembalikan pada dasan yang benan-benan kebangsaan, masalah lain dengan sendininya timbul. Ini sesungguhnya pegangan Bahadun. (p. 63) The second reform concerns land: Akan kuluahkan masalah tanah. Masalah tanah yang menjadi punca segala kemenosotan bumiputena. Ini penlu dibeneskan oleb panti tenlebih dulu. Ini penlu tegas. Tanah yang banyak tengadai penlu dikembalikan kepada hak yang mula. Tanah yang benpindah hak punya penlu diselidiki tenlebih dulu oleh parti. (p. 57) The question of the bumiputeras economy and land ownership4 is tied up with the governments system of democracy and autocracy. 104
Menteri Bahadun raises the question of whether his country is really democratic; the underlying issue is whether it serves as a sound sys-
tem for the survival of his race:

Benan-benarkah demoknasi yang diamalkan oleh parti aku selama ml? Hubungan demoknasi itu dihubungkan dengan anggukan tukang kebun yang sedang membelek-belek batang okid itu. Apa hubungannya anggukan tukang kebun dengan demoknasi negara itu Bahadun agak kabun juga tapi dia nasa selama mi hubungannya dengan tukang kebun tidak ada. Semua urusan itu dia serahkan pada mandur saja. Apa dia begitu autokenasi? Apa dasar autokenasikah yang dijalankan oleh kenajaan selama mi? Bahadur merenungi lagi pokok-pokok bunga onkid itu. Di antana demoknasi dan autokenasi Bahadur nasa negara boleh bangun. Membeni demoknasi senatus penatus merupakan bibit yang salah terutama kepada manusia- manusia zaman sekanang yang telah hilang kemanusiaannya. Membeni autokerasi pada pemenintah juga menupakan pembenian yang salah kerana manusia di mana-mana pun memang salah. Apa manusia salah atau dasannya yang salah? Apa dia yang bensalah atau dasan partinya yang bensalah? Atau benan-benarkah neganaku mendeka.
(pp. 61-62) Here again, Shahnon symbolizes the issues by using simple objects of everyday life such as the gardeners and the garden, the pipe water and the small ripples in the pond.
Other problems facing his party are the issues of feudalism and
capitalism. Menteri Bahadur admires the clear water of the pond and wishes that feudalism and capitalism could be removed, leaving the country as clear as the water:
Dia nenungi ke dalam kolam itu. Jennih ainnya.

Dasar partinya juga perlu membuat turning point dalam sikap tenhadap feudalisma. Feudalisma penlu dihapuskan kenana selagi ada feudalisma, kapitalisma akan bermahanajalela. Dan kapitalisma tidak akan dapat membeni peluang kepada ekonomi kebangsaan tegak setegak-tegaknya. Itu perlu dijernihkan dulu hinggakan kejennihan feudalisma dan kapitahisma itu sama jernihnya dengan air kolam yang banu disalin.
(p. 62)
105
The issues of feudalism and capitalism are concenned with the

issue of chauvinism:
Dan orang-orang chauvinistik juga perlu dihapuskan ataupun

kalau penlu ditangkap saja unLuk dikunung dalam jel lama-lama.
Kadang-kadang Bahadur nasa dasan partinya selama mi bukan saja

tak dapat menghapuskan feudalisma, kapitalisma dan chauvinisma tapi membiakkan ketiga-tiga penindasan itu. Penindasan akan benmaharajalela selagi ketiga-tiga sifat itu tidak dapat dihapuskan.
(p. 63) Menteni Bahadun associates the image of the flowing of water from the tap into the pond and its small waves rippling against the mossless edges with the Malay economy up against the national debt. As he observes a gardener tending some orchid stems, Menteri Bahadur wonders if politicians give the same careful attention to
party policies. Water pouring into the pond reminds him of the in-
flow of imported goods that threaten locally made products. Shahnon Ahmad deliberately portrays the problems of the country in very
simple terms. His presentation of the issues in the novel is immediate but subtle. As a result of the pressure of worries in his advanced years, Menteni Bahadur considers giving up his position. Physical stress and mental conflict contribute to the heart problem that causes his collapse. When he regains consciousness he still feels deeply guilty: Dan dinasainya ada sesuatu yang meminta dalam dininya itu. Kehijauan daun-daun dan angin pagi yang nyaman itu meminta sesuatu banangkali. Ini daun kepunyaan tanahainmu. Ini angin tanahainnu. Ini tanahainmu. Tanahairmu yang telah larna tenjajah. Telah lama dihimpit denita. Lihat kehijauan dan kesayuan dan kemumian tanahainmu. Kau menteni. Kau menteni yang benkuasa. Kau mesti membuat sesuatu dalam hidupmu. Sesuatu yang baik. Yang baik bagi bangsamu. Bangsa itu yang tenhimpit selama mi. Dihimpit kin kanan. Dihimpit oleh banyak kuasa. Apa kau takut? Apa kau tidak pencaya pada dini kau sendini? Kau penlu percaya. Kau Menteni. Menteni! Tau Menteni? Kau benkuasa. Kau boleh bentuk apa saja untuk bangsa kau. Ayuh! Bangsa kau ada di belakang. Kau akan hidup benjasa. Kau akan mati benjasa. Hidup dan mati adalah
106
proses biasa. Tapi hidup dan mati akan membawa makna kalau
kau membuat sesuatu yang besar, yang agong, yang berfaedah, yang beruntung, yang baik untuk bangsa ku.
(pp. 4-5) Otaknya diserang bebanan lagi: Aku menLeni. Aku menteni yang
bentanggungjawab. Runtuh atau tidak runtuh bangsaku, aku juga ada bahagian. Benbohongkah aku selama mni? Menipukah aku selama mi? Benan-benarkah aku pejuang untuk mendaulatkan bangsaku yang tentindas? Benan-benankah aku selama mi? Bensihkah penjuangan aku? Bendosakah aku?
(p. 74) He keeps on nepeating that he has no confidence in his partys policies:
Aku tidak pencaya lagi kepada dasan penjuangan panti.
(p. 80) Aku tidak lagi pencaya kepada dasan penjuangan panti. (p. 81) Menteri Bahadur finds relief in Sideks suggestion that the economic backwardness of the Malays is not rooted in the party, but in the treachery of government officers and civil servants. He argues that these people are the remnants of the colonial powers: Kakitangan kenajaan yang masih bersikap penjajah penlu dibasuh.. Dan kalau basuh itu tidak diingmni, meneka boleh disingkin saja.
Ini satu faktor yang menbahaya. Singkirkan saja orang-onang yang ditelan zaman ini.Rakyat mendenita akibat meneka. Bukan menderita kenana dasan parti. Bahadur sendiri dalam keadaan begitu masih ingat waktu dalam zaman penjajahan dulu orang-onang kerajaan seumpama inilah tidak pencaya kepada kemendekaan sendini.
(p. 89) Because of his love for his own people, Menteri Bahadur resents the presence of foreigners in his country. He feels that his country has become hideous when crowded out by other races that converged
107
NOvELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS
upon it without invitation. He feels a particular dislike fon the Member of Parliament from the Santau constituency, Pugusami, who is not a Malay:
Sunuhkan saja dia balik negeni asalnya kalau tak suka duduk di sini. Suruh saja dia pulang membawa anak buahnya. Orang-orang macam Pugusami itu bukan boleh dibeni betis. Paha hendak dicapainya.
Katakan parti pemenintah bukan kina siapa dalam dasar negara. Kita penlu keamanan dan kebahagiaan. Katakan orang-orang
macam wakil itu akan disembehih oleh rakyat bila sampai waktu.
Katakan dasar perjuangan kita bukan berconak komunal. Tujuan

kita ialah mencapai kebahagiaan dan hidup bensama. Dan itu kita capai dengan evolusi. Katakan pedas-pedas sedikit padanya. Bian rakyat tidak tahan bensaban lagm. Onang-onang macam Pugusami itu seelok-eloknya disula kalau dalam zaman Sultan Mahmud di Melaka dulu. Kita sudah lama bensabar dengan telatah seLengah-setengah onang asmng dalam negana kita in Tidak sedan mereka datang tanpa sebanang jemputan. Onang macam Pugusami mi contohnya. Dia boleh pulang saja kalau mahu bercakap lantang.
(p. 44)
Concerning his countrys thriving economy as compared with the poverty of his people. Menteri Bahadur again feels gneat concern. He does not blame the policies of the colonial rulers, but blames his own political party and its ineffective control over the bureaucracy. Knowing that his country is rich, he asks himself who are pnospering from these riches: Siapa yang kaya? Siapa yang makmun? Bahadun tidak dapat menjawab itu. Malah soalan seumpama itu pun hanya bebenapa hani mi saja yang diingatkannya. Yang sudah-sudah hanya menyebut tentang kekayaan saja, tapi tidak siapa yang kaya. Siapa yang sebenannya kaya dalam tanahainnya mi.
(p. 55) Thus, Menteri Bahadur fervently believes that the local politics must be concerned with the needs of the Malays rather than needs of Malaysia: 108
Politik di tanahain mi, fikir Bahadun, bukan politik senatus peratus
memelihana dan mempertahankan kepenibadian Malaysia dalam ertikata yang luas tapi penlu membuaL turning point agan perjuangan politik itu memehihana dan mempertahankan kepenibadian Melayu.
(p. 61) Because of mental and psychological stress, Menteri Bahadur collapse, and later that night he experiences a terrible dream. His nightmare portrays the turbulence of his mind. It is filled with images of the collapse and decline of his people, threats to the economy from foreigners, his standing as a leaden, the betrayal of the civil servants, the rise of the people and finally clashes between his people and with the foreigners that end in indiscriminate killings. Menteri Bahadurs dream prophesieses the situation in his country twenty years later in 1987. He dreams he is standing on the summit of a mountain dressed in rags. In the distance, he sees numerous temples with peaked roofs, as though they have been sharpened, and skyscrapers occupied by a race of flat-nosed people. He also sees a procession of dragons with round eyes and big mouths dancing to the
accompaniment of the most horrible music. From out of nowhere, a
voice speaks to him concerning the fate of the children of the light
brown-skinned people. Suddenly, there is a loud sound from a
strange machine amidst the flat-nosed people in the cities. His own people, including his wife and his daughter, have to leave the cities and join in the clearing, cutting down, replanting and building of huts to live at the foot of the mountain. The voice says that in 1987 the Malays will be forced to live outside the towns in the foothills while the dragons prosper in the cities:
Tapi sekanang tahun 1987. Semua anak-anak benkulit sawo matang telah diusir. Mereka tenpaksa lan membuka tanah banu di
pinggin- pinggin kota besar. Kota besar sudah tidak boleh didiami
lagi. Banyak naga-naga bensanang di sana. Naga-naga yang najin benanak. Naga-naga yang sentiasa menelan anak-anak sawo matang. Apa kau tidak mengerti? (p. 111) The voice accuses him of being a liar: 109
Anak benkuliL sawo matang yang selama mi kau katakan kau benjuang untuk meneka. Apa kau tidak melihat kenyataan? Apa kau takut melihat kenyataan? Apa kau takut menghadapi mereka?
Kau pendusta. Kau Lokoh paling pendusta. Cis! Kau memang kepanat. Kau memang mabuk; dimabuki oleh am-air ludah yang tensembun dan mulutmulut buaya yang bsan-besar dan ganasganas itu. Kau memang pendusta. Mani! Man! Man! Man semua ke atas puncak gunung mi! Man kita bunuh tokoh Bahadur yang pendusta in Man! Mani! Man!
(pp. 112-113)
This pant of the dream reflects the Menteri Bahadurs turmoil
over the suffering of his people in the midst of the prosperity of other races. As the nightmare continues, Menteri Bahadur is surrounded by an angry mob of his people, including his gardeners and house servants, who want to kill him. At that moment, Sidek, armed with a
shotgun, emenges with Hawa beside him. Sidek makes an urgent
announcement telling the mob that the minister is not a liar, and that them common enemy is the bureaucnacy. This pant of the dream is related to Sideks suggestion about the betrayal of the civil servants: Ini onang kita. Onang kita yang cuba menegakkan bangsa senta tanahain kita. Ini bukan .musuh. Kita bukan benmusuh dengan
menteri-menteni in Kita benmusuh dengan naga-naga yang benkeliaran iLu. Kita benmusuh dengan pegawai-pegawai kenajaan yang berdaki kolonial. Dengan pegawai-pegawai kerajaan yang binoknatik. Yang anistoknatik. Yang anti-nasional. Meneka yang wajib kita bunuh. Meneka yang wajib kita tusuk dengan kayukayu tajam mi. Ini bapa Hawa dan mentuaku. mi orang tua kita. Ketua kita juga. Dia tidak bensalah. Dia tidak bensalah
(p. 117) Menteri Bahadur witnesses the children of the light-browned skin people kill one another as the result of the failure of the ruling
partys policies and national leadership. His collapse and horrible
dream make him feel more deeply concerned for his people and more 110
MALAY POLITtCS AND NATIONALISM
determined in his struggle. He resolves to reveal his discovery to his colleagues and those leaders who are stupid at the meeting the next day.
Shahnon Ahmad exposes the political hypocrisy prevalent in the country through the character of Sidek, the Secretary of Menteni Bahadur. In the course of the novel Sidek reveals some glaring contradictions between his responsibilities and his attitudes to life. He is shown as a person with a clear strong intelligence, but with deep moral weaknesses.
Sideks lifestyle is basically a hedonistic: Paling dajal, bagi Sidek, dalam dunia mi ialah kesedihan. Ataupun dalam pengentian lain: pendenitaan, kesusahan, kegelisahan, susab hati dan tenmenung. Ini dielaknya pagi petang siang malam; sekurang-kunangnya sebelum dia mati. Dia sama sekali tidak setuju dengan pendapat Buddha yang mengatakan: hidup adalah pendenitaan. Dan kenana mi Sidek gembina, na dan tak habis-habis tersenyum.
(p. 29) He does not take politics very seriously, believing that when one enters politics it is like entering fish- trap, easy to enter but difficult to get out of. Sidek is trapped by the facilities he is enjoying
such as the admiration and status. In attempting to get out, there will
be cuts from the sharp bamboo of the trap, but so far in his political career, Sidek has avoided those cuts. Sidek always looks for the easiest way to carry out his daily
duties. For him, this world is all pleasure and there is no reason to
over-exert himself. He does not even take his duties as a speech writer seriously. As a political secretary, he should conscientiously brief
his minister. Instead, he is prepared to avoid making any effort and
go along with whatever the minister wants. He cannot be bothered about the political implications. His aim in life is to enjoy women: Tapi syanahan itu hanya syanahan saja bagi Sidek. Apa yang
dikehendakm menteri dia siapkan. Sama ada isinya setuju atau tidak bagi dia. Sidek tidal ambil tahu. Sunuh dia siap, dia siapkan. Biar orang mengecam. Bian panti menteninya bengkerap. Bian
Ill
selunuh nakyat tenima akibatnya. Bian apa saja berlaku. Sidek tidak peduli. Petang dia pulang ke numah mandi-mandi dan kemudian bila siang habis, Sidek keluan lagi. Capai gadis. Bawa ke mana saja. Mungkin ke kebun bunga. Dan kalau perlu dan samasama setuju bentumpang Lindih saja badan di atas numput.
(p. 31) Sidek takes no real interest in the problems facing his country; he only works to earn a living. He gives no serious thought towards
problems such as the bumiputeras economy, education and rural development. He merely acts as paic turin, a yes-man: Dia sendini Lidak pemah memikinkan sebanang konsep atau dasan yang tegas. Dia tidak pemah membuat sebanang tafsinan apa akan benlaku lagi sepuluh dua puluh tahun. Betulkah dasar pantinya sekarang mi? Menguntungkah penjuangan pantinya selama mi? Di mana baiknya? Di mana bunuknya? Bagaimana dengan masalah pelajaran. Ekonomi bangsa dan negaranya. Dasan luan. Rancangan pedalaman. Pentanian. Bagaimana-bagaimana? Banangkali menten ada knisis. Tapi penkana-penkara itu hanya satu bayangan yang paling ningkas tenlintas dalam kepala Sidek. Dia hanya bekerja cani makan dan can gembira. Dia setuju kalau menteri setuju. Dia bangkang kalau menteri bangkang. Dia akan membisu saja kalau menteni membisu. Kebisingan hanya membawa kerugian pada dini sendini. Hanya membawa kesedihan, kenumitan fikiran, kesusahan, kenunsingan dan denita. (p. 36) Another example of his lack of responsibility is depicted by his attitude towards the correspondence from the people to his minister: Dia dah jemu dengan sunat-sunat penibadi dan sunat-sunat rasmi untuk Menteni. Rakyat begitu bodoh sekarang dan surat-surat itu perlu dijawab hanya dengan ucapan tenima kasih saja. Ataupun kalau perlu menambah alan dipentimbangkan. Dan kemudian luput begitu saja ditelan zaman. Sudah benibu-ribu jawapan yang dirangka oleh sidek sebagai jawapan. Kadang-kadang surat itu dilonggok-longgok dalam naga dan kemudian buang di pejabat 112
Sidek tidak hinaukan longgok-longgok yang banu diusung oleh peon itu.
pos.
(p. 32) Sidek represents the arnogance of the administration; people ought to feel honoured simply to receive letters from the minister:
Surat-surat yang banyak baru dibawa masuk oleh peon boleh dibiankan saja di situ. Peon sendini boleh disunuh membacanya. Peon sendini boleh membalas sunat-sunat itu. Rakyat hanya suka menenima sunat-sunat sahaja. Ataupun dia menulis akan dipentimbangkan saja dalam semua sunat-sunat permohonan itu. Menten Bahadun tidak pernah gaduh sekali pun dalam soal mi. Dan rakyat boleh menunggu sampai bila-bila; malah rakyat memang suka menunggu sesuatu itu lama-lama. Sifat menunggu sudah sebati pada mereka. (pp. 45-46) One would expect that a senior officer, especially one with a degree in Islamic studies, to have a positive approach towards moral issues, but this is not the case with Sidek. His casual relationships with the women in his office contrast with the speeches he prepares for the minister where he stresses the importance of performing religious obligations and obedience to the laws of religion. Another instance of Sideks hypocrisy is seen in his courtship of Hawa, his bosss daughter. Sidek sees many advantages in having a relationship with Hawa, especially as a step towards promotion. He is selfish, cynical and opportunist: Sebenannya Sidek ingin mengakui pada dunia bahawa dia bukan cmntakan Hawa tapi cintakan Bahadun sendini. Hawa adalah tangga baginya untuk naik ke puncak. Bahadur tentu tidak tinggalkan dia bila sudah jadi menantu. Bahadur ada kuasa. Sekunang-kurangnya kuasa itu selagi parti Bahadun penintah negana. Dan Sidek pencaya: selagi nakyat dalam negara mi bodoh seperti sekanang, panti Bahadun boleh berkuasa. Dan selagi Bahadur benkuasa, Sidek penlu menggunakan kesempatan itu. Dia boleh naik lagi. Menteni Muda banangkali. Ataupun boleh jadi menteni tenus. Itu bisa diran113
cangkan kalau sudah ada tapaknya. Dan kenana itu Sidek sering benbisik kepada dininya sendini: Aku cintakan Hawa. (pp. 31-32) The above episodes cleanly demonstrate Sideks cynicism and opportunism. He himself has no illusions about his behaviour. At first he had a genuine commitment to human values, but gradually this was replaced by self-interest and hypocrisy: Dia sendini ada konsep itu dulu. Konsep itu begitu kukuh. Tapi sejak masuk univensiti, konsep kemanusiaan itu hilang entah ke mana. Hidup hanya puna-puna. Dia bensetuju dengan pendapat setengah-setengah ahli falsafah yang mengatakan hidup mi punapuna. Dan kalau hidup pura-puna, buat apa sudah-susah dengan satu-satu kepencayaan. Biankan hidup mi tinggal puna-puna. Dan sebelum hidup mi tamat, manusia penlu sekali benpuna-puna. (p. 47) Despite all his shortcomings, on one occasion Sidek succeeds in impressing Menteri Bahadur. Menteri Bahadur, a. realist, regards Sidek as a man who can only nod his head like a woodpecker. However, after Menteri Bahadur recovers from his collapse, Sidek provides an answer to his off-repeated question of who is responsible? Sidek explains it is the middle-men that should be blamed: Tidak siapa yang bensalah. Baik panti, baik menteni. Onang tengah yang bensalah. Orang tengah yang tidak menjalankan dasandasan penjuangan pantai secepat-cepat dan selengkap-lengkapnya. Bukan panti yang bensalah. Bukan menteni-menteni. Dan kesalahan itu kini telah meluas hinggakan nakyat hanya menuduh patti dan menteni-menteni saja. (p. 86) For once, Sidek is serious when he puts forward the suggestion that the civil servants, or the middle-men, who are corrupt should be removed: Pekenja dasar-dasan itu yang menggagalkan penjuangan. Dan pekenja-pekenja itulah yang bensalah. Bukan dasan parti. Bukan men-
114
teri-menteni yang menjadi asas perjuangan itu. Menteri bukan menjalankan dasar itu yang sebenan. tapi kakitangan kenajaan. Ketua-ketua pejabat. Semua Goverment Servant dalam tanahair mi tidak menjalankan dasan parti ni sepenuhnya. Dan sikap pekerja-pekenja inilah yang penlu diambil benat oleh kenajaan. Singkir mereka yang masih mengannalkan daki-daki lnggenis. Singkin mereka yang tidak menjalankan dasan-dasan penjuangan parti selama mi. (p. 87) Menteri Bahadun quickly recognizes the importance of this intelligent interpretation. In his portrait of Sidek, Shahnon develops the model of a competent, but irresponsible, bureaucrat who, ironically is the very type Sidek condemns. Shahnons treatment of Puan Nuriah gives a vivid
picture of the role of a politicians wife. She is completely unprepared for her husbands weakness and her own worries, she blames the people who elected him for her trouble. Before he become a minister, she had peace of mind and was happy. Now although materially wealthy, they are unhappy.
Before Menteni Bahadur became a minister, Puan Nurimah was in awe of the position:
Sesungguhnya waktu mula-mula dulu Puan Nuniah begitu bangga. Sesuatu yang besan dan sombong tiba di hatinya waktu pilihanraya dahulu. Bahadun dijulang. Bahadur kemudian dilantik menjadi menteni Puan Nuriah tenlalu bangga di kala itu kenana dia pencaya tuah itu akan membawa kebahagiaan pada keluarganya. Akan dapat hidup lebih aman bahagia. Tapi sejak bebanan datang, sejak unusan negana tak putus-putus menyemakkan hati Bahadun, Puan Nunimah hanya mengeluh. Tidak ada apa-apa yang perlu dibanggakan menjadi menteni. Tidak ada apa-apa yang dibanggakan menjadi isteri menteni. Onang hanya melihat pada dasan-dasan luar. Pada kebendaan. Pada mata kasan. Tapi bagi Puan Nuriah tuah itu sebenamya bukan tuah. Ia membenatkan lagi hidup keluanganya. (p. 18) Now as she watches her husbands constant anxiety, she feels the pressure of his responsibilities and pleads for him to resign his
115
post. She does this even though she realizes that she should participate in her husbands struggles; that Menteni Bahaduns responsibilities should also be hers; and that his anxiety, uneasiness and decline should be shared by her. When her husband asks hen who is to blame in the political party struggle, Puan Nunimah can only answer that hen husband is weak: Suaminya yang bensalah. Bahadun yang bersalah. Dia terus menyalahkan hati Bahadun yang sening goncang. Dan goncangan itu tidak bisa diam selagi kecaman-kecaman itu benlanutan. Dan kecaman itu pun tidak bisa bisu selagi manusia ada dalam dunia mi. Puan Nunimah dapat membuat kesimpulan: Hati suaminyalah yang bensalah. Onang lain tidak. Parti pun tidak. Dan hati suaminya itu akan tenus gelisah dan kacau selagi hidup mi.
(p. 27)
When her husband collapses, Puan Nurimah fears that he may lose his sanity. If he becomes insane, he might bring shame on the family. He might even interrupt discussions of national impontance in the party committee to consult members about his daughters possible marriage to Sidek, start to discuss the painting of the fishing village or describe the water flowing into his pond. She does not understand the real issues which concern her husband; Puan Nurimah is basically selfish and, it might be said, partly responsible both for her husbands indecisiveness and his collapse. Puan Nurimah begins to blame the people for electing him. Here Shahnon shows his skill at portraying the internal feelings of the character: Puan Nunimah terus menyalahkan masyanakat. Masyanakat yang memilih Bahadun. Masyanakat yang membeni bebanan yang banyak itu. Dia tahu Bahadun menjalankan kenja-kerjanya dengan sungguh; sungguh-sungguh hinggakan membawa matlamat yang demikian. Usia Bahadun yang lanjut begitu agak sukan menyempunnakan segala tugas nasional yang banyak. Puan Nurimah tenus menyalahkan masyanakat.
(p. 78)
She should conform to the role described by Sidek at whatever cost to herself:
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Seonang isteni menteni juga seorang menteni. Seorang anak menten pun seonang menteni juga. Kenja menteni bukan setakat di kementenian bersama penasihat-penasihatnya - tapi juga waktu benada di numah. Dan isteni bensama anak-anak yang benada di numah penlu benlaku sebagai penasihat-penasihat kepada menteni; sekunang-kunangnya membeni ketentenaman dan menunjuk kepadanya bahawa kita ada peranan dalam tanggungjawabnya sebagai menteni.
(p. 95) The third person close to the minister is his daughter Hawa. She
is even more uncaring than her mother about hen fathers needs and
never attempts to assist him. Menteri Bahadur worries about her behaviour and attitudes. He expresses his anxiety to his wife:
Tidun? Tidun belum bangun-bangun lagi? Apa dia fikin bapanya menteni dia boleh bangun lewat dan pengi kenja lambat? Apa dia fikin dia boleh buat sesuka hatinya? (p. 12) Although Hawa pays little attention to him, he gives hen a serious warning: Jangan lagi kau benlagak macam tak sedan din. Jangan fikir kau anak menteni kau boleh buat sesuka hati kau. Aku tak suka. Aku tak suka sama sekali Usah kau mengambil banyak kesempatan. Kata Bahadun sambil telinganya mendengar cunahan am dalam bUlk. Dinasainya katakata itu tidal kedenganan. Dia benjalan hala ke radio gnam di tepi kepala katil. Diambilnya sebuah pining hitam dan meneliti tulisantulisan yang tentulis di situ. Kemudian meletaknya kembali. (p. 14) Through Hawa we are shown all the negative characteristics the privileged class that hold up the development of the nation and her own race: arrogance, selfishness, and apathy. Hawa has created her own world and life style without any sense of her fathers responsibilities: 117
Dunia yang dianggap paling indah dan kaya dengan bunga-bUnga senta keindhan itu bentambah lagi keindahan dan bunga-bunga itu. Kini hubungannya dengan Sidek telah membawa kepada satu dunia yang bertambah indah lagi. Dan di antana menteni dan setiausaha menteri itU, Hawa tenselit dengan penuh kesombongan. Di numah Hawa hanya sibuk dengan nekod-nekod yang ganas. Sening juga dia melihat onang tuanya tenbongkok-bongkok di meja membuat sesuatu hingga jauh malam, tapi kenja-kerja seumpama Ru hanya dianggap sebagai kenja makan gaji saja; bukan satu tanggungjawab tenhadap bangsa dan tanahair.
(pp. 92-93)
She regards her fathers work as merely a way of earning a living. When her father collapses , Hawa sees it simply as the effect of overwork and regards it as a nuisance because it interferes with her plan to go picnicking at Port Dickson with Sidek. Hawa exerts a bad influence on Sidek by distracting him from his responsibilities though he is eager to be distracted: Kemudiannya Sidek tidak timbul-timbulkan lagi hal itu; malah Sidek sendini nampak dengan jelas tidak mengendahkan kenja-kenjanya sebagai setiausaha bapanya. Dia pennah pergi ke pejabat Sidek waktu bapanya tidak ada dan didapati surat-sunat dalam fail mi rnasih belum benes. Kadang-kadang tenasa kemenangan di pihaknya; sekunang-kunangnya Sidek dapat dipenganuhi agan jangan tenus bekenja bensungguh-sungguh.
(p. 96)
Aften Menteri Bahadurs collapse, Sidek advises Hawa to respect her fathers position as a minister. He urges her to give due support and encouragement to her father who is always under stress in his efforts to help the people. Sidek even hints that she is responsible for the ministers collapse. Hawa, he feels, thinks more of pleasure more than she thinks of her fathers responsibilities an ironic criticism from such a pleasure-loving character as Sidek. He advises
her to:
Hanya memahami jiwa onang tua. Hanya memahami bahawa onang tua kau Ru menteni yang cintakan bangsanya. Dan kau seku-
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rang-kunangnya penlu menunjukkan cinta kau itu seperti yang dicintainya. Hawa mendiamkan din memikinkan penanan yang dikehendaki oleh Sidek itu. Bukan benerti kau perlu bincang masalah politik dengan bapa, tapi hanya memahami bahawa onang n~aitu cintakan bangsa dan negananya. Dia benusaha untuk bangsa dan negananya. Dan kau juga peniti menolongnya; pentolongan yang sesuai sebagai seonang anak menteni.
(pp. 96-97)
With this advice, Hawa begins to feel affection for Menteri Bahadur, loving Bahadur as a father and not as a minister. In the novel then, Shahnon juxtaposes the response of four char5 There is the idealist acters to the political problems of their country. Menteri Bahadur, who cannot make up his mind. There is the opportunist Sidek. There is Puan Nurimah whose selfishness prevents her from accepting the pressure that comes with her husbands job. And there is the selfishness, conceit and pride of Hawa. These four characters clearly reveal the prevailing political atmosphere, particularly in relation to the situation of the bumiputeras. It is Menteri Bahadurs collapse that causes all those around him to consider their mistakes and change their attitudes. Menteri Bahadur decides on the political stand he must take. Sidek begins to take his work more seriously. Hawa realizes her duties as a daughter. And Puan Nurimah begins to understand her husbands problems. It appears that Shahnon wants to end this story on a note of reconciliation. Menteri Bahadurs collapse acts as the catalyst which sets everyone to work for the future of the country. The transformation occurs in the following stages: from Menteni Bahadur to Sidek, then to Puan Nurimah and finally, Hawa. So the overall structure of the novel resemble that of Rentung where there are problems, bad characters, discovery of truth, reconciliation and a final resolution to work together. Shahnon wrote Menteri the same year that he wrote the novel Protes and two years after he wrote Terdedah. Although all three novels focus on social criticism, Terdedah and Menteri are directed towards political issues while Protes focuses on religious issues. Menteri is more explicitly political in content and uses a wider frame
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of reference than Terdedah. Both stories examine the same issues. However, in Terdedah they are dealt with at the state level, while in Menteri they are dealt with at the national level. The problems encountered by a state member are broadened when developed into those of a federal minister. Similarly, the problems of a secretary to a state member have a wider dimension than these of the personal secretary to a minister. Along the same lines, problems at the local and regional level become even greater and more complex at the national level. There is another connection between the themes in Terdedah and Menteri; in both novels the issue of the responsibility of politicians is central. In Terdedah, Shahnon directly shows the temptations and the weaknesses of his characters who are selfish, corrupt, hypocritical and look only for sexual satisfaction. In the case of Menteri, however, the politician is neither corrupt nor after women; he is not lazy or irresponsible. His weakness is his indecision. It is not a moral weakness, but a weakness of will which he must overcome. In Menten, Shahnon presents this inner conflict with greater complexity and sensitivity than in his previous work. Structurally, the novels are similar. They both take place within a single twenty-four hour period spanning from one morning to the next. In both the actions are primarily limited to two or three settings. They both conclude with the leading characters experiences horrible nightmares caused by their inner-conflicts. The dreams are filled with threatening events such as disputes and appalling killings. However, each dream plays a different role. Sharifah Shuhadas dream is the result of her sexual frustration and greedy ambition. The dream in Menteri functions as a vision of the future. The first dream intensifies the turmoil of the dreamers conscience; the second resolves earlier worries and points the dreamer to a more hopeful future. The Novel Perdana (1969) The novel Perdana was completed about a month after Shahnons arrival in Australia in July 1968 and published in 1969. The years 1966 to 1968 were difficult years in the development of Malaysia. There were marked by increasing racial tension and a language issue that was becoming explosive. The focus of the novel 120
reflects Shahnons concern for developments in his country. In Menten, Shahnon focused his political awareness and interest on the predicament of a minister in the independence era. In Pet-dana, he focuses on Malay political history from the imposition of the Malayan Union in 1946 to the proclamation of independence in 1957. Here to show the conflict and tension that existed among the Malay leaders during the struggle for independence. Combining historical fact and creative fiction, Shahnon tries to portray the struggle for Malay survival. Its theme deals with the characters conflict at both the personal and the national level. The novel writing competition held to celebrate the tenth anniversary of independence may have influenced Shahnons choice of theme. The Government-sponsored competition required themes depicting the emergence of Malay nationalism and the struggle for independence, precisely the area covered in the novel Perdana. The novel opens on 30 February 1946 in Kedah with Ketua Ahmad preparing six principles of Malay rights for the Malay Peoples Congress to be held in Kuala Lumpur the following month. Zulkifli, the Party Secretary, expresses indifference towards the six issues in a lengthy discussion with Ketua Ahmad. He also discusses the root of Malay nationalism since the days of the Malacca Sultanate in the sixteenth century. This first chapter, Monolog yang Panjang (A Long Monologue), reveals Ketua Ahmad to be a man of integrity and a leader with a wide knowledge of politics and the national struggle. His primary concern in the political arena is the survival of the Malay community. The second chapter, Hak (Rights), follows the events of the Congress. A new leader, Lokman, is introduced. He joins in the condemnation of the proposed Malayan Union and becomes the leader of the newly formed national party, the United Malays National Organization (UMNO). Although the Congress confirms the six issues developed by Ketua Ahmad as its platform, the grounds for internal dissension already appear. Lokman is in favour of including other races in the struggle for independence, but he is aware of the hostile response to this idea by the Malays. As a leader, he faces the dilemma of working to fulfil the special needs of the Malays and to maintain their position while taking into account the political reality of other races in the country. The reactions of the people towards the resolutions and the new 121
party are given in the third chapter Pro dan Kontra (Pros and Cons). There is opposition from various groups of western-educated Malays, the socialists and the communists forcing Lokman to take into account divided political views. In the fourth chapter entitled Retak Baru (New Crack), Ketua Ahmad comes to the fore again a year and a half after these events. He now faces difficulties with his secretary and his wife. Zulkifli is interested in seizing power for himself so criticizes the achievements of the party struggle to date. Zulekha, Ketua Ahmads wife, has no understanding of his struggle and remains uninterested. Chapter five introduces Idrishakim, another UMNO member, who is attending a party meeting at Lokmans house in Johor Bahru. Through Lokmans eyes, we are shown the political sympathies of the leading political figures. He divides them into two groups with the Ketua Ahmad and Pak Nik in the group of extreme nationalists and Idrishakim, Taharim and Izzudin in the group who are less extreme and more in sympathy with his own policies. Pak Nik declares that political power must reside solely with the Malays while Lokman states that political power should be shared by all races irrespective of origin and religion. The meeting agrees to send Lokman and four other representatives to England for negotiations. Lokman selects Idrishakim, Pak Embok, Manap and Daud, all supporters of his own liberal approach, as members of the delegation. Ketua Ahmad is sent away because of his extreme views. In chapter six entitled Angin Timur (East Wind), Pak Nik voices his misgivings over Lokmans selection of the delegates and begins looking for excuses to attack him. He declares he will not support Lokman should he return from London with an offer of independence conditional upon concessions made to the other races. Pak Nik, advocating an independence that is totally Malay structured and founded on the principles of Islam, supports his views by quoting from the Quran. His deputy, Haji Taha, increasingly regards Pak Nik as power crazy. Ketua Ahmad reappears in chapter seven Birunya Langit (The Blue of the Sky) with his reactions to Lokmans delegation to London. He is disgruntled because he was not chosen as member of the mission. On the other hand, he supports Lokmans policy of including other races in the struggle for independence. He ponders his wifes lack of interest in his struggle and threatens to marry a second 122
time. She takes up the leadership of the womens section of the party. In chapter eight entitled Partiku dan Bukan Partimu (My Party and Not Yours), Lokman and the other four delegates return home after the London meeting. Lokmans acceptance of the condition to work with other races as a prerequisite for independence is revealed. Recognizing the emotional turbulence of the anxious and nationalistic crowd, he is hesitant to announce this to the thousands of people who have come to greet the delegation. When he finally reveals the agreement to the members of the UMNO executive committee, they all reject it. They boycott the subsequent meetings he calls so he resigns from his position. In a meeting held to discuss his resignation, Pak Nik condemns again him for betraying their objectives. The meeting comes to a unanimous decision to drop Lokman as the leader of UMNO and another name, Abdul Rahim, is proposed to replace him by Idrishakim. The following chapter The Outsider? introduces Abdul Rahim as a District Officer from Langkawi Island. Abdul Rahim contemplates the opposition that he is going to encounter from Lokman, Pak Nik and the communist group. He is very much aware of his own personal limitations and lack of previous involvement in the political struggle. However, he accepts the invitation to take over the UMNO leadership. Chapter ten, Haluan Sendiri (Ones Own Course), follows Abdul Rahims assumption of leadership in IJMNO and his way of handling the party. He faces the problems of a multi-racial society which must be handled with great tact in order to bring about unity. Pak Nik consistently rejects Abdul Rahims policies, just as he rejected those of Lokman. Meanwhile, Lokman has set up a breakaway party. The municipal election in Kuala Lumpur gives Abdul Rahim the opportunity to suggest an alliance between the parties representing the interests of the various races as a means of countering Lokmans party. In the first general &ection of 1955, the Alliance, led by Abdul Rahim, wins a landslide majority. In Chapter eleven entitled Hodohnya Hati (Hideous Heart), Ketua Ahmad is again brought to the forefront. This time he is at his house in Alor Setar on the eve of independence, 31 August 1957. He recalls the way Lokman was prepared to lie to the people about the conditions the British attached to their agreement for Malayan independence, and how his wife followed his orders by becoming the 123
leader of the womens group. Abdul Rahim then went to London to negotiate with the British Government and brought back the British agreement for Independence. His return was greeted by the applause of people shouting Merdeka. The following chapter, Jemukah Kenangan (Is Memory Bored), is also devoted to Ketua Ahmad in Kedah. On the evening of 30 August 1957, he reminisces about the history of his country which has been colonized for 446 years dating from the capture of Malacca in 1511. His thoughts dwell upon his own contribution to independence as a leader of SABERKAS6 party, and his subsequent rejection by fellow party members. He regards Lokman as a dishonest leader. That night, instead of going out to celebrate independence, Ketua Ahmad remains alone with his two children. He pictures the throngs of people waiting on the field of Sultan Sulaiman Club in Kuala Lumpur for the arrival of midnight which will signal the end of the colonial era and the beginning of independence. He begins to shout Merdeka wildly and in a fit of madness, hits his son. As the night wears on, he weeps as he thinks of his past and future. He eventually falls asleep before the midnight which will mark the beginning of independence. The final chapter, Merdeka (Independence), recounts the events of the actual day of independence, 31 August 1957. The people greet this great memorable occasion on a symbolically damp overcast day. Each character in Perdana represents a particular aspect of the political ideas that developed between 1946 and 1957. The starting point of the action is the British attempt to impose the Malayan Union. In the reminiscences and discussions that follow, Malay nationalism is given historical depth and the tensions underlying historical events are revealed. First let us consider the role and portrayal of each main character. The elements of Malay nationalism and the question of special Malay rights are brought together in the figure of Ketua Ahmad. The elements of discontent with the Malayan Union and the subsequent demand for independence are seen through the national political figure Lokman. The issues of general political ideologies, the foundation of the United Malays National Organization and the Islamic political trend revolve around another leader, Pak Nik. The new national leader, Abdul Rahim portrays the ideal style of the leadership 124
in a multi-racial society and thus serves as a model for the new Malay leadership. Ketua Ahmad faces three obstacles. His secretary, Zulkifli, opposes him because he thinks that Ketua Ahmad is not taking a strong ewough stand and wants to introduce religion as his own political weapon. His wife is a burden to him because she shows no interest in his political ideas. And Lokman betrays him. As a result of so many pressures and disappointments, he becomes mentally disturbed and loses his position as leader. The debate about the strategies to make Malay nationalism an effective political force is first raised during a discussion between Ketua Ahmad and Zulkifli. Malay nationalism, says Zulkifli, has existed since the early days of colonialism. When Ketua Ahmad expresses his view that the forthcoming Congress of the Malay People will be the initial step towards independence, Zulkifli disagrees by saying that the Congress is merely a continuation of a much older struggle. Zulkifli claims the struggle for independence began as far back as 1511 when Datuk Bendahara Tepok opposed the presence of the Portugese in Malacca. He then traces the opposition to foreign control through a succession of Malay leaders. He explains that the weakness of the nationalist movement is due to the backwardness of Malays who have little education, do not up hold their religious faith and lack a spirit of solidarity. Through this discussion it becomes apparent that Zulkifli knows more than his boss regarding the political history of the Malays. Ketua Ahmad presents an entirely different view by maintaining that since previous struggles centred upon social and economic reforms and had nothing to do with politics there was no clear or definite demand for independence. In the struggle against colonialism, Ketua Ahmad argues that it_is useless to fight against the colonial power without a proper strategy. He refers to Kesatuan Melayu Muda,8 another political party, as having been influenced by the communist group in Indonesia. He prefers the slow and steady strategy of the termite to the strategy of the Kesatuan Melayu Muda which resembles the aggressiveness of the dog. Ketua Ahmad rejects the ideology of socialism as being incompatible with the spirit of the people. He also rejects the idea of extreme nationalism, preferring the moderate nationalism in line with his termite strategy. As a leader of the SABERKAS party in Kedah, he believes in nationalism 125
based on a progressive and revolutionary nationalization: Nasionalisme yang merupakan saLu konsep progresif dan revolusioner yang melihat jauh ke depan untuk mendapat kebebasan dan persamaan. (p. 24) Ketua Ahmad is contradictory and inconsistent in his political philosophy. At one stage, he advocates the evolutionary philosophy of the termite, but at the same time advocates the revolutionary concept of struggle. It seems that Shahnon initially thought of making him the main character in the story, but he ends up as a tragic figure. Ketua Ahmad realizes he is handicapped by his wife, Zulekha, who gives him no support or encouragement in his political struggle; he even believes she is becoming an obstacle to his ambition. Now that his life has extended beyond his wife, children and domestic responsibilities. Ketua Ahmad wonders whether Zulekha is not the nearest and most obvious obstacle in his path to nationalism. However, when Ketua Ahmad threatens to marry a second time, Zulekha is forced to participate actively in politics. She joins in the struggle and assumes the leadership in the womens wing of UMNO. Ketua Ahmad not only faces challenges from his wife but also from his secretary. Zulkifli is very critical of Ketua Ahmads political strategies. He believes they should use God to promote their politics, God as the weapon of their struggles. And if need be he will use the name of God each and every time he faces the people. However, it becomes obvious that Zulkiflis increasing opposition to his superior is not purely ideological; but it is also stems from a desire to attain power for himself. At the national level, Ketua Ahmad is challenged by Lokman who has lost confidence in him. This is made clear when Lokman does not chose him for the delegation to London to ask for independence, even though Ketua Ahmad is one of the leading pioneers in the struggle for independence and has always supported Lokman. Ketua Ahmad is portrayed as obssessed by his Malay-based nationalism which he articulates in his six principles, but later he is forced to modify his position to preserve unity and agrees to include the other races in the struggle. These political pressures disturb Ketua 126
Ahmad to such an extent that he resigns from his post. His behaviour becomes erratic, and in the end, he awaits Independence Day alone, unremembered, and embittered. Ketua Ahmad is portrayed as weak character. He is incapable of understanding Malay political history; he is inconsistent in his political ideals; he is ambivalent towards his colleagues. Even his secretary can get the better of him. Thus, Ketua Ahmad is weak in both his private and political life. At first, he tries to maintain his values in his private life, but he has to face the rough and tumble of political life. In politics, Ketua Ahmad has been a leader and a fighter in the struggle for his countrys independence, but he fails because of his own shortcomings. He is too clear-sighted to give full trust to his leaders, but he does not have the courage to oppose them when making crucial decisions pertaining to the struggle. Unable to guide his political colleagues, he fails as a political leader. The lesson to be drawn from this failure is that in political struggle, one must be courageous and aggressive. The next important character is Lokman. While Ketua Ahmad represents politics at the state level, Lokman represents politics at the national level. The issues of opposition against the Malayan Union and the demand for independence come to a head at the Malay Peoples congress held in Kuala Lumpur in 1946. In his speech as chairman of the congress, Lokman elaborates on the the British policies that divided Malaya into three administrative divisions. Using aggressive, strong and violent language, he calls on the representatives attending the congress to fight against the Malayan Union: Kita mesti bunuh Malayan Union hingga ke akar-akar sekali. serunya sambil tangan kanannya dikepal-kepal dan menumbuknumbuk angin. (p. 42) He argues that if the Malayan Union is implemented, it will ultimately destroy the six pillars of Malay nationalism which Ketua Ahmad had earlier put forward: the Malay rulers, the Malay states, the Malay language, Islam, the special rights of the Malays and the Malay regiment. In many ways, Lokman agrees with Ketua Ahmad who he later outwits. 127
To demonstrate Malay unity in opposing the Malayan Union, Lokman requests that the congress form a united national party named United Malays National Organization or UMNO. The Congress unanimously accepts that the UMNO policies be solely directed at rights for Malays. However, it is Lokman who will betray this resolution when he makes an agreement with the British that power will be shared with other races. As a leader of UMNO elected by the congress, Lokman faces opposition from other groups. Firstly, there are the British colonialists, some of whom are firmly established in the country. Secondly, he faces the feudal group, the aristocrats, who are often more cruel to their own countrymen than the colonialists. At the same time, he must defend this feudal group, for they are the ones that can show the world that the Malay race exists. Thirdly, he faces the different racial groups, such as the Chinese and the Indians, whose arrival in this country has its own historical explanations. These racial groups consist of the ordinary people who cooperate with the indigenous peopirand the more chauvinistic group who are leftist and should be expelled. This is an oblique reference to communiSt terrorism and the emergency which began in the late forties. Lokman must deal .with the English educated Malays who have so far remained silent. It is this group that really disappoints him as they seem to disapprove of the peoples struggles and regard the congress as day-dreaming. Lokman also faces some opposition from within the UMNO party. This becomes apparent when he selects-the delegation to go to London and realizes that some individuals are disgruntled at not being chosen. Lokman prefers the younger members whom he can easily influence, such as Idrishakim, Pak Embok, Daud, Taharim, Manap and Izzuddin. He gives the impression of holding firmly to the principle that friendship and compromise have no part in the struggle of this vast political arena. Lokman differs most significantly from other members of the party in his determination to include other races in the struggle for independence. Although he has agreed that the powers of independence should rest solely in the hands of the Malays, he is not strong enough to put across the realities to his party, instead he tells them that it is fait accompli. This produces a conflict between his own heart and that of the wishes of the people, but he also has a love of mankind. From the beginning, Lokman is portrayed as a leader without the courage to back his convictions. He betrays the aspirations of 128
the people who chose him to be their leader. Lokmans return from London marks a turning point in the development of Malay politics and the end of his political career. Because of the British demand, Lokman reaches the decision to open the doors of UMNO to all races. He is certain that this change will be strongly opposed by the people, especially his supporters in the party. In fact, Lokman does not act as a leader of the party. Rather than fighting for Malay rights, he seems to agree with the British on the conditions of independence. Returning from London, Lokman is troubled when he faces the applause from the crowd of people. He feels hypocritic when he shouts Merdeka in the midst of the mammoth crowd. He is unable to tell the crowd the whole truth about the independence agreement, but must do so in a full report to the committee members of UMNO: Merdeka akan diberi dengan syarat kita bersatu bersama-sama bangsa lain dalam negara. Satu pakatan antara kaum mesti diadakan. (p. 154) The members of UMNO reject both Lokmans recommendations and the condition of the British government to have a coalition of the parties representing the races. He is forced to resign his post. Lokman is portrayed as a weak character full of contradictory ideologies. As one of the main characters, Lokman does not live up to the expectations as a national leader. Shahnon never gives any strong justification for Lokmans desire to cooperate with other races in the achievement of independence. The next political figure to be discussed is Pak Nik who embodies the religious dimension of Malay political consciousness. During the congress, Pak Nik strongly supports the formation of UMNO and Lokman who he considers has the attributes of Hang Jebat.9 However, at the ninth meeting of UMNO members, Pak Nik, who is only concerned with the priorities of the Malays, expresses disquiet about Lokmans leadership because of his clear sympathies with other races. Pak Nik is portrayed as an ambivalent character. At first he praises Lokman, but later he tries to overthrow him. In his political struggle, Pak Nik agrees with the Malay based principles of his party, but later decides to push for an Islamic political ideology 129
because he does not agree that the party should accept the British condition. When discussing what approaches should be made in formulating the demand for independence, Pak Nik again chides Lokman. Lokman says he must choose four people to accompany him to demand independence in London, but Pak Nik says that the selection is immaterial. To him the most important thing is the content of the demand for independence. During the discussion, Pak Nik insults Ketua Ahmad when they are discussing the conditions of independence. In reply to Ketua Ahmads six principles, his explanation that there is a condition to everything, Pak Nik states that the conditions should be formulated by UMNO and not the British. The country needs freedom without any strings attached. Having a foreknowledge that independence would be given only on condition that the Malays cooperate with other races, Pak Nik is determined to oppose this stipulation right to the end. He is well aware of the fact that in any struggle there is bound to be conflict. So, when Lokman seems to deviate from the goal of the original struggle, Pak Nik tries to manoeuvre the situation by directing the peoples attention to Islam. He resolves to form a new party which is truly nationalistic and Islamic. His main aim is to become the leader to oppose Lokman and lead the people to the path of righteousness. However, his aggressive personality is portrayed as not in line with the Islamic ideal.
Pak Nik approaches Haji Taha, his deputy and confides in him his distrusts of Lokman. He predicts that Lokman will bring back independence with strings attached, something worse even than colonialism itself. Pak Niks strategy is to denounce the West as materialistic and lacking in spiritual values. He proclaims that Malays must conquer imperialism and capitalism before the values of Islam can be implemented. Pak Niks method of argument is to quote verses from the Quran out of context in order to inflame peoples passions against non-Muslims. For example, he quotes from Surah Au lmran, verse 28: Let not the Believers take friends or helpers from the unbelievers. Pak Nik is implying that Muslims should have nothing to do with non-Muslims. After this exchange of words, Haji Taha begins to question the character and leadership of Pak Nik. He realizes that Pak Niks tactic of quoting from the Holy Quran is merely a device to hide his own ignorance and lack of understanding of the quotations. Aware that 130
there are verses in the holy book that attack those who attempt to destroy ISeace and Islam, Haji Taha will not tolerate any attempt to defend the religious and racial enemies of the Malays any more than
he would allow Islam to be misused. Shahnon tries to portray Pak Nik as a nationalist who, overcome by personal ambition hungry for power, finds excuses to overthrow Lokman. He uses Islam to a find support for his struggle. Shahnon depicts him as a character without strong commitment to his principles. The name of Abdul Rahim is put forward to take over Lokmans
leadership of UMNO. Shahnon uses him to personify the qualities necessary to establish Malay leadership in a plural society working towards independence. The author does not give sufficient reasons for the emergence of Abdul Rahim in the political scene. It is clear
that Abdul Rahim is inexperience in political manoeuvring; he is shown as a rather weak character to be involved in a national struggle for independence. He enters politics with uncertain attitudes and considers himself an outsider. He is unfamiliar with political ideologies and lets the people decide what is the best. His aim in life is to achieve happiness and peace; and believes it is up to the people to decide how to achieve these ideals. Within UMNO, Abdul Rahim is
challenged by the rifts between its members, especially the followers of Lokman and Pak Nik. His main role is to persuade the members to
work together in harmony and to continue with the struggle. Outside UMNO, Abdul Rahim is challenged by the spread of the communist movement and Marxist ideas in the trade union movement. There are also threats from the MPAJA, the remnants of the resistance group who fought against the Japanese during the Japanese 0 occupation, and the 136 movement) Abdul Rahims biggest problem, however, is to develop a sense of common purpose and loyalty in the multi-racial society of Malaya. Abdul Rahim believes this can be achieved once independence is gained. In fact, Abdul Rahims hopes are similar to those of Lokman, but he realizes they must be presented at the appropriate time and situation. The people who are obsessed with the need for independence will never accept any concept that is not truly nationalistic. The time and situation favour Abdul Rahims ideals and objectives. In the first election to be held in Malaya, UMNO opposes the IMP, the party under the leadership of Lokman. Abdul Rahim 131
uses this opportunity to bring forward the policy of forming an alliance between the parties representing the principal races. This coalition, which was also a goal of Lokman, at last will become a reality. The authors reason that Abdul Rahim is able to fulfil his ambition of seeing harmony in a multi-racial society is weak. The coincidence or good timing spoils the plausibility of the plot. Abdul Rahim should be shown dealing with the national problems in a more convincing way, because he enters UMNO with the understanding that he will adhere to the peoples aspiration. With a platform of internal self-government, the Alliance Party, led by Abdul Rahim, scores a brilliant victory in the 1955 election. Abdul Rahim has been successful in securing internal self-government and in maintaining the special rights of the Malays in the Constitution of the Alliance. The path towards achieving independence from the British government seems bright. On his return from London after negotiating for independence, Abdul Rahim announces to the crowd of thousands that the date set for independence is 31 August 1957. However, once again his success is more a matter of right timing than the result of a real struggle, as it should be in a novel of this nature. Abdul Rahim is shown as a character who achieves success based on coincidences and chance from the beginning of his career to the end of the story. Thus, the novel Perdana presents a review of the major political events and issues over the eleven year period from 1946 through to 1957 such as the birth of Malay nationalism, the struggle for Malay rights, the opposition to the Malayan Union, the demand for independence, the struggles of UMNO, the Islamic political concepts, Malay leadership, the problems of a multi-racial society and finally, the achievement of independence. These issues are juxtaposed and blended one with another through the careers of four characters: Ketua Ahmad, Pak Nik, Lokman and Abdul Rahim. Although all play roles a national leaders, they are not portrayed convincingly. Shahnon does not attempt to manipulate the facts of recent political history in such a way as to create a novel as a literary work of art. This novel about tension, power and political issues in some ways is structured like Rentung. There are a series of debates, quarrels over an issue, conflicts between the characters, and a resolution which leaves one character in charge and other characters isolated and embittered. In Perdana, however, the conflict is more complex 132
than Rentung because it deals with characters involved in the political struggle at a national level. There seems to be a theme of personal tragedy linking on character to another throughout the book. The characters outwit and displace one another in a struggle that ends in either frustration or success. The novel is an effort on Shahnons part to work out some current problems in the immediate struggle for independence; it represents his personal attempt to come to terms with the in-fighting that existed in the political struggle and the strategies which led to the achievement of Malay independence. In a wider context, it is an attempt to give the whole process a historic dimension by reference to the Malacca Sultanate and other symbolic historical events. More than any other story discussed so far, Perdana is based on real political events and Shahnons own experience. The novel differs from Terdedah and Menteri in that they are more imaginative in creating fiction from contemporary themes and characters. Although Shahnon asserts that the characters are fictitious, the main characters are based on real political figures. Ketua Ahmad who is a SABERKAS party leader from Kedah appears to be based on Senu Abdul Rahman or Mohd. Khir Johari. Pak Nik whose political struggle is motivated by his Islamic beliefs may be identified with Dr. Burhanuddin Helmy who was one of the founding leaders of Islamic Party of Malaya; Lokman is easily identifiable as Dato Onn Jaafar)2 the first leader of UMNO; and Abdul Rahim is based on Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra13 who took over the leadership of UMNO from Dato Onn and led the country to independence in 1957 even the name is scarcely disguised. In Perdana, the Ketua Ahmads struggle and his final frustration provide continuity in the story. As in Menteri, Shahnon uses the motive of the politician whose lack of success is partly because of a non-supportive wife and the betrayal of other people around him. As Ketua Ahmad struggles for independence, he is depressed by his wifes negative attitude and the betrayal of Lokman in whom he had so much hope. These two setbacks leave him extremely frustrated and cause mental trouble. The characters are shown as power hungry which leads to overthrows and failures within the party. Ketua Ahmad fails because he tries to be tolerant and his personality is weak; he is overthrown by Zulkifli. Lokman fails because he is too ready to extend privileges to all races despite the political realities. Thus, this 133
continual political conflict results in a succession of leaders with Lokman outwitting Ketua Ahmad, Pak Nik outmanoeuvring Lokman, and in the end, Abdul Rahim taking over the leadership by sheer chance and good timing. It is a cynical comment on politics that in the political struggle the more generous-minded people lose out. The characters in the novel are weakly portrayed by Shahnon. The novel opens with the formulation of the six principles of struggle by Ketua Ahmad. However, he is not serious about the six issues because he favours working with others races to achieve independence. He next appears as a tragic character with problems at the domestic, state and national levels. At the appearance of Lokman, he is by passed; and when Abdul Rahman comes to the fore, Lokman is overthrown. Shahnon gives no convincing reason or genuine debate on the cause of his downfall. When Ketua Ahmad reappears beset by domestic problems and symptoms of mental derangement, there is no definite reason presented for embitterment. At the end of the novel, Ketua Ahmad reappears for the third time to comment on Lokmans leadership. Overcome by bitterness, frustration and disappointment, he strikes his son, bursts into tears and eventually, falls asleep before the proclamation of independence. This sequence of events is not described convincingly by the writer. The predicament of Lokman is not developed successfully although it could be an important theme. There is a poetic justice when Pak Nik overthrows Lokman just as Lokman had one time outmanoeuvred Ketua Ahmad. In plotting against Lokman, Shahnon does not gives no convincing comments on Malay politics and the power struggle. It is merely a dialogue between Pak Nik and Haji Taha about Pak Niks dislike of Lokman. Abdul Rahim comes out of nowhere to take over the leadership of UMNO. There are insufficient reasons given as to why he was approached to take over the leadership. Shahnon presents inadequate background on the self-doubt and internal struggle he faces before accepting the post. It sometimes appears as though Shahnon intended to make Ketua Ahmad the leading character, but he appears inconsistently throughout the book. The same thing can be said of Lokman, Pak Nik and Abdul Rahim. Neither of them can be considered as convincing characters. Throughout the novel, Shahnons handling of emotional scenes, arguments, political debate and history is not satis134
factory. The speeches made by the characters are stereotyped and full of cliches. The author uses the discussion between Ketua Ahmad and his secretary to show the roots of Malay consciousness and nationalism from the Malacca Sultanate in the sixteenth century to 1946. Ketua Ahmads six principles for Malay survival are crystallized into UMNO policy and serve as a basis for the Malay struggle. There are responses by party members, but they never come to grips with the intellectual and theoretical debates on the subject. This exclusively racial package is not compatible with the modern multi-racial concept of nationalism and political realities. Although the story is limited in its range by historical facts and figures, Shahnon attempts to portray the feelings of nationalism from different perspectives. Some of the leaders involved in the struggle show their sincerity and honesty while others betray and outwit each other. Shahnon has achieves little success in this novel of fact and imagination. By portraying the characters different ideologies and struggles, Shahnon seems to be using these characters as symbols for political concepts, but he is restricted by historical facts. For instance, the ideas and ideals of Lokman are similar to the political philosophy Dato Onn which led to his downfall. Similarly, the leadership of Abdul Rahim, who is more liberal than the others, must follow the ideologies of Tunku Abdul Rahman who was more open-minded and democratic in dealing with non-Malays than the other leaders. However, through the character of Ketua Ahmad, Shahnon is more free to expose the characters feelings. In the character Pak Nik, Shahnon is also more free to portray feelings in regard to Islamic principles. Aside from character portrayal, there are other interesting points about the novel such as the concept of Merdeka, the didactic elements and the political rhetoric and jargon employed. The concept of independence is interpreted in different ways by the characters. For Ketua Ahmad, independence or Merdeka should be shared with other races if the Malays are to survive. Lokman also favours attaining independence with the other races. Only Pak Nik is not in favour sharing the power of independence among the races. He says: mi tuntutan orang-orang Melayu. Bukan tuntutan rakyat seluruh135
nya. tni Luntutan orang-orang Melayu. Orang-orang Melayu saja. Suara Pak Nik begitu garang dan ganas sehingga suasana rumah Lokman yang pada mulanya lucu dan tenteram itu Lerasa begitu sayu dan menikam-nikam hati. (pp. 102-103) The novel displays considerable didacticism in regards to such political concepts such as the origins of nationalism and socialism. Shahnon tries to explain in detail these political concepts and their implications. The author explains the origin of Malay nationalism through the character Zulkifli: Berkembangnya nasionalisme Melayu di Malaya dan Singapura bukan berdasarkan kebangsaan terus-menerus tetapi berteraskan kesedaran agama. Dan Syed Syeikh at-I-ladilah yang membawa ke man bersama Syeikh Tahir Jalaluddin. Dan sepatutnya dalam Kongres lusa kita perlu bertafakur mengingati Syed Syeikh. Mengingati Syeikh Tahir Jalaluddin. Mengingati Syed kashid Ridha. Dan yang paling pokok, kita perlu bertafakun satu minit mengingati Muhammad Abduh selaku reformer agama Islam. (p. 17) Ketua Ahmads concept of nationalism is based on a rationalization which is both progressive and revolutionary. He foresees that through this type of nationalism the people can achieve freedom and equality. Socialist concepts are explained through the character Ketua Ahmad who says that the ideology is incompatible with Malay society: Fahaman sosialis walau dalam bentuk apa pun tidak bisa subur dalam tanahair kita mi; sekurang-kurangnya tidak akan subur lagi dua puluh atau tiga puluh tahun. Baik ia sosialisme radikal. Baik ia sosialisme nasional. Baik ia sosialisme demokratik. Apatah lagi komunisme tulen. (p. 23) Throughout the novel, Shahnons characters use political rhetoric and jargon. One example is their constant reference to the significance of tanahair motherland. At the beginning of the novel, 136
Shahnon explains the term through Ketua Ahmad who finds it hard to elaborate because it involves so many aspects of peoples lives: Kenapa begitu gigih sekali perjuangan mempertahankan tanah dan air. Tetapi dalam ingatan jalan yang cuba mengusikkan hatinya yang meluap-luap itu, Ketua Ahmad masih merasai bahawa dalam pengertian tanah dan air itu membawa banyak makna yang sukar ditafsirkan. Dia mengandungi bangsanya sendiri. Tanah dan air itu mengandungi keturunannya sejak datuk nenek. Perjuangan mempertahankan tanahair itu bukan setakat menjaga din, tetapi mengatasi bangsa sendiri pada masa yang silam, pada masa Sekarang dan pada masa-masa yang akan tiba. (p. 5) Mental instability is a significant device in Shahnons technique of portraying the results of human conflict and confusion. In the novel Ranjau Sepanjang Jauan, Jeha loses her reason; in Menteri, Puan Nurimah worries about her husbands mental confusion; and in Perdana, Ketua Ahmad shows signs of mental derangement. A major difficulty with Perdana arises from Shahnons attempt to cover a long time span which makes the novel too disconnected. Although Shahnon sets the action between 1946 and 1957, he uses the flashback technique, going back as far as 1511, to trace the early stirrings of Malay consciousness and the deep roots of nationalism. It is difficult for him to control such a long period. Even within the eleven-year period, he has to cover many political expressions of nationalism, the Malay Congress, the formation of UMNO and its leadership, the London missions, political frustrations and the achievement of independence through the four main characters. Perdana is among Shahnons less successful novels for two reasons. Firstly, Shahnon devoted himself to a bigger canvas of events which extended over much longer period of time; Secondly, his fiction is controlled by historical facts and real political figures so he is not able to let the characters develop as freely as in his other novels. The novel shows little imagination and creativity in portraying the political theme. At times, Shahnon appears uncertain as to how he should handle his raw material. For instance, it seems that Ketua Ahmad is to be a central figure, but his portrayal as an unstable and frustrated figure at the end of the novel without convincing reasons 137
for his weaknesses makes this impossible. It seems that the events leading to independence were not properly digested in order to give them a new dimension and a proper perspective for a work of art. Malay Politics and Nationalism The novels Menteri and Perdana are constructed around aspects of Malay politics and nationalism. Perdana covers the rise and development of Malay nationalism, and Menteri examines political exploitation at the national level In Perdana political events and ideologies dominate the development of the novel. It examines the sources and origins of Malay nationalism and the special rights of the Malays; it contains an exposition of the Malayan Union as a proposed political system and the opposition to it; and it relates the aspirations of the UMNO and its Islamic trends. It also examines the question of Malay leadership in a multi-racial society. Although there is some character development, Ketua Ahmad, Pak Nik, Lokman and Abdul Rahim are not wholly convincing as main characters. They lack the depth of similar characters in Shahnons previous novel Protes. Shahnons earlier novel, Menteri is more consistent and subtle in its portrayal of Malay political issues in the ppniod after attaining independence. The weaknesses and short coming that lead to the decline of the Malays after independence are depicted in the character of Menteri Bahadur. One of the major issues in Mente;-i is the economic advancement of non-Malays without regard for the poverty of the Malays in their own country. This political novel poses questions about the economic survival of the Malays in their own country and with great frankness and courage, reveals the racial tensions and prejudices within the Malaysian community at that time. Thus, Shahnon Ahmad uses two approaches to portray national political issues. In Perdana, he provides a survey of the political history of Malay nationalism. In Menteri, he critiques the economy and Malay politics. The novels share a similar nationalistic theme, and in them, Shahnon poses questions which face Malay society during a period of growing nationalism. Nationalism, as expressed through the love felt for the country, and the struggles of the leaders is the focus in Perdana. The economic imbalance between the different races is discussed in Menteri. Shahnon uses his characters as a 138
means of confronting these problems at the national level. Thus far in his career, Shahnon Ahmad has explored the themes of the rural struggle in his two novels Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan; social problems and religion; in Terdedah and Protes ; and Malay politics and nationalism in Menteri and Perdana. In the next stage of his development as a novelist, he shifts his concentration from theme and characterization to technical experimentation which highlights internal description.
139
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The period from 1968 to 1974 nepnes~nts a major phase in Shahnon Ahmads development as a writer. To a large extent, this development is a result of his experiences in Australia between 1968 and 1972. The effects of those experiences carry over into his writings until 1974 when his interests returned to social issues in Malaysia. Therefore, it is appropriate to include these six years in this discussion of his work. mn 1968 Shahnon-accepted an appointment as a Research Assistant with the English-Malay Dictionary project at the Department of Indonesian Languages and Literature, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University in Canberra. While at the University, he enrolled part time in the degree programme for a Bachelor of Arts (Asian Studies) specializing in Malay. He cook a keen interest in the work of the Department where two of his earlier novels, Terdedah and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, were prescribed texts; and gave lectures on both of them and other aspects of Malay literature. Shahnon underwent a wide range of unsettling and disconcerting experiences in Australia. He experienced feelings of inadequacy at being a student again and the changes in life-style and value systems caused tremendous culture shock. His feelings of yearning and homesickness led to a new creativity in his work. During this period he discovered the possibilities of the stream of consciousness literary technique. In Australia, Shahnon Ahmad met students from developing countries where there were also strong feelings of nationalism, espe140
TENSION AND CHANGE
cially those students from Africa, where nationalism was expressed through Black Power. The traumatic riots of May 13, 1969 in Malaysia caused him great concern because he had prefigured just such a racial clash in his 1967 novel Menteri. The encounter with African nationalism and the bloody riots in Malaysia caused stress and tension in his own mind, but also strengthened his sense of nationalism. While in Australia, Shahnon encountered a new style of literary writing which emphasised the portrayal of the internal tension of man. This literary techniques gave new dimensions to his existing skills and he experimented with this technique during his stay in Australia. Throughout this period, Shahnon was attracted to the form and structure of writings that exploited the stream-of-consciousness technique. The technique enabled him to write about the internal tension of the realities in which he, and his country, were involved. This period marked a shift in Shahnons interest from thematic concern to technical innovation. Shahnons period in Australia had very positive results. Although the separation from his homeland and loved ones caused him much anguish, he was able to keep writing and expressed this anguish in his work. Thecontact with new ideas, new people and a new culture provided fresh material for his writings. Those subjects which particularly caught his attention are reflected in the stories.1 It is convenient to examine Shahnons works from this period in two parts: those produced in Australia and those written during the first two years after his return to Malaysia. The works written while he was still in Australia show how Shahnon was beginning to experiment with new ideas and the stream-of-consciousness technique. The work written after his return to Malaysia displays a confident use of the technique. He wrote eight short stories and the novel Srengenge while in Australia. After his return, he wrote five short stories and the novel Sampah. The two stages are examined separately. This analysis begins with the short stories that form the basis for the new technique used in the two novels. The eight short stories in the first stage are: Mimpi di Carroll Street (Dream at Carroll Street), Tudawali (the name of an Australian aborigine), Temanku Afrika (My Friend Afrika), Salam Sekeluarga (Greetings from the Family), Al (the name of a man), Denak (Decoy), Kalau Ibu Sampai Takah Tiga (Should Mother Reach the Third Rung), and 141
lgau (Delirium). Some of the materials and techniques were first used in these stories and later reworked and incorporated into the novel Srengenge. The five short stories in the second stage are: Kal-
bu (Heart), Lagu Kitkitkit(Song of Kitkitkit), Tak Keruan (Uncertainty), Kelapa Nan Sebatang (The Single Coconut Tree), and Perempuan (Woman). These short stories and Sampah, the novel which followed, focus on the same issues of internal conflict and behaviour under stress. In the novel Srengenge, where the stream-of-consciousness technique is used for the first time in an extended work, Shahnon is preoccupied with the experiences rather than the emotions of the characters. In Sampah he shows more confidence with the stream-ofconciousness technique and uses it extensively to portray the internal
tension of his main character.
The term stream-of-consciousness was first described by William James, in his book The Principles of Psychology. Its use as a literary device is defined by L.E. Bowling as: The stream-of-consciousness technique may be defined as that
narrative method by which the author attempts to give a direct
quotation of the mind not merely of the language area but of the whole consciousness. Like the kind of direct quotation which is applied to the spoken word, the stream of consciouness technique may be applied exclusively throughout a whole book, on intermittently in short fragments..The only criterion is that it introduces us directly into the interior life of the character, without any intervention by way of comment or explanation on the part of the author. If the author limits his direct quotation to that area of consciousness in which the mind formulates its thoughts and feelings into language, the method may still be called by the comprehensive term the stream-of-consciousness technique, but in this case it would be more exact to apply the more restricted term interior monologue. If, however, the author intervenes in any way between the reader and the characters consciousness in order to analyse, comment, or interpret, then he is employing not the stream-ofconsiousnes technique but a fundamentally different method which may correctly be designed internal analysis. The latter is an
-
indirect statement in the words of the author; the former is a direct quotation of the characters consciousness. 142
TENSION AND CHANGE
Experimentation With a New Technique: The Novel Srengenge (1973)

At various points in Srengenge, Shahnon Ahmad experiments with the stream-of-consciouness technique. He uses it to give a direct quotation of the mind and introduce us directly into the interior
life of the characters Siddik, Saad Cik Liah, Diah, Imam Hamad, Bomoh Useng and Awang Cik Teh. In his article Keringnya Daya
Kreatif Sendiri, 2 Shahnon says: Timbullah perasaan yang selama mi diberi istilah julukan RINDU. Rindu terhadap kampung halaman yang indah dan sepi. Rindu kepada kaum keluarga yang miskin tetapi aman. Rindu kepada angin malam, sinar matahari, riak air di sawah, bunyi lotong bersipongang di pinggir bukit. Rindu kepada tanahair. Maka dan perahan daya kreatif yang terhimpit itu berbuahlah anak sulung di rantau yang bemama Mimpi di Carroll Street. Sesungguhnya lain tidak ada selain mimpi dan mimpi. (pp. 55-56) In this quotation, Shahnon indicates his urge to write short stories immediately after arriving in Australia and how homesickness and culture shock made him sentimental.
Initially, he suffered a deep yearning for his family and country

to the extend that it pervaded his dreams. He witnessed the plight of
the Australia aborigines. And on campus, he encountered the emergence of the Black Power movement among the students from Africa. These experiences were incorporated in his three short stories
written during 1968: Mimpi di Carroll Street, Tudawali and

Temanku Afrika. In all of these stories, the portrayal of the central
characters tension is important.

In the first short story, Mimpi di Carroll Street, which was written two months after he left his homeland, Shahnon reflects on
his own feelings through his narrators dream. In the dream, the narrator yearns for his parents and the people of his village. They arrive
half-naked at his place in Australia bringing him books. He is disappointed because they do not bring the Malay food and fruits he and his family long for. The dream, ending with his frustration, suggests
the close ties between the narrator and his family. Their half- naked-
I 43
ness symbolizes their poverty, but their presents are a symbolic indication of their love and care. These external details of the characters reveal their inner truths of love, poverty and intellectual isolation. In addition to demonstrating a deep concern for those he cares for, Shahnon is attempting to portray modem Western life set in the middle-class culture of Canberra. He juxtaposes this rat-race society that he is now experiencing with village society life which even though rich in poverty, is more harmonious and peaceful. In this short story Shahnon glorifies the people he loves. Although he could not physically bring them to Australia, he was able to write about them and express his longing through the narrator and his dream. In the dream, the meeting with loved ones comforts the narrator, but on awakening he feels an even greater sense of separation. This symbolizes Shahnons sense of isolation and loss. The second short story Tudawali is about the emotional stress experienced by an Australian aborigine from the Kurinji tribe.3 He feels humiliated when he is chased out from a hotel bar in Canberra like a dog. This short story portrays Shahnons reaction to discovering the practice of discrimination against the indigenous people of Australia. A week before the publication of this short story, Shahnon wrote an article in Utusan Zaman entitled Orang Australia yang Sial (The Cursed Australian) in which he described the contemporary condition of the aborigines. Both the article and the short story confront the issue of the oppression of the people of the soil who strive and unite to claim their rights. However Shahnon sees that the real tragedy lies in the fact that these indigenous people have no power to fight the bureaucratic machinery that is set in motion to counter their actions. Every struggle they make to claim their rights is easily squashed; their leaders are arrested and tortured. This situation dampens the spirits of the followers who no longer continue the fight. For the sake of their own survival, they remain silent and allow the oppression to continue unchecked. The third story, Temanku Afrika, tells of the narrators conversation with his friend Abbass Kotamba Afrika at a barbeque on the Australian National University campus. During their conversation, Kotamba declares his pride in his black skin. The two discuss the life-style of the sick people around them and the attitude of the world can go to hell who cares. Before their eyes, the party encourages the free mingling between the sexes and student drinking
-
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TENSION AND CHANGE
sessions. Witnessing this scene, the narrator is inspired by a feeling
of pride in the Malay nationality which guides his own standard of conduct. He contrasts the behaviour at the party with the attitudes of his own people who struggle to improve their way of life and strengthen their standard of education.
This story juxtaposes the different attitudes of three races: the black African who is proud of his colour, white people who indulge in permissive practices and are incurably sick, and the brownskined Malay who observes the rise and the decline of the other races
while his own people continue in their struggle for survival and dignity. Abbass Kotamba Afrika is aggressively proud of his skin and claims that every black man should struggle for the future of the dark races. Bennette, who represents the white people in this story, is a hippie whose philosophy of life is to seek pleasure rather than truth and originality. According to Bennette, pleasure should be sought at all costs even at the risk of jeopardising other peoples rights. The
narrator from Malaysia displays pride in the colour of his brown skin, and seing that the colour of his skin is closer to black than white, realizes that the black peoples struggle has much in common with the struggle of his own people. Both live in underdeveloped countries lacking modern technology and the western concept of progress. In an article on the role of writers as fighters of their time, Sasterawan sebagai Fighter Zamannya,4 Shahnon writes:
Bukanlah maksud saya hendak menyeru kepada sasterawan-sasterawan kita menjadi fighter bukan propaganda zamannya.
Tapi mengingatkan keadaan sekarang yang sedikit demi sedikit

terhimpit, hal mi perlu mendapat perhatian. Namun begitu tidak pula bererti fighter yang.sanggup niengorbankan segala ciri-ciri estetika yang merupakan sifat-sifat seni itu. (p. 42)
This stand is echoed by the character Kotamba who says:

Setiap rakyat perlu jadi fighter untuk bangsanya. Setiap rakyat hitam perlu jadi fighter bangsa yang hitam. Baik doktor, guru,
kerani, atache, ahli kimia-hayat atau nazir kubur ataupun penga145
rang mesti jadi fighter. Seorang fighter nasionalisme mesti meletakkan faedah bangsanya di atas faedah din sendiri, tapi tidak akan membunuh orang lain semata-mata untuk mendapatkan
faedah bersama. Saudara seorang pengarang? (p. 54) In fact, Abbass Kotamba Afrika acts as a spokesman for Shahnon in developing the idea of the fighter of the age.
In his article Keringnya Daya Kreatif Sendiri,5 Shahnon explains what inspired him to write Temanku Afrika. He relates how
the external details of peoples skin colours, their behaviour at the barbeque and different philosophies reveal their individual preoccu-
pations. He was aware that the racial power struggle was an extremely sensitive during that time:
Apakah mi dinamakan inspirasi? Aku kurang tahu. Tetapi konsentrasi darinya berbuahlah anak kedua6 di rantau yang kuberi
nama Temanku Afrika. Teman mi membawa satu pancaran ke arah terbentuk satu power yang khusus bagi menimbul kembali
identiti bangsa tercinta. Ab! Jangan lama-lama usik topik mi. Nahas awak! (p. 56)
These three short stories were written during Shahnons first six
months in 1968 in Australia. He continues to develop the theme so-
cial life and the struggle of Malays found in his earlier works. Written at home; these new stories were inspired by his experiences during his time far from his homeland. The short story Temanku Afrika ends with the following words: And on passing Canberra city which is in chaos and turmoil,
a thought runs through my mind: is there a possibility that my people
will be inspired to strive for Malay Power? The following year, Shahnon as head of GATRA4 (Gabungan Sasterawan Sedar), wrote a preface for an anthology of poetry. The anthology Kebangkitan7 (An
Awakening), consists of the cries from the souls of the poets of
GATRA on the nationalistic uprising of their race. Shahnon wrote: Kami adalah Bangsa Melayu, dalam perjuangan menegakkan
identiti melalui sastera. Dan bila dalam sajak-sajak kami, kami
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TENSION AND CHANGE
menyebut kami, kita, aku ertinya mudah sekali: Bangsa Melayu. Lain tidak ada kerana bagi kami dan mengikut kacamata kami bangsa lain sama sekali tidak exist dalam tanahair kami. Kalaupun ada, maka itu wajib dijadikan kami - sepenuhnya. Sama ada diterima atau tidak bukan soal kami kerana kami tidak mahu mengemis lagi: Bangsa Melayu yang berdisiplin, berteori kebangsaan yang tulen, dan satu adalah senjata yang ulung untuk menegakkan perjuangan nasionalisme. Kita mesti menaruh kepercayaan pada Bangsa Melayu. Tiga faktor yang kami percaya ialah: Teori perjuangan Pengetahuan sejarah Bangsa Melayu Pergerakan Praktikal Melalui antologi sajak, KEBANGKITAN oleh penyair-penyair GATRA inilah kami cuba mempraktikkannya. (pp. i-jim) The fundamental principle championed by Shahnon in this preface is a concept of Malay Power that is closely related with his short stories and novels written during this time. In early 1969, the Malaysian government worked to unite the various races of Malaysia. At the launching of National Unity Week on February 8, 1969, the Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak Hussein said, Today harmony between the different races is growing even stronger despite the unrelenting attacks made by the subversive elements to break up and destroy the harmony existing between 1 In spite of this assurance, on 13 May Malaysia witnessed the races. violent racial riots and bloodshed between Malays and Chinese.9
Tunku Abdul Rahman, the Prime Minister, wrote of the bloody incident: Many people died, and hundreds suffered injury. Houses were bunt, properties destroyed, vehicles wrecked. The whole city, normally so peacefully busy, trembled with apprehension. Such an unleashing of violence had never happened before in this country where people of different races had enjoyed tranquility and peace for as long as anyone could remember. The whole nation 147
suffered a profound shock, shaken too its very core, to such and extent that we can still quiver at the thought of what happened. Geographically speaking. Malaysia does not !ie in the earthquake belt, but May 13th, 1969, was certainly a social and political eruption of the first magnitude. (pp. 6-7) This riots of May 13 inspired Shahnon to write the following two short stories: Salam Sekeluarga and Al. Of the technique in the story Salam Sekeluarga, A.H. Johns wrote: Its point of departure is the May 13 riots of 1969, and it shows the villager at a loss to understand the world of urban-style politics: in effect it provides a link between his rural and political interests. It too shows striking advance in technique, and conveys a brilliant insight into the mind of a simple villager of the older generation, whose world and his responses to it are illustrated through his letters to his son in Australia.
(p. 121) Shahnon, writing about Salam Sekeluarga in the article Keringnya Daya Kreatif Sendiri, states that it not only contains greetings from relatives but also describes the hideous incidents of May 2 13 that caused him great torment and tension:
Tetapi Salam Sekeluarga bukan hanya sebuah salam, seketul hati atau kermnduan. Tercecah ke dalamnya ramuan 13 Mei. Mendengar kisah 13 Mci dan seberang laut merupakan satu seksaan yang cukup besar. Macam-macam terjelma; yang bukan-bukan
kadang-kadangnya. Kebimbangan sukar dihurai. Dan kebimbangan itu bukan setakat maut tetapi juga perpecahan dalam masyarakat, persediaan anak-anak desa yang kosong. (p. 56) Salam Sekeluarga describes various aspects of poverty, sincerity and resoluteness among the village people in the period preceding the general election of May 10, 1969 and the subsequent tragic bloodshed in Kuala Lumpur. The poverty is depicted as originating from illiteracy and poor health. There is also suffering as a
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TENSION AND CHANGE
result of the oppression and injustice by those in influential positions. In the story, Shahnon emphasizes the sincerity and naivety of village people who, despite their poverty, refuse to admit defeat and
are prepared to die fighting their enemies.

If the short story Salam Sekeluarga shows the effect of the 13 May incident on the spirits of the villagers, the story Al shows the
couldnt care less attitude of an official of the Malaysian High Commission in Canberra towards the same incident. Concerning this Story, Shahnon wrote:3
Tetapi kita cepat lupa pada 13 Mci. Saya sendiri sudah tidak ingat. Kesibukan kota dengan segala kepalsuan, buat-buatan, hipokrasi dan maksiat menujah dinding-dinding hati dan jantung semula. Orang hidup dalam kebohongan. Setiap detik mahu saja bikin kritik terhadap keadaan sosial; selalu cuba hendak analisa din orang lain; tidak pula din sendiri. Dengan rasa muak berbuahlah Al. Al sebenarnya kependekan Ali. Tetapi Ali sebenarnya tidak Ali. Sengaja diadakan. Yang betul-betul ada cuma ciri-ciri Ali. Sifat-sifat begitu mudah diwarnai oleh maksiat dan iblis-iblis dan setan-setan Barat hinggakan terus lupa segala problem di tanahair. Kerana begitu sibuk bergelumang berlumuran dengan perempuan kulit putih, judi kuda, botol-botol dan egoisme, Al naik malu amat sangat dan jengkel pula bila dia secara tiba-tiba diperintah pulang ke tanahair. Sebabnya senang saja. Al tahu di tanahair tidak ada apa-apa selamn problem. Dan problem-problem itu banyak coraknya pula: kemiskinan, kebodohan, rangka rakyat, kerbau lembu, kebuluran, tangisan, keciciran dan segala benda dan setiap bucu negara. (p. 56) In Al, Shahnon criticizes the behaviour of a diplomat who should be a model representative of his country, but forgets his own roots. Al should express concern for the bloody incident in his country and represent the ideals of his own country, but he ignores his responsibilities and adopts a western life-style. He prefers to be known by the European name Al, rather than his Malay name, in
order to fit in with his western surroundings. He seizes every opportunity to have affairs with the women at his office. He spends his time going to pubs and other places of entertainment. Luxuriating in 149
the pleasures of the diplomatic circuit, Al feels far removed from the
problems and struggles of his people, and the loss of lives does not seem to affect him in the least. In the story Temanku Afrika, the narrator is shown as learning a lot about nationalism from his friend Abbass Kotamba Afrika from Nigeria, in this story, Al learns about
immoralities from his friend Kotamba, the attache from Ghana. There
an element of poetic justice seen at the end of this story when, as a consequence of his intolerable behaviour, Al is ordered to return
is
home to face the people so despised by him and so loved by the writer.
Both Salam Sekeluarga and Al reveal Shahnons own attitudes to the 13 May incident. In the first story, he displays great sympathy for the struggles of his own people and his family back home while in the second, he shows distaste towards the attitude and behaviour of the young diplomat who seems to have forgotten his roots. Shahnon also wrote a short novel about the 13 May race riots
entitled Macif/can Saya (Forgive Me) which he later changed to Jangan Maafkan Saya (Forgive Me Not). The novel was never published because it dealt with politically sensitive issues. Shahnon explains the circumstances for the publishers decision in his article Keringnya Daya Kreatif Sendiri; he states that the novel was rejected on the grounds that it would embarrass the government because it criti4 cised the governments mishandling of the situation. When Shahnon left Malaysia he experienced a sense of the loss of his village life and a renewed sense of pride in his country. This sense of nationalism differs from that found in his earlier novels Menteri and Perdana. Now that he is a Malaysian abroad, he feels a sense of responsibility for Malaysias image.
In the short story Denak and the novel Srengenge, Shahnon further develops portraying purely human tension, the anger and frustration which can result from intense feelings of nationalism. Denak describes of Imam Hamads pastime of snaring turtle doves; he places his tame decoy bird on the ground and surrounded by snares and awaits the arrival of the wild birds. One day, the bird refuses to
coo, and this angers Imam Hamad so much he kills his beloved de-
coy and burns its cage. Later, when he discovers that a sparrow hawk was terroiising his bird, he feels intense remorse. This story is an expansion of a passage in Srengenge (pp.54-59) which Shahnon was
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completing at the time. There are similarities of themes and only slight differences in the sentence structures found in the short story and that section of the novel. The emotions, anger and frustration along with Imam Hamads act of violence in burning the birds cage
are somewhat symbolic of Shahnons bitter frustration towards the elders of his country in the wake of the May 13 incident. The short story Kalau Ibu Sampai Takah Tiga consists of a letter from abroad to the narrators brother in Malaysia. This is the
first time Shahnon has used the letter as a literary technique in his work. Their mother is seriously ill, and the narrator, anxious and homesick for his mother, expressed. his trust in Allah. He accepts the inevitability of her death, eventhough he is not there by her side, firm in his belief and faith that they will meet again in the hereafter.
There is a spirit of optimism and a sense of trust, as the narrator urges his brother to nurse their sick mother with care by giving her both her medicine and all necessary nourishment. This life, says the narrator, consists of four phases, and their mother is about to enter the third phase, death. Every effort should be made to ensure that all
the funeral rites, the lying in state at home, the burial and the ritual feast are carried-out properly.
The contents of the letter reveal a man who, although from the modern city, still upholds the values and way of life of the village. In
spending the money for the funeral, the narrator advises his brother,
What people say doesnt matter... Let them say that we are being
extravagant, it doesnt matter. As long as our conscience is clear. As long as we farewell mother with dignity. As long as our hearts are given relief. What do others know of us anyway? He also advises
that the hospital would involve a big upheaval along with financial and transport difficulties. Their mother need not be taken, If she is fated to live long, she will recover in our home. If on the other hand she is fated to have a short life, she will die in our home. In short we
should thank Allah for all that He wills. If mother has been invited to go,we should let her go with thanks. If she is forbidden to go, we shall accept her with thanks. The narrator is well contented with his
providence from God and being poor from generation to generation. He considers it as Allahs divine will. Through the contents of the letter, the anguish and tension of the narrator are implied. The narrator far from his family, is unable to offer practical help, yet he is anxious that all that can be done, be
151
done. With all his apparent qualities of resignation, faith and con-
viction, he expresses the strength of his love for his family and fellow villagers. Villagers highly value peace of mind, and they desire a
congenial atmosphere in which they can serve God. When these two states have keen achieved, happiness will follow. The short story Igau was Shahnons reaction to spending Hart Raya in Australia. For the Malay people, Hart Raya is a day of reunion with all members of a family; it is the time when all those who are far away should return to the head of the family in the village. While Shahnon was in Australia, this was not possible. He and his wife and children tried not to think of their loneliness and isolation in the foreign land. In the story Igau, Shahnon conveys the sense of isolation and disorientation through the juxtaposition of graphically vivid images. The sensuality of some of the passages perhaps
indicates Shahnons reactions to the freedom of dress and behaviour. Igau opens on the morning of Hart Raya, with the narrator asking himself, Im not a slave, so who am I?. This reminds him of the atmosphere of the big day, his serene beautiful village with the
paddy fields, Srengenge Hill, his grandparents, his parents; all the
various uncles and aunts, and all the villagers. He is brought back to
the present in Australia by a scene occurring in front of his house. He can see a young couple embracing each other on the verandah of their house. Facing his beloved wife and children, his mind returns to the village celebrating the Hart Raya. Then the narrator sees a woman in a miniskirt. In his imagination, he grabs at her miniskirt, pulls at her bra, wrenches off her panties and rapes her. Then he sees
his neighbour standing by the rubbish bin in heavy rain and thunder,
thus associating sex with rubbish. The neighbours stoop is similar to Nyang Limahs back home. He visualizes Nyang Limah lullabying
her grandchild with her song and going downstairs to check her fishing lines in the pouring rain and thunderstorm. Lightning strikes her,
and she collapses dying in the yard. The children are coming with the Han Raya wishes, followed by the wife. The village is still. The cries of mother, father, uncle and auntie are swallowed by Srengenge Hill. His family is planning to go to Lake Burley Griffin, Tidbinbilla and Western Creek. Then they are surrounded by thousands of brick
homes interspersed with wooden thatched houses. White and brown-
skined peo15le mingle together. Churches stand side by side with

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Teenagers kiss each other on the steps of the churches and the mosques. A queue led by a beautiful naked woman is followed by
mosques.
the members of the family. The rain subsides, and the children demand to be taken out. Together the family smile, although their
hearts are tormented.
As the summary shows, Igau is full of contrasting elements and different events, lifestyles and people. The narrator, ltving in a modem city of Canberra, is thinking of his traditional village. The merriment of the festival is contrasted with his loneliness in a foreign land. In vivid language, he describes the morning atmosphere of the Hart Raya back home. The realities of Canberra and the memories of his village back home are interwoven throughout the story. Srengenge, which means sun is a rural novel like Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, in which Shahnon Ahmad ponders problem through characters who demonstrate conflicting attitudes and principles towards life. In rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang Ja/an, the paddy fields are central to the plot. In Srengenge ~ the conflict arise from the uncleared land on a hill. The novel has interesting features. It is reasonably long with 21 chapters. In structuring the chapters there
surprisingly short with chapter ten consisting of a single sentence.
Here Shahnon is using formal structure to intensify the emotional development of the narrative. The story focuses on a hill, Bukit Srengenge, which is situated
beside the village of Kampung Kaki Srengenge. The hill possesses
magical powers which are revered by the villagers. They have taboos in dealing with the hill and regularly perform rites as they believe the hill can be easily provoked to anger. The novel opens with a description of a wanderer and outsider named Awang Cik Teh. He hates Bukit Srengenge because he believes it should be cultivated with rice and vegetables. Initialy his wife, Keghesum, opposes his plans to cultivate the hill, but her opposition is only as strong as the rice crust because when the project is actualy underway, she works at it even more enthusiastically than her husband. Chapter two introduces Imam Hamad who is a religious and village leader. He is thoroughly preoccupied with his favourite hobby of decoying doves in the forest of Bukit Srengenge. One evening,
during the time of the maghrib prayers, he is absorbed in playing
with his decoy bird. At that very moment, Awang Cik Teh decides to 153
come to see him about his plan to cultivate the hill. Chapter three describes Awang Cik Teh and Keghesums visit to the imam to seek his support for their plan to cultivate the hill. In
this way, Shahnon brings together the two major characters whose relationship is so critical. Imam Hamad refuses to agree to this idea, giving as an excuse the complicated legal negotiations with the government that would be necessary before the land can be acquired.
Early the next morning Imam Hamad and Diah, a long standing opponent of Awang Cik Tehs enterprises and another lover of doves, venture out to Bukit Srengenge to decoy birds. Imam Hamad tells Diah of Awang Cik Tehs proposal, and Diah immediately condemns
the old man. In this fourth chapter, Imam Hamad and Diah survey
the beauty of the hill and explicity reject the idea to. cultivate. The next stage of the plot relates the violent death of the decoy bird, Jebat. When the imams birds sees a sparrow-hawk and remains silent, Imarn Hamad is seized with uncontrollable anger and kills it.
When he realizes what he has done, Imam Hamad is filled with horror and dismay. Blaming the hill, he seeks revenge and decides it
should be cultivated. As the story develops, Imam Hamad goes to Awang Cik Tehs house. He agrees to clear the hill which he previously wanted to protect; the hill that he once revered is now his enemy. The following chapter, chapter seven, dwells on Awang Cik Tehs feeling of
relief and gratitude about Imam Hamads change of heart towards his
plans to turn the hill into dry rice fields. Chapter eight is an interlude to break the suspense focuses on Diah who is deciding to catch another decoy bird for Imam Hamad. The chapter describes his efforts to find a suitable bird.
The central chapter in the novel is chapter nine in which Imam Hamad returns from visiting Awang Cik Teh. Upon reaching home, he directs the beam of his torchlight to the place where he used to
hang his bird cage. Quite suddenly he is seized by a cataleptic fit; he
trembles violently and falls unconscious. His wife Haji Munah summons Bomoh Useng, the village healer, to attend him and the healer explains that the imam has been possessed by the spirits of Bukit
Srengenge. In order to cure him, offerings have to be made to the hill. Chapter ten is a single sentence describing Imam Hamad lying stiff on the floor. Chapter eleven, a mere two sentences, describes 154
TENSION AND CHANGE
the offerings that are being prepared for the spirits. Chapter twelve returns to Imam Hamad lying in comatose on the mat. Then the story
is developed at greater length in chapter thirteen; it describes how Bomoh Useng and the villagers bring offerings to the hill at midnight. Chapter fourteen touches on the other characters whose lives are associated with Bukit Srengenge through their hobbies. Useng traps porcupines; Sidik traps deer; and Saad Cik Lah limes pigeons and parakeets. Chapter fifteen returns to the house of Imam Hamad where the Imam, who is still unconscious, suddenly jerks spasmodically then becomes still and stiff again. In the following chapters Imam Hamad remains in a state of catalepsy while Bomoh Useng and the villagers place the offerings for the spirits of the hill. Despite their offerings, Imam Hamad remains unconscious. In chapter nineteen, the author take us into Imam Hamads mind to show the strange hallucination in which the dead decoy bird torments its owner. In chapter twenty, Imam Hamads condition has still not improved. Diah questions Awang Cik Teh about his intention to clear Bukit Sren-genge. Bomoh Useng suspects Awang Cik Teh is also possessed by the spirits after Awang Cik Teh reveals his plans to the people. Awang Cik Teh is very upset and embarrassed when he is sneered at by Diah, his long time enemy. The old man wishes to go home, but is persuaded to start the reading of Surah Yasin for Imam Hamad whose condition is beginning to worsen. Soon after, Imam Hamad dies without regaining consciousness. The final chapter, chapter twenty-one concerns the villagers consternation at the death of Imam Hamad. They are convinced it was caused by the wrath of the hill. Ironically, it is Awang Cik Teh who, in his fury and frustration, curses the hill and accuses it of be-
ing a murderer. The first stylistic feature to be examined is Shahnons description of the characters experiences, particularly their hobbies and pastimes: Sidek and his beating for mousedeer, Saad Cik Lah and his liming of birds; Diah and his decoying of turtle doves. Through these hobbies, Shahnon depicts the thoughts of his characters which he later develops into a depiction of their inner feelings. Siddik is always preoccupied with his pastime of beating for mousedeer and chevrotain. Shahnon vividly shows the delight of
Siddik when the mousedeer falls into his trap, He enjoyed watching 155
the mousedeer leaping through the air and crashing down ten paces
in front of him. Siddik took extraordinary delight in watching the mousedeer flung into the air with their legs crippled: no words could
ever describe his pleasure Saad Cik Lah never eats the birds that he catches through liming
because the meat is tough. He only seeks fun and enjoyment even when the birds are in agony: Tapi Saad Cik Lah tidak peduli. Sementara menunggu padi masak di baruh, apalah hendak dia kerjakan selain mengetah puling dan punai. Bila getah geluk terlekat pada kepak punai, burung itu pastinya menggelupur. Dan sikap begitu menambahkan lagi getah geluk yang hat di bulunya. Terus menggelupur burung itu. Dan
kemudian jatuh ke tanah. Kadang-kadang sementara tiba di perdu meranti, burung yang tidak upaya berkepak lagi itu tersangkut di celah dahan. Kadang-kadang Saad Cik Lah membiarkan saja burung itu busuk di dahan itu. Pemah sekali dulu seekor punai jantan tersangkut di dahan penuh kerengga. Burung itu menggelupur bukan main garang. Tapi kerengga menyerbu semakin banyak.
Punai tinggal tidak menggelupur lagi. Saad Cik Lah tahu apa telah terjadi. Punai jantan sudah mati. Tapi Saad Cik Lah tidak peduli segala-galanya. Mati atau hidup tidak menjadi soal. Dia bukan hendak makan burung punai atau puling itu. Dagingnya hat. Kalau
tidak mati dia campakkan saja ke datam sangkar besarnya di rumali. Yang tergerak hati dia menggetah burung hanya kerana kegirangannya sukar diceritakan waktu burung itu menggelupur lintang-pukang hendak merungkaikan getah geluk yang hat yang terkapuk kejap pada bulu kedua belah kepak. Semakin kuat
menggelupur, semakin erat lagi getah itu melekat. Alangkah indahnya pandangan seumpama itu. (pp. 22-23) Diah, too, is absorbed in his pastime of decoying turtle doves at Bukit Srengenge. This is how Shahnon describes Diah preparing an area to decoy doves: He looks for a branch which could attract a wild bird. Then he puts the pegs of the snare around his decoy bird Didik. He waits anxiously for a wild spotted dove to appear in the undergrowth, and imagines the coming of the wild bird and which will get entangled in the snare. In the following description, 156
TENSION AND CHANGE
Shahnon shows how Diah is preoccupied waiting for the wild bird: Diah snaps his fingers. Didik peers around then coos, as if challenging the wild birds: come and attack me, if you dare! This is Didik,
champion of Srengenge. With this hobby, Diah gains a sense of pleasure in torturing innocent helpless animals. A further development is the authors description of the internal feelings of his three important characters: the killing of the decoy bird and hallucination of Imam Hamad, the trance and offerings of Bomoh Useng and the dream and anger of Awang Cik Teh. Imam Hamad kills his beloved decoy bird in a bizarre and grotesque manner after it refused to coo to attract the wild dove. He rips
off the birds leg and squeezes its body. He tears its wings off, grabs the birds crop and thrusts his finger into it to break the flesh. The undigested rice seeds come out from the crop and the bird dies. Shahnon uses staccato words and short sentences to show Imam Hamads anger and violence in a deliberately horrifying manner: Sekatigus Jebat disentap dan tumang. Paha kanan Jebat tercabut. Darah kehuar. Dia eratkan cekakannya hingga terkiak-kiak bunyi
tulang Jebat berlaga. Dia mencabut bulu kepak sehelai demi sehelai. Dia mencabut bulu tengkuk sehelai demi sehelai. Kemudian
bulu ekor, bulu betakang, buhu perut hingga gondol. Hodoh bukan buatan. Deraan itu disahut oleh Jebat dengan jalan mengelipngehip matanya. Sebelah kepak dicabut sekaligus. Dicabut pula sebelah hagi. Ditariknya kaki sebelah. Perut Jebat masih terasa kembung kempisnya. Nadi masih ada. Tiba-tiba Imam Hamad cekak tembolok. Ada padi di dalam yang
masih belum lumat. Tembolok ditujah dengan telunjuk. Hujung telunjuk itu disentap. Pecah dan tersembur keluar segala benda
yang ada.
Jebat menggelupur sedikit. Kemudian senyap. (pp. 57-58) The writer shows the physical violence and cruelty of Imam Hamad to the bird. In a sense, it is a sacrilege committed on the hill because Imam Hamad has lost his temper and killed something innocent. The blood of the innocent bird is mixed with the earth of the
157
scared hill. The bird is killed because of petulance and temper. He could see Jebats two, silent eyes in front of him, begging for mercy. He had torn the feathers out, one after another. Broken the wings. Jerked out the tail-feathers. Ripped off a leg. The foot shuddered. Then stopped moving. Immediately before Imam Hamad is seized by the cataleptic fit, Shahnon vividly describes the characters feeling. His torch-light hit-
ting the middle pillar of the house where Jebats cage usually hangs,
reminds him of his dead bird. Then, the metat hanger seems to move;
his hand begins to shake; his fingers that killed the innocent dove begin to tremble. Despite his efforts to hold his right fingers with his left hand, the motion spread to both hands. The two hands and ten
fingers shivered like nothing on earth. During the seizure, Imam Hamads body jerks again and again
as if possessed by an ancestral spirit. The shaking spreads to his knees. His dead decoy bird comes to torment him again, Jebat lay on top of the camels hump, naked. Without a single feather. The bird was alive. Its stomach seemed to contract and expand. Hamad seemed to hear its heart beat. The decoys crystal, pleading eyes began to glaze and harden. A sparrow-hawk with a sharp crooked
beak flew .down not far from the camels hump. When it opened its
mouth, the Imam could see the ugly black roof of its mouth. It let out an incredibly ugly laugh. He falls unconscious and lies stiff on the mat in his house.
After lying on the mat for a day, Imam Hamad experiences another hallucination of the bird tormenting him. He begs for mercy from his bird which appears to be as big as the Srengenge hill. Then the huge bird kicks Imam Hamads body and plants its foot on his chest. It gradually. begins to press down and Imam feels his ribs
squeezed and his bones crack; it is how he had treated the bird. The bird pecks and tears his flesh as he screams, Why are you torturing me like this? Again and again, the huge bird pecks at the Imams
eyeballs. Finally, images of a large porcupine, mousedeer, pigeon,
red scorpions, cobras and vipers come running towards him. He surrenders his body to the animals knowing that they will kill him as
soon as they attack him. Suddenly the giant animals vanished. The single-legged Jebat vanished. The Imam seemed to be lying on cleared open ground, on Srengenge. He feels something cold touch his wrist. He feels refreshed. Some parts of the hallucination de158
TENSION AND CHANGE
picted by Shahnon are extremely hideous, terrifying and bizarre because of their violence and bloodshed. Tiba-tiba sehelah kaki Jebat tercabut paha. Darah mengalir deras membasahi Srengenge. Tergenanglah yang sebelah lagi kaki Jebat dalam darah merah yang panas. Sedikit demi sedikit darah itu bertambah hingga naik hampir-hampir ke batang hidung tmam yang masih membongkok ke bawah tembolok meminta ampun. Imam cuba mencabut tumang yang maha besar ito.
(p. 205-206)
Shahnon Ahmad portrays the character Bomoh Useng as a traditional healer trying to cure Imam Hamad. Bomoh Useng believes Imam Hamad has been possessed by the evil spirits of Srengenge Hill. His method of treatment involves going into a trance and making an offering to the hill. The author describes the trance vividly through the behaviour and feelings of Bomoh Useng. Sitting cross-legged and mumbling, he invokes the spirits from the hill. He leaps up and beckons something from Srengenge. His lips mumbled as he called the sacred forces to him. His knees began to shake. Then his hands also shook Suddenly his whole body began to shake, jerking first in one direction, then in another. He then hits the sick man with a leafy branch and questions the spirit through Imam Hamad. Imam Hamad is in great pain because Bomoh Useng is squeezing his right thumbnail with a betel-nut cracker to get a reply from the spirits. Useng keeps up the interrogation; Imam Hamad replies: Asal usul engkau? Srengenge. Nenek engkau? Srengenge. Bapa engkau? Srengenge. Emak engkau? Srengenge. From the information gained white in a state of trance, Useng tells Imam Hamads family to make an offering to the spirits of the 159
hill. The villagers immediately prepare the offering. Using short, rhythmic sentences, Shahnon vividly describes how the offering is performed by Useng and other villagers. Useng looks for a suitable spot to make the offering. He then invokes the name of God and asks for protection for every member of the party. He asks for permission from every ancestor on the hill to enter it. After he has selected the right site to lay the offering, Useng chants spells and prayers. At this particular moment in the trance, Shahnon describes Useng as not the Useng they know. It was someone else. The feet were not the feet of Useng, the fanatical porcupine hunter. The feet belonged to someone else. The simple villager is transformed into a supernatural power. Shahnon describes how Bomoh Useng prepares the site for the offerings with respect and reverence around a gigantic trunk in the middle of the hill during the middle of the night. He says a ritual chant: Useng bukan Useng lagi di kala itu. Dia sudah menjadi orang lain. Kakinya yang melangkah bukan kaki Useng yang gila menjebak landak. Kaki itu kaki orang lain. Kalau Useng sebagai Useng, dia tidak akan boleh berjalan begitu. Dia tidak akan berani masuk rimbanya Srengenge malam-malam buta. Dan mi menyebabkan
pengikut-pengikutnya menaruh segala harapan kepada Useng

kerana mereka sendiri bukan dipimpin oleh Useng. Mereka ~ipimpin oleh orang lain. Sengaja mereka tidak mahu sebut siapa orang itu. Semua sudah tahu. Useng ada orangnya. Dan orang itu
pergi terlebih dulu ke depan. Kerana orang itu jugalah salam bersambut pintu terbuka. Kalau tidak, masakan. Useng mencabut rumput peram seperdu. Dibungkusnya seperdu rumput peram itu dengan kain hilit kepala dan digantung ke pokok sebelah. Dengan syarat-syarat itu mereka yang lain mulai menurunkan badang dan kepala. Perlahan-lahan badang itu diletak ke tanah yang memang pun semak. Jamung dipacak. Geluk diletak. Kain putih diletak, Cepat pula mereka cerahkan semak di ketiting perdu merbau berakar timbul itu. Yang mencabut, mencabut. Yang menebas, menebas. Yang merintis, merintislah. Cerahlah semak kehiling perdu merbau yang enain tujuh pemeluk itu. Badang-badang yang terisi ayam panggang, diatur ketiling perdu. Geluk dan hIm berbenang hitam pintal ditetak ke atas kain putih terhampar. Useng mengambil hIm-hIm itu dan cucuk ke atas 160
TENSION AND CHANGE geluk air tawar. Cepat pula dia duduk bersila di atas hujung kain putib. Lampu picitnya dipadam. Yang lain duduk di atas tanah
mngelilingi perdu merbau enam tujuh pemeluk itu. Useng terus menycluk ke dalam geluk air tawar. Airnya dipercik-percik ke perdu merbau itu. Dia membaca sesuatu; entab dan ayat Quran entah dan kitab mana. Sekali-sekala sebut nama Adam. Sekalisekala bercakap Siam. Sekali-sekala pula ada nada-nada bahasa Hindu. Campur-baurlah Siam, Melayu, Arab dan Hindu dalam doa itu. Yang lain duduk bersila cekup kemaluan.masing-masing. Semua melihat batang merbau di tengah-tengah. (pp. 196-198)
After describing the experiences of Imam Hamad and Bomoh Useng. Shahpon adds to the suspence by relating the dream of Awang Cik Teh, the main character in the novel. Awang Cik Tehs determination to clear the land on the hill is very intense. He is disappointed over the superstitiousness of the village people and their offerings to the hill in the middle of the night. His disappointment precipitates his dream of successfully urging the people to cultivate the hill. In his dream, Awang Cik Teh sees the people of the village busy clearing trees from ~very corner of the hill. He hears the people who oppose him, such as Diah, Kasseng, Saad Cik Lah and Useng, laughing excitedly while clearing the land. The people then till the land and plant their crops. The rice grows very quickly, and the good harvest makes everyone cheerful: Bunyi orang menebang datang dan setiap penjuru. Berdekungdekung. Berdekang-dekang. Pokok merbau, meranti, pinang baik, semuanya tumbang. Bunyinya berdesing masuk telinga. Dan kemudian gedebam sembah bumi. Banirnya pecab. Dahan-dahannya renggang. Ranting-rantingnya benkecai. Daun-daunnya bencempera dan melayang-layang hingga jatuh entah ke mana. ltu dia ketawa Diah dan Kasseng berdekah-dekah. Awang Cik Teh bersorak. Sayup-sayup sorakannya disambut oleh sorakan-sorakan yang lain. Itu tentunya Useng dan Saad Cik Lab. Kemudian pakok tumbang lagi. Tumbang lagi. Dahan-dahan dan ranting berkecal. Bergedegum bunyinya. Sorakan kedengaran lagi. Orang bersorak. Suara budak-budak meresik sekali. Pokok tumbang lagi. 161
Srengenge jadi gamat dengan sorakan dan gedegum pokok turnbang. (pp. 185-186) However, in reality, Awang Cik Teh faces strong opposition from the village people especially the hunters who have their own vested interests in the area. Awang Cik Teh is very critical of this opposition because the people, whom he considers buffaloes, are not keeping up with progress and development. Because of his obsession to cultivate the land in the face of opposition, he has a dream of his success; his frustrations lead to dreams of fulfillment. Awang Cik Tehs loss of temper also reveals his inner tension. In the midst of Imam Hamads acute illnesss, while Useng is trying desperately to save Imam Hamads life, Awang Cik Teh is embarrassed by Diah and Siddik. Both of them interrogate him about his plan, but Awang Cik Teh felt this was not the moment to talk about what he wanted. He knew what the consequences would be, but Diah and Siddik still insist and pretend not to know what Awang Cik Teh wants. In return, Awang Cik Teh asks Diah, Why do you want to know? Do you have something planned, Diah? Yes, Diah suddenly replied, surprising everybody. Awang Cik Teh felt trapped. It was his own deliberate fault. Clearing Srengenge, Diah said cynically. A few people gasped. Awang Cik Teh turned his head away. Diah had caught him right across the nose. Awang Cik Teh is terribly upset by this sinister remark from Diah, so he openly shows his antagonistic attitude to the hill that is so revered by the villagers. When he hears Awang Cik Tehs verbal attack upon the hill, Bomoh Useng thinks that he, like Iman Hathad, is possessed by the spirits of the hill. Awang Cik Teh continues to swear at the hill. He says that the only solution to their problems is to give the hill an axe, meaning it should be cultivated immediately. There is nothing sacred about the hill. He says: Srengenge lawannya cuma kapak dan api.Lain tidak ada, sambung Awang Cik Teh. Srengenge habuannya cuma kapak dan api. Merbaunya merantinya pinang baiknya mesti ditutuh. Bukan berjamu ayam panggang lirna enam ekor. Bukan rnenyembah. Srengenge bukan Tuhan. 162
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Srengenge hanya bukit. Saw saja habuan Srengenge. Kapak, kata Awang Cik Teh. Srengenge bedebah itu ubatnya curna satu. Kapak, ulangi Awang Cik Teh sambil menudingkan telunjuk kanannya ke arah Srengenge yang itu-itu juga. Hanya kapak dan api saja hadiah kepada Srengenge, ulangi Awang Cik Teh. (pp. 220-224) To Useng, Awang Cik Tehs curses upon the hill is a matter serious enough to cause the wrath of the spirits. It is just like desecrating a prayer house, or gravestone, or intending to tear the Holy
Quran:
Useng terus bersabar. Mulutnya berkumat-kamit. Benar dia tidak membawa Awang Cik Teh bersama- sarna semalam. Apakah itu sebabnya? Boleh jadi Awang Cik Teh berniat buruk terhadap Srengenge. Berniat saja pun sudah cukup. Apa lagilah kalau niat itu hendak tutuh setiap merbau setiap meranti yang ada. Itu sama saja seperti menelanjangi Srengenge. Sama seperti runtuh madrasah. Sama seperti cabut batu nisan. AEau bemiat hendak koyak Quran. Orang boleh jadi sasar. Niat itu sendiri akan menjelma dalam pelbagai rupa dan akan mengikut ke mana saja walau dalam tidur sekalipun. (p. 224) In the novel Srengenge, Shahnon is more direct in his portrayal of violence than in his earlier novels. He describes violence against nature, the hill; against animals for pleasure; and when Bomoh Useng is treating Imam Hamad, voilence among men. There is also bloodshed from Imam Hamads bird as well as Imam Hamads own fingers. As a result of violence and bloodshed, Imam Hamad dies without gaining consciousness. Thus, while he was in Australia, Shahnon Ahmad experimented with the stream-of-consciousness technique to portray inner-tension. In the eight short stories and novel, Shahnons depiction of feelings 163
of isolation, arrogance, frustration and anger are a result of his own personal feelings. Srengenge is Shahnons first attempt to use the stream of consciousness technique in a full-length novel. The technique is developed further in the five short stories and novel which werewritten after his return to Malaysia. Consolidation of a New Technique: The Novel Sampah (1974) During the period 1972 to 1974, Shahnon Ahmad wrote five short stories and a novel. The short stories, Kalbu, Lagu Kitkitkit, Tak Keruan, Kelapa Nan Sebatang and Perempuan, were collected together in the anthology Selesai Sudah.16 The novel written during this period is Sampah; a fragment of it first appeared in the August 1974 issue of Dewan Sastera. Both the stories and the novel depict the inner-tension of man through the stream-of-consciousness technique. In these works, Shahnon is digesting his experiences and the new horizons which were opened to him in Australia. His reactions to being far from home are found in the short stories with more synthesis and contemplation taking place in the novels. His separation from Malaysia gave him a new perspective on his homeland and perspective in Malay literature. Able to reassess the work of modern writers, Shahnon concluded that much of their work was still traditional.18 Commenting on the tension and separation from home, Shahnon once said, The frantic traffic of the roads, the throngs of people constantly rushing hither and thither for no apparent reason, like millions of rats in a gigantic rat-race, compare this with the serene atmosphere of a kampung. Ah! Truly I am a man torn apart, a man of the village who is forever an exile. This is my conflict.19 Although his rural novels describe village life as full of conflict and struggle, when he was far from home, he yearned for his village which, from Australia, seemed idyllic. The first short story written by Shahnon after his return to Malaysia was Kalbu. In it Shahnon returns to the theme of mans internal conflict. The language of the story is so condensed and the imagery so brutal, vivid and disconnected, it is difficult to understand. It is the interior monologue of Sdr T., a political leader who is confronting his electorate. Sdr T. is aware that he is a hypocrite. He had once promised the people prosperity, but lied to them and used
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them as stepping stones to his own personnal success. He feels guilty and yet, at the end of the story in the days of his decline, he still bragging that he is the greatest. Sdr T.s internal conflict arises from the disparity between his public and private lives. In his public life he is expected to set an example through honest and clean living, and to serve his people. In his private life, however, he is corrupt, hypocritical and promiscuous. The opening scene of the story depicts his true attitude to his people. He feels disgust when he thinks of them and likens the crowd to a squirming heap of seething intestines full of slime and mucus. A significant stylistic element in this story is the use of a combination of words to portray the tension of Sdr T. For example, Shahnon uses the following words to describe moral values and political corruption: tersusup-sasap, creepy-crawly; papakerma, cursed destitution; putihsucimurni, white and squeaky-clean; bercuitgamitlah, gesticulating and beckoning; bersumbangkadim, committing eternal incest; bertelanjang bogang, stark-naked; and dewatamuliaraya, gods and goddesses. This style is very effective in portraying the tension of his main character. The short story Lagu Kitkitkit is about a boy named Montel who is happy, as gay as death, when his mother becomes ill. The arrival of visitors adds to his gaiety. He runs around cheerfully chasing the butterflies and dragonflies that fly about in all their glory. Montel becomes increasingly happy as more visitors arrive. They pat his head, caress his forehead and affectionately pinch his cheeks. He feels content and this is what he has been longing for. He sings the song Mak sakit.. kit...kit.. kit. The story ends with his mothers death, but Montel is still blissfully happy, oblivious to the implications of this event. From the description of Montels lotiely and isolated life with his mother, living in an old shabby hut and going out daily with her to tap rubber trees, the reader understands Montels deep yearning for love and attention. When his mother falls ill, he deliberately sits at the door way to receive the patting, caressing and pinching from the visitors. His dying mother smiles as she hears her childs voice. For her, suffering has no meaning because suffering has been an integral part of her life. Shahnon elaborates the innocence of the child who never tires of playing, even after his mothers sickness grows more aOute. He 165
continues singing the same song over and over. When a Visitor is busy looking around for the Quran to recite the Surah Yassin, Montel asks,What are you looking for? In a child-like tone and unable to speak with any amount of fluency, he calls the Holy Book Kura. While the people are reading from the Quran , Montel is preoccupied
with searching for a pillow to sleep on. He falls asleep in the midst of the visitors. Not long after, his mother dies and smiles no longer. Through this story, Shahnon portrays the child as a human being who is innocent, ignorant of pain, suffering and death. A childs life centres upon the need for love and attention from others. Lie lives perpetually in a world of dreams because his grasp of reality is limited; he bestows affection on whoever is willing to give the same to him. This exploration of child psychology is a new departure in modern Malay fiction.2The childs world of innocence and its ignorance of sickness and death is portrayed through the eyes of an adult. Shahnon places the childs imagination and fantasy in the midst of adult realities. The short story Tak Keruan opens with a narrator looking from a window for green leaves, but finding only leaves that are dry and droopy. This observation leads him to ponder on the question of aging and death. He plays with his child and has a meal with his family. He then feels the estrangement between the mind and the soul, and between the is and the is not. Meanwhile, the children argue whether there is rice in the pot or there is no rice in the pot. This raises questions about harmony and the self-awareness of man. This short story raises questions about the realies of mans being and the philosophies concerned with it. The narrator ponders complex philosophical issues. For example, he seeks the source of suffering in life and decides that Adam and Eve are the source of all suffering, war, tension, isolation, loneliness and conflict. In this life, he says, There are idiots, there are those who have to shoulder all the disasters. We are mere puppets. We are the products of the creation. The Creator does exist. Concerning himself, the narrator says he has only a wife, four children, a pet cat, a lump of heart, and blood that flows through his veins which are as yet unblocked. The short story also poses certain questions about the existence of man and his relation to the Creator. Along with his personal problems, man also has responsibilities that must be accepted and reali166
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ties that must be acknowledged. Adults doubt and argue about certain truths; children also argue about things not unlike the adults around them. For example, while the narrator questions the being or not being of certain things, the children argue about the existence of rice in the pot. In any case, the question of being will always remain an enigma to man. In this short story, there is a great deal of mans pondering about life and existence. The writer uses similes and metaphors that are related to man cast into the arena of politics. The use of this form of language displays the some what ironical attitude of Shahnon towards politics, especially political figures who have betrayed their causes. This shows his continued preocupation with politics even if it is only indirectly displayed in the language of satire. In other stories, his political concerns are more directly stated. The short story Tak Keruan shows the uncertainty of man while waiting for the coming of death. In this philosophical discourse on life and death, Shahnon writes: Dan semuanya itu menuju ke satu arah, cuma: maut. Maut di mana-mana sekarang. Lihat rantingranting yang kering-kontang. Jatuhlah dia sekejap. The narrators contemplation of questions such as the creation of God and the existence of man, are presented in a more interesting way than in the novel Protes. In Talc Keruan, as in lgau, Shahnon uses the association of ideas to present the internal world of the narrator. In Igau, the sight of a woman in Canberra took the narrator back to his village and an old woman there. In Tak Keruan, the leaves and the ricepot set off a train of thoughts that reveal the narrators personal preocupations. Both stories provide insight into the interior world of their narrators. In Kelapa Nan Sebatang, Shahnon focuses on the turbulence and the internal tension of an old beggar. Wak Da attempts to cross over a river on a bridge made of a single coconut tree trunk. The children on the other bank challenge Wak Da to cross. He steps forward, but he fails to proceed because he fear she will fall into the fast-flowing water. He retreats reflecting upon his sad predicament: his age, his flesh, his veins, his breath and his eyes. The children challenge him again, and he tries a second time. Once again, he becomes panicky looking at the swirling water underneath. He stops, but the children continue to challenge him. He tries for the third time, and fails again. Wak Da reflects upon the life fate has given
167
him and thinks about death. He tries once more with determination, and this time, he succeeds. The children applaud him, and he smiles. Shahnon uses the old beggar Wak Da to symbolize mans life that is full of trials and tribulations. Life is like crossing a narrow bridge over a river of hazards. In life, there are certain challenges and risks that must be faced with positive determination. Shahnon in relating the experiences that lead to the writing of the short story, says: Saya pernah inenulis cerpen bertajuk Kelapa Nan Sebatang. Punca cerpen mi adalah satu pengalaman yang amat sederhana iaitu waktu pulang ke kampung, saya terpaksa menyeberang Sebatang sungai melalui sebatang kelapa yang menjadi titian bagi orang-orang kampung. mi puncanya. Untuk menimbulkan simpati pembaca saya cipta seorang watak pengemis yang tua untuk menyeberang sungai itu. Pengemis mi mahu tidak mahu terpaksa menyeberangi sungai itu kerana untuk mengemis beras, kalau tidak dia akan kebuluran. Saya ciptakan sungai itu supaya banjir dengan air yang ganas dan lubuk yang dalam. Pengemis itu menyeberang.Pertama kali gagal. Kedua gagal. Ketiga hampirhampir terjatuh disentap oleh banjir. Keempat dia hampir-hampir dibawa reba rnasuk lubuk. Tapi dia tetap bersemangat dan dengan kesabaran dan ketabahan, dia akhirnya berjaya. Dalam cerpen mi saya hanya bercerita tapi pembaca barangkali merasai kaitan cerita itu dengan perjuangau hidup kita. Cerpen mi menang Hadiah Karya Sastera (1973.).21 (p. 115) Once again, Shahnon has used an individuals consciousness to ponder his own past, present and future life. The beggar is not merely a beggar he is a symbol of Everyman who has to face the challenges of life. The short story Perempuan elucidates the anguish of a village virgin who is caught by tradition. Siti, a healthy human being of flesh and blood, regards herself as having no more influence than the cooking utensils in her kitchen because she has no control over her furture; the final say, according to tradition, lies in her fathers hands. She is to be married to Haji Rahmat, a religious teacher. Siti neither agrees or disagrees with her fathers decision, but deep inside her
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heart, she is unwilling to marry the old man. Her resentment is displayed in her behaviour. She flings her beloved cat against the foot of a tree; she hurls her sarung at a spiders web, the spider falls down, and she stamps on it; she sweeps all the ants on the floor into her palms and crushes them. She wishes that she could shrink into microscopic size and dissolve under the floor boards, or that she had wings so she could fly away from the house full of torture. When carrying out her duties, she does so violently. The onions are torn and chopped; the water in the rice pot is stirred and stirred until the boiling water spills onto the fire. But she never utters a word of refusal; she feels that she is a territory fated to be subjugated. In her extreme desperation to gain sympathy, she deliberately pokes her fingers into the kitchen fire and plans to slash her third finger the next day and her little finger the day after. Why is Siti refusing to marry Haji Rahmat? Is the haji too old to marry a young girl ? Is the haji too conservative and not modem enough for her liking? Does Siti expect the marriage will be ridiculed by her peers? Or has the haji already been married and Siti does not want to be the second wife? Is the haji a widower and Siti would become a step-mother to his children? Any of these explanations could be the reason for Sitis reluctance to marry Haji Rahmat. The central problem is that Siti wants to be herself. Unable to have a say in her own fate, she considers herself as powerless as the utensils in the kitchen, eventhough she also considers herself to be a fertile land waiting to beconquered. She is ready to be dominated, but not by Haji Rahmat. One day, the rightful owner will come, and she will wait for that sacred day. The shott story reveals the obedience of a village girl to her parents in a traditional society. It portrays the institution of arranged marriage through the hopelessness of a young girl whose future lies in the hands of older people. The girl inflicts injuries upon herself in order to gain sympathy. She prefers death, and her behaviour clearly shows her hopelessness in this world. However, her elders regard the blessed, religious, pious and charismatic old teacher Haji Rahmat as someone exalted, especially since he has been in the holy land for ten years. Because of his piety, it is thought the marriage will bring virtues. Sitis parents hope that the union will bring a virtuous generation and blessings, as his name suggests. An added benefit is that the ceremonies are to be held on two holy days in Islam. 169
Most of Shahnon Ahmads short stories from this period show the tension of man by using the stream-of-consciousness technique. They reflect a pessimistic attitude of man in hopelessness and death. The characters in this agonizing turmoil range from the child, the young woman, to the middle-aged man, the political leader, to the old beggar. Each story is deliberately manifested in a very brief span of time only a matter of hours because the focus is on the tension of a single character. In relating the story, the authors voice is minimal; he allows the characters to speak for themselves. The themes and
issues reflect the internal tension in man in a life filled with fanta-
sies, dreams, and day-dreams. Whether man confronts himself, other men or God, he thinks of survival and eventual death. Issues of life in the tangible world and the ethereal world, and reality and fantasy are interwoven into a complex range of emotions. The novel Sampah is a culmination of those short stories which attempt to recreate the inner emotions of characters who, under stress, experience fear, frustration and bewilderment. The novel, which is only sixty-five pages long, tells of an old beggar who lives at TLK.22 While waiting for peoples charity, he thinks of his predicament and reflects upon the things he desires. The scene he surveys around him is filled with people, trees, buildings and vehicles. He sits counting his ten fingers and reflects on the emptiness of his life. He feels despair for the hollowness and the hypoerises in a life that is also harassed with worries. He is convinced that, at this stage, death would far better than Jife on this earth. Life is filled with trials, while death is external peace. At that very moment, he observes a couple sitting near him embracing each other. For him, this young couple appears to be deep in the ecstasy of love, but they are also tormented and only outwardly appear blissful; it is the difference between appearance and reality. He begs for money from the young couple, but upon receiving the money, he returns it, saying, Im not begging for money any longer. Im a beggar, begging for death to escape from here. I want to be there. I so desire to reach that place. Take back this source of torment and torture from me. Take it. He then advises the young couple to kill themselves in order to escape torment. He tries to create his own exclusive territory in his mind, but he feels shackled by possessions and sympathises with the wealthy people who are burdened by possessions. In his imagination, he per170
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forms a symbolic gesture whereby he casts away his body becoming utterly dispossessed and completely void. The police come and order him to move on. He rufuses to budge, thinking they are merely pushing away emptiness and nothingness. He begs the police to terminate his life so he can achieve eternity. He is, however, forced to move to another place which takes him to another phase in his life. He now makes the National Monument his home. Where he holds discussions with other people about death and eternity as the ultimate gratification. Once again, the police try to evict him, but this time he resists and is arrested and jailed. While in prison, he reflects on the break-neck tempo, the boredom, the weirdness and the lack of direction in life. He asks in vain to remain in prison, saying, Im richer in jail. I move at peace in jail. Confine me. Help! Keep me in confinement. With out-stretched hands he begs for sympathy, but he is forced to leave. At this juncture, he feels the awakening of some self-esteem as a human being. He becomes angry. Believing he would have the support of thousands of other beggars in rising against those people who live in opulence, he dreams of the day when all the filth and dirt rise against the rich; even the monkeys in the park join in th uprising against the wealthy. The dream is well intergrated into the story and is more effective than the dream sequences found in the novels Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Terdedah and Mentevi. The dream contains obscenities and curious incidents which are in contrast to the dreams in the other novels that depict clear physical struggles. The dream symbolizes the inner turmoil of the beggar resulting from deprivation and endless agony. The story ends with him awakening from his philosophizing filled with loathing and anger. His body along with his thought processes are deteriorating due to ill-health and increasing age. As he lies in a state of near collapse beside a rubbish bin that is overflowing with garbage and a filthy storm-drain, The eyes began to close, followed by a slowing down of the heart beat that eventually came to a standstill in peace and holiness. Around there is only a void and vacuum. The eternity that has had been begged for so long now has been granted like alms. His death next to a rubbish bin along side a storm-drain symbolizes the death of man himself. Shahnon develops two dimensions of internal tension in this novel. There is the actual personal, internal tension of the beggar, 171
and there are the emotions that arise from this internal tension. The internal tension experienced by the beggar has its roots in external factors. These include the parts of his body; the bundle of his entire worldly possessions; his mothers death; the things around him; places where he lives; and the people with whom he comes in contact. The beggar values his limbs and regards them as a divine and legitimate gift. As he passes the time waiting for alms, he counts his fingers which are a symbol of his uselessness: Dia merenungi jan-jan di tangan kanan. Lengkap lima. Satu. Dua. Tiga. Empat. Lima. Dia merenungi tagi jan-jan di tangan kin. Lengkap lima. Satu. Dua. Tiga. Empat. Lima. (p. 1) Later he will count other parts of his anatomy one by one: Dia merasa dada. Ada. Masih ada. Masih berdegup dia. Dia mencubit daging perutnya yang lusuh. Masih terasa sakitnya. Haha! Dia memicit hidung, menutup mulut. Dia cuba menyumbat lubang telinga, mengemut lubang punggung. Biar semua rongga tertutup. Biarkan. Nafas ditahan. Ditahan lagi. Tiba-tiba terolak keluanjuga udara dalam perut (p. 2)
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Apart from the parts of the body, he is obsessed with objects around the place where he is sitting: Di~beralih sambil mengisar bungkusan yang terombak. Jerltan kereta-kereta yang berbuntut-buntUt sepanjang jalan baru kini terdengar olehnya. Dia membeliakkan mata melihat menerusi kereta-kereta yang berjejal itu bagaikan dipukau. Bangunan, entah Wisma apa menggaru langit. Tingkap-tingkapnya berkaca bersih, bertirai kain berwarna macam-macam. (pp. 1-2) He turns to look at his bundle which is full of his wordly possessions: 172
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Bungkusan di sisi dijenguk. Benda di dalam bentumpang tindih: tin susu kosong, kotak modess yang terpenyek, pinggan sumbing, sebelah kasut kayu, ubat bateni, bola golf yang berbulu, sikat patah, tudung botol, sudu patah, ketul batu. (p. 3) The assorted oddments found in his bundle are evidence of his abject poverty. Some of the objects are utterly useless, but serve as mere symbols of possession. In truth, they are all complete trash. The prison episode emphasizes the beggars extraordinary values. For him, prison means security a haven, something that enriches him, but degrades others: Dia kini benar-benar berada dalam penjara. Kemalapan cahaya lampu menabur bayang-bayang jerjak besi. Murung dan redup di luar din. Tapi di dalam terombak perasaan yang amat lapang. Dia melihat keliling. Jerjak besi juga. Dinding. Dinding lagi. Lagi-lagi dinding. Katil papan. Bumbung. Lampu malap. (p. 42) The beggar encounters all types of people while at the ILK, the monument and in jail. At TLK, he observes a young couple, one with rough skin and the other with dishevelled hair: Dia panggung kepala. Pandangannya tertuju ke arah dua makhluk yang niang berhimpitan di atas bangku berdekatan dinding. Yang berpakaian mini skirt dan seluar ketat kelihatan terliuk-liuk batang lehemya menghantuk kepala berambut seregum pada bahu yang seorang lagi yang bertali pinggang besar dan berkulit seregai. Yang seregai sekali- sekali berpaling memalit lidah pada apa saja yang terkena di muka yang seregum. Bibir, dagu, hidung. pipi, dahi, rambut dan gigi sambil sebelah tangan menani-nani di belakang yang seregum sehingga seregum sekali talc sekali tersentak-sentak kegelian macam betul-betul dirasuk badi pokke hijau. Kaki-kaki manusia melintas berculang-caling bagaikan di daerah yang tenhimpit pulas itu benar-benar pakum; tak ada si seregum dan si seregai yang gila berjilatan macam anjing. Tak ada si pengemis macam dia yang lapar dabaga. (p. 8) 173
The children and the beautiful girl with the ice-cream, the labourers with their lunch, the lady with high-heeled shoes and the people counting money in the bank are symbols of prosperity and wealth that contrast with the beggars own poverty. They are the sources of his agony and frustration and the cause of the fantasy in which he, the other beggars, the monkeys in the park and the inanimate rubbish rise against the rich. It is a fantasy of a desperate struggle for survival not too dissimilar from his own struggle. In the end, the beggar dies by the rubbish bin beside the drain. A second dimension to the novel Sampah is the authors decription of the emotions. Shahnon explores the mind of the beggar while he is in different situations. Through his interaction with the things and people around him, the beggar experiences tension which is expressed various emotions. Over a short period, Shahnon progressively reveals the beggars attitude to life and death. As with many of his stories, Shahnon uses the third person to convey his characters feelings. The reader is separated from the beggar and views, rather than experiences, his actions. However with this technique, Shahnon is able to give a broad picture of the entire range of emotions that the beggar feels. Rather than concentrating on just one perspective, as might happen in a first person narrative, Shahnon conveys a broad spectrum of human responses. One way he achieves this is through the use of abstract nouns. Within the beggars stream-of-consciousness. The underlined words in the passages illustrate this. Firstly, there is Shahnons portrayal of the beggar contemplating the parts of his body which reveals artificiality, ecstasy and torment: Tapi itu cuma kepercayaan palsu. Dia amat bencikan kepalsuan. Yang diyakini ialah kebalikannya. Dialah. Dialah kenikmatan; kenikmatan yang dihimpit oleh deraan hidup. (p. 2) For the beggar, hypocrisy is important because it gives him energy to wait for death: Kepuna-puraan kadang-kadang cukup mustahak. Paling kurang ianya akan membeni tenaga supaya boleh terus menunggu maut. (p. 4)
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Shahnon reveals that the beggar is not waiting for death, but for eternity: Dan mi amat jelas buktinya kenana yang ditunggu bukan lagi kematian tapi keabadian. (p. 6) Regarding his belongings, the beggar wants to throw them away in order to be released from the bondage of attachment and to achieve tranquility and happiness:
Kalau satu persatu dibuang, dilontar jauh jauh keluar daenahnya,
barulah ketenangan dan kebahagiaan tercapai. Selagi hartabenda terpaut kukuh pada kehidupan selagi itulah segala belengguan, segala kongkongan dan deraan akan benmaharajalela. (p. 16) The scene where police drive the beggar away from his place, shows him without any fear or worry because he is only an emptiness: Dia boleh pengi dan situ. Tapi bukan disebabkan ketakutan. Dia tidak takut. Ketakutan hanya ada kalau ada perasaannya. Dia tidak gusar. Kegusaran hanya ada kalau dininya ada. Dia tidal ada apaapa. Dia hanya kekosongan. (p. 20) When he is asked to leave prison, the beggar resents the authorities who try prevent him from achieving freedom and ecstasy: Satu perasaan kebencian menonjol tiba. Yang berkuasa yang bengelanan tuan betul-betul merupakan sejenis deraan pula. Dia tidal mahu dilepaskan lagi. Dia ingin kebebasan dalam kurungan. Deraan alan menerpa lagi kalau benada di luar kurungan. Tenfikir olehnya bahawa yang berkuasa yang tidal bergelar apa-apa yang pada mulanya difikirkan sebagai deraan itulah sebenar-benamya kenikmatan walaupun dia tahu kenikmatan itu hanya sekadan sementara. (p. 38) 175
Then Shahnon portrays the beggar in a state of chaos and strangeness which leads to confusion. The beggar tries to find peace, but he feels that strangeness can only cause madness: Kekalutan timbul. lanya cepat menyesak nafas. Kebinaran pandangan cepat dikuasai. Ini satu keganjilan yang amat sangat. Keganjilan menimbulkan kekelinuan dalam din onang lain. Apakah yang dilihat itu benar-benan dilihatnya, dia menyelit matanya mencani ketenangan. Dia masih tidak percaya. Tapi kekalutan yang hampin tiba pada puncak itu tiba-tiba menurun dan tenus menjadi dingin. Cepat dia mendapat kesimpulan: Alangkah mudah kesimpulan itu. Orang gila memanglah gila. Keluarbiasaan hanya disebabkan kegilaan. (p. 42) The beggar condemns cruelty used to achieve exaltation and holiness: Benan dia juga ingin memberi keabadian kepada semua tapi bukan dengan cara kekejaman. Dia sendini bukan mengemis kekejaman. Penistiwa tadi di penjarajelas menunjukkan keluhuran dan kesuciannya. Tapi merekalah yang mengemis kekejaman. (p. 52) When the beggar feels he is being harassed by the police, he is again filled with hatred and anger towards aggression. At the same time, he feels a sense of pride in himself: Kebenciannya terus memuncak. Pucuk-pucuk bangunan itu perlu ditetas saja biar terkulai patah menyembah bumi. Kenadangannya menokok lagi bila teningat dia diejek-ejek dan ditentawakan tadi. Dia selama mi tidak pernah lagi membalas kekerasan dengan kekerasan. Pengecut kau! Suana dan dinding kalbu tenus mencabar. Kebanggaannya sebagai manusia terus menggila. (p. 53) Finally, the beggar feels that poverty and destitution are no longer a humiliation and an agony. He is able to find beauty and 176
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fulfilment in the midst of hatred and jealousy. However, life is not full of happiness and wealth: Tapi kemiskinan dan kepapaan bukan lagi satu kehinaan satu denaan. Dia tenlalu lama hidup bersama benda-benda itu. Sudah sebati sesungguhnya kaitan dan hubungan itu. Kini telah dijadikan satu keindahan dan kepuasan. Juga kebencian dan kedengkian dan pihak lain. Sudahlah tidak berdaya hidup dalam kesenangan penuh kekayaan, hidup dalam kemiskinan dan kepapaan penuh kenikmatan itu tidak dibenarkan. (p. 60) As is evident in these passages, Shahnon is able to depict a wide range of emotions and uses them to show a man increasingly bitter and disillusioned. These emotions were experienced by the beggar during the discovery of his inner-self and his encounter with the objects, events and people around him. His rejection of traditional values and the desire for death are revealed through these emotions. The beggar develops a defiant attitude towards this world. For example, he refuses money and possessions. When the young couple give him money, he returns it saying that it is a source of suffering and torment. He refuses to possess anything, saying that possession only burdens your way to eternity. Another instance of his defiance is shown when he is released from prison. He begs to be allowed to stay in prison. Finally, when others ardently pray for life, he begs for death. When others accumulate possessions, he is scraping off the dirt from his skin to achieve a sense of total avoid and emptiness. He goes against life itself when he calls on the young lovers to kill themselves and to kill him too. This is a revolt against established values: Baninglah, nak. Baninglah di tengah-tengah jalan itu segena. Biar jangan deraan hidup benlanjutan. Kalau seorang berlaku begitu, seratus, senibu dan sejuta akan ikut. Jangan bimbang tentang pengikut. Manusia memang cepat mengikut alinan tanpa memperhitungkan jenis-jenis alinan itu. Dakilah bangunan itu, nak. Dalilah lambat-lambat. Kemudian tenjun. Biar badan yang membendungi deraan mi berkecai di bumi batu. (p.11)
177
Another instance of this occurs when he is being chased away by the police; he requests them to kill him: Katau hendak menyunuhku pergi ke sana, bunuh saja. Flenet kekosongan mi ke tengah jalan naya dan bian kereta-kereta itu menindih hingga benkecai. Atau henyak saja dengan seratus seribu kaki yang bertumit kematu itu. Atau getis saja dagingku mi sedikit demi sedikit. Itu yang aku mengemis selama mi. Biar kini aku mengemis saja. Bunuhlah walau dengan apa cara sekalipun. Aku ingin ke sana. Aku ingin mendapat keabadian itu. (p. 21) This desire for suicide and killing is against the teaching of Islam which condemns suicide and regards human life as sacred. Shahnons story of the beggars life symbolizes Everymans struggles through a life that is filled with trials and tribulations. In this respect, the novel is similar to the short story Kelapa Nan Sebatang with the beggar Wak Da who tried to cross the bridge. For the beggar in Sampak, begging for money is akin to the quest for death with the latter seen as bringing a better life. The places where he lives represent the arena of life with its various elements. The monument represents the transient world; the prison symbolizes mans suffering and bondage; the rubbish bin and the storm-drain represent other manifestations of a life that is imbued with suffering such as agony, contempt and poverty. Ironically, death beside the drain symbolizes his wish in life: a wish for eternal release from the dirty world. A significant aspect in Sampah is Shahnons technique to project the beggars tension. He has effectively projects these tensions by portraying them through the beggars own imagination, fantasy, interior monologue, delirium, and flashbacks, and by giving detailed descriptions of the prevailing atmosphere or mood in the story. The beggars imagination is portrayed while he is at TLK: Dia kembali memejamkan matanya erat-erat cuba melupalan segala yang tencambah di sini; baik yang didengan, dilihat, dihidu, ataupun di nasa. Segala warna di ILK luput sekaligus. Segala jenitan dan deruan di jalan raya hilang. Dia sudah benada di sana. Kenikmatannya memuncak, melupakan segala kehinuk-pikukan 178
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dunia. Yang berada kini semua tertib bensopan. Masing-masing menunggu dengan penuh ketenangan. Tidak ada kesibukan membuta-tuli di mana-mana. Tidak ada setitik pun kekecohan. Masing-masing menunggu. Tapi pnoses penungguan amat sempurna dan tenteram. (p. 6) His fantasy is evident from his fascination with his own limbs: Satu pensatu dicabut dan dilontar jauh-jauh keluar daerahnya. Sekaligus jan kelengkeng dinentap dan dibating hampir-hampir melayah masuk laut. Terlalu lambat. Kedua belah kaki termasuk betis dan paha direnggang. Tenpisahlah umbi paha dengan punggung. Dicampaknya jauh-jauh. Kepala dicabut serentak. Biar mata, hidung, mulut, telinga, gigi, dagu dan segala serpmhan lain bertautan di situ. (p. 17) Interior monologue is used to describe the various stages in his life. An example of this is when he is confronted by the police: Tolaklah wahai senibu manusia. Kamu tidal menolak apa-apa. Kamu hanya menolak kekosongan, kemiskinan, kepapaan dan kepakuman. Mani! Man ikutku. Pilih daerahmu sendini. Kita pergi ke sana membawa kekosongan dan kepalcuman. Di sini hanya ada deraan. Di sini tidal ada keabadian. Di sini hanya ada denaan. Di sini tidak ada keabadian. Di sanalah ada keabadian. (p. 20) The beggar experiences numerous deliriums in his search for eternity. He engages in a conversation with the prison inmates and describes his life as a beggar as: Kau hanya kosong harta benda. Lihat kulitmu. Bendaki dan benlumut. Lihat pakaian mu. Rabak dan busuk. Lihat tanganmu. Tenketan-ketan menghulun mengemis harta benda. Lihat matamu. Merah dan bengkak mermndukan kekayaan. Dia diam tens. Kau adalah pengemis. Tidall Aku bukan pengemis. Merekalah pengemis harta benda. 179
Kaulah pengemis. Tidak!
Kaulah pengemis. Tidak! Tidak! Tidak! (p. 47) He recalls his past life in a flashback: l-Iidupnya sendini boleh disimpulkan sebagai satu penjalanan yang banyak simpang~pukangnya. Sedan-sedar dia sudah berada di kepala titi entah di mana bersama-sama ibunya yang bermuka sulah. Mulai dani situlah ibunya yang bermuka sulah memulakan perjalanan tanpa hujung mi. Di kepala titi itu tensepuk hampir satu tahun. Disitulah tangannya mula menadah. Di situlah kekosongan mulai terasa. Dan kepala titi singgah bebenapahani di simpang jalan masuk gedung besar, entah gedung apa. Di situ mereka tensepuk dekat pintu pagan, tapi tidal lama. Onang datang. Mereka dikejan macam anjing. Mereka pmndah pula. Dia pindah ke kaki lima. Dan kaki lima, ke pasan ikan, kembali semula ke kaki lima, benusung lagi ke pintu masuk masjid. Dia kehilangan kenangan selepas itu, tapi saman- saman terjangkau juga kepala titi, simpang masuk sekolah, sudut kedai, pant, bawah bumbung pecah. Kemudiannya ibu meninggal waktu di sudut kaki lima yang sibuk. Orang banyak datang melihat. Kemudian ibu dibawa pergi entah ke mana. (pp. 23-24) Throughout his last stage of life, the beggar uses association to link present experiences with past events. When he sees the young couple embracing each other, he associates their pleasures with the emptiness of his past life: Paling laknat ialah onang yang jahil tentang kewujudan din sendin, fikimya. Dia tidak manah kepada sesiapa, malah simpatinyalah yang memupuk-mupuk. Senyum di bibin meneka talc ubah
seperti tangisan yang menandakan deraan.
(p. 10) 180
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In addition to using the technique of suggesting the emotional projection of the beggar, Shahnon uses detailed descriptions of the setting and the atmosphere fon rhetorical effect. For example, the description of the beggars examination of his various parts of the
body:
Dia kembali merenungi segala hak miliknya yang masih tinggal. Sehelai baju yang compang-camping. Jani-janinya kembali dihitung. Satu. Dua. Tiga. Empat. Lima. Enam. Tujuh. Lapan. Sembilan. Sepuluh. Kuku-kukunya diamat-amati. Yang di kelengkeng ada tersimpan tahi. Digigitnya. Diludahnya. Ada panut di jan tengah jan hantu. Dan di sisinya tenletak kuping kudis yang hampin nenggang. Digetisnya. Dibuang jauh-jauh keluar sempadan daenah hakmiliknya. Ditelitinya lagi netak-netak yang berlunah-lunah di kesepuluh-puluh jani. Temampak unat-unat hijau di belakang tanS gan benculang-caling. Cuba dinenunginya lubang-lubang roma yang menjadi salunan peluh. Bulunya halus-halus, tapi kulitnya begitu kasar dan benkematu. Dia menjenguk ke bawah ke anah
jari-jani itu telah nosak. Serpihan kuku- kukunya cunggang-
cunggit. Yang tenuk ialah ibunya; tenutama ibu jani kaki kanan. Sumbingnya tennganga minta ditampung. Di kin kanan jani itu nampak hitam tebal. Memang biasanya ibulah yang menjadi
mangsa bila benada di tengah-tengah. Ibu mi benada dipinggin.
Dan bila kedua belah kaki dikemban, maka kedua ibulah yang terkemban. Tidak yang lain. (pp. 13-14) Finally, at the end of the story, the writer effectively achieves a
moving mood when he describes the beggars last moments of life:
Di situ mendapat secebis penlindungan dan pancanan matahani. Di situ dia lambat-lambat menebahkan badan kendun menunggu tong sampah. Kedua belah tangannya sudah mati. Kepalanya terletak di atas tanah lembap bersama sampah, lendin-lendin, kahak-kahak, sisa-sisa. Kedua belah kaki cuba dikenekot hingga lututnya hampin-hampir tertampan dagu. Kelopak mata cuba juga dibuka tapi bebannya sudah terasa. Sipi-sipi tenlihat am longkang yang kenuh likat tenus tenpejam. Lambat-lambat degupan jantungnya menunun sehingga dengan keamanan dan kekudusan terhenti. 181
Segala-galanya menjadi kosong dan pakum. Keabadian yang dikemis-kemis selama mi akhinnya disedekah.
(pp. 64-65) In Sampah, Shahnon advanced in his technique by using the streamof- consciousness to describe feelings and emotions. He achieves this by showing the internal tension and the associated emotions at diffenent stages. The technique is effective in portraying the internal tension and emotions which leave lasting impresssion on the reader. Tension and Change We have seen how Shahnons expressed the emotions caused by the separation from his loved ones and homeland through different narrators. He found the stream-of-consciousness technique a suitable means for conveying emotions. Shahnon also found the technique valuable for modernizing Malay literature. Shahnon wrote two articles discussing the use of the stream-ofconsciousness technique in modern Malay literature. In his article Kegiatan Sastera Melayu Moden Masih Tradisional, he states: Kita masih belum tenjun ke dalam kancah kehidupan manusia yang internal. Konflik- konflik kita masih benconak fizikal. Dan kalau pun ada ciri-cini intemal seperti daya emosi penwatakan, interior monologue, stream-of-consciousness, kita masih belum benani memaparkannya secara lebih jauh. Trend perwatakan dan setting kanya-karya prosa kita mi pun masih tradisional. Yang dipentingkan bukan kejiwaan manusia, bukan pemikiran manusia yang senba sofistikated, tapi rata-nata kita bentangkan soal-soal external yang stereotaip pada watakwatak kita. Setting karya-karya prosa kita masih benconak fizikal, tidal berlatarbelakangkan kejiwaan manusia, dan kehidupan internal. Kerana itulah sebahagian besan novel dan cenpen kita masih tetap bercorak hanya sebuah cerita cerita fizikal; bukan sebuah hasil seni yang agak filosofikal.23
In this article, Shahnon points out that Malay fiction was still traditional because of its continued emphasis on the physical and external description of settings and characters. Shahnon felt it was
182
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time that modern Malay literature dealt with more internal elements. Again in a later article Fuedalisme dalam Kesusasteraan Melayu Baru, Shahnon again stresses the importance of the technical innovation which uses internal elements from the characters consciousness. He saw the bondage of feudalism as being so strong and restrictive that for generations Malay writers had no freedom to express themselves emotionally. He describes these works as mere transcripts of external life. Thus, he claims these works do not have any effect on the reader because the writers do not express emotions: Inilah salah satu gejala tidak sihat yang mengongkong kita Sebagai pengarang. Dan gejala mi menupakan sisa zaman feudal di mana rakyat hanya menenima penintah dan golongan feudal hanya membeni perintah. Penyebatian unsun mi tenasa benar dalam daya kneatif pengarang-penganang kita. Kita jarang tensua dengan kanya-kanya yang terkeluan dan ciri-cini stereotaip yang ada baik apanya atau bagaimana kenana itu meminta daya kneatif dan daya imaginasi yang khusus. Dan daya itu bukanlah tidal ada pada kita sebagai pengarang, tapi alcibat tebalnya dan sebatinya sikap kita menenima perintah segala daya itu tidak memberi tempat kepada mi yang bisa melambangkan integniti kita, selagi itulah hasil-hasil kita berada di satu panas cuma. 24 (p. 40)
In these two articles Shahnon is suggesting that Malay writers

should endeavour to bring new features into their writings as he himself tried to do in his stories written during or soon after his stay in Australia. The works produced during the periods 1968 to 1971 and 1972 to 1974 exhibit an obvious development of the decniption of innertension. The characters in the short Stories Mimpi di Carroll Street,
Igau and Kalau Ibu Sampai Takah Tiga reflect the culture-shock
and homesickness Shahnon experienced during his stay in Australia.
The later stories Temanku Afrika, Salam Sekeluarga and Al were the result of Shahnons interest in Malay Power and his reaction to the 13 May riots. Shahnons indirect anguish and anger about the bloody incident is portrayed through the characters in the
short story Denak and the novel Srengenge.
183
Shahnons short stories Kalbu, Lagu Kitkitkit, Tak Keruan, Kelapa Nan Sebatang and Perempuan are funther experiments with the stream-of-consciousness technique. The culmination of the revelation of internal conflict through the exploitation of the stream-of-consciousness technique came in the novel Sampah. Through the character of a nameless beggar, the reader almost experiences the beggars extreme inner tension. He longs for death to obliterate his misery and humiliation; at the same time, he fights to
maintain some shred of dignity and self-respect. Through these stories, Shahnon ventures to break out of the conventions of Malay fiction writing which he considered still traditional and feudalistic. Eventhough he experiments with modern techniques, for the most parts, he retains traditional themes from the village. In utilizing and upholding these elements, he displays an attitude of pessimism towards village life which contrasts with some of his earlier stories that are full of humour. Shahnon recognizes the tension between the modern and physically sophisticated world in towns and the spiritually traditional world of the village. Thus, Shahnon is working out some of his own tension in these stories. He is reacting to his new assessment of modern Malay literature by trying to make pioneering use of the techniques he has discovered.
The concern for his fellow Malays was to be the continuing

theme of his next stories. In 1974 Shahnon Ahmad personally encountered social problems such as the pollution that threatened the lives of fishermen and the poverty that threatened rural and urban people. This was not a struggle for Malay Power but a struggle for
economic survival and the protection of livelihood. Shahnons next three short stories and two novels are his reaction and show his renewed social commitment.
184
6 THE RENEWED SOCIAL COMMITMENT

The years 1974 and 1975 marked a time of restlessness and discontent among rural people in Malaysia due to the severe economic problems brought on by national inflation.1 The rubber small-holders suffered the most after the fall in the price of rubber. This situation created unbearable hardship for the lower income group and led to
social unrest and peasant uprisings in districts of Baling and Sik in Kedah.2 On November 21, 1974, about 12 000 peasants staged
marches against the government demanding that the authorities rectify the deteriorating situation. It was the first time since the massive demonstrations against the British proposal for a Malayan Union in 1946 that people had taken to the streets in protest.3 This peasant uprising triggered student protest at the universities. The students, who were mostly from rural areas, held demonstrations in support of the demands of the peasants, claiming that peasants were dying of hunger. Some members of the academic staff, leaders of opposition parties and youth organizations such as the PanMalayan Islamic Party (PMIP) Malayan Peoples Socialist Party (PSRM), and Malaysian Muslim Youth Organization (ABIM), came out in support of the students.4 Their diagnosis of the causes of the
countrys economic difficulties were far ranging. They listed multinational investment, corruption among politicians and government officials, lack of rural development, inadequate rural education facilities and the absence of social justice as factors contributing to the economic crisis.
In 1974, Shahnon Ahmad was appointed lecturer at the School 185
of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia. As a nationalist, he felt he needed to be directly involved in a movement which was close to his heart. The peasant demonstration occurred in his hometown, Sik, and a student protest took place on the campus where he was working. Shahnon responded to these events; the works he produced during this period show a renewed concern for the poor and the defenceless and a continuation of his commitment to social justice. During this period, Shahnon wrote three short stories on conflicting social values and the plight of the rural poor and two novels depicting the struggle of man against capitalism and man against bureaucracy and poverty. The short stories are Angan-angan Mr. Proudfoot (Day-Dreams of Mr. Proudfoot),5 Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur6 (A Guest from Kuala Lumpur), and Moyok7 (HeartStricken). The novels are Kemelut,8 published in 1977 and Seluang Menodak Baung,9 published in 1978. With these works, Shahnon returns to his themes of the sixties which dealt with the condition of the Malay people. This chapter shows how Shahnon developed themes which potrayed social turbulence. The short story Angan-angan Mr. Proudfoot reveals the negative influences of the foreign hippie culture on traditional social values in Malay culture. The story Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur exposes the trend towards materialism in progressive Malay society. And the story Moyok is an account of the sufferings and problems of the rural people in dealing with inflation. The social issues that concern Shahnon are similar to those in his earlier works, but his skill at character portrayal is more effective than before, The novel Kemelut10 deals primarily with pollution and the misery faced by the fishermen of a small village totally dependent on the sea for its existence. The fishermens skills, acquired over many generations, at exploiting the sea and estuary have brought them prosperity. However, after factories are built on the bank of the river, the water becomes contaminated by poisonous waste materials. As the many types of fish disappear, the fishermen lose their source of income. The story is based on the events that happened in Kuala Juru in the district of Seberang Prai, Province Wellesley, Penang. This village is situated 12 kilometres south of Butterworth on the mouth of the Juru River which flows into the Straits of Malacca. The Prai 186
THE RENEwED 5OCIAL COMMITMENT
Industrial Estate, where dozens of factories have been built, is located on the banks of the river. The chemical and solid waste materials from these factories are poured down the drains and canals into the
Juru River, poisoning the surrounding areas and destroying the fish. The fishermen made several complaints to the government to counteract the devastating problems which began in 1972, but nothing was done. Shahnon dedicated the novel to the river itself: Jurn,
kupersembahkan buku mi untukmu. The main theme of the novel Seluang Menodak Baung is poverty. It is set in the village Terenas, Kedah and Penang Island. It
examines both rural and urban poverty and the encounter between
peasants and their elected representative. This work is also based on real events. It is Shahnons reaction to the peasant uprising at the end of 1974. Of the book, Shahnon says, Saya asaskan novel saya Seluang Monodak Baung dari pergolakan yang mendadak tentang 2 demonstrasi rakyat Baling dan Sik beberapa tahun yang lalu The Novel Kemelut (1977) The novel Kemelut tells of a crisis in the lives of the fishermen in a settlement at Kuala Indah Permal, Perfectly Beautiful Estuary. Even its name suggests an idyllic setting. The story, divided into fourteen chapters, is a very straight forward and simpl plot organized chronologically over a two-year period. The book opens on a peaceful and hopeful note with Rokiah, a young girl from Kuala Indah Permai, and her beloved cat Pokpok
fishing at the mouth of the river. As she is fishing, she surveys the vacant land on both sides of the estuary that has been earmarked for
industrial development. She has hopes of profitably selling the fish caught by her father, her brother and herself to the future workers of the factories. In chapter two, we meet Pak Mat, Rokiahs father, who is a con-tented fishermen. In the evening, Pak Mat and his son, Ramli, return home very pleased with the days plentiful catch. The fish the family does not need are sold at the market. Pak Mat is grateful for the bounty of nature and is happy with life. He and his fellow villagers discuss the planned factories and their anticipation of the extra business as well as the employment prospects for their children. Pak Mat gives thanks to Allah for his well being. With his good income
187
from his fishing, Pak Mat is able to plan the marriage of his son to the daughter of Pak Isa from the same village. Chapters three and four describe the building and operation of the factories. Tractors level the earth making way for the factories on the vacant lots by the river mouth. The villagers are excited and full of hope that the industries will improve their lives. A year later, the factories are well underway with smoke puffing into space and lights shining brilliantly. Drainage systems leading from the factories into the river can be seen everywhere. At this stage, Kuala Jndah Permai continues to be peaceful and tranquil, and the peoples livelihood does improve. In chapter five, the initial signs of pollution are depicted. Rokiah notices that the water in the river is becoming dirty, oily and is beginning to stink; the fish are beginning to ignore the bait; and her cat is eating less fish. The people are not yet aware of any threat to their environment. When the fish are no longer attracted by the bait and are later seen leaping out of the water in order to breathe, the villagers begin to suspect something unusual is happening. When they clean the fish, they find the guts polluted and filled with water that drips in blobs and reeks of sulphur. For the first time, they have no fish to sell at the market, and Pak Mat and his fellow villagers become increasingly alarmed by this catastrophe. They are convinced that the fish have been poisoned by the waste from the factories. The village headman calls a meeting. Tobeng, who has some education, identifies the source of the waste material and suggests what should be done. Their first step is to send a delegation to brief the district officer to take further action. Pak Mat looks at the factories in hatred because they endanger his plans for his sons marriage and for making the pilgrimage to Mecca, the pinnacle of a devout Muslims life. The first victim of the pollution at Kuala Indah Permai is Rokiahs pet cat. After eating a whole fish, the cat is seized with convulsions, coughing and vomiting. Pal Mat and two other men immediately go to see the district officer taking with them samples of the dead fish and the polluted water. The Officer promises to present their case to the member of parliament who will raise the problem with representatives from the factories. The people are relieved by this assurance, and Pal Mat is optimistic about his plans again. Chapter ten describes the situation in the village after three 188
THE RENEWED SOCIAL COMMITMENT
months of waiting for the government to solve the problem. There are no longer any fish to be found in the estuary, and the estuary water is becoming more polluted. One day a kingfisher falls into the river and dies. Another disaster follows when Kipli, the son of Pak Isa, is seized with convulsions. He foams at the mouth and emits a pungent smell similar to diesel. The villagers, still patiently waiting to hear from the district officer decide to take their case directly to the chief minister. That night, Kipli dies, becoming the first human victim of the pollution at Kuala Indah Permai. The day after Kiplis funeral, Pak Mat and his friends go to see the chief minister, again taking samples of the decayed fish and the polluted water. In the office they meet Selamat, a university graduate who had fought for the plight of the poor during his student days. He sympathizes with the fishermen and insists that the fishermen inform the public of their distress. He contacts a journalist friend so their story will receive wide publicity. Like the district officer, the deputy chief minister promises to settle the issue. Chapter twelve recounts the lack of concern of the officials to the pollution problem; they merely give empty promises which the fishermen believe. After the meeting, the fishermen are once optimistic again and willing to wait a little longer. They are pleased with the encouraging words of Selamat. Another three weeks go by; the poison has spread from the estuary far out into the sea so that the ocean fish are also decreasing. After two more months of waiting, the fishermen become angry; some suggest that all twenty-one factories should be burnt down without further delay. However, they decide to wait for another two weeks before taking a final stand. Pak Mat decides to see Selamat. At the chief ministers office, Selamat tells Pal Mat that the government has decided to relocate the fishermen. Pak Mat replies with the ultimatum that if there is no satisfactory settlement within tendays, the factories will be set on fire. Selamat calls his journalist friend to pass on the news. The next day, the newspaper carries headlines about the fishermens plight and their decision. Two days later, a cabinet minister visits the village and orders the factories to stop operating immediately. Pal Mat realizes the visit is the result of Selamats efforts at creating an outcry through publicity. He is also sure that if the ministers promise is not fulfilled, he and his men will burn the factories to ashes. 189
The concluding chapter is brief. Two days after the ministers visit, Rokiah notices that the factories are no longer flushing out the polluted waste; the drains are now dry. She jumps about excited by the thought of being able to fish again. The story ends optimistically with the fishermens victory and their hope for future prosperity. Keinelut is the first novel about pollution in modern Malay literature. With this novel, Shahnon renews his concerns about society by showing the peoples discontent with the governments empty promises. Shahnon follows the development of the peoples tension through four stages: the idyllic estuary and the happy life of the fishermen, the building of factories and the cause of pollution, the suffering of the fishermen and the victims, and the interaction between the people and the Government. The first stage portrays the village before it is polluted as beautiful, idyllic and unspoiled the blue sea stirs with little wavelets, the sea birds can be seen gracing the sky with outspread wings and now and again diving on the surface of the water. The splash of the sea water looks so fresh, the trees and bamboo fronds around the waters edge are green and fresh. The huge old trees display their roots to hang about the surface of the water. The sparrows and the sea gulls fly about in utter freedom. The estuary is described as abundant: Di pintu kuala air agak deras. Lagi pun pusaran air sering herlaku hingga kadang-kadang ketul-ketul kayu yang besar pun berputar hingga tenggelam. Lagi pun di pintu kuala ada siakap, ada kurau, ada jenahar yang empat lima kati. Rokiah takut kalau-kalau ikan-ikan itu pula menariknya jatuh ke dalam laut. Cukup kalau hanya dapat kitang, belanak, sembilang ataupun pendukang yang beratnya tak seberapa. (p. 3) With the second stage, the beauty of the village and the abundant supply of fish at Kuala Indah Permai becomes threatened. Instead of the hoped for prosperity, the factories bring disaster. A year after the factories are built, the pollution is apparent. The factories are not only noisy but also disgorge rubbish and waste materials that pollute the river: 190
THE RENEWED 5OCIAL COMMITMENT
Tin-tin kosong yang kecil-kecil, kertas-kertas yang kerunyuk, dawai-dawai yang putih, dan ketulan-ketulan batu kuriing kelihatan bertaburan di luar pagan Sebahagian besarnya sudah terapung dalam air. (p. 47) Di atas tebing, seperti biasa sekarang, kebisingan melantun tiba. Dan kebisingan itu bukan lagi ciapan burung di dahan-dahan atan kepakan belalang-belalang tapi bunyi enjin dan suara manusia yang bergerancang. (p. 48) Di situ air deras juga terjun, tapi kebisingan enjin dan manusia di atas tebing memekak telinga. Air yang terluah di mulut pant herdanur matam air belerang. Kuning dan berminyak. Air terjun dengan kuat sehingga bila busa timbul nampak minyaknya di permukaan air. (p. 49) The story reaches a climax with the deaths of living creatures; it is the chemical poisoning which leads to those deaths. Shahnon graphically describes the dead fish: Ikan tersentak-sentak berkejangan di atas permukaan air. Ikanikan gelama terkial-kial meronta di permukaan air. Itu pun seekor sembilang sebesar lengan budak terkemut-kemut menarik nafas. Janggutnya terkodek-kodek dengan mulut mutmut menarik nafas. Seekor siakap kecil mengiring tepi tebing; tersondol-sondol macam kemabukan. Dan bila mulutnya menujah tanah, ekornya dibedal. Terkepak-kepak ekor itu memercikkan air naik ke tebing. Tangguk diangkat dan nampak perut-perut ikan itu putih kekuning-kuningan. Tapi air-air yang jatuh dan perut-perut ikan itu nampak hat berminyak. Titik-titiknya tebal dan berbau belerang.... Seekor sembilang yang kuning besar hanyut dengan sehelai daun. (pp. 65-61) At the third stage, the author depicts the suffering of victims of pollution with great detail: the fish; Rokiahs beloved cat; the sudden death of the kingfisher; and the first human victim, Kipli. All are 191
caused by eating fish caught from the polluted water of the river mouth. Pokpok is described as a healthy cat, as fat as the betel palm trunk eating a good supply of fish everyday. Wherever Rokiah goes to fish, Pokpok accompanies her in her boat. The cat is the first victim of the poisoned waters. Shahnon describes its last moments of terrible agony: Kucing itu batuk-batuk lagi dan terluab terbit ketulan-ketulan ingusan dan kahak yang kuning pekat. Kucing itu terus juga batuk sehingga seluruh badan tergetar dan punggung tercunggit-cunggil... Tiba-tiba Pokpok tergedik kedua belah kaki belakang. Ada satu macam kekejangan menyerang bagaikan tertarik oleh sesuatu dan dalam secara mengejut. Tapi kekejangan terus menyerang dan sekahigus batuk mengeluarkan sisa-sisa makanan yang hamis. Pokpok tersepuk jatuh tertiarap menyembah pasir. Rokiah menerpa dan cuba menegakkan kembahi kucingnya tapi kucing itu lembik tak bermaya. (p. 81-82) The second victim is the kingfisher. Before the factories were built, many birds hived around the shores of the estuary. But they too become victims of the pollution. Shahnon chooses a kingfisher to describe dying in a grotesque manner: Pekaka terjatuh ke dalam laut Pekaka menggelupur lagi, tapi mata kedua belah mulai berbinar. Sekali-sekala sehaput putih bergerak menutupi biji mata dan sekali-sekala panih yang panjang terbuka tertutup bagaikan menarik nafas melalui mulut. Warna bulu masih segar dan cantik dan tebalnya bulu di kepala seperti sabut. Tiba-tiba ada sentakan dan kedua belah kaki, dan ada denyutan itu tiba- tiba mati dan tiba-tiba lagi bergerak. (p. 102) Here Shahnon shows the effect of pollution on one the most beautiful birds in the natural environment. His use of detailed descriptions of illness and death contrast with the birds beauty. The full impact of the pollution occurs with its first human victim. Soon after the kingfishers death, Kipli suffers convulsions. 192
There is a disturbing similarity between his jerky movement and those of the cat and the kingfisher: Kipli menggeletarkan kedua belah lututnya. Tempurung lutut itu terhinggut. Dan kemudian hinggutan itu melarat ke dua hala. Satu menuju betis dan tumit. Satu lagi naik ke pinggang, ke perut dan akhirnya ke kepala bahu. Seluruh tubuh bergoncang. Mak Leha terduduk menangis meminta tolong kepada Allah. Dia menyebut nama Allah beberapa kali. Tapi hinggutan itu tidal berhenti juga; malah sedikit demi sedikit menjadi rancak dan rancak. Dan akhirnya kedua belah kaki menendang-nendang angin. Orang I lperempuan yang ada di sekelihing hanya melihat; takut hendak celapak masuk menindih kedua belah kaki yang liar bergawangan itu. Turut bersama dengan tendangan itu ialah badan dan tangan. Punggung dan perut melonjak-lonjak bagaikan ada benda yang menolak kejut-kejut dan bawah. Kedua belah tangan meramas jan dan menumbuk-numbuk angin. Tangan juga lusuh dan tak bermaya. Busa di mulut terus juga termuak mengeluarkan bau tengik macam wap minyak disel yang usang. (pp. 105-106) By early dawn, he is dead: Suara terus juga berdengung di celah-celah deraian ombak Sehingga kemudiannya bertelingkah lagi dengan kokok-kokok ayam di rata-rata. Satu hinggtan tidak ternampak pada anggota Kiphi. Dan akhimya kesayuan itu bertambah sengit bila riak wajah Kiphi menandakan perjalanan nadi akan tiba pada detik akhir. Suara membaca Surah Yassin terus bertehingkah sehingga akhirnya menarik nafas yang akhir. (p. 105) The final moments of the three victims are the same: a stiff seizure followed by foaming around the mouth and soon afterwards, death. The fourth stage shows the peoples reaction to the bureaucratic institutions as they battle the pollution. The government gave the companies, which are joint ventures between foreign and local companies, approval to build and operate the factories without envi193
ronmental impact studies. These details emerge during a staccato dialogue between Selamat and another officer: Berapa semua yang ada sekarang? Soahnya. Selamat membalik-bahikkan fail di depan. Dua puluh satu. Local? Tiga. Joint Venture? Satu dua tiga empat, lima. Jerman dengan kita, tiga. Amerika dua. British satu. Yang lain? Independent. Jepun. Jerman, Amerika. British. (pp. 123-124) Because the government gave permission for the Industrial development, the fishermen of Kuala Indah Permai make their complaint to the district officer, the chief minister and the federal minister. Their requests that appropriate steps be taken to control the factories of the capitalists are met only because of the intense, and unrelenting pressure not only from the fishermen but also from the public and the political party. The peoples reactions towards the disaster of pollution are shown through four characters: Rokiah, her father Pal Mat, Tobeng and Selamat. Through Rokiah, Shahnon describes the abundance of fish in the carefree days of innocence before the factories were built and the contrasting despair brought by pollution. Through Pal Mat, the reader is shown the concern and leadership of a village head in the struggle to overcome the threat to their livelihood. The fighting spirit and resilience of the people is exemplified by Tobeng. Through Selamat, Shahnon portrays the ideals of an intellectual who desires to see the people rise against political oppression and exploitation by capitalists. The plot develops around the role played by the main character of a sequence. The beginning of the novel portrays the happy mood of a young girl Rokiah fishing with her beloved cat and catching fish in abundance. The young girls merriment and happiness capture the atmosphere of the village. Pal Mat is happy with his way of life and he entertains great 194
hopes for the future. He looks forward to a wedding feast for the marriage of his son and a pilgrimage to Mecca. There is no doubt that the sea is the source of his happiness and well-being. Pollution shatters Pak Mats dreams. As the headman of the village, he is naturally concerned about the fate of his village. When Pal Mat is told to move from the village, he is speechless. He and the villagers have no intention of ever moving ; to move would be changing their whole way of life. They refuse to be moved around like factory equipment. As a result of the threat to the village, Pal Mat portrays a strong character in face of adversity. Shahnon traces his change from a family man to a leader who takes the initiative to fight against an outside intrusion. He gives a firm warning and then an ultimatum to the government, but bureaucracy betrays the people: Anak buah Kuala Indah Pennai itu anal buah Pal Mat. Apa kata Pak Mat, itulah kata mereka. Pal Mat kata jangan pindah, mereka takkan pindah. Seorang pun tak alan pindah. Saya ben 10 han tempoh kepada tuan. Kalau tak selesaikan perkara mi, kilang-kilang itu alan dijilat api. (p. 147) When questioned b~reporters as to whether the villagers intend to carry out their threat to burn down that factories, Pal Mat responds: Jangan, tanya soal betulkah, bohongkah, ujar Pal Mat keras sambil melangkah naik jeti, orang Kuala Indah Permai talc pernah bohong. Tengok dalam 10 han. Kahau tak jadi apa-apa juga, hanguslah kilang-kitang itu. (p. 148) Under Pak Mats leadership, the people of Kuala Indah Permai, angry and discontent, are ready to face whatever comes and trust their fate in God: Di Kuala Indah Pennai para anal buah kembali menjadi tenang. Mereka tidak lagi turun ke laut untuk menunggu han yang telah ditentukan. Ketenangan dalam kemeredapan itu jehas terbayang di 195
wajah-wajah orang tua, ibu- ibu, anak-anak muda dan kanak-kanak. Pak Mat telah memberi keterangan secukupnya. Kita hams menghadapi cabaran seumpama mi dalam kesabaran dan menyerahkan segala-galanya kepada Allah. Kalau Ahlah menyeru supaya kita bertindak, kita bertindak. Sekarang seruan itu telah kedengaran dalam doa dan takbir. (p. 151) Tobeng becomes prominent in the midst of the crisis as the pollution begins to cause the massive death of fish. Tobeng recognizes the cause of the poisoning. Speaking at a village meeting, he condemns and threatens the factory owners: Bukan meneka tidak tahu sambung Tobeng yang mula pencaya dengan alasan-alasan itu mereka tahu. Tapi mereka tidal peduhi. Mereka bukan fikir untung nasib orang lain. Mereka cuma fikir untung rugi mereka saja. Kita nak mampus pun, mampuslah. Kita nak lapar pun, laparlah. (p. 72)
,
According to him, the factories are wholly responsible for the pollution. He expresses his concern over the future of the village. He is able to foresee the magnitude of the problem as a threat to their way of life: Kita pun tak selamat. Kita makan ikan, kita kena juga racun. Kita makan kelapa, kita kenajuga racun. Kita makan apa pun, kita kena. Lama-lama Kuala Indah Permai jadi padang jarak padang tekukur, Pal Mat. When a friend suggests pouring petrol around, striking a match and finishing it all by the next day, Tobeng warns that they should not take any action without proper consideration. He urges them to consult the appropriate authorities before taking any action: Kita jangan terburu-buru, nantikita yang kena, ujan Tobeng. Ini kerja ambil masa. Lagipun kesan racun mi bukan sekarang nak kita nasa. Boleh jadi tiga tahun. Boleb jadi lima. Boleh jadi lebih. Kita jumpa do. dulu. Benitahu dia. Ajak dia datang. Tunjuk ikan196
ikan yang maLl. Dani do., kalau tak ada kesan, kita pergi ke atas lagi. Kemudian kahau tak ada kesan juga, kita naik ke atas lagi. Tapi kalau sampal puncak pun tak mereka ambil kisab, baru syor Mihat kita ikut. (pp. 77-78) He believes there is still enough time and the villagers need not hurry. He believes it is important to bring their case to the authorities through the proper channels. At a meeting with the district officer, Tobeng describes the problems faced by the fishermen. After it is apparent the district officer has no intention to honour his promises, the villagers set out to meet the chief minister with Tobeng acting as their spokesman. During the meeting with the chief minister, the delegation meets Selamat, a young officer with long-cropped hair, a long-sleeved shin and wearing necktie who greets them in a most polite manner. Selamat is reminded of his own protests against oppression during his student days: Kedua benda itu dihulur. Selamat tertangkap terus. Telah lama hal mi diketahui dan telah lama dia memberitahu pihak yang lebih atas, tapi tidal peniah ada sebarang reaksi. Dalam sesingkat masa itu dia terkenang kembali sejarah perjuangannya waktu di kampus dulu. Juga teningat pada ikan-ikan di sawah di kampung sendini yang jarang-jarang didapati sekarang. (p. 120) Selamats encounter with the four fishermen aroses a sense of guilt and shame. While he has been living in luxury, the fishermen have been suffering at the hands of the rich. After hearing their grievances, Selamat is keen to take up their cause. He feels it is time to take action. His first step is to contact his friend who is a journalist: Kal, boleh you suruh orang you datang kejap. Jam 12.00 tepat. Wakil Kuala Indah Pennai yang jadi konban pollution mau jumpa Wak Tempe kita. You orang boleh interview dia orang lepas itu. BaWa tukang gambar sikitlah. Bila lagi kita nalc tolong rakyat macam in Kalau you ada heboh, ada sikit follow-up, mungkin ada kesan. (p. 122) 197
Tobeng finds Selamat a very considerate and sympathetic man.
He is fully aware that Selamat has planned to highlight their case. Selamat feels committed to the people whose sincerity and suffering demand respect:
Selamat yang ada di samping mendengar kisah Pak Mat dengan penuh perhatian. Sekejap-kejap dia berpahing ke arah Tobeng, Pak Isa dan Pak Osman. Begitu lurus wajah mereka. Dan mata yang merah itu sungguh-sungguh memancarkan satu jenis penderitaan yang berbalut dalam kesabaran yang sukar dianalisa. Besok Wajah yang bermata merah dan penuh kesabaran itu akan terpampang di muka suratkhabar dengan berbagal kata-kata yang menunjukkan simpati orang ramai. (p. 125)
Selamat is skeptical about the promise of the Deputy Chief Minister, whom he has nicknamed Wak Tempe: Dia cukup khuatir tentang janji Wak Tempe tadi. Janji hanya janji
saja. Begitulah kalau apa rombongan datang pun. Janji diluah, janji ditelan, dan kemudian janji dimuntahkan lagi. Dan bila su-
dah menjadi basi, tidak tergamak lagi untuk menjilat kembahi. Tapi kalau ada arahan-arahan dan pihak yang lebih atas, sisa-sisa
itu Walau bagaimana busuk sekahipun, akan dijilat juga sampai habis. (p. 126)
WEen the promises of the politicians do not eventuate, Selamat devises a plan to provoke Pak Mats anger so that he will act against the factories. Firstly, he tells Pak Mat outright that the people of Kuala Indah Permai will have to move, deliberately adding that this is an order. The way he presents the order infuriates Pak Mat: Selamat memang menancang agar kisah itu menjadi gamat untuk menarik perhatian yang benar-benar perhatian. Dengan benita tentang tindakan untuk membakar penindustnian itu, seluruh negara
akan tahu. Dan Pal Mat dalam dengusan kebenangannya masih berterus terang saja kepada budalc-budak yang menyekatnya di tengah jalan hala ke jeti. Kalau tidak ada apa-apa perubahan. da198
lam 10 han anak buah Kuala lndah Permai akan membakar semuanya. (p. 148) The result of Selamats provocation of Pak Mat and his goading the press to publish an expose results is nationwide attention: Di kota suasana menjadi gamat serta-merta. Kegamatan itu mewabak dan menular pantas macam hawar. Ini soal nelayan Kuaha lndah Permai perlu cepat diselesaikan. Berita tentang kebakaran meletus di mana-mana walaupun belum ada apa-apa tindakan. Wartawan jolok sana jolok sini. Kenyataan dan mulutmulut para pemimpin pun terluah dalam pelbagai bentuk tapi mempunyai satu nada. Kuala Indah Penmai perhu diselamatkan dan ancaman pembangunan yang tak senonoh dan songsang. (p. 150) His efforts bring about an official visit from a federal minister who is sympathetic to their plight and directs the closing down of the factories: Saya tahu bagaimana hebatnya kesan-kesan dan sisa kilang terhadap hidup orang-orang di sini sejak beberapa tahun mi. Tapi sayang kerajaan negeri tidak ambil benat dalam soal i. Mau tidak mau kami dan pusat terpaksa mengambil keputusan yang muktamad. Sisa-sisa dan kilang itu tak bo!eh dibuang ke dalam sungai atau laut lagi.
Dan sekanang juga saya memberi perintah supaya kerja-kerja

kilang di seberang diberhentikan. Kilang-kilang itu hanya boleh bekerja kembali sesudah ada jalan supaya jangan sisa-sisa itu tenluah ke dalam sungai dan laut yang mndah penmai liii. (pp. 153-154)
Through the novel Kemelut, Shahnon shows his skill at handling real events in fiction by manipulating the theme and the characters. It is through the characters feelings of horror and despair that Shahnon exposes the effects of pollution. Shahnon shows the villagers early 199
hopes of increased prosperity from the factories, the symbolic destruction of cat as a companion, the death of the kingfisher as a symbol of wild beauty, and Kiplis death as the human victim of the industrial waste. Shahnon also develops the character Pak Mat in
such a way as to show his development from self-interest to showing concern for the village to taking a leadership role in expressing community concerns. Like Rentung, the novel shows an idyllic place and the happy life of its people; a problem leads to conflict and crisis; in the end, a solution that restores harmony. The problem of industrial pollution in the 1970s became a cause of concern among certain groups of people in Malaysia. One of the more actively concerned groups was the Consumers Association of Penang (CAP) which published a book entitled Pollution: Kuala Jun/s Battle for Survival I976,~the year before the publication of Kemelut. There are obvious similarities between the novel and the report. Both examine the effects of pollution. CAP presents the problem as an objective documentary whereas Shahnon uses the material
as a creative artist. In championing the cause of the fishermen, both
works condemn exploitative capitalists and .a government that allows polluting factories to operate. As a documentary expose, the CAP report is necessarily restricted to using facts and figures to demonstrate the disaster of pollution. However, the novel as a medium for arousing social conscience is more effective than the report because it portrays the human feelings and emotions of those involved in the disaster. With Kemelut, Shahnon again wrote a pioneering piece of Malay literature. Since the real eients took place in Penang and the CAP report was published in Penang, Shahnons novel, which is set in Penang, is like a programmed piece of work. Shahnon does not respond to something he directly experienced, but bases his novel on material he read and studied. More detached from these social issues than he was from the rural struggle, Shahnon was able to concentrate on the horror of the disaster. With his next novel, Shahnon once again directs his attention to social issues in which he is personally involved. The peasant land protest at Terenas, which prompted him to write Seluang Menodak Baung, was an event he participated in on the university campus. Seluang Menodak Baung has greater depth and intensity of protest than Kemelut because of his personal involvement. 200
The Novel Seluang Menolak Baung 1978 Seluang Menodak Baung is Shahnons longest novel. Its twenty chapters fall into two parts. The first part, from chapters one to fifteen, centres around two peasant families; the second part, from chapters sixteen to twenty, concentrates on the moral support given to the two families and the villagers protest which succeeds in acquiring land from the government. The families are those of Fatah and Suman. Chapter one is entitled Wujud Ertinya Ada (Being Means Existence). The title implies acceptance of a leaders authority and ones own fate. The chapter is set at Sumans house in Terenas. It depicts the stress felt by the family of Salam, Sumans father. Salams children are sick and his wife, Piah, is in the last stage of pregnancy. Unaware that Suman has gone to a meeting. Salam wordes about his disappearance; Piah thinks about how he has become aggressive and behaves strangely. Chapter two Satu Titik Keinsafan (An Awareness) builds on chapter one and describes Suman. The events in chapter two chronologically follow after those of chapter six. Fatah is holding a meeting at his house to decide on how the villagers can get land from the government. This is the meeting that Suman attends. Fatah sows the seeds of discontent in Sumans mind. Filled with indignation, Suman begins to express anger and bitterness over his familys dire poverty. He wants the people who are responsible for this to take immediate action or else the people will rise against them. The novel opens with Sumans story, but in chapter three it shifts to Fatab. Chapter three, entitled Kota Siapa Punya (Who Owns the City), describes Fatahs poverty-stricken life on Penang Island. He has left his village Terenas to find work. He is a trishawpedaller whose passengers are often prostitutes going to their clients. With his wife and two daughters, he built a home in the squatters area of Lurah Glugor. Fatah has listened to various speakers talk about poverty and the economic situation in which the poor get poorer and the rich get richer. This stirs Fatahs consciousness for the squatter area is surrounded by rich and wealthy people. He scolds his children when they accept food from one of these rich families. His wife and children secretly collect and sell empty cans, old newspaper and cow-dung. 201
Chapter four lgauan yang Hodoh (A Hideous Nightmare) relates a nightmare Fatah has after living so long in poverty in the city on the cursed island. In his dream, Fatah finds him self looking down from the top of a hill watching poor people carry flags bearing the insignia of hoe and crescent moon in a demonstration for land reform. He sees huge wide spiked wheels crunching down the old shelters which are their homes. Then, he envisions the village Terenas equally full of poor people. Simultaneously, there occurs an uprising among the trishaw-pedallers in the city and the farmers in the village. He dreams he meets his old friend Suud, an ex-soldier, and together they try to fight the oppression. When the huge wheels crush the entire village of Terenas, he resolves to return to his village to save his people. At this point he wakes up filled with a renewed sensed of determination. The next chapter Nyah (Get Out) is an account of the plight of the squatters who have been ordered to leave in order to make way for development. At this point, Fatah and his family decide to return to Terenas. Fatah likens the authorities who have issued this ultimatum to buffaloes and swine on the rampage. While he goes about pedaling his trishaw trying to earn some money, the rest of the family is preparing to return to their village. The familys last day and night in the squatters village are depicted in chapter six, Satu Keluarga Sebuah Traktor (A Family and a Tractor). The families watch helplessly as the tractors mercilessly demolish their shacks leaving them homeless. This is the scene as Fatah and his family leave to return to Terenas. Chapter seven and chapter one take place on the same night, but in two separate places. The title to chapter seven, Air Dalam Betung, is a proverbial phrase which means that through unity people can achieve success in their struggle. The chapter describes the meeting at Fatahs house where he recounts his bitter experiences on Penang. Having failed in the city, he is now desperate. He is determined to adopt an aggressive stance. The only solution he sees for the villagers is for them to have land. Fatah, Suud and Suman resolve to lead the people in a demonstration against the government at Terenas on the coming Sunday. Chapter eight, Wujud Masih Ertinya Ada (Being Still Means Existence), develops the concepts of obedience and submission to ones destiny through the portrayal of the tense conflict between Sa202
lam and his son Suman. Salam disapproves of Fatah and Suuds aggressive approach in asking for land. He scolds Suman and forbids him to demonstrate. His feelings are so strong that he losses his temper and whips his son. After the whipping, Piah gives birth to a child without the aid of midwife; Piah and Salam name the child Jebat. The following chapter Suman is devoted to this character, whose spirit is not dampened by the whipping. He becomes more resolute in his struggle. Chapter ten, Rubi; chapter eleven, Minah; chapter twelve, Som; chapter thirteen, Kipli; chapter fourteen, Baba; and chapter fifteen, Adik are named after Sumans three si~tersand three brothers. These short chapters describe the reactions of Salams other children to the beating of their eldest brother. All the children protest against their fathers action. The plot in the second part of the novel, chapters sixteen to twenty, examines the moral support given in the fight for land. The title of chapter sixteen, Wujud Bukan Ertinya Ada (Being Does Not Mean Existence), reflects the emerging rejection both of external authority and blind acceptance of ones fate. Sumans mother, Piah, supports the protest because she believes that she does not owe her loyalty to those in authority. The realization of her own poverty brought about this change. She and the other villagers know they must fight against the establishment in order to survive. Chapter sev-. enteen, YB. dan Waibi (The Honourable Member), exposes the betrayal and dishonesty of the peoples parliamentary representative who fails to support his constituents. Chapter eighteen entitled Berkecamuk (Chaos) describes the radical change in Salam. At one time violently opposed to the demonstration to demand land, he is now willing to confront the member of parliament who has betrayed the people. His support for the demonstration is a turning point in the struggle of the land-starved farmers of Terenas. The next chapter entitled Ahad (Sunday) takes place on the day of the uprising of the peasant power, it is depicted as a terrible storm of protest against the so called the Honourable Member. The closing chapter, Sejemput Tanah Sejagat Kemarahan (A Clod of Earth and Anger), tells of the farmers victory; after many years of struggle they succeed in getting land. The issues of poverty5 in Seluang Menodalc Baung are articulated through Fatah, Suman and Salim, the novels three main 203
characters. The impetus for action comes from Fatah who returns to Terenas after struggling to survive on Penang Island. When life became too hard in Terenas, he migrated to Penang to work as a tnshaw-pedaller. Although the trishaw is Fatahs only means of survival, he does not regret his decision to move. In the midst of the hectic city life, he manages to struggle as a man with integrity, honour and pride. However, the turbulence of life in the city oppresses him: Dia mendongak ke atas lagi sehingga tertumpu puncak bangunan. Halus dan kerdil rasa dirinya terduduk di bawah sejajar dengan sampah-samah, kotoran-kotoran yang matas bergerak dalam longkang di bawah kangkangnya. Seekor lipas pucat tersepit di lurab bata yang retak dan kepalanya bergetar cuba melepaskan din, tapi buntutnya terhenyak oteh ketul batu yang penuh lumut.
(p. 61)
Fatah likens himself to a poor cockroach trapped in a heap of stones. The sky-scrapers remind him of the height of Enggang Hill back home where he used to search for petai rimba, a kind of foodstuff. Now his trishaw carries prostitutes who climb the hotel steps to sell their bodies. Enggang Hill was full of jungles, but so is Penang Island although in another form. Living in the city has made him a different man; at the same time, he experiences both feelings of inferiority and self-confidence: Sekurang-kurangnya Fatah kini tahu benar-benar di mana dia berada sekarang. Tidak seperti dulu yang sering bermaharajalela dan bertempik menepuk dada sendiri memcah tapak tujuh atau melangkah songsang di gelanggang batang pinang berkampuh. Yang wujud waktu itu cuma manusia satu tara dan alam yang hijau penuh khayalan dan mimpi lunak. Lain dengan keadaan kini yang pantas menumbuhkan rasa kelemahan dan kekuatan din sendiri sekaligus. (p. 62) In his struggle for a livelihood iii the city, Fatah takes every opportunity to earn money. This causes internal conflict for he knows that the wages he earn by carrying prostitutes is indirectly derived from illicit sex, pleasure, hate and love, and victimization. His con204
cern would be even greaten if he took into account why and how prostitutes become prostitutes. He worries over the fact that his familys food and drink are also an indirect products of prostitution. When a prostitute asks him to wait at a hotel, he feels extremely
humiliated.
Fatah and his family live at Lurah Glugon, a squatter settlement. Driven from Terenas by poverty, they ended up in an area equally impoverished. His two daughters search through the rubbish of the nearby wealthy peoples cast-off: Kadang-kadang tenjerembap dengan kotak-kotak kertas yang masih banu, tikan-tikan yang masih boleh dihampan, tin-tin Milo yang belum hilang catnya, surat-sunat khabar lama dan kotak- kotak rokok. Sekali, sebulan yang lalu, mereka tersua dengan segulung tilam yang basah hancing tapi masih boleh dipakai. Memaling kin kanan, mereka usung benda itu cepat-cepat pulang. Bibi kelamkabut membasuh dan menjemurnya atas pelantan. Dan bila Fatah pulang pada petang tersebut, Maniam dan Sodah sudah sedia di tangga untuk menyampaikan khaban benita baik. Kini tilam itu dikhaskan untuk Fatah seonang saja. One day after the children have been to a rich mans house, Fatah becomes furious because he thinks that they have been begging. He wants to maintain his self-respect: Baik di Tenenas mahupun di kota raya di mana-mana pun Fatab pasti dia belum pernah mengemis dan sesiapa pun. Di Terenas meskipun belum mengemis macam peminta sedekah. Tangannya dan selunuh tenaganya menenuskan penjuangan itu untuk hidup. Dan selama mi di kota raya, setiap pemberian lebih bukan atas dasan mengemis. Wanita Melayu pelacur tadi pun memberi lebih lima puluh sen bukan kenana dia mengemis. Itu haknya. Peluhnya boleh membuktikan hal itu. Jangan sapa minta sedekah di sini. Mau tin kosong, tunggu ternpat sampah. Mau tahi lembu, cari. Ada ambil. Tak ada jangan minta. Jangan minta sedekah. Jangan! (pp. 76-77) 205
,NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS
Mindful of Fatahs stern warning against begging, his wife hopes to add to their income by having children gather empty tins, old newspaper and cow-dung that can be sold. While living on Penang Island, Fatah listens to fiery speeches about poverty. At the city hail, he hears someone talking about the rich will get richer and the poor will get poorer: Yang kaya akan bertambah kaya. Yang papa akan menokok papanya. Fatah tidak dapat melupakan kata-kata itu. Bahananya senantiasa bergema di telinga bila melihat keadaan keliling; baik bangunannya, balk wanna-warnanya, baik kereta-kenetanya, balk makanannya dan baik ketawa senyumnya Yang tinggi akan bertambah tinggi. Yang dilanyak akan tenus dilanyak lagi. Wajah pernimpin muda itu terus tenjelma di depan mata. Fatah masih ingat kata-kata itu. Yang kaya bentarnbah kaya. Yang papa semakin papa. (p. 69-70) The young speaker greets Fatah warmly with, How are you, Uncle. For the first time since Fatah arrived, someone shows concern for him. Fatahs life has fallen into the routine of spending his day in the city of the cursed island and returning to the squatter area at night. He grows increasingly aggressive towards the upper class until his mind becomes unbalanced as a result of stress. The stress of the oppression causes a nightmare. The objects, people and events in his nightmare symbolize his inner turmoil. He dreams he is sitting on a big empty Milo tin at the top of a hill looking into the distance. This symbolizes his poverty and the bleak future he faces. Lahamad, his friend who was run over by a lorry, is sitting at his side. Lahamad is huge and is waving his hands to the masses of people at the foot of the hill. This represents a victim of poverty asking the people to protest against their social system. Also on the hill is an enormous hall where the protesters are carrying flags bearing the symbols of a hoe and a crescent moon: Jauh di belakang tegak dewan yang cukup besan dan gagah bentuknya. Wamanya binu bencampun menab pada pintu gerbangnya. Bendera mernbawa larnbang cangkul dan bulan dengan kata-kata 206
kebangkitan berkibar-kiban. Angin dan laut bercanggah dengan

angin dan bukit.
(p. 91) The hoe and the crescent moon symbolize the poor peasant. The wind from the sea which clashes with the wind from the hill symbolizes the confrontation between the poor and the rich. The huge iron wheels, like juggernauts, destroy whatever they come across, even the houses in the squatter area: Dan daun-daun bensama dahan dan ranting yang tadinya benjuntaian meliuk-liuk bencanggah angin, kini tenkulai patah dan tensembam masuk bumi merah. Menyinga kemanaan noda-roda besi bergigi 1w penlahan-lahan bergolek ke atas gubuk-gubuk papan sayung dan tin-tin minyak tan yang cat tak bercat.
(p. 93)
In his nightmare, Fatah feels the huge wheels attacking him: Roda-noda yang beratus-ratus benbanis itu rnengepungnya. Dan setapak demi setapak mereka menapat. Fatah tenasa memegang besi galang becanya yang bengkok. Roda-noda semakin menapat dan merapat. Bulatan semakin sempit. (p. 97) As the authorities move to destroy his illegal shack, the crowd
shouts Uprising! He dreams his wife, dressed in pure white clothes, and with his family are received warmly by the crowd. The people acclaim him as the champion of the poor against the huge wheels they call penindas-penindas dan pelanyak-pelanyak, which represent the oppressors: Bibi begitu cantik. Sinan rnukanya bencahaya-cahaya dan kedua belah mata jennib macam air canuk di becah. Tiba-tiba rakyat menjulang ke empat-empat meneka, membawa naik beca yang telah sedia ada dengan segala perhiasan. Burnbungnya berkain baldu dengan bendera larnbang cangkul dan bulan sabit berkibankibar di depan. Rodanya rendang dan cantik tak bengigi. Dan beca itu dikayuh oleh Laharnad sendini diikuti oleh benibu-ribu beca 207
yang lain mengelilingi dewan.Rakyat bergemunuh, bergenancang bunyi tin-tin Milo kosong ditabuh. Fatah tensenyum menenirna kehonmatan yang dibeni.
(p. 99)
Now Fatah becomes the vanguard of the furious crowd awaiting his command to take action: Meneka rnenunggu penintah dan Fatah. Fatah bangun dan benjalan hala ke dewan sambil mengapuk tin kosong besar yang menjadi tempat duduknya tadi. Kegarnatan suara rakyat yang rnembanjini datang cepat membara perasaan. Sekanang banu mengenal suana rakyat. mi bukan suara seonang dua penanik beca, atau tiga empat orang kuli pelabuhan dan sepuluh lima betas penganggun-penganggur. Ini suara ribu dan juta banisan nakyat yang akan meneIan denuan kereta, ngauman traktor dan guruh di langit. Dan suana mi akan dibawanya juga ke Terenas bila kelak tiba masanya. Tidak guna menempik seonang din meminta sejengkal tanah di rimba. Suara itu tidak akan didengar.
(p. 101)
He firmly believes that the voices of the urban masses and village people must be united in their protest. He wishes to see an uprising of the poor: Penpaduan antara Terenas dengan Lurah Glugor akan rnenyenak dan rnenyaningkan lagi suara. Penyebatian perjuangan antara penarik beca dengan petani, antara penoreh getah dengan kuli petabuhan, antana penanik buluh dengan pencuci-pencuci longkangc antara penganggur dan pernenung akan menggarnatkan suasana. (p.102) Fatahs nightmare ends with a vision of the cruel iron wheels
destroying his village in Terenas. He wakes up from the nightmare
knowing that he has to return to his fellow villagers. He hears a voice

calling him to return: Dia rnesti putang tanpa soal-soal lagi. Penderitaan yang ditanggung oleh anak-anak Terenas sukar di bendung tagi. Tapi tindan208
an tin yang terpacak patah di tengah. Bengerancang bunyi; jatuh bersama Fatah. Fatah tentianap di tanah. Hidung, mulut, dada tenhempap ke burni. Siku kanannya tertindih, tengeliat tempurung lututnya, sengal buku lalinya, tulang kening dan tumitnya. Terasa telinganya menangkap suara mernanggilnya dan kemudian ghaib suara itu sayu-sayup ditelan ruang yang luas. (p.107) The author has previously used dream sequences as a device to reveal the subconscious of his characters. In this case, the technique is effective in Seluang Menolak Baung because it vividly and succinctly shows how the main character experiences an inner turmoil that is the counterpart to the external tension and struggle of his daily life. It is a vision of his future struggle. Realizing that surrender and acceptance have limits, faithfulness has its boundaries, and politeness has its borders, he tells his wife that the family wilt return to Terenas. Although both his family and his wifes family have left the village, he decides to return for the squatter village is to be demolished. Fatah compares the way the authorities are going to destroy his dilapidated shack on the illegal land to buffaloes and wild boar going on a rampage: Meningatkan kerbau-kenbau dan babi-babi hutan itu Fatah tidak dapat membezakan dengan manusia-manusia yang tengarnak meranapkan gubuk-gubuk buruk onang-orang miskin seperti dia. Dia tidak memikirkan yang lain kerana persarnaannya belch dikatakan semua benda. Kalau dia katakan orang-orang itu macam kenbaukerbau dan macam babi-babi, orang lain tentu marah. Tapi orang lain hendak marah pun, marahlah. Dia tidak boleh berbuat apaapa kerana itulah fikirannya. (p. 116) During their final day on Penang Island, Fatah and Bibi are in turmoil because without a place to live and no definite livelihood, they face an uncertain future. The author vividly presents the thoughts of both Fatah and Bibi. He juxtaposes their experiences throughout the final day in alternate paragraphs. The sequence begins with Fatah pedaling his trishaw to the city to earn the money 209
NOVELS OF THE TROuBLED YEAR5
home and Bibi at home talking with their daughters regarding life in the village. The sequence juxtaposing their thoughts appears between pages 119 and 126: Page 119: Fatah is going to the city on his trishaw and passing through beautiful houses on both sides of the road. Bibi is telling her daughters about the place and the house that they are going to live in the village. Page 120: Fatah is still on his way looking desperately for passengers. He is sweating and upset. Bibi is telling her daughters now the way of life in the village which is different from city life. They will not have to sell empty tins and dry cow-dung as they do now. Page 121: Fatah stops at Jelutung near the fish-market waiting for passengers. While waiting, he is thinking about the fresh fish which he has no chance of buying because it is too expensive for him. A Chinese woman, nyonya hires him to pedal her to Simpang Tiga. Bibi is explaining to her children the meaning of rumah haram, house built without a proper plan approved by the government usually built within a short time, and tanah haram, land acquired without the approval from the government. She is referring to squatters living in slum areas like themselves: Tanah mi tanah kenajaan; disimpan berzaman-zaman untuk dibangunkan bila sesuai dengan pembangunan. Rumah mi rumah hanam. Bukan rumah halal. Benda haram tak boleh dimakan. Makan babi itu haram. Mencuri pun haram watau tin busuk sekali pun kalau dicuni. Mencuni tahi lernbu yang bentaburan itu pun hanam juga. tapi kerana tahi itu tetap tahi, onang tidak ambil kisah. Tahi apa pun onang tidak ambil kisah kalau tengamak mengambilnya. Kita boleh angkut sebanyak mana yang kita suka. Benda halal susah dapat kerana terpaksa mencurah peluh lebih dulu. Menanik beca itu halal. 210
Page 122: Fatah reaches the house of the Chinese woman. He is disappointed when he is paid a mere 50 cents
for such a long distance. He dares not ask for extra and he tries to defend his dignity as a man. Trying to ask for help from other people is an equally shameful deed: Dia cuba rnembuka mulut minta tarnbah 50 puluh sen lagi. Bukan dekat dan Jelutung ke kepala Simpang Tiga. Tapi bibinnya terkunci. Dia malu hendak minta tambah dan orang lain. Hidup meminta dan orang lain mernang payah kerana orang lain itu bukan orang. Orang tidak boleh memahami. mi Fatah anak bangsa Hulu Terenas. Anakku dua. Maniam namanya. Saodah narnanya. Isteniku satu. Bibi. Karni juga perlu makan dan tidur. Besok gubuk kami akan diranap kenana tanah itu bukan tanah kami. Dan mi bukan becaku. Beca orang lain.
-
Bibi is explaining to the children how Fatah built their house within one night and how the house will be de-
stroyed by the government. Page 123: Fatah meets a Malay couple who want to go to the movies, but keep haggling about lowering the fare by a mere 10 cents. Fatah thinks of the man who is so stingy: Kalau sekupang nak kita kira, jangan dakap perempuan tepi jalan. Dakap saja batang pisang belakang rumah. Anakku ada dua. Isteriku satu. Besok rnereka pulang ke Terenas. Each encounter strengthens Fatahs resolution to leave. Page 124: Bibi is talking about the kinds of work that can be done back at the kampung,where they are going to the next day. Fatah arrives in the city which is always busy. He looks at the delicious food for sale, which is very tempting but he cannot afford to buy it.
211
Page 125: Bibi tells the children that on the next day they
will drop in at Mak Cik Piahs house in Terenas to have a meal there, because she has plenty of ubi gadung,wild yam to eat.
Fatah is thinking of his job. He decides that he prefers to carry prostitutes on his trishaw, because they are generous and understanding:
Muat saja pelacur dan hotel ke hotel. Mereka lebih murah hati; lebih mengenal peluh dan semua urat saraf. Lebih mengenal manusia dan masalah. Lebih mengetahui pendenitaan dan kepapaan. Atau terus saja ke pelabuhan menunggu
barang-barang berat danipada manusia. Barang-barang sekarang lebih benharga dan mulia danipada manusia.
Bibi is also planning to go to Suuds house. The children are asking what they can do at the kampung. Page 126: Fatah goes straight to the brothel where he can
easily pick up prostitutes and bring them to the hotel. Bibi says there are no empty tins to collect for sale in the village. The trishaw is not used there.
Fatah is in the heart of the city in the midst of vehicles, buildings and the smell of Keow teow, a Chinese dish of
fried pork.
Bibi thinks she will not worry once they are in Terenas. She feels secure living in the village. Fatah is desperately looking for customers in the midst of the city. He ponders
on his hard life: Kota raya dan dia bersama beca terselit di tengah-tengah mengasalc nafas, membedal tenaga setiap detik, mengesat peluh setiap kali noda berpusing. Terasa keharuan itu rnenggeiodak marah mengingatkan penderitaan setiap han yang ditempuh, setiap detik yang dicanggah. The author contrasts Fatahs physical struggle to earn a little money with Bibis conversation about their better life in the village. 212
The writer then brings the thoughts of both husband and wife together in a single paragraph:
Fatah tegang unat betis lagi. Kalau boleh berderau mengetam, Bibi sedia menolong. Iipah padi pun cukup. Maniam sudah lama angkat tin-tin tahi lembu dan dibawanya ke timbunan sampah sanap. Bian berapa hendak ben, tapi jangan kurang dan seringgit, fikir Fatah. Kali mi akan dimintanya. Dan simpang ke jeti bukan dekat. Sebuah Ion menyipi hampmr-hampir rnenempuh bahu Fatah. Bedebah. Moga-moga Pak Yet beni tetak rumbia. Bibi nasa dia boleh can mengkawan dan batang bernban. Dia boleh jahit petangpetang. Buluh rnengkawan mudah diraut. Bercambah dihujung becah. Saodah hirnpun kamn-kain bunuk dan sudah bungkus pula. Dalam ingatan Bibi, Pak Yet tidak kedekut. Kalau tolong kutip sekerap pun boleh. Penumpang hulun wang seninggit. Fatah bensyukur. (pp. 129-130) This deliberate juxtaposition of the characters thoughts succeeds as a technique because it enables the author to portray the conflict and tension of the husband and wife. Both of them are thinking of money, the wage that Bibi is going to earn and the fare that Fatah is going to get. Then, there is also an element of an obstacle or challenge when Fatah is nearly pushed off the road by a lorry and Bibi is thinking of her future struggle in the village. Finally there is an element of hope. Bibi is optimistic about their return to Terenas and Fatah is happy with the fare paid by his passenger. Escaping from the skyscrapers, the prostitutes, the noise and the pollution of the big city, Fatah hopes for perfection and simplicity; tapping rubber in the morning, clearing land at midday and doing extra jobs in the afternoon in Terenas. However, the struggle is not over. The low price of rubber and a paddy crop destroyed by pests has forced the villagers to depend on wild yams.
Tapi sekanang mi bukan saja getah yang jatuh, sekenap pun tak ada harga. Padi diserang kesing. Dan rneneka banyak makan ubi liar di rimba. (p. 142) Although life is equally hard in the village, Fatah believes that 213
his viLlage people are summoning him to fight for something con-
crete and tangible:

Gamitan dan senibu tangan memanggilnya pulang dalam igauan sematam akan mempamenkan kenyataan yang boleh dilihat dengan kedua betah mata, boleh didengar dengan kedua belah telinga, boteh dihidu dengan kedua lubang hidung dan boleh dinasa dengan hujung lidah. (p. 140) He intends to lead his people to ask for land from the government: Satu keluanga akhirnya pindah juga. Di belakang mereka tanah Lunah Glugor tenus benkobak, mengoyak-ngoyak kulit, tumbangmenumbang pokok-pokok yang menghijau daun dan gubukgubuk yang amat mudah lunuh. Enjin terus rnenjenit sepanjang detik. Dan jenitan itu sedikit demi sedikit luput; diganti oleh deruan keneta-keneta yang memotong dan benselisih di jalanraya.
Beca Fatah terhinggut-hinggut di tengah-tengah denuan yang

benkecamuk itu. Dan dia amat hati-hati kerana penumpang-penumpang kali mi bukan seorang nyonya kedekut atau pelacunpelacur yang baik hati, tapi anak-anak dan isteninya sendini. (p. 154)
Able to articulate the grievances of the villagers, he gains the

support of the young men in the village. Suman, one of the young
men, is the eldest son of Salam and Piah, and the brother of Rubi, Minah, Som, Kipli and Baba. His family lives on Pak Yets land tapping the rich mans rubber trees. Suman is a model son and brother. He helps his parents and never says anything to complain. He
eats whatever is available and wears what there is to wear. He sets up
at sunrise and goes to the hill to find bamboo; or if he does not go to the hill, he goes to the jungle with his father to look for some cane on dig yams. At midday he comes home, eats and rests a little. He fishes in the stream and searches for shrimps in the river. In fact, he devotes his life to serving the needs of his family. Although Suman never complains, inwardly he feels weary,
empty and disappointed. Within him lies the unconscious desire to do something positive for the welfare of his family. Gradually, the 214
feelings of oppression borne by Suman meet with the driving force
of Fatah. Suman changes, both inward and outward, astonishing his whole family. The feelings of frustration transform his character and
behaviour. The changes are observed by his father, Salam: Kebelakangan mi tabiat Suman bukan tabiat dulu lagi. Ketiadaan Suman malam-malam hujan begini menimbulkan kenaguan pada Salam. Cakap anaknya itu sudah denas-denas dan kadang-kadang kasar pula. Jenkah adik-adik kadang-kadang macam sungguhsungguh hendak bergocoh. Dan kalau menetak buluh atau menintis ranting, hayunan panang selalu gopoh-gapah dan kenas. Menakik sana sini macam mahu melepas geram yang tenbuku. Sekali waktu disunuh tebang pisang awak legun, bila habis tandan dicantas, batang dicincang hingga Iumat tak tentu sebab. (pp. 15-16) Other members of the family also observe changes. Piah is told by Rubi that Suman has eaten a live catfish in the rice-field. The lump of raw meat is still bloody: Piah membenitahu Salam. Satarn tak ambil pusing waktu itu. Tapi dalam keadaan malam begini ketiadaan Suman menimbulkan tanda tanya. Suman tak pernah makan daging keli mentah. Kalau udang kecil susur batas secekak pun dimamah begmtu saja. tapi bukan daging keli atau haruan atau puyu hidup. Bau hanyimya kuat sangat.
(p. 16)
Rubi, Sumans sister has also observed her brothers strange behaviour; he has violently pulled up small trees and cast them away. At times, he screams and shrieks for no obvious reason: Sepanjang perjalanan mengikut denai tadi setiap pokok tongkat langit yang tingginya paras lutut itu dicabut-cabut dan dilontar jauh-jauh ke dalam semak. Golok sening dihayun mencantas angin dan kadang-kadang hinggap di dahan-dahan kayu sepanjang denai. Tersoyah dahan-dahan itu jatuh ke burni. Bebenapa kali pula abangnya bertempik sekuat hati hingga bahananya tiga empat kali timbal-menimbal bila tentumpu bukit bukau. Bunung-burung ben215
cempera lan. Dan pada satu ketika Suman memanjat pongsu jan-
tan, mendepa kedua belah tangannya, menarik nafas pajang dan

keniau memanjang sampai tumpu sedak. (p. 18) On other occasions, he pulls up canes and roots as if he is really angry, presses the eyeball of one fish, breaks the neck of another fish and strangles a bird in order to hear the shrieking sound and then pressing its body as though he were squeezing coconut cream. These are indications of his inner conflict and frustration. Such cruelty is the result of frustration and symbolizes the repressed desire to fight back. Suman longs to eat something better than wild yam, but for that he needs land. After meeting with Fatah, Sumans ambition is to own land even it is only as big as a loincloth: Berbeza besar kalau mempunyai tanah nama sendiri walau sebesan kain cawat sekalipun. Tak ada lagi nasa bimbang kalau pijak tanah sendini. Di tepi dapurnya boleh dibuat reban yang agak besar. Ayam-ayam boleh berketuk-ketuk, bentelun tanpa sebarang gangguan. Surnan begitu ingin mencangkul dan menggembur tanah sendini itu. Ingin ditanamnya dengan apa saja yang boleh dimakan. Biar ada senba satu. Tanahnya tanah sendini. Pokok-pokoknya pokok-pokok sendiri. Buah-buahnya buah-buah sendini. Bukan menumpang hak orang lain. (p. 52) Sensing the self-esteem and feeling of independence that comes from owning land, Suman fights for his rights and the future of his family. But there are obstacles. The first obstacle is the government regulation that does not permit people to cultivate any new land: Bukan rninta tanah tepi jalan. Bukan minta tanah yang diusahakan. Bukan minta belukar dekat tanah barn itu. Mereka minta tanah nithba laknat hanya sebesan bidang kain cawat. Betum ditebas belum disentuh. Banir yang tersumbat pun dua tiga pemeluk. Tanah rimba jin bertendang, setan berkeniau. Tak pemah dijamah lagi. (p. 26)
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Suman associates government officials with wealthy people living in the city:
Cenita Fatah tentang keenakan onang-orang besan dan orang-orang kaya raya di kota mendesing telinganya. Biar apa kata Fatah, dia akan tunut. Zaman sekarang bukan zaman tekukur. Suman masih ingat kata-kata Fatah itu. Zaman sekarang zaman orang bertindak. Onang tidak akan dengar suara kita. Kita bukan tekukur mandul yang hanya asyik benkokok di atas-atas dahan pokok yang tinggi. Kita mesti tunjuk bahawa kita juga manusia yang inginkan hak sendini walau kecil sekalipun (p. 55) His envy, hatred and anger are revealed by his violent killing of the fat catfish with a bloated belly, the affluent class of people who
live prosperously in the city.

Later, Suman shows his hostility towards the bureaucracy which is represented by a target which has a big belly and having an awful laugh above the sky ; he aims his arrow at it: Giginya terkancing enat sehingga rahangnya sedikit menyembulkan ketul di kedua belah pipi. Anak panah dipasang pada baun dan menuju hujungnya ke arah langit biru bagaikan sasaran yang benar-benar itu terawang-awang di atasnya. Di udara tenasa ada sasanan yang benkisar-kisan dengan perut yang buncit dan ketawa yang menjengkilkan. (i- ~ The swelling of dark clouds in the sky which Suman sees symbolize the growing feeling of dissatisfaction among the people of Terenas. The long strides he takps to go to Fatahs house symbolize
the steps towards his own self-realization as a fighter against the suffering of his family and other villagers: Suman kemudian membuka matanya kembali. Langit sernakin redup cuacanya. Tak lama lagi hujan akan mencunah setiap pelosok tanah Terenas. Baun di tangan di lempar jauh-jauh ke dalam
banuh. Dan dengan nafasnya yang terdengus-dengus, Suman melangkah panjang- panjang menuju ke numah Fatah. (p. 58)
217
In this passage Shahnon is trying to show the strong bond between man and nature. Suman, frustrated because he is not able to acquire land of his own, he goes back to nature to express his frustration. This gloomy atmosphere is foreshadows the thunderstorm at
the end of the story.
Fatah emphasizes the difference between the rich and the poor
people: Orang di kota tenlalu kaya. Saya tahu kenana saya dah lama tinggal papa kedana di sana. Suud pun tahu semua mi. Orang lain terlalu kaya, terlalu kaya sangat. Semuanya jauh berbeza dengan kita. Mereka sekarang bertambah kaya raya. Kita di sini bentambah papa kedana. Kita bukan cembunu. Kita bukan dengki. Kita bukan busuk perut. Islam pun suruh kita can kekayaan. Carllah banyak mana pun, tapi bila terlalu kaya, tenlalu mewah, tenlalu rnabuk hanta benda, onang lain macam kita mi tentu bentarnbah miskin, bentarnbah papa, bantambah susah. (p. 164) Further, Fatah says that while the wealthy people are accruing wealth, the people of Terenas are still apathetic and behave politely. This politeness has allowed other people to be opportunists white they themselves had become beggars in their own country: Kita dali lama bersopan santun. Tuk nenek kita dulu pun bensopan-santun sampai tengadai semua tanah kepada orang lain, Dan kita semua jadi peminta sedekah di tanahair kita sendini. Saya pun sedan bila -dengan mata kepala saya sendini melihat keadaan di kota besar dulu. Kalau tak kenana sya bangsat, saya pun tak sedar juga (p. 171) Fatah and the other young men, including Suman, face oppo-
sition from the older people within the village as well as from the government. The older villagers oppose Fatahs aggressive plan. They say it was enough to deliberately humiliate the Member of Parliament by serving him wild yam and roasted dried fish, food which
is not fit for an honourable member of parliament. Agreeing to fight
to the last, Fatah and the other young men decide to lead the people in a march against the government.
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The problem of asking for land has generated two opposing groups in the village and resulted in a confrontation. Salam, Sumans father, represents the older generation that is in conflict with the younger generation as represented by the character Suman. The older men have no desire to appear obstinate and throw their weight around; for them, poverty is just a way of life. Although Salam opposes his sons attachment to Fatah and Suud, Who he considers out-
casts. Suman remains attracted to these young men who have also been pulverized by suffering. They have a face to face confrontation one morning after Salam has spent the night worrying about his sons
whereabouts. Sumans resentment towards the attitudes of the older people is suddenly heightened in a disturbing moment. Salam says angrily that the plan to ask for land is not like asking for banana
leaves: mi bukan minta kait daun pisang. mi minta tanah berpuluh-puluh relung. Kena ada orang kenal. Kaukenal siapa? Fatah kenal stapa? Suud kenal siapa? (p. 194)
He is convinced that you must know influential person in order
to get land. His wife Piah believes that knowing someone influential
is immaterial; she responds: Nak kenal onang, kita tak kenal siapa. Nak rninta cana baik, dah minta benapa kali, tak juga dapat. Nak mengemis, kepada siapa nak mengemis. Tanah kita mahu. Awak tak mahu tanah? Awak nak tumpang tanah mi sampai nak cucu cicit? (p. 195) Salam is extremely annoyed- when his wife asks whether he wants to live on other peoples land for generations to come. He feels challenged by both his son and his wife. As a bread-winner, he has failed in his role because he has not improved their existence by
changing the situation. Salams questioning about Sumans absence during the night
leads to a serious quarrel that ends with Salam cruelly whipping Suman. The following sequence shows Shahnons technique at building up the underlying tension over land reform and the physical agony of an unending strnggle: 219
Page 183: Early in the morning, Suman comes back from Fatahs house, fresh and cheerful. He is thinking of the prospect of asking for land as decided during the night. Page 188: Suman tells his mother about the plan. Page 190: Sallm abruptly wakes up on hearing about the plan. He questions Suman about the plan; Suman answers that they are going to hold a demonstration on the coming Sunday. Page 191: Salam keeps on asking about how they are going to ask for the land. Page 192: Salam categorically disagrees with the method they plan to use. Page 193: Piah interrupts the dialogue. She supports Suman. Page 194: Salam opposes the plan. Page 195: Piah supports the plan. Page 196: Salam warns Suman not to get involved: Jangan siapa masuk campur dengan bekas penarik beca dan bekas askar itu. Mereka cuba nak buat kacau kampung mi. Tak dapat tanah pun talc apa. Rezeki kita ada. Selama mi rezeki itu dibeni oleb Tuhan. Jangan siapa masuk campun dengan pengacau-pengacau itu. Page 197: Piah is strongly behind the plan and is determined to take part in the demonstration on Sunday. Page 198: Piah is thinking about the coming demonstration. Page 199: Salam asks Suman whether he is going to join
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the crowd; Suman replies that he is positively going to take part. Page 200: Salam again gives a stern Warning by saying that nobody in the family is allowed to take pan in the demonstration because the way to ask for the land is highly improper: Jangan siapa keluar berarak han Ahad in Jangan siapa ikut Fatah dan Suud itu. Siapa nak keluan benarak han Ahad mi, keluar dan rumah mi. Itu semua kerja salah, kenja langgar adat, derhaka kepada raja dan sesiapa saja. Itu cana tunjuk kekuatan sendiri. Dan cana itu adatah salah. Walau dengan apa cara sekalipun, kalau nezeki dibeni oleh Tuhan, tak diberi juga, Akibatnya banyak yang menimpa. Page 201: Suman weighs up the pros and cons in the struggle to ask for land. Page 202: Salam and Piah argue about the demonstration. After warning Suman again about the consequences of joining the demonstration, Salam again asks if he still intends to go ahead.Suman nods his head. Salam is furious. Page 204: Salam accuses Piah of giving moral support to Suman. Piah, who is pregnant, feels the first labour pains. Salam starts to takes physical action against his eldest son: Salam bingkas bangun, me,,nenpa ke hala anak sutungnya duduk. Bangun! Suman bangun bendini dengan tegaknya dan di tangan rnasih tercekak cawan kopi. Salam sentap senduk kayu di dapun dan belakang analc sulungnya disebat dan disebat dan disebat. Suman tegak berdiri talc berginjak meskipun sakitnya benbekas benan. Adik-adik berkerumun keliling Piah dan mata mereka tenbetiak melihat abang dipukul dengan cara begitu. 221
tni semua kenja salah. Cepat ikut orang yang suka buat kacau. Kalau hendak ikut banua-barua itu, ikut saja 2dan ja-
ngan pulang ke rumab aku in Ini pondok aku dengan anakanakku yang tahu bawa perangai. Page 205: Piah menekan perutnya lagi dan dani keningnya tenpamer kedutan yang berlapisan. Kau nak ikut juga? Suman teguh dan berdiri tak benginjak. Dia membisu. Salam menjadi lupa ingatan sekaligus. Disepaknya pinggan yang tadi tenhidang ubi kayu rebus dan pinggan itu hinggap di atas para. Kau nak ikut juga banua-barua itu? Dibalunnya lagi belakang Suman dengan senduk. Patah senduk itu dmhtijung dan yang tenpegang dilempankannya inenampan pintu depan. Matanya liar mencani sesuatu dm atas para yang di sudutnya
terbaring batang buluh belah pemanggang ikan kering. Di sambamya buluh itu dan terus memukul belakang anaknya. Belakang itu berbalur. Bajunya pecah-pecah tapi dan niak muka Suman secalit kegusanan pun tidak kelihatan bagaikan segalanya menjadi mangli kepadanya. Apa kau mau ikut-juga? Geramnya Salam dalam hati. Dia samban geluk di lantal dan melontannya ke luan tanpa sebab. Dan sekaligus dengan tangan kirinya dia cekak dagu anak sulungnya. Mata Suman kuyu dan dan kelopaknya mengalir titik air yang jernih, tapi dia masih juga tmdak berkata apaapa. Salam memicit pipi anaknya hingga mengopak rahang dan terbukalah mulut itu. Kau nak ikut juga? Suman tidak menunjukkan sebanang jawapan. Aku kata kau hendak ikut jugakah? Suman membisu juga. Page 206 Aku nak tahu kau mau ikut lagi atau tidak? Salam terus mengulangi soalan itu. Dan Suman tenus berdiam juga. Salam tiba-tiba lagi menyambar puntung kayu bakan di bawah belanga dan terus menghayun batang kayu itu membalun belakang Suman. Suman terbongkok bila terasa bebanan yang mengejut begitu. Apa kau nak bunuh anal? Piah tensesak-sesak mengeluankan suara.
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Page 207: Piahs labour is well advanced and she falls unconscious in the midst of the whipping. Page 208: Salam orders Suman to go and fetch a midwife. Page 209: Salam is full of remorse because of the whipping and sits Weeping beside Piah in her labour: Salam duduk di sisi Piah sambil merenungi wajah yang pucat
dan lemah itu. Dan dan matanya tentitik jatuh bebenapa ketulan air yang jernih. Dia menggabus air itu dengan belakang tapak tangan kanannya. Dia teningat fiilnya yang Liba-tiba membana tadi Lanpa tangsung LeningaL pada Piah yang sarat mengandung. They pay a high price in their struggle for land reform. Fatah and Suud were in tears when they made their agreement to demonstrate. Suman endures a terrible whipping, and Salam is in tears after his fury. Suman consciously decided to submit to the whipping from his father without any retaliation. Used to enduring pain and suffering, he deliberately submits himself to the whipping in the hope that his fathers behaviour will make him think about their poverty more seriously. Suman knew his father would fiercely opposes his struggle, but at the same time he would not change his attitude. The birth of Salams new baby heralds many changes. Piah and Salams other children strongly oppose their father. This change in the childrens attitude towards their father becomes evident. Rubi, the second child, feels sorry for her brother because of the mornings whipping. She insists Suman is doing no wrong in taking action over the land and believes it improper for her father to stop the struggle. Rubi, upset and depressed by her fathers cruelty, exemplifies the birth of a new fighter. This is evident in the following passages: Tapi Rubi hainan kenapa bapa tadi pagi memukul Abang Suman kerana Abang Suman benpakat hendak minta sekeping tanah. Tak nampak di mana salahnya. Rubi naik nadang juga dalam dada bila
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melihat abang membongkok menahan belakang yang selama mi
memikul batang buluh dan akar notan. (p. 249) Rubi tak boleh nak faham mengapa bapa manah sangat kepada abang tadi. Kalau dah dapat tanah itu, semua akan senang. Apa bapa tak mahu senang? Apa bapa masih nak tumpang tanah onang
lain? Apa bapa tak mahu tanah sendiri? (p. 250) Bapa memukul abang tadi pagi begitu teruk. Bapa tidak boleh benbuat begitu kepada abang. Abang Suman bukan bersalah.
Abang Suman bukan bensalah. (p. 252) The other children also react to the morning whipping. Their
responses are portrayed as appropriate to their age. The protest from Minah, the third child, is described as stemming from something tangible rather than emotional. She compares the father and brother: Abang Suman baik. Abang Suman bawa batik ubi banyak. Dia bawa balik buluh banyak. Abang Suman macam bapak jalaic kita. Jalalc tak pernah patuk ibu ayam. Jalak tak pernah patuk anak-anak ayam. Jalak cakar tanah can cacing dan sisa makanan untuk anal-anal ayam. Bapa tak baik. Aku tak sayang pada bapa. Dia jahat. Dia balun Abang Suman. Bapa tak baik hani mi. (p. 253) Minah is aware of the land problem. She says her father does not want to move, does not Want his own land. He is afraid. He is spiritless like a defeated cock. Som, the fourth child, admits that it is Suman that I love most. She hates her father for having whipped someone she loves. The reaction of Kipli, the fifth child, is admiration. He sees that Suman did not cry after the thrashing and is determined to be as brave: Aku tak mahu nangis. Aku nak jadi abang. Aku sayang Abang Suman. Aku talc slyang bapa. (p. 259)
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The sixth child, Baba, reacts by not mentioning his fathers name among the members of the family. Clearly, all five brothers
and sisters sympathize with their eldest brother Suman. They consider him the hero of the family. The birth of Jebat is itself a symbolic protest against the father. The childs name, Jebat, has a significant meaning in the struggle for land. Jebat, the name associated of a rebellious figure in a wellknown Malay epic, is born in the midst of the thrashing and turbulence of a life and death struggle. The chapter Adik (The Baby) consists of one page. The drawing of a circle with a black dot has a mystical connotation. Shahnon uses a visual technique to convey both the concept of an embryo and the significance of the baby in the future of the family. Born on a day dominated by an uprising, the child is no ordinary a child but a symbol of protest: This visual technique is the first of its kind in a Malay novel.
Shahnon sets the stage for the uprising. The chain of events
which began with the speech of young socialist on Penang Island ends with Salam agreeing to demonstrate. His involvement in an uprising which he earlier opposed is a positive sign. No longer does he want to rejects the idea of existence means being, or an individual must be obedient and loyal. He begins to understand that existence does not mean being; existence includes opposition and challenge for survival. Salam is convinced by Fatahs explanation: Pak Cik Salam, ujan Fatah ingmn meneruskan segala sekaligus dan pemutus kata, bian saya beni ketenangan pendek. Kita bukan denhaka kepada sesiapa. flu tanah nimba yang tenbiar sepanjang zaman. Pak Cik Salam boleh lihat sendini dan smni. Dan di sini kita semua tak ada tanah sekeping pun untuk berpijak. Yang ada hanya menumpang saja. Kita minta tanah itu benkali-kali. Benkalikali kita menyembah Waibi minta tolong, tapi tak sepatah ada jasvapan dan Waibi mengatakan kita botch dapat tanah itu. Susah, katanya. Itu tanah simpanan. Itu tanah naja. Itu. Dan i. Kita makin banyak mulut untuk disuap ubi. Apa mesti kita buat sekarang. Tunggu? Tunggu? Kala~iorang tak ambil pusing tentang hidup kita, kita tak boleh tunggu. Kita mesti meminta juga. Dan han Ahad mi hanya satu cana untuk kita meminta tanah itu. (p. 259)
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The tong awaited Sunday finally arrives: Biar setiap anak buah Tenenas keluar benamai-ramai han Ahad in Bian mereka berpakaian cantik-cantik, melenggang-tenggang dan tersenyum sepanjang jalan. Tapi pesta han Ahad mi bukan teranah ke pejabat pegawai daerah. Kita benpesta di numab Waibi. (p. 299) Shahnon Ahmad uses a beautiful metaphor to describe the peoples demonstration. He portrays it as a wind which suddenly changes into a storm destroying everything. The symbolic elements suggest the storm of the people who gather all their power to oppose the establishment which is symbolized by a huge tree: Sepohon pokok yang besar nendang bergayutan dengan panasitpanasit bengoncang. Sekah dahan-dahan yang besar dan kemudian tumbang mempamenkan akar-akar yang teguh dan kukuh. Daundaunnya bencempena, terlenyek masuk bumi ditmndih oleh batangbatang sendini. Dan kemudian badai memuputnya jauh masuk ke dalam lubang bersama sisa-sisa yang lain. Tanah sekitar terkobak dan tenus menimbus lubang bagaikan mengambus mayat. Pokok besar yang nendang dan penuh parasit tacli lenyap dani bumi; terkabus bersama cebisan-cebisan kentas yang keronyok, tin-tin kosong yang bergenigis, daun-daun kering yang lerai serta tanah merah yang subur. (p. 302) Shahnon uses images from nature to portray the peoples uprising against their leader. The peoples struggle to topple him is analogous to the wind which builds into a storm and uproots a huge tree. And Shahnon uses anotherexample from nature, the small fish which had always fallen prey to the big fish, now begins to stab the big fish. This is the symbol used in the title. The novel Seluang Menodak Baung presents Shahnons reaction to the socio-economic and political problems in Malaysia during the years 1974~1975,I6 The people of Terenas eventually become suspicious of the sweet, lofty promises of officials. They feel the government has done nothing to improve their standard of living. They be-
226
come aggressive and ready to take any course of action. They realize, they are victims of the social system. They have grown sick and tired of the tactics used by those more powerful and authoritarian. This is the source of the psychological conflict which appears in 4he story Seluang Menodak Baung. The peoples representatives, to whom the peasants look for help, are not conscientiously carrying out their responsibilities. They are struggling for themselves and not for the people who elected them. The people of Terenas become restless and desire freedom from the bondage of poverty. The pressures lead to an uprising which is a very clear violation of the conventional behaviour in their traditional life. The shift of focus from Terenas to Penang Island and back to Terenas has close associations with Shahnons own life. Shahnon was born and brought up in Kampung Banggul Derdap in Kedah. He wrote the novel white he was living at Minden Heights, on Penang Island. The fictional Terenas is not far from Kampung Banggul Derdap, and Lurah Glugor is close to Minden Heights. The peoples demonstration at Baling, Sik were witnessed by Shahnon. He took part in the demonstration organized by university students in Penang. Two elements in the novel reflect Shahnons own
experiences. Firstly, the problem of poverty concerns Shahnon
deeply. This theme has been dealt with in a number of his short stories and novels. In his own life, he is surrounded by poverty; his relatives, his students and the people from his village are poor. Every time he goes from Penang to Sik, he encounters poverty. Secondly, Shahnon is very familiar with the type of people he describes. He narrates his own experiences of Kampung life through the character of Suman. The description of the life of Fatah and his family in the squatter area of Lurah Glugor is the product of careful daily observation. The story of Suud, the ex-soldier who returns to Terenas emptyhanded, has close personal associations for the author who was once a soldier. As a caring and sensitive person, the hardships of the people have deeply touched Shahnon and produced feelings of frustration. The novel reflects the struggles of Shahnon himself, with the tone of frustration is concealed in every paragraph. Seluang Menodak Baung is not propaganda but a protest. It contains much more realism then the novel Kemelut, but its real strength lies in its imagination and powers of perception.
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The Renewed Social Commitment In Malaysia, the period between 1974-1975 was a troubled one, full of turmoil and turbulence. National economic growth was hampered by the efforts of a staggering world inflation. During the economic recession the price of goods soared, effecting the wages of the low-income group. Rural areas were the hardest hit after the price of rubber fell and a wet season prevented rubber tapping. Poverty became the norm in both the rural and urban areas. As a remedial effort, the government encouraged foreign capitalists to invest in industrial ventures within the country. These industries and factories resulted in pollution in the nearby areas. The pollution which threatened the livelihood of the local people became another factor in the growth of poverty among groups such as fishermen. Out of extreme desperation, the peasants and the fishermen protested. There were massive demonstrations throughout the country against the government.17 The demonstrators were supported by outside organizations and students. Under the weight of this mounting pressure, the government was forced to adopt and execute new policies. Thoughout the sixties, Shahnon concentrated on portraying the plight of the poor people in his short stories and novels. His protest novels subttely portray the grievances of the poor people. In fact, this is an effective way of protest because it is a piece of art. The novel Kemelut expre,sses the same strain of protest against the capitalist and government institutions. The people react strongly when the capitalist exploiters pollute their estuary which is their source of their livelihood. They threaten to burn down the factories when no action is taken by the district officer and the chief minister. Fishermen become strong leaders who achieve their victory when action is taken to close down the factories. The theme of rural and urban poverty is further developed in the novel Seluang Menodak Baung through the sufferings of the families of Fatah and Satam. With his renewed social commitment, Shahnon creates a younger generation who will continue to demand justice. In these novels, it is the first time Shahnon uses the theme of social uprising against private and public institutions. In Kemelut, the fishermen are against the factories which destroy their livehood
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because of pollution. In Seluang Menodak Baung, the peasants rise

against.their elected leader because of inflation. These themes are
derived from real events during the period. There are also variations of previous themes such as rural and urban poverty, village and political leadership, corruption of government officials, hypocrisy of politicians, social immorality and prostitution, the suffering of the lower-income group, and the struggle of man for survival. Shahnon uses real issues, real people and real settings to give life to his creative work and depth to the old themes. The issues of the pollution faced by fishermen at Kuala Juru are found in Keinelut. The issues of inflation faced by the peasant are described in Seluang Menodak Baung. The author effectively portrays issues and emDtions in his narrative through the sufferings of the people concerned. These problems,
the emotions of frustration, anger and agony are successfully depicted by the author through his forceful language and realistic char-
acterization, especially in Seluang Menodak Baung. He is also successful in developing his characters. In Keinelut Shahnon traces Pak Mats development from a simple villager to a charismatic leader and Selamats development as a fighter for the poor. In Seluang Menodak Baung, Shahnon develops Fatah from a trishaw-pedaller to a leader of a massive demonstration and Suman
from a simple village youngster to a strong supporter. This character
development shows Shahnons desire to demonstrate that ones position in life can be changed. In both novels, Shahnon juxtaposes a variety of settings. In Kemelut the beautiful idyllic estuary of Kuala Indah Permai is marred by pollution~In Seluang Menodak Baung, the poverty-stricken settings of Terenas and Lurah Glugor are shown through different environments and people, Life in urban Penang is shown through the lives of trishaw-pedallers and prostitutes. The optimistic of Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung contrast with Shahnons earlier rural novels in which fate crushes the peasants. Within Malay society itself, there has been a developing
awareness and awakening of the people against the establishment.
Thus, Shahnon now shifts his perspective. Instead of fighting against nature, Malays now fight against man. If they unite, they can succeed in this latter fight. In the novel Seluang Menodak Baung, Shahnon makes more ef-
229
fective use of violence. The dream of Fatah is more gruesome than those of Lahuma in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Sharifah Shuhada in Tei-dedah and Menteri Bahadur in Menteri. Fatahs dream is full of symbolic references to the struggle of the peasants. Sumans violent killing of the fish is more bizarre than Imam Hamads killing of his decoy bird in Srengenge. With Seluang Menodak Baung Shahnon once again moves from tension in a family to the tension in society. The son Suman confronts his father in their struggle for land. This leads to tension between the people and their elected representative.This reflects the tension and realities of modern Malay society. The novel Seluang Menodak Baung is more successful than
Ketnelut and Perdana in transforming reality into literature. He is more skillful in treating social issues imaginatively and creatively. In Perdana and Kernelut, the author was restricted to real events, but in Seluang Menodak Baung. he is able to be more imaginative and creative in portraying the characters.
Stylistically, Shahnon makes more effective use of time shifts in
Seluang Menodak Bating than in his previous novels. This dramatic

use of chapters makes the plot of the story more complex. With this plot, Shahnon has the advantage of showing the struggle of Fatah and Suman and the challenges, the beating of Suman, the reactions of his brothers and sisters and the results of the struggle which ends in success. This complexity enriches Shahnons concerns and treatment of his themes of struggle which involve complex human behaviour, emotion, frustration, anger, restlessness and uprising.
With these novels, Shahnon has returned to earlier themes and issues of social concerns, but his literary skills that are now more varied and mature. These two novels, especially Seluang Mencdak Baung, combine old themes of rural struggle, urban social problems, political issues and human tension with the new real social upheavals read about, seen and experienced by Shahnon Ahmad.
,
230
CONCLUSION
The study of ten novels by Shahnon Ahmad reveals three significant interrelated perspectives: the authors reaction to and reflection on
the devetopment of Malay society; his presentation of themes and

characters; and his exploitation of language and literary style. Using
these perspectives: it is possible to analyse the major characteristics of his works and his development as a writer over a thirteen year period.
The novels are the result of Shahnons continuing concern with the development of Malay society. Shahnon Ahmad was born in 1933
and grew up in an atmosphere of great political turbulence involving

economic depression, social backwardness and an obvious decline of
moral standards. As a teacher and political observer, he began to reflect on the prevailing situation in his fictional works in 1956 when
he was 23 years old. His early social criticism was expressed in short stories about mans problems in sex, politics, economics and reli-
gious belief. He later developed these themes more fully in his novels. Shahnon works express the emergence of the modern Malay spirit. His emergence as a writer coincided with Independence; all of his fiction focuses on the realities of Malay society after Independence.
His earlier short stories exposed the poverty in the village which is depicted as the dominant cause of social conflict and tension. By contrast, he portray city life as endowed with an excess of luxurious comfort that breeds such vices as arrogance and hypocrisy.
Shahnons short stories provided the basis for his rich and complex novels. The process of writing of these short stories imbued him with confidence to develop himself as a serious novelist.
231
Immediately after achieving Independence, the Malays were determined to reinstate their self-respect and dignity by changing the economic imbalance, taking control of the political process and struggling for the recognition of the Malay language and culture as the national language and culture. However, their effort met strong and subtle opposition from the other communities who held economic and some political power in the country. The low degree of Malay participation in the economic life of the modern nation state was attributable to the long process of colonization and imperialism. One consequence of the colonial governments exploitation of the natural
resources of Malaya was that the Malays, the indigenous people of
the country, became poor and lost much of their political power.
They had little prestige in society; for instance although the Malays. who formed the majority of the population, wished the Malay lan-
guage to be used as the national language, it was not until 1984 that
Malay became the official medium of instruction in the institutions
of higher learning. The issue of national culture is still being debated because the other communities find it difficult to accept the fact that the Malay culture should take precedence over their own traditions. The main problems facing Malay society immediately after Independence can be categorizes as economic, political and cultural. Before 1969, the Chinese held most of the economic power with interests in the trade and plantation sectors. The Malays perceived their own backwardness in the economy to be due to the economic dominance of the Chinese. Futhermore, many economic sectors were controlled by foreigner. The Malays had little opportunity to acquire funds for developing the agriculture sector to improve their economic status.
These tensions brought about the May 13, 1969 riots between
the Malays and the Chinese. This incident marked a turning point in the economic development of the Malays. There after Malay economic backwardness was to be remedied by active government intervention at all levels: employment, provision of capital, and training. However, the proliferation of government and semi-government bodies tended to benefit a privileged few who indulged themselves excessively at the expense of the other Malays. The governments new economic policy resulted in increasing inequality within the Malay community. 232
CONCLUSION
In the late sixties and the seventies, there was rapid and largescale urbanization in Malay society. Malays entering into trade and commerce were exposed to westernization, materialism and secularization, Yet they also became more conscious of their identity. This struggle for Malay consciousness led to the publication of The Malay Dilemma (1970 by Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, Revolusi Mental (1971) by Senu Abdul Rahman and other UMNO members, and Siapa yang Salah (1972) by Dr. Syed Hussein Alatas. These books deal explicitly with the causes of Malay backwardness and suggest solutions to the problem facing Malays in a multi-racial society. In their frustration, the Malays increasingly turned to religion to provide the unifying force in their opposition to non-Malays. The reexamination of their identity led to the acceptance of the importance of Islam as a basis for Malay culture. The religious activities of the Islamic Dakwah movement and political opposition on the country offer alternatives for Malay society. However, the Malays are still unsure of their future development. The themes of Shahnon Ahmads novel, reflected these turbulent years and reveal his changing attitudes and values. During his early years, Shahnon wrote because he was stirred to expose social injustice and corruption. When he started writing novels, he adopted an even more serious and responsible attitude towards using his writing to champion the rights of his people. He brought to light the problems and issues faced by the Malays in trying to improve their economic and social conditions. His rural novels successfully raise the issue of poverty in the villages and the courageous struggle of the peasants for survival. His novels about city life deal with the economic, social and spiritual struggle of the people. In his efforts to improve the plight of the Malays, he is truly dedicated to the belief that poverty, illiteracy and social oppression among the Malays must be eradicated. In these novels, Shahnon Ahmad continually reworks the two significant themes of leadership and poverty. He shows that the qualities of leadership and the responsibilities and the capabilities of leaders a revital in any society, and his novels include studies of rural as well as national leaders. In Rentung, it is the leadership of the village head which really solve the problems of the peasants; the leader rises above the difficulties of poverty.
Models of responsible leadership are presented by Shahnon
233
through Pak Senik in Rentung and Menteri Bahadur in Menteri. Pak Senik, the village-head exercises his leadership and struggles with dedication for the harmony of his community. In spite of his inner weaknesses, Menteri Bahadur accepts his responsibilities as a national leader working for the survival of his people. In the end, both leaders successfully meet the challenges; Pak Senik settles the conflict between Semaun and Dogol, and Menteri Bahadur overcomes his own inner weakness and the conflicting demands of his family and his secretary. Shahnon also portrays leaders in youth movements and peoples uprisings. Eventhough Protes is not a totally successful novel, Lokman is portrayed as a true leader who brings Ferdaos back to the right path. In the novels Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung, the people who lead the poor and the peasants to demonstrate against the authorities, face problems of modernization, pollution and inflation. Pak Mat leads his fellow fishermen to fight against the capitalist industrialists, and Fatah leads the peasants against their political leaders. They are grass-roots leaders who struggle for social justice. This is a different kind of leadership from the traditional village heads, the politicians and the elite; Shahnon shows his faith in the people to produce genuine leaders. Such leaders provide an ironic contrast to the elected leaders who have not only failed to fight for the people but have actually worked against them for personal gain. By exposing the conflicts and tensions within these leaders, Shahnon demonstrates his talent at portraying the complexity of leadership. Shahnon is critical of poor leadership in many of his novels. He often highlights the self-centred desires of leaders. The Tuk Penghulu in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan is shown as a materialist who is only concerned with amassing money. He does little to assist his people in their struggle against nature. Instead, he tries to exploit his people for his own material gain. Encik Adnan in Terdedah is a political leader who is more concerned with sexual pursuits than with his obligation to his electorate. The political party leaders in Perdana are more interested in the struggle for power amongst themselves than in supporting the needs of the community. Weak leadership is disastrous for any society, and the uprising of the people against their unworthy leaders has been well depicted in Terdedah, Menteri, Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung. The spur to active opposition springs from the turmoil within themselves.
234
CONCLUSION
In all his novels, Shahnon portrays his characters as trapped in emotional upheaval, despair and frustration. His people live in constant turmoil facing a life full of pressures and challenges. While the people struggle for survival, the leaders are concerned only with sexual gratification, status, glory and personal satisfaction. Shahnon also uses the theme of poverty as a key element which exacerbates the issues. In Rentung, it is poverty which leads to Dogols greed and dishonesty and creates disharmony among the villagers. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, it is poverty which cripples the peasants in their struggle against nature and disposes them to fatalism. In Srengenge, despite their poverty, the peoples superstition makes them reluctant to develop the hill. In the novels Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung, poverty motivates the low income group to rise agains their leaders. Shahnon sees poverty as creating conditions for exploitation. It is poverty which enables the strong to exploit the weak in Rentung. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, poverty makes it impossible for the peasants to come to terms with nature. Poverty encourages superstition among the villagers in Srengenge and lays them open to manipulation and exploitation by others. Poverty also makes it possible for the fishermen, peasants and urban labourers to be exploited by capitalists and bureaucrats as in Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung. Shahnon is particularly interested in the struggle of the poor people who are oppressed by a more powerful group. This theme is developed in Rentung through the poor family; in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan through the village community; and in Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung through peasants, fishermen and urban labourers. Shahnon adds psychological depth to his themes of leadership and poverty in the powerful scenes of insanity, violence and death. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan the author, with horrifying bluntness, describes how the constant pressures on Jeha cause her mind to deteriorate into insanity. In Menteri and Perdana, Shahnon shows the mental stresses of political leaders. Menteri Bahadur is brought to physical and mental collapse by the weight of the countrys burdens, while Ketua Ahmad suffers a mental breakdown when he finds himself frustrated and despised in the political struggle. There is considerable violence in many of Shahnons novels. This violence is expressed in three forms. The physical cruelty of humans is used in Seluang Mehodak Baung when Salam brutally beats
235
his son. There is violence by humans against animals; in Srengenge, Shahnon deliberately focuses Imam Hamads savage attack on his decoy bird. He later, describes Imam Hamads image of the bird retaliating with equal violence. In Seluang Menodak Baung, Shahnon depicts Sumans horrifying cruelty in his deliberate killing of a fish which he regards as symbol of the wealth and opulence of the leaders. Finally, there is the violence that finds its expression through dreams. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, there is violence in Jehas dream when Lahuma relentlessly brushes aside his wife and children as he strides across the paddy-fields. In Terdedah, there is violence in Sharifah Shuhadas dream when she sees the peoples uprising and the murder of Encik Adnan by his wife. In Menteri, there is violence in Menteri Bahadurs dream when he sees his people killing each other. There is also violence in Fatahs dream in Seluang Menqdak Baung when he sees the peoples bloody uprising against their leaders. Shahnon uses this violence to expose the inner conflicts of his characters. It also heightens the emotional reaction of his readers and often marks a turning point in the plot. Death is also used as significant element in plot and character development. In Rentung, Pak Kasas death helps to develop the plot, and Dogols death comes as poetic justice, a retribution against the villain who caused disharmony in the village. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Lahumas death moves the action of the story forward and adds complexity to the plot.As a result of Lahumas death, Jeha goes into a mental decline. Imam Hamads death from an epileptic fit in Srengenge is viewed by the superstitious villagers as a form of divine justice, a mystical retribution for his betrayal of the sacred hill. Kipli in Kemelut becomes the victim of social evil when he dies after eating the contaminated fish. His death is symbolic of the price paid
by society for its lack of environmental concern and its preoccupation with progress and development. By contrast, the death of the
beggar in Sampah is seen as a form of ultimate release. Here death is portrayed as something desirable. In dealing with the themes of leadership and poverty, Shahnon uses a wide range of characters from both the village and the city. He
shows the weaknesses and strengths of his characters through their
behaviour, their interaction with fellow human beings and in their relationship with God. Through the diverse characters in Rentung. Shahnon exposes hu236
CONCLUSION
man conflicts while portraying the ideal role of the village head as a mediator in resolving community problems. In this novel, some form
of divine justice is apparent when the avaricious villain dies and the innocent victim of his injustices is cleared of blame and received back into the village fold. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan the blind cruelty of nature is demonstrated when the courageous farmer, Lahuma, meets his death trying to defy nature; when Jeha, his broken hearted wife, becomes mad; and when their children are left to face an uncertain future. In these two novels Shahnon excels in his realistic portrayal of human drama where all the myths of village bliss and harmony are shattered. However, this view should not be considered as evidence that Shahnon is negative about village life; rather it is to be seen as a positive effort, written with honesty and sincerity, to stir the social conscience of his readers about the pitiful plight and depressed conditions of the peasants. There is a rich diversity of characters portrayed in these novels each represents various aspects of human emotions and struggles. Their tears, their laughter, their sorrows and their miseries, punctuated by characteristic village humour, are sensitively interwoven with the authors sympathy and understanding. In the early rural novels of Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang JaIan, we view the characters from the outside in the physical struggle. In Terdedah, Shahnon introduces a new dimension that allows the reader to see the characters in greater depth from the inside. His cast of characters represents a broad spectrum of society: an arrogant
aristocrat, a sex-crazed political leader, an irresponsible bureaucrat,
a cynical political secretary, a leaders unfaithful wife, and naive

servants. The novel is a study of the crucial weaknesses of people
who hold responsibility. Menteri. in many ways similar to Terdedah, demonstrates a better grasp of characterization. Shahnon further develops the technique of interior revelation of the characters by adding further realism and complexity. In Terdedah the characters are faced with inner conflicts: Encik Adnan does not want party business to distract him from sex; and Sharifah Shuhada wants to escape her loneliness. Menteri Bahadur is torn between personal guilt, lack of family support, and his attempt to cope with national problems. The characters surrounding him, his wife, daughter and secretary, are also convincingly depicted. The complex motives for their interactions serve to expose 237
the dilemma of the minister. In the end the diverse characters are reconciled enabling the minister to pursue his duties towards his country and people with their support and encouragement.
Shahnon demonstrates a development of his technique through

his rich and imaginative characterization in presenting a cast of vil-
lagers and their internal conflicts in the novel Srengenge. There is Imam Hamad who is caught in between two forces, unable to choose between the rather iconoclastic and wordly Awang Cik Teh, who desires to cultivate the hill, and the stubborn Diah, whose opposing
faction believes in the sanctity of the hill and is determined to protect
it. In this story, Shahnon successfully portrays the conflict which

leads to opposition and tension among the characters. Shahnon is most successful at character portrayal in his novel Sampah. He explores his main character with sensitivity, imagination and sympathy. The beggar, detached from material and wordly needs,
is wholly absorbed in his own internal conflicts. Through the streamof-consciousness technique, Shahnon traces the emotional development and inner responses of the beggar as he interacts with his fellow human beings and the inanimate objects around him just before
his death. This is a remarkable achievement which opens new possibilities for the development of Malay literature. In his later novels, Shahnons characters become distinctly more
aggressive, reflecting the changing political and social situation in Malaysia. These aggressive traits are evident in the characters Fatah
and Suman in Seluang Menodak Baung. The two characters are symbolic of the revolutionary forces that opposed the contemporary bureaucratic and political leadership. In this. novel, Shahnon creates characters with the courage and integrity to counter the challenges of the brave new world. The story ends with the two men leading the people against uncaring leaders; it reflects the victory of the peasants over the ineffectual political leadership in Malaysia in the mid-seventies. With Seluang Menodak Baung, Shahnon returns to the theme of the rural struggle that marked the beginning of his career. Here, however, he developed his characters on a much broader scale. Faiah embodies the attitudes and attributes of the earlier Pak Senik and Lahuma. In the character Fatah, Shahnon combines the hope and desire aspired to by Pak Senik with the courage and commitment of
Lahuma. The attitudes of Suman bring to mind the character Semaun
238
CONCLUSION
in Rentung who was determined to defend the welfare and good name of his family against injustice. Not all of Shahnons characters have the strengths or effectiveness of those in the above novels. In Protes, Perdana and Keme1w there are definite weaknesses in the portrayal of characters that may well derive from weaknesses in structure of the novels. In Protes, the characters appear weak because Shahnon is trying to handle material which is outside the range of his personal experience. The arguments about Islamic theology between Lokman and Ferdaos are superficial. The view that Islam is immanent is just as unconvincing as the counter argument that Islam is transcendent. The plot of the novel really defeats it own purposes. It is supposed to be based on a theological argument, but the deviant Ferdaos has to be brought back to a proper understanding of Islam by a miracle. The parts played by the three other characters in the novel, Asrul, Isril and Sopiah, are merely decorative. Shahnon also fails to develop convincing characters in his novel Perdana. Apparently, he cannot decide whether to treat his characters in a real or fictional mode; his creative imagination is inhibited from exposing the unsavoury aspects of his characters. As a result, he keeps very close to the public roles of the figures and adds very little literary creativity. He finds the material he is using intractable and consequently fails to handle the characters well. Similarly, Kemelut is based on real events with the characters drawn from those involved with pollution issues in Malaysia. Although Shahnon is successful in portraying the agony and the destruction caused by pollution, he has not given free rein to his imagination and creativity so the characters merely serve as the authors spokesmen. Apart from his success in being able to exploit these themes fully and to bring to life his cast of characters, Shahnon demonstrates his skill in the use of style. He experiments with devices such as dreams, limited time spans, internal description, symbolism and cynicism. However it is his skill in the handling of language which brings to life his themes and characters. His natural talent in the use of language is the distinguishing feature of all his works. His sentences are short and succinct. He often uses repetition which has the effect of reinforcing and creating a double awareness of the message
239
he is trying to impart. He creates his own similes and idioms to give freshness to his writings. Most importantly, his use of dialogue is effective because it portrays the atmosphere of a situation and the emotions of his characters. Shahnon uses a style of direct speech between his characters that is appropriate to a particular character and natural in its effect. The economy, pungency and aptness of the words spoken by the characters reveal Shahnons flair as a writer. In Shahnons novels, the Malay language is successfully shaped to the needs of the novel form. Through his sensitive use of Malay, Shahnon is able to describe local settings, convey a variety of atmospheres and moods, reveal human emotions and feelings, build up tension and suspense and resolve philosophical arguments. One distinctive characteristic of Shahnons writing is his use of the dream element. Although dreams are common in traditional literature, Shahnon uses the old device in new ways and so adds a new dimension to the Malay novel. He uses this technique so often that one might think it becomes a mannerism. However, in each novel the bizarre dream contributes very significantly to the plot. Through the use of dreams, Shahnon implicitly exposes the traumas and conflicts within his characters and there are several crucial and extremely powerful dreams in his novels. In Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Jehas dream minors her trauma at Lahumas death, while in Terdedah, Sharifah Shuhadas dream reveals an innate frustration at the lack of fulfilling her deep sexual need. In Menteri, the dream of Menteri Bahadur, which is explicitly political, is a vision of the peoples revenge upon his political party and its ineffective policies. The dream of Awang Cik Teh in Srengenge expresses his frustration at the lack of co-operation from the villagers in implementing agricultural reform. Lastly, Fatahs dream in Seluang Menolak Baung portrays his growing disgust with a government that he believes is destroying the life of the people. Another feature of Shahnons novels is the use of a strictly limited time-span within which he is able to exploit actions and concentrate on the penetrating insights of his characters. This technique is particularly successful in Terdedah and Menteri. The action in both novels occurs within a time frame of twenty-four hours covering one
morning to the next. Within this short time frame, the author focuses
on the specific issues affecting the lives of his characters. Terdedah centres on the conflicting preoccupations of Sharifah Shuhada, Encik 240
CONCLUSION
Adnan, Syed Mohsin, Fakar, Rohana, Tijah and Hamid. In Menteri the interest is focused on the role of the politician Menteri Bahadur who is caught between the inadequacy of his personal life and the demands of public responsibility. When Shahnon wishes to provide deeper insight into the characters than is possible within a twentyfour hour time-span, he employs flashbacks. The technique which Shahnon has made his own and distinguishes him from other Malay writers is that of revealing his characters hidden thoughts and feelings. He first explored this inner viewpoint through the interior monologue as in Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an and which he developed further in Terdedah and Menteri. While in Australia, Shahnon was particularly attracted to the stream-of-consciousness technique which had not previously been used by Malay writers. He first experimented with it in his short stories and in Srengenge. He then successfully used it in Sampah. This technique enables him to reveal the inner feelings of his characters as well as express his own mental turmoil and disappointments. The village, which represents traditional values, and the city, which symbolizes modernity, are two consistent and recurring symbols found in Shahnons novels. The social change occurring within Malay society is identified through these symbols. The village stands for sound leadership and religious faith. This leadership, expressed through the institutions of the Ketua Kampung, Tuk Imam and Tuk Penghulu, represent authority that must be respected. Faith and trust are provided by tradition and the Islamic religion. The qualities and values which the village represents are evident in Rentung ,Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an, Srengenge and Kemelut. For Shahnon, the town symbolizes modem aspects of Malay society. Modem leadership is represented by administrators, members of parliament and ministers from the Malay middle and upper classes who pursue their own interests rather than those of the people they represent. Political and economic factors have greatly changed their attitudes towards their customs and traditional life-styles; even Islam is neglected or questioned. In the novels Terdedah, Protes, Menteri, Perdana and Sampah, Shahnon uses the town as a symbol of selfish individualism and moral corruption. In the novel Seluang Menodaic Baung, the forces representing the two different worlds, that of the village and that of the town, are brought into conflict when the modem leadership is opposed by the 241
NOVELS OF THE ThOUBLED YEARS
village people. The young people in the village have dared to openly criticize their elders. However, these two opposing camps of the village join forces to confront elected political leaders who have betrayed their electorates. After a fierce struggle, the village people successfully rid themselves of the corrupt leaders. Through these symbols, Shahnon emphasizes the stark contrast between old and new values. The village symbolizes those cultural and moral values which unite people. The city symbolizes the individualism, immorality, and corruption that divides people into the haves and have nots and enables the strong to oppress the weak. These symbols are particularly effective in the novels because they are developed from Shahnons own experience and observation of changes in Malay society. Shahnon is sometimes cynical in his treatment of the themes of leadership and poverty. In Terdedah, he is cynical about the leaders of Malay society. Encik Adnan is si~pposedto be a representative of his electorate, but he only talks about leadership and responsibilities; he is obsessed with sex and spends his time and energy in immoral activities. Fakar, Encik Adnans secretary, appears very concerned with social and moral behaviour, but has an affair with his boss wife. Sharifah Shuhada who is so proud of her royal descent, but is no better than the common people because of her immoral behaviour. Shahnons ironic treatment of poverty can be seen in other novels. In Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an, he shows that the country remains poor while the leaders claim it is rich and prosperous. The fate of the farmer Lahuma is horrifying, yet it is necessary to accept the realities of poverty in a rural society. In Kemelut, Shahnon is cynical about the fate of the low income group in the midst of economic progress; inevitably, the people suffer because of capitalist exploitation. And in Seluang Menodak Baung, Shahnon sarcastically blames the political leaders for the poverty in society by labeling the politician Y.B. which could mean either Yang Berhorinat (honourable member) or as Waibi, Yang Bededah (wicked one). Shahnon has assessed his own novels in various articles and commentaries. These self-evaluations show his continuing concern for society as it undergoes political, economic and cultural change and reveal his own creative process in relation to themes, characterization, language and literary style. On each of these ten novels, be 242
CONCLUSION
presents both positive and negative views. For example, in the midseventies, he denounced his early works which dealt with nonIslamic weltanschauung, stating that Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an contained elements of fatalism and pessimism which are contrary to Islamic teachings. Surveying these ten novels of Shahnon Ahmad, it is evident that some of the issues addressed in early Malay novels are evident in Shahnons works. However, Shahnon develops them with deeper insight and greater complexity. The issues of religion, political independence, and social development found in the novels of the twenties and thirties are still important issues in Shahnons works. The application of Islam to modern life and the issues that had fired the Kaum Muda (Younger Generation) in the twenties inspired Shahnon to write Protes in 1966. In the twenties, there had been novels which discussed the social and economic problems of Malay society, but none were as successful in portraying poverty as Shahnons Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an, or at raising social issues as Terdedah and Seluang Menodak Baung. In the thirties, there were novels about the political struggle of the Malays, but Shahnon worked more profoundly on that theme in his novel Menteri. The mountain symbol is used in the novel Putera Gunung Tahan by Ishak Haji Muhammad as a satirical reference to British rule. Shahnon with greater skill incorporates the natural element of the hill in Srengenge to combine symbolism with the-stream-of consciousness technique. In 1961, the novel Sal/na by A. Samad Said appeared with its fascinating literary style. Inspired by that style Shahnon went on to create more remarkable novels than those of A. Samad Said. The problems facing women in traditional society, was raised by Syed Syeikh al-Hadi in his Hikayat Faridah Hanum, by Ahmad Rashid Talu in his !akah Sa/mah?, and more recently by A. Samad Said in his Sauna. These problems, still evident in Malay society are dealt with by Shahnon in Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an and Terdedah. In those two novels, Shahnon has expanded on the-treatment of his predecessors by developing the complex characterization of Jeha and Sharifah Shuhada by relating their actual difficulties to their inner conflicts. Shahnons novels written during this period reflect the many changes in Malay society. He made a timely appearance in the turbulent and traumatic period of his society, a period of deeply troubl243
ed and restless years. His novels illustrate various aspects of this restlessness such as physical conflict in the rural struggle in Rentung and Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an; social, moral and religious turmoil in Terdedah and Protes; the nationalistic and political upheaval in Menteri and Perdana; the mental stress and change in Srengenge and Sarnpah; and the renewed social unrest in Kemelut and Seluang Menodak Baung. Shahnon Ahmad emerged as a leading Malay novelist for two reasons. Firstly, his versatility distinguishes him from other contemporary Malay writers who restrict themselves to particular themes and settings. Ishak Haji Muhamad, who was still prolific during this period, deals primarily with social problems from a socialist viewpoint. A. Samad Said is still writing novels, but none of his works have recaptured the success of his first novel Sauna. Other writers like A. Samad Ismail, Abdullah Hussain and Ruhi Hayat write of their own experiences during the Japanese occupation, their more recent lives, or as in Ruhi Hayats case, political matters. Their characters lack some of the universality of Shahnons characters. Hassan Ali and Alias Ali produce novels on broader social problems which deal with relationships between races and between adolescents, but do not achieve the deep insight and complex conflict of Shahnons works. Arena Wati focuses on historical events and political movements and, like Shahnon when he was working with similar material, is constrained by the factual nature of the material and has difficulty creating convincing and realistic characterizations. Salmi Manja, Adibah Amin and Khadijah Hashim write about women and the special problems they face. However, even as woman writers they do not portray women as effectively as Shahnon. In their novels, there are no characters as complex as the deranged Jeha and the lonely Sharifah Shuhada. One of the few novelists to portray sexual relationships in the Malay novel is Yahaya Samah. However, he falls short of Shahnon because he uses sex for its own sake to portray human relationships. His plots feature explicit love affairs, sexual abuses and harassments, promiscuity and adultery, which are different from those of Shahnon who uses sex as part of a larger theme. Shahnon, who wrote about sexual relationship only in his early works (up to 1967), is more subtle and less erotic than Yahaya in portraying human sexual life. Secondly, Shahnon Ahmads works have established themselves 244
CONCLUSION
as models which later writers attempt to emulate. In particular his literary techniques have attracted imitators. Like Shahnon, Azizi Haji Abdullah writes novels about family conflict in rural settings. Fatimah Busu follows his style of language in conveying human problems. S. Othman Kelantan attempts to imitate Shahnon in writing about mans struggle against man and nature, but without quite the same impact. Noorjaya writes novels mostly on rural conflict, while Anwar Ridhwan is influenced by Shahnons technique of portraying the inner-life of characters. In the development of his creative ability, Shahnon passed through various stages of social commitment and experimented with thematic manipulation, character portrayal and technical innovation. These stages of his literary development coincide with significant changes in Malay society after the Second World War. From this study, it is obvious that the literary strengths of these novels outweigh their occasional weaknesses. In the less successful novels, the fault seems to lie in Shahnons failure to transform a theoretical argument and current event into imaginative literature. In Protes he is unable to present a conviction argument about Islamic theology. As a result, the debate lacks conviction and concludes in a very conventional denouement. In Perdana, Shahnon appears to have been inhibited by the need to unswervingly follow a sequence of recent events. As a result, the characters and incidents read almost like an historical document touched only occasionally by creative imagination. Shahnon shows a similar inhibition in Kemelut another novel based on real events. These novels appear wooden because the themes are not convincing and the characters are very stereotyped. More often, Shahnons rich creativity and imagination succeed in transforming social issues into works of genuine literary merit. In seven of the novels discussed in this thesis, Rentung, Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an, Terdedah, Menteri, Srengenge, Sampah, and Seluang Menodak Baung, he uses themes and creates characters that are both complex and convincing. His commitment to social reform runs through all these works and marks the emergence of the Malay intelligentsia as the champions of the underprivileged. His success as a novelist comes partly from the important issues which he presents so skillfully and partly from his increasing craftsmanship in the art of literary creation. His more recent theme, beginning in the mid-seventies after the 245
troubled years examines the place of Islam in Malay society. Shahnon has found a resolution for his Malay society and for his literary craftsmanship and commitment: the emphasis on Islam. Shahnon Ahmad is a remarkable Malay novelist because of his forceful reaction to and reflection on the development of Malay society; presentation of themes, portrayal of characters; and exploitation of language and literary style. His novels are a notable contribution to the development of Malay as the National Language of Malaysia. He is a gifted story-teller with superb craftsmanship and technical skills. His social concern, themes, characterization, language and literary style, and his use of the disciplines of psychology, sociology, history, philosophy and religion in his novels make him a significant Malay writer and an out standing novelist
246
NOTE INTRODUCTION
For discussions on Malay society, see Mahathir Mohamad, The Malay Dilemma. Donald More, Singapore, t970; Senu Abdul Rahman (ed.) et. al., Revolusi Mental, Unisan Melayu Press, Kuala Lumpur. 1971; Syed Hussein Alatas, Siapa yang Salah, Pustaka Nasional, Singapore, 1973; and Chantha Muzaffar, Protector? An Aliran Publication, Penang, t979. Shahnon Ahmad, Guhahan Novel, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kuala Lumpur. 1979. 2. 3. Shabnon Ahmad, Gubahan Novel, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979. Shahnon says: Berhubung dengan cerpen atau sajak atau drama, novel adalah satu-satunya media sastera yang boleh membincang dan menganalisa rencaman kehidupan dengan lebih luas dan lega. Oleh sebab novel itu panjang, perkembangan seseorang watalt lebih perinci, situasi sosialnya Iebih lebar dan kompleks, perhubungan juga boleh melibatkan banyak watak timbal-menimbal, pergolakan Iebih berkocak, peristiwa demi peristiwa yang banyak liku-liku dan tahap-putar lebih berserabut menjangkau ruang dan masa yang lebih luas dan lama, dan latar juga lebib beranekaragam wama dan baunya. Kekuatan yang khusus yang ada pada seorang novelis kalau dibandingkan dengan seorang cerpenis ialah keupayaannya memaparkan satu-satu persoalan hidup yang kompleks secara menyeluruh sehingga tercipta satu dunia yang lengkap dalam satu-satu masa tertentu. Berbeza dengan seorang cerpenis yang perlu pintar mengemaspadatkan persoalan. menyempitkan perhubungan dan mengekonomikan bahasa, untuk mencapai satu kesan pokok semata dan satu irisan kehidupan yang khusus yang dipilihnya-, (pp. 5-6). For details on hikayat type of traditional Malay literature. see Yahaya Ismail, Perkembangan Fiksyen Melayu dan Hikayat kepada Novel, M.A. thesis, Mo-
4.
247
NOTE
nash University. Melbourne, 1973. 5. For the classification of the period, see Mohd. Taib Osman, Kesusasteraan Melayu dan Perubahan Sosio-Budaya, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, August 1973. Fordetajls on British Education System in Malaya, see Awang Had Salleh, Pelajaran dan Perguruan Melayu diMalaya ZatnanBritish, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, 1974; Leonard and Barbara Andaya, History of Malaysia, McMillan Press London, 1982; and Rex Stevenson, Cultivations and Administrators, Fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur, 1985. See W.R Roff, Kaum Muda - kaum Tua: Innovation and Reaction Amongst the Malays - 1900-1941, KG Tregonning (ed), Papers on Malay History, University of Singapore, 1962; Mohamed Aboulkhir Zaki, Modem Muslim Thought in Egypt and its impact on Islam in Malaya, Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1965; Hamdan Hassan, Sheikh Tahir Jalaluddin Pelopor Pembaharuan Pemikiran Islam di Malaysia. Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, September 1873; Klioo Kay Kim, Suasana Politik di Tanah Melayu Sebelum Perang Donia 11, Kertas kerja Kongres Sejarah Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1978; MohdSarim Haji Mustajab Gerakan Islah Islammiyahdi Tanah Metayu-19061948, Kertas kerja kongres Sejarah Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1978; A.H. Johns, Cultural Optionsand theRole of Tradition, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1979. first published in Bahasa Kesusasteraan dan Kebudayaan Melayu - Esei-esei Penghormatan kepada Pendita Zaba, Kementerian Kebudayaan, Belia dan Sukan, Kuala Lumpur, 1976; and From Coastal Settlement to Islamic School and City: Islamization in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and Java J.J Fox et. al.(eds.), Indonesia Australian Perspectives, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1980. 8. See Marina Merican, Syed Syeikh al-Hadi dan Pendapat-pendapatnya Mengenai Kemajuan Perempuan (Sebagaimana Tersiar di Dalam Majalah Al-ikhwan), Latihan Ilmiah, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1960; Syed Zainal Abidin Syed About Mutalib, The Figurative and Metaphorical Language, Particularly the Simile in Hikayat Faridah Hanum, Academic Exercise, University Malaya, Koala Lumpur, 1960; Tan Seng Huat, The Life and Times of Syed Syeikh al- Hadi, Academic Exercise, University of Singapore, 1961. 9. SeeA. Bakar Hainid, Ahmad Rashid Talu dan Iakah Salmah?nya, Penulis, Tahun
6.
7.
248
NOTE
3, Bit. 2, Koala Lumpur, 1969; Yahaya Ismail, Satu Kajian Mengenai Karya-Karya Ahmad Talu, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1970; Yahaya Ismail, Ahmad binHaji Muhammad Rashid Talu: Pelopor Novelist Melayu,Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpor, February 1972; Yahaya Ismail, Ahmad Talu Novetis Melayu yang Pertama, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, December 1974; Yahaya Ismail, Persoalan-persoatan dalam Iakah Salmah?. Hamzah Hamdani (ed), Novel-novel Malaysia Dalam Kritikan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, 1982; and Safian Hussain, Ahmad Rashid Talu dan Karya Sasteranya, Sastera dan Sasterawan, Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1980. 10. Syed Syeikh al-Hadi, Faridah Hanum, Penerbitan Pustaka Antata. Kuala Lumpur, 1964 (New Edition); His other novels are: Hikayat Taman Cinta Berahi atau MahirAffandidengan Iqbal Hanum, Jelutung Press, Penang, 1928; Hikayat Putri Nurul Am, Jelutung Press, Penang, 1929; Hikayat Cermin Kehidupan, Jelutung Press, Penang, 1929; Hikayat Pemblaan Dalam Rahsia atau Kasih Saudara kepada Saudaranya, Jelutung Press, Penang. 1929-1930. See Yahaya Ismail, Syed Syeikb al-Hadi: Reformis, AhIi-Fikir, Novelis Progresif, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. January 1972; Yahaya Ismail, Syed Syeilth al-Hadi: Pembuka Zaman Baru Dalani Bidang Novel, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lompur, November, 1974; and Muhammad Isa Ismail, Konflik Dalaman Wirawati- wirawati Dalam Hikayat Faridah Hanum, Melur KualaLumpur dan Suka dan Duka, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, August 1975. Ahmad Rashid Talu, Kawan Benar, np., nd. ,Iakah Saimah, Ahmad, Abdul Rahman & Co., Pulau Pinahg, 1929; and Penerbitan Fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur, 1975. His other novels are: Dua Belas Kali Sengsara atau Siapa Yahya, Vol. 1, Ahmad, About Rahman & Co., Vols. Il-tV, Muhammad Ali bin Muhammad al-Rawi, Vol. V. Haji Abdullah bin Nurdin al-Rawi, Penang, 1929; Siapaiahat atau Datuk Cincano, Vols. I-Ill, Abmad, Abdul Rahman & Co., Vol. IV, Muhammad Ali bin Muhammad al-Rawi, Penang, 1929/1932; Rahrnah bte Abdullah atau Peti Rahsia, Muhamad Ali bin Muhammad al-Rawi, Penang, 1933; Perangkap Hitam . atau Kelawar Pulau Pmnang, Haji Abdullah bin Nurdin al-Rawi, Penang, 1934; Silap atau Ciu Yang Taat, Arba Ikbwan, Penang. 1934; and Sedih atau Riwayat Sikapur Sirih, Arba Ikbwan, Penang, 1935. 14.
All Ahmad, Majalah Guru: The magazine ot the Malay Teachers (with Particular
II.
12. 13.
249
NOTE
Reference to the 1924-1932 Period and the Role Played by Muhammad Yosuf Ahmad, Ph.D. thesis, Monash University, Melbourne, 1975. 15. 16. Ibid
, Muhammad Yusof Ahmad, Zarnan Sari, published in serialized form in Majalah Guru, 1927-1928. ~_
17. 18.
Mencari Isteri, published in serialized form in Majalah Guru, 1928-1929.

. Cerita Siti Maznah, published in serialized fonn in Majalah Guru, 1930-1931. Other stories by Muhammad Yusuf are: Percintaan Lady Brazil, Majalah Guru, 1925-1926; Hidup Kelekatu, Majalah Guru, 1929; Menghalau Hantu, Majalah Guru, 1929; and Cubaan Kasih, Majalah Guru, 1926-1927. For details on stories before the Second World War, see Omar Mohd. Hashim, Perkembangan Cerpen Melayu Sebelurn Perang, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, August t96 I; Ali Haji Ahmad, Cerita-cerita Pendek Sebelum Perang, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, November, 1961; and Hashim Awang, Cerpen-cerpen Melayu Sebelum Perang Dunia Kedua: Satu Analisa Tentang Tema dan Struktur, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala j..umpur, 1975.
19.
A joumalist who was prolific in writing short stories was About Rahim Kajai.
For details see Ali Haji Ahmad, Cerita-cerita Pendek Haji Abdul Rabim Kajai, Latihan llmiah, Universiti Malaya, 1958. and Ringkasan Riwayat Hidup Abdul Rahim Kajai; Ketua Pengarang, Malai Sinbun Sha, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, April 1959; tsmail Hussein, Abdul Rahim Kajai, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, April 1959; tsmail Hussein, Abdul Rahim Kajai, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, December 1959; Ramli Leman Soemowidagdo, Haji Abdul Rahim Kajai: Bapa Wartawan Melayu, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, April 1972; and Muhammad Kamsah, Abdul Rahim Kajai: Satu Kajian Biografi:, Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1976. Stories written by Abdul Rahim Kajai are in the anthologies Pustaka Kajai, Qalam Press, Singapore, 1949; Banyak Udang Banyak Garam, Geliga Limited Singapore, 1959; Lain Padang Lain Belalang, Geliga Limited, Singapore. 1961; and Ali Haji Ahmad (ed), Rintisan, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1962. His translated novel is Cerita Dzul -Ruhain, Vols. 1-Ill, Jelutung Press, Penang, 1930. 20. See Azizan Zainal Abidin, lshak Haji Muhammad: His Views on and Attitudes to
250
NOTE
the Social Conditions of Malaya as expressed in His Books Anak Mat Lela Gila and Putera Gunung Ta/ian, Academic exercise. University of Malaya. 1969; Baharuddin Musa, lshak Haji Muhammad: Pandangannya Terhadap Politik, Ekonomi dan Sosial yang Terdapat datam Buku-buku Ceritanya,Latihanllmiah, Universiti Malaya, 1960; Hanson tsmait, Cerpen-cerpen Ishak Haji Muhammad Sebelum Perang Dunia It, Latihan tlmiah, Universiti Malaya, 1967; Yahya Udin Nasution, Ishak Haji Muhammad, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. November 1972; Khoo Kay Kim, tshak Haji Muhammad Gergasi Sastera Melayu, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpor, July 1973; and About Latif Ahu Bakar, Ishak Haji Muhammad: Penulis dan Ahli Politik Sehingga 1948, Penerbitan Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1977. 21. Ishak Haji Muhammad, Putera Gunung Ta/ian, (first published in Jawi script), Jamiliah Press, Muar, 1938; and (in Romanized script) Pustaka Budaya Agency, Petaling Jaya, 1973. For criticism of Putera Gunung Ta/ian, see Abmad Kamal Abdullah, Putera Gunung Ta/ian: Antara Mitos dan Visi, and Ruhiyati Idayu, Falsafah Hidup Ishak Haji Muhammad Dalam Novel Putera Gunung Ta/ian, Hamzab Hamdani (ed), Novel-novel Malaysia Dalam Kritikan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1982. 22.
, Anak Mat Lela Gila, Penerbitan Federal Berhad, Koala Lumpur, 1966. His other novels are: Sudah Terang Lagi Bersuluh, The Annies Printing Works. Johor Baliaru, 1941; Budak Beca, H.C. Muhammad Abdul Rabman,
Marang, 1957; PengantinBaru, Geliga Limited, Singapore, 1957;JudiKaran,Geliga Limited, Singapore, 1958; Mata-mata Sukarela, Geliga Limited, Singapore. 1959; Norita dan Kisah-kisah Kuching Hitam, H. C. Muhammad Abdul Rahman. Marang, 1966; Yang Miskin dan Yang Mewah, Pustaka Melayu Baru, Kuala Lumpur, 1966; Tija/i Tukang Cukur, H.C. Muhammad About Rahman, Marang, 1967; Anak Dukun Deraman, Pustaka Gunung Tahan, Kuala Lumpur, 1967; and Saray Saloon. Pustaka Gunung Tahan, Kuala Lumpur, 1968._ 23. See Arena Wati, Cerpen Zaman Jepun. Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, Kuala Lumpur, 1968. See also: Abu Zaki Fadzil. Karangan Bunga dan Selatan, Penerbitan Jambatanmas, Kuala Lumpur, 1963, 24. For details of political development during the period, see Mohd. Noordin Sopiee, From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation, University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1974.
251
NOTE 25. For details on ASAS SO see Abdullah Hossain (ed), Memoranda: Kumpulan Tulisan Angkatan Sasterawan 50, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1962; and Warisan AsasSO, Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka,KoalaLumpor, 1981.Seealso Ismail Hussein, Usia Kesusasteraan Pengarang-pengarang Metayu Babaru, Dewan Ba/iasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, May 1959; and Singapura sebagai Pusat Kesusasteraan Melayu Selepas Perang, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, November, 1959; and Si/cap Sasterawan Melayu di Dalam Tahun 50-an dan 60-an, Sastera dan Masyarakat, Penerbitan Pustaka Zakry Abadi, Kuala Lumpur. 1964; and Keris Mas, 30 Tahun Sekitan Sastera, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979. In 1951, these Malay writers also experienced the Maria Hertogh Riots in Singapore. For details, see Jerome Bass, Malaysian Politics, 1068-1970, Crisis and Response, University ofBerkeley, 1973. The well-known writers of ASAS SO were Keris Mas and A. Samad tsmail who engaged in writing short stories, and Tongkat Warrant and Masuri SN. who wrote poetry. Keris Mas short stories are found in Pata/i Tumbu/i, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1962. His novels are: Pa/ilawan Rimba Malaya, PustakaPermai, Kota Bhanu, 1946; Korban Kesuciannya, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Singapore, 1949; and Anak Titiwangsa. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1967. For critism of his works see: Syed Husin Ali, Pengenalan, Parah Tumbu/i, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur. 1962; Kassim Ahmad, Mereka Tidak Mengerti, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, December 1959; A. Samad Said, Perbincangan Patah Tumbuh: Motif dan Teknik, Berita Minggu. Kuala Lumpur, 29 April 1962; Bakar Yaakub, Kenis Mas Sebagai Seorang Cerpenis,Latihan Ilmiab, University Malaya, 1965; andMek Yah Mat Zin, Bahasa dalam antologi Pata/i Tumbu/i, Latihan Ilmiab, University Malaya,1974. See also Keris Mas. Beberapa Soal Mengenai Perkembangan Prosa Melayu Selepas Perang, Dewan Ba/iasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, October 1961; Keris Mas, 30 Tahun Sekitar Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979; and A. Bakar Hamid (ed.), Fsei Pill/ian Kenis Mas, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1981. Keris Mas wasconferred an award ftr his literary achievement called Anugerab Sastera Negara, National Literature Award by the Goverment of Malaysiaon26 April, 1981.5cc Penal Report on his works in Berita Minggu. Kuala Lumpur, 3. May 1981 A. Samad Ismail was also profilic in writing fiction after the Second World War. His short stories are in the anthologies Mastura, PustakaGunung Taban,Kuala Lumpur, 1967; and Ternasya Tinta, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu. KualaLumpur. 1967, His novels are: Pata/i Sayap TerbangJua, Penerbitan
26.
252
NOTE Setia Mumi, Kuata Lompur, 1966; Tembuk Tidak Tinggi, Pustaka Metayu Barn, Kuala Lumpur, 1967; Orang Jau/i, Penerbitan Setia Mumi, Kuala Lumpur 1967; Kail Panjang Sejengkal, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Koala Lumpur, t967; Hud, PustakaGonung Tahan, Koala Lumpur, 1967; Menimba yang Jenni/i, Pustaka Metayo Barn, Kuala Lompur, 1968; Menduga Lautan Dalam, Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd., Keloang, 1968; Onang Lama, Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd., Keluang, 1969; Den/cdetik Cemas, Pustaka Nasional, Singapore, 1969; and Hussein Zet, Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd., Keluang, 1970. 27. See Baharuddin Zainat et.at (eds.), Wa/a/i: Biografi Seratus Penulis, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpor, 1981.
, Salina, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka,Kuaia Lumpur, 1976. For criticism on Salina, see Harndi, Salina, Dewan Ba/iasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, Disember, 962; A. Teeuw, salina oleh A. Samad Said, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, November 1964; Mohd. Yusuf Hussain, Pembicaraan Novel Salina, Latihan Ilmiab, Universiti Malaya, 1965; Laurent Metzger, Salina: Sebuah Hasil Autobiografi, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. July 1972; A. Leman Ahmad, NQvel Salina Pemisah Zaman Sebelum dan Sesudahnya. Bahasa, Persekutuan Bahasa Melayu Universiti Malaya, Bit. 21, 1973; Ainon Muhammad,, Salina , A. Samad Said , Dewan Ba/iasa , Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kuala Lumpur, June 1976; Shahnon Ahmad, Siti Salina: Satu Renungan Kembali, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, October 1979; and Kassim Ahmad, Satina: kesan-kesan Naturatisma dan Matenialisma , Dialog Dengan Sasterawan, Penerbitan Pena Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, 1979. A. Samad Saids other works of fiction am Langit Petang. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kuata Lumpur, 1979, which was made into film of the same title by Syed Kecik Production, Kuala Lumpur, 1982; Liar Di Api, Penerbitan Federal, Koala Lumpur, 1961; Daun-daun Benguguran, Penerbitan Federal, Kuala Lumpur, 1962; Benih Harapan, Grafika Sendirian Berhad, Koala Lumpur, 1973; Daun Semalu Pucuk Paku, Balai Penerbitan Nusa, Kuala Lumpur, 1975; Debar Pertama, Penerbitan Federal, Kuala Lumpur 1964; Ke Mana Terbangnya Si Burung Senja, Pustaka Melayu barn, Kuala Lumpur, 1966; Di Mana Bulan Se/a/u Retak, Malaysia Publi-
28.
cations, Singapore, 1965; Bulan Tak Bermadu di Pate/ipur Sikri, PenerbitanAbbas Bandung Melaka, 1966; and Sungai Mengalir Lesu, Pustaka Gunung Taban, KuaIa Lumpur, 1967. A. Samad Said wrote about his creative process in Dan Sauna keLangit Petang, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1980.
253
NOTE
29.
For example, A. Teeuw considered the novel Salina as having achieved international standard. See his article, op. cit. See Shahnon Ahmad, Siti Sauna: Satu Renungan Kembati, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Postaka, Kuala Lumpur, October 1979. Shal-inon Ahmad. Reniung. Toko Abbas Bandung, Metaka, 1965; Harry Aveling (translated), Rope of Ash, Oxford University Press, Koala Lompur, 1979.
30.
31.
32.
. , Ranjau SepanjangJalan, Penerbitan Utusan Metayo, Koala Lumpur, 1966; Adibah Amin (translated), No Haniest hut a Thorn, Oxford University Press, Kuata Lumpur, 1972.
33.
Among Shahnon Ahmads contemporaries are: A. Samad Ismail, Abduttah Hussam, Ruhi Hayat, Hassan AIi, Alias Ati, Arena Wati, Yahaya Samab, Salmi Manja, Adibah Amin and lthadijah Hashim. For details of these writers, see Shaharom Hussain, Antara Pengarang Novel Melayu dan Karyanya, Pustaka Metayu, Singapore. 1963; Annas Haji Ahmad, Sastera Melayu Baru, Saudara Sinaran Berhad, Putao Pinang. 1964; Yahaya Ismait, Kesusasteraan Moden Dlam Esei dan Kritik I dan H, Pustaka Nasional, Singapore, 1967; Yahaya Ismail, Bimbingan Sastena Melayu Moden, Toko Buku Abbas Bandung Metaka, 1967; Mohd. Taib Osman, An Introduction no the Development of Modern Malay Literature, Eastern Universities Press, Singapore, 1961; Tan Chin Kwang, Latar Betakang Intelektual Penulis-penulis Cerpen Metayu Setepas Perang Dunia Kedua 1946-1970, M.A. thesis, Department of Malay Studies, University of Singapore, 1971; Li Chuan Siu, An Introductton no the Promotion and Development of Modern Malay Literature 1942-1962, Penerbitan Yayasan Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1975; and Baharuddin Zainal et. at. (eds.), Wajah: Biografi Seranus Penulis, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuata Lumpur, 1981. Shahnon Ahmad, Terdedah , Toko Abbas Bandung, Melaka, 1967. ,Protes, Toko Abbas Bandung, Melt, 1967. Menteni, Dinas Pustaka Sekotah, Alur Setar, 1967. Perdana, Pustaka Nasionat, Singapura, 1969. Snengenge, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuata Lumpur,
34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
254
NOTE
1973; Harry Aveting (translated), Srengenge, Heinemann Educational Books KuaIa Lumpur, 1979. 39. 40. 1977. 41. Kuala Lumpur, 1978. 42. See Shahnon Ahmads articles on Islamic literature: Dasar Penutisan Novel dan Cerpen, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, December 1975; Mempertajam Sensitiviti dan Persepsi, Jurnal Masakini, USM-KKBS, Penang, 1916Ke Mana Harus Kita Pergi, Dewan Sastera,DewanBahasadanPustaka, Kuata Lumpor, August 1976; SasteraIslam, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, July 1977; Sastera Melayu dan Islam, Han Sastera, Kuala Terengganu, July 1978; Peneterapan Islam Menerusi Tolisan Kreatit, Kesusasrenaan dan Etika Islam, Penerbitan Fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur, 1981; Kesusasteraan: Antara yang Hak dengan yang Batit, Symposium on Malay Literature, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, December 1979; Sastera yang Hak yang Berakhlak, Dewan Masyarakat, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, March 1980; Sastera Dalam Pembinaan Akhlak-Satu Renungan dan Sejarah Sastera Metayu, Han Sastera.Ipoh. April 1980; Sastera sebagai Cabang tbadab.Al-Arqam, Kuala Lumpur, February 1981; Pemeliharaan Nitai-nitam Sosial dan Kebudayaan Islam Datam Menghadapi Pembangunan Perindustrian, National Seminar on Development Concept, Koala Lompur, March 1981; Penulisan Kreatif-Persoatan Nitai Datam Penghasilan,WritersSemmnar, ITM,Kuala Lompur,Aprit 1981; Islam dan Cabaran Pembangunan, Al- Arqam, Koala Lumpur, Jone-Joly 1981; Nitai tmaginasi Menurut Islam, Merasai dan Memusuhi Nikmat Allah, and Etika Islam: Altematif yang Sah bagi Kita, Kesusasteraan dan Enika Islam, Penerbitan Fajar Bakti, Kuala Lompur, 1981; Konsep Cereka Islam: Masih Sato Catatan Awal, Darul-Iman Symposium, Kuala Terengganu, December t98 I; Cinta, Dewan Sasrera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, November 1982; Masalah Kegiatan Kesusasteraan sebagai Satu tbadah, Dewan Sasnera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,Kuala Lumpur,Janoary 1983, anU Mingguan Malaysia, Utusan Melayo Press, Kuala Lumpur, January-February t983; Sastera Islam Berteraskan Pandangan Hidup Islam, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, March 1983; Nilai Perasaan, Intelek dan Wahyu di Dalam
, ,
Sampah, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, 1974. Kemelut, Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Seluang Menolak Baung, Heinemann Educational Books,
255
NOTE
Kesusasteraan, Mastika, Utusan Melayu Press, Kuala Lumpur, April-May 1983; Sastera Islam: Antara Dalam-Diri Dengan Luar-Diri, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpor, May 1983; and Pembangunan Masyarakat Islam, Utusan Malaysia, Utusan Melayu Press, Kuala Lumpur. 28, 29, and 30 December 1983. 43. There are other studies which focus on particular novels written by Shahnon Ahmad. M. Balfas wrote an article on Shahnons first novel entitled Rentung oleh Shabnon Ahmad. A. Teeuw reviewed Rennung and Tendedah in the article Dua Novelet Karangan Shahnon Ahmad. The novel Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan has received much attention by critics such as H.B. Jassin in Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Novel KetigaShahnon Ahmad; Siti Hawa Salleh, Dan Kelab Kritik Pena: Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Kanya Shahnon Ahmad; Kassim Ahmad, Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Karyayang Aneh; Achdiat Karta Mihardja. Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Md. Salleh Yaapar, Shahnons No Harvest but a Thorn: On the Fate of the Malay Peasantry; and Edwin Thumboo, Shabnon Ahmads No Harvest but a Thorn. The novel Protes was reviewed by Ramli Leman Soemowidagdo Catatan Singkat Tentang Protes sebuah Novel Shahnon Ahmad. On the novel Men ten, C. Skinner wrote an article entitled A Note on Communalism in Malay Literature. Au Haji Ahmad wrote an article on Perdana Novel Karya Shahnon Ahmad. Mohd. Yusof Hasan gave an account on Srengenge: Simbolisme KonflikNilai and on Seluang Menodak Baung: Rakyat dan Ubi Gadung. There are other critics who deal with Shahnons novels such as Yahaya Ismail in his book Kesusasteraan Moden Dalam Esei dan Kninik; Uman Junus in his book Ikhtisan dan Analisa Novel-novel Melayu; David J. Banks in his essay Islam and Political Change in Rural Society: Shahnon Ahmads Novels asData; and Pena Patriot inhis article ShahnonAhmads Novels: A Critical Evaluation. Mohd. Yusof Hasan and Lloyd Fernando look at Shahnons short stories respectively in the articles Kegelisahan Jiwa Manusia Dalam Cerpen- cerpen Shabnon Ahmad and Semangat Mengenali Diri Dalam Cerpen-cerpen Shahnon Ahmad which deal with the internal conflict of man. These studies are using multi-disciplinary approaches on the works of Shahnon Ahmad. There are subtheses and theses which are concerned with specific aspects of Shabnons work. The sub-theses are Cenita Pendek Shahnon Ahmad by Mohd. Helmi Mohd Hussain; Perwatakan di Dalam Novel-novel Shahnon Ahmad Hingga Tahun 1967 by Mohd. Daud Haji Hamzah; Novel-novel Shahnon Ahmad flingga Tahun 1969: Dan Sudut Ekstrinsik by Mohd, Yusof Hasan; and - Loghat Daerah Dalam Novel Shahnon Ahmad by Raja Utih Raziah Raja Abdul Rashid. The theses for Masters degree are Bahasa Daerah Dalam Karya-karya Shahnon
256
NOTE
Ahmad by Mohd. Yusof Hasan and ProsesPenciptaan Tiga Novelis Melayu: Ishak Haji Muhammad, A. Samad Said dan Shabnon Ahmad by Abdullah Tabir. These works are mainly sorveying the limited aspects of Shahnons works. Finally, there are discussions of Malay literature in general which give great emphasis to Shahnons work in the development of modem Malay literature soch as Ismail Husseins essay Sastera Melayudan Perpaduan Kaum; Mohd. TaibOsman in Kesusasteraan Melayo dan Perubahan Sosio-Budaya; A. Bakan Hamid in Arab Perkembangan Kesusasteraan Melayu Moden di Malaysia; and Mohd Taib Osman and A. Bakar Hamid in Continuity and Change in the Development of Modem Malaysian Literature. 44. A. I-I. Johns, Sumbangan Shabnon kepada Sastera Melaya Menakjubkan, Utusan Mataysia, Utusan Melayu Press. Kuala Lumpur, 28 February 1971. See PenaPatriot, Shahnon Ahmads Novels: A Critical Evaluation, Truth 1, Kuala Lumpur, February-March 1973. See Kassim Ahmad, Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Kanyayang Aneh, Sukses. tiniversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 1974. See his article Mengapa Terdedah, Dewan Sasrera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, January 1971, and Gubahan Novel, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, 1979, p. viii. Shabnon Ahmads short stories which deal with Islamic themes are: Riak , Dewan Sastena, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, November 1976; Kemelut, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Postaka, Kuala Lumpur, November 1977; Ada, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, July 1978; Mayat dan Keluarga, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, February 1981; Tonil Purbawana, Dewan Masyarakar, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpun. Jone 1982; Dongeng Merdeka, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Babasa Pustaka, Kuala Lumpun. October 1982. His novel is Al-S htqaq, a fragment of whish is published in Dewan Sastera, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka. Kuala Lumpw, April 1983.
45.
46.
47.
48.
257
NOTE
CHAPTER ONE: SHAHNON AND HIS EARLY WORKS

1. For details on pondok system education, see Awang Had Salleh, Pelajaran dan Perguruan Melayu di Malaya Zaman British, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1974. Shahnon Ahmad, Cuba han Novel, op. cit., p. ix. Its aims were to promote modem Malay literary value; to foster unity among its members; to develop literature for the benefit ofthe society; to prevent adverse elements or trends which would hinder modem Malay literature; and to accept foreign elements which would improve modern Malay literature. The five writers are: Ishak Haji Muhammad, A. Samad tsmail, Keris Mas, Usman Awang and A. Samad Said. The other members ofthe distinguished panel are: Leon Comber (Hong Kong), Ooh Poh Seng (Singapore), F. Sionil Jose (Philippines) and Mochtan Lubis (Indonesia). Ismail Hussein, Sastera dan Masyarakar, Penerbitan Zakry Abadi, Koala Lumpur, 1974, p. 24. The book is dedicated to Shahnon, Lahuma, Jeha, Pak Senik, Awang Cik Teh dan kebangkitan masyarakat petani Melayu umumnya. 7, 8. 9. Shahnon Ahmad, Gubahan Novel, op. cit., p. viii. Ibid. Shahnon uses words with wrong meanings such as paseh, lurnayan and peraduan which should be eelit!, cantik and tidur. He also oses sub-standard words of dialect such as menyorok for sarapan. dikasi for d:beri and nylor for ketapa. His sentence constructions are also weak because of grammatical errors and idiosyncracy. For example, the sentence Perharianku sering rerpusat pada abangku yang mana demi sehani ke sehari rnengubah kelakuan could be changed to Perhatianku sering berpusar pada abangku yang berubah kelakuan dan sehari ke sehari. Dan semoa kumpulan-kumpulan itu hanya mempunyai sato cita-cita sabaja: ingin mendapat pelajaran tinggi, ingtn path pangkat besar, ingin pada gaji banyak, dan boleh jadi ingin berkhidmat untuk bangsa, nusa dan tanahair. In this. example, Shahnon uses the word ingin, four times. Later other words
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
10.
258
NOTE
such as: masih (four times); panda! (three times); lehih (four times); cu/ca (five times); and manusia (six times), are used in successive sentences. II. May, Derwent, Cepu Kencana: Antologi Cerita-cerita Pendek Dunia, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1961. Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897) is a French writer known for his realism and detailed documentation. Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893) stories deal mainly with the Franco German War, the peasant life in Normandy and the poor people. Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910). Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) an Indian philosopher, poet and fiction writer, received the Nobel Prize in 1913 and was knighted in 1914. First poblished in
12.
13.
14. IS.
16. 17.
Seranggi, op.
cit.
Lin Yutang (1895-1876) was educated at Hanvard University. His famous works are: The Little Critic (1935), My Country and My People (1935) and .4 Leaf in the Storm (1945),
18.
Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) is an American poet, fiction writer and literary critic whose work 0 employ psychological realism. Stephen Leacock (1869-1949) is a Canadian writer who wrote works on politics but is better known as a humounist.
19.
20.
A.H. Johns,In Search of Tradition: Reflections on Chairil Anwars Translations and Adaptations. Gavac, Studies in Austronesian Languages and Cultures, Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin, nd., p. 647. Interview, first published in Masrika, op. cit., July 1961.
, Mengapa Terdedah, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, January 1971, p. 38.
21. 22.
23.
Ibid.
259
NOTE
24. 25. 26. 27.
Shahnon Ahmad, Cuba/ian Novel, op. cit., p. 33. A. H. Johns, Cultural Options and Role of Tradition, op. cit., p. III. 2. Ibid., ph Perajurit yang Pulang. Toko Abbas Bandung, Melaka, 1964. Other writers include Non and Ajikik. Shahnons short stories in the collection are: Tak Sehaluan, Serangan, Jahanam and Kipas Angin Mitsubishi Kami. Dua Zaman, Pustaka Antana, Kuala Lumpur, 1964. Other writers are: Kenis Mas, Tongkat Wanrant, Awam-il- Senkam, Wijaya Mala, Asni, Bunga Raya, Anena Wati and Kumbang Mas. Shahnons short stories are: Kisah Malam Lustrum and Mitting di K.L. Angin Retak, Toko Abbas Bandung, Melaka, 1966; with Alias Au, Malungun, Anis Sabirin, Awang Had Salleh and Ajikik. Shahnons short stories are: Xehilangan and Redt~.
28.
29.
30.
Konflik, Pustaka Utara, Alur Setar, 1968; with Nirwan Ananda. Shabnons stories are: Cegaran, Satu Macam Perangai, Kodok, Konflik and Sarapan PagiMinggu. Other collections which published Shahnons short stories are: Pertentangan. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpun, 1970; Dalam Perfalanan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1972; Suara Semusim, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1974; Pernenang, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpun, 1974; and Jejak Langkah, Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka, Koala Lumpun, 1975. Anak Renipang Karam di Kota, Pustaka MAHA. Alor Seth,, 1968. Originally published as Orang Berbudi dart Ibu Kota, A kind-hearted Man From the City), Berita Harian, 7.2.1963.
31. 32.
260
NOTE
CHAPTER TWO: THE RURAL STRUGGLE

Shahnon Ahmad, Rentung, Toko Buku Abbas Bandung, Melaka, 1965. Quotations are from 5th. Edition; translated by Han 3 Avehing, Rope of Ash, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1979. 2.
, Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Kuala Lumpur, 1966; translated by Adibah Amin, No Harvest But a Thorn, Oxford University Press, Koala Lumpur. 1972.
3.
Shahnon Ahmad wrote three articles on his rural novels: Mengapa Mu Menulis Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Dewan Masyarakat, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, June, 1969; and Cubahan Novel, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. 1979. Originally it was a seminar paper presented at Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra on 5 September 1968; Rentung Berpusan Tiga: Egoisme, Cinta-Damai dan Selfishness, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Postaka. Kuala Lompur,July, 1972; and Rentung dan Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan: Saw Pengakuan yang Nakal, Widya, Balai Penenbitan Adabi, Kota Bharu, July. 1973. In his article Rentung Berpusan Tiga: Egoisme, Cinta-Damai dan Selfishness, op. cit., Shahnon says of Pak Senik: Dan Pak Senik pula sebagai seonang pemimpin kecil mempunyai nilainya yang tersendini dan dia tegak sampai habis dengan nilai itu; tersepit antara Semaun dan Dogot yang berkonflik semata-mata atas dasan ego dan self-inrerest.(Gabahan Novel,p. 104) In the article Rentung dan Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan: Satu Pengakuan yang Nakal, op. cit., Shabnon says: Dalam Rentung yang otamanya ialah Pak Senik, Dogol dan Semaun; masing-masing dengan keragaman dan kompleksitinya. Masing-masingmembawa idea sendirian berdasar kepada kepercayaan din sendini. Pak Senik dengan konsep yang benan-benanlahnya. Dogol dengan lagak aku penlu ito untuk diriku dan jangan siapa cuba menghalangnya. Semaun pula dengan pegangan aku adalah aku. Tiga orang watak panting inilah membawa idea-idea yang benbuah dan krisis manusia dengan manosia itu. ( Widya, pp. 48-49)
4.
5.
On the name of Semaun, Shahnon says: Tapi banyakjuga nama memberi bayangan pengerlian yang bententangan. Nama yangkasar sebutannya akan diberi dengan sifat yang lembut dan lunak. Dalam novel pentama saya Rentung, cana kontradiksi seumpama mi saya cuba juga iaitu nama Semaun. Nama mi agak kasar sebutannya, membayangkan watak yang kasar dan dianggap kenbau jantan terluka, tapi
261
NOTE
pada akhir novel ternyata Semaun, di sebahik nama yang kasan dan hodoh itu, 4) adalah seorang yang benar dan patuh kepada yang benar. (Cuba han Novel, p.1O 6. Of Dogol, Shahnon says: Malah konflik akibat dan bercanggahnya nilai inilah yang menjadi tema Rentung, aitu konfhik antara keluarga Semaun dengan penduduk-penduduk kampung, khususnya dogol. Semaun terpaksa mempertahankan valuenya kerana sifat egonya sebagai anak jantan pantang undur. Dan dogol juga terpaksa mempertahankan valuenya kerana kepentingan did sendiri, (Cubuhan Novel, p. 104) Shahnon Ahmad, Rentung Berpusar Tmga: Egoisma, Cinta-damai dan Selfishness, op. cit. p.45 and Cuba/ian Novel, op. cit., p. 104. A.H. Johns gives an account of Lahuma: Each succeeding year then is not simply a measure of time: it is a constanly recurning field of battle where man pits his strength against that of the elements. Lahuma accordingly is not simply a peasant facing the difficulties of daily life, but is invested with a symbolic cosmic role. He is made from the dust of the earth, and his destiny is to struggle with the earth each year to make it yield its fruit to support his life. He is one creature, who shares life on the earth with other creatures. He must respect even those that are harmful to him until the annual battle is joined, when quarter may be neither asked nor given. (Cultural Options and the Role of Tradition, op. cit., p. 116) Shabnons view on Jeha as follows: Lahuma mati. Dan mi dengan serempak merupakan keruntuhan dan kemusnaban segala harapan untuk hidup bagi Jeha dan anak-anak. Lahuma mati tapi Jeha dan anak-anak belum. Mereka perlu hidup. Untuk menempuh hidup tanpa tiang sen inilah satu dugaan yang paling pahit ditanggung oleh Jeha hinggakan bebanan yang dipikulnya itu melampaui batasan dan jangkaan sehingga tak tertanggung lagi. Gilalah dia menjadi objek ejekan budakbudak dan orang tua. Jeha sebelum matinya Lahuma tak ubah seperti pembantu saja. Adanya itu hanya untuk mehengkapi hidup sebuah keluarga dengan terselitnya kasih-sayang kepada suami dan anak-anak. Dia seorang yang patuh; kepatuhan yang sewajibnya tanpa sebarang tandatanya kerana dia sedan bahawa seonang istent mesti patuh kepada suami sama seperti seorang hambamesti patuh kepada seorang raja atau seorang maihluk kepadaTuhan. Hidupnyasebahagian besar untok Lahuma dan hergantung terus pada Lahuma. Tapi bilamana kematian Lahuma yang sengit itu terjadi, terkapa-kapalah Jeha kehilangan tempat bergantung. Matanya menjadi kabur dan terasa dia berada dalam satu suasana sesat dan kelam-kabut. Tapi untuk Ian bukan jawapannya, lagipun ke mana hendak dia cabut lari. Kehidupan ada di depannya.
7.
8.
9,
262
NOTE Dan kehidupan ito tak ubah seperti raksaksa yang hanya temganga menonggu mangsa yang tak terdaya. Padi mesti dipertahankan kerana padi bokan sekadar sejenis material untuk makan coma, tapi adalah noh, hidup dan dirinya sendiri. Semangat Labuma selama mi ditangguknya dan cuba disimpannya dalam sanubari kewanitaannya. Dia cuba menjadi tiang sen. Dia cuba menjadi Lahuma. Malah boleh kita katakan Lahuma itu meskipun mati tapi semangat dan kegigihannya tetap ada dalam did kewanitaan Jeha. Daya pada Jeha terbatas sekali. Dan kesudahannya dia menjadi objek kelucuan dan kehinaan di setengah-setengah mata orang ramai. (Widya. pp. 49-50) 10. On Sanab and hen six sisters, Shabnon writes: Keluarga itu kini berada di persimpangan jalan. Lahuma sudab tiada lagi di dunia. Jeha sudah gila. Walau bagaimanapun hidup mesti diteruskan juga oleh anak-anaknya mereka yang bentujuh orang itu. Sawah padi mesti dijag~danipadaserangan musuh. Hasil padi mesti berhasil untuk disimpan di jelapang. Dan kini jiwa kental Lahuma hidup dijiwa anak-anaknya. Sudah tidak adajalan lain lagi bagi anak- anak itu, selain daripada bendini dengan berani menghadapi segala ancaman-ancaman di muka. Dan mi amatlali berat. Tambahan pula bila mereka mengenangkan arwah ayahnya. Bila mereka mengenangkan nasib emaknya yang gila itu. Tapi proses hidup masih juga berjalan. Hidup mesti diteruskan. Hidup mesti hertahan. Hidup mesti berani. Dan keberanian mi timbul dengan adanya semangat Lahuma. Dengan adanya jiwa Lahuma di jiwa mereka. Dengan keberanian itulah mereka menghadapi kemarau. Membunuh ketam-ketam. Menghalau bumng-bunrng dan mengetam padi hasil dan keningat meneka itu. (Gubahan Novel, p. 90) Penyudahnya tidak ada bagaikan penjuangan hidup mi tidak ada tamatnya. Penyudahnya: maut. Jeha ada tamatnya: gila. Tapi Sanah serta adik-adiknya masih terawang-awang. Hidup mi bukan sekadan hidup Labuma atau Jeha tapi mencakup skop yang lebih luas: hidup manusia sejagat mi yang tak habis-habis menderita, kebulunan, melanat dan papa. Itulah hidup manusia yang tak jemujemu benjuang untuk sesuap nasi. (Widya, p. 51) II. For details on the use of dialect in Shahnons fiction on rural setting, see Mohd. Yusof Hasan Bahasa Daerah Dalam Kaiya-karya Shabnon Ahmad, MA, thesis, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 1976, 12. A.H.Johns,Manina Merciless Universe: The Wodc of Shahnon Abmad, Cultural Options and the Role of Traditions, op. cit., p. 116.
263
NOTE
CHAPTER THREE: SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND RELIGON

,Mengapa Terdedah, Dewan Sastera , Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, Januari, 1971, pp. 38-39. 2. Malay aristocnacy consists of rulers of state and people of noble descendants. The rulers are the Fengku and Raja and the noble people are the Syed/Sharifah. They claim that their descent from the Ptophet is the source of their nobility. This makes their moral transgressions doubly reprehensible. For details on the historical background of Syed royalty, see Mabayudin Haji Yahaya. Latar belakang Sejanab Keturunan Sayid di Malaysia, Tamadun Islam di Malaysia, Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 1980. 3. According to Islamic law, an animal should be slaughtered by a sharp knife panetrating the inner pant of the animals neck while the name of God is invoked. For details on psychology and dreams, see Sigmund Freud (trans. James Strachey), On Dreams, The Hogarth Press, London, 1952; T.C. Lethbridge, The Power of the Pendulum, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1976; Patricia L. Garfield, Creative Dreaming, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1974; and Humberto Nagera et. al. Ba sic Psychoanalytic Concepts on the Theory ofDreams, Basic Books, Inc., New York, 1969. See Sigmund Freud (Trans. A. A. Bnitl), & Unwin Ltd., London, 1922.
4.
5.
The
Interpretation of Dreams, George
6.
A metaphon to indicate stupidity of a person. Other similar expressions am ba/i. lul, bongok, bodoh, lembu, kerbau, or pekak. Shahnon Ahmad, Mengapa Terdedah, op. cit., p. 39. Ibid., p. 40. Shahnon Abmad, Mengapa Saya Menganang Protes, lnspirasi, SMSAH, Jitra, No. 2, 1967. Shahnon explained that the novel was at first named Transcendental, Extrimist, TaabwJdi and finally Proces. He stressedthe downfall ofmankind because of their immorality. One way to overcome such problems of social immorality is to return to the right path of Allab. Md Protes is an attempt to find the divine way to Allah.
7. 8. 9.
264
NOTE tO. SeeAbulAta Al-Maududi,TheArticlesofFaith, Towards Understanding Islam, Pustaka Nasional, Singapore, 1981. The six articles of faith are: Tauhid: Faith in the Unity ofAllah; Belief in Gods Angels; Faith in the Books of God; Faith in Gods Prophets; Belief in Life after Death; and Belief in the Decree of God.
It. Ramadan is the ninth lunar month of the Islamic calendar. The fast in Ramadan is observes as an act of worship, ihadat, in obedience to the commands of Allah. Every Muslim has to fast by way of abstaining from food, drink, smoking and sexual intercourse from dawn to sunset.
265
NOTE
CHAPTER FOUR : MALAY POLITICS AND NATIONALISM

For details on UMNO see Mohd. Yunus Hamidi, Sejarah Pergerakan Politik Melayu Semenanjuttg, Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, Kuala Lumpun. 1961; Chandra Muzaffar, Protectionof the Malay Community: A Study of UMNOs Position and Opposition Attitudes, M.S.Sc. thesis, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 1974; Azizi Ishak, The Birth of Malay Nationalism, Special Guest, Oxford University Press, Singapore, 1977; Tunku Abdut Rahman, UMNO Thinty Years After, Viewpoints, Heinemann Educational Books (Asia) Ltd., Kuala Lumpur, 1978; Kamarudin Jaffar, Dr. Burhanud.din Al- Helmy: Politik Melayu dan Islam, Yayasan Anda Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, 1980; and tbrabim Mahmood, Sejarah Perjuangan Bangsa Melayu. Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, Kuala Lumpur, 1981. 2. For details on Malayan Union see L. A. Mills, Malaya: A Political and Economic Appraisal, Oxford University Press, London, 1958; 1. de Allen, The Malayan Union, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1967; Martin Rudner. The Political Structure of the Malayan Union, JMBRAS,Vol. 43, Pt. I, 1970; Zainal Abidin Abdul Wahid, The Malayan Union: Its Introduction and The Malayan Union: Its Abolition, Glimpses of Malaysian History. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1970; and Mohd. Noordin Sopiee, From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation, University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpw, 1974; and A.J. Stockwell, British Policy and Malay Politics during the Malayan Union Experiment 1945 . 1948. Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Petating Jaya, 1979. On the problems of the bumiputeras or the Malays see L. Richmond Wheeler, The Modern Malay, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1928; Mabathir Mohamed, The Malay Dilemma, Donald Moore,Singapore, 1976, and Menghadapi Caba ran, Penerbitan PustakaAntara, Kuala Lumpun, 1976; and Khoo Kay Kim (ed.) Lembaran Akhbar Melayu, Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1980. On problems of land division see K.T. Joseph, Problems of Agriculture and 0. D. Ness, Economic Development and Goals of Government, in Wang Gangwu (ed), Malaysia: A Survey, F.W. Cheshire, Melbourne, 1964; John T. Purcal, Rice Economy, a Case Study of Four Villages in West Malaysia, An E ast-West Center Book, Hawaii, 1972; and Isu Ekonomi, Sosial dan Politik Malaysia, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. 1983. 5. One of the problems is the racial-relationship. See K.J. Ratnam, Communalism and
3.
4.
266
NOTE the Political Process in Malaya, University of Malaya Press, Koala Lumpur, 1965; Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Malaya. Oxford University Press, London, 1967; Anthony Reid, The Kuala Lumpur Riots and the Malaysian Political System, Australian Outlook, December, 1969; Felix V.Gagliano, Communal Violence in Malaysia 1969: the Political Aftermath, Papers in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series, No. 13,Ohio University, 1970; R.K. Vasil, Politics in a Plural Society, Oxford University Press, Kuata Lumpur, 1971, and The Malaysian GeneralElection of 1969, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur. 1972; Jerome Bass, Malaysian Politics, 1968-1970: Crisis andResponse, University of California, Berkeley, 1973; Karl von Vorys, Democracy Without Consensus, Princeton University Press. New Jersey, 1975; and Gordon P. Means, Malaysian Politics, Holder and Stoughton, London, 1976. 6. SABERKAS. Sayang Akan Bangsa Ertinya Reda Korbankan Apa Segala, to love ones nation means to be wilting to sacrifice everything. See Mahadzir Muhamad Khir, UMNO-PAS Struggle in Kedab, Southeast Asian Affairs. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 1980; and Ahmad Kamar, The Formation of SABERKAS, Asmah Haji Omar (ed.) Darulaman, Penerbit Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1979. 7. See Haji Buyong Adil, Penjajaban lnggenis di Perak (1874-1876), Perjuangan Orang Melayu Menentang Penjajahan Abad Abad 15-19. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1983; James P. Ongkili, Pergerakan Nasionalisme and Marwan Sulaiman, UMNO 1948-1955, Jebat, Jurnal Persatuan Sejanah Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1971-1972; J.M. Gullick, Malaya, Ernest Benn Ltd., London, 1964; and D.G.E. Hall, Sejarah Asia Tenggara, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1971; W.R. Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism, op. cit.; Burhanuddin Al-Helmy, Falsafah Kebangsaan Melayu. Pustaka Semenanjung, Bukit Mertajam, 1954; T.H. Shellcock and Ungku A. Aziz, Nationalism in Malaya, in W.L. Holland (ed.) Asian Nasionalism and the West, New York, 1953; and Raden Soenarno, Malay Nationalism 1900-1945, Journal of Southeast Asian History, March, 1960. 8 See Bakhtiar Jamily, Ibrahim Dirikan Kesatuan Malaya Merdeka di Indonesia, Berita Harian, Kuala Lumpur, 9.5.1979; lbrahim Haji Yaakub, Nusa dan Bangsa Melayu, NV. Almaarif, Jakarta, 1951, and Sekitar Malaya Merdeka, Penerbitan Kesatuan Malaya Merdeka (Bhg. Penerangan), Jakarta, 1957; Abdul Latif Abu Bakar, Ishak Haji Muhamm ad: Penulis dan Ahli Politik Sehingga 1948, op. cit. and Amat Johari Moain, Sejarah Nasionalisme Maphilindo. Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Kuala Lumpur, 1969.
267
NOTE 9. Hang Jebat represents the Malay warrior who is aggressive towards the sultan of Malacca. See Kassim Ahmad, Characterization in Hikayat Hang Tuah: A General Survey of Methods ofCharacter-Portrayal and Analysis and Interpretation of the Characters of Hang Tuah and Hang Jehat, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Koala Lumpur, 1966. For details on MPAJA, 136 Movement and other insurgencies during the Japanese Occupation and aftermath see Yoichi Itagaki. Some Aspects of the Japanese Policy for Malaya under the Occupation, with Special Reference to Nationalism, in KG. Tregonning (ed), Papers on Malayan History, Singapore, 1962.
tO.
II. See Aminab Mohd. Nasir, Majlis 195 l-1955,Lembaran Akhhar Melayu,Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, 1981. 12. Lokman represents Dato Onn bin Jaafar. See Ishak Tadin, Datuk thin and Malay Nationalism: 1946-1951, Journal of Southeast Asian History, March, 1960; and Anwar Abdullah, Biografi Dato Onn, Percetakan Abadi, Kuala Lumpur, 1971. Abdul Rabim represents Tunku Abdul Rahman. See T.H. Tan, The Prince and!, Sam Boyd Enterprise, Singapore, 1979; and Harry Miller, Putera DiRaja dan Perdana Menteri, Federal Publications, Kuala Lumpur, nd.
13.
268
NOTE
CHAPTER FIVE: TENSION AND CHANGE

I. E Bowling, What is Stream-of-Consciousness?, Shiv K. Kumar and Keith Mc Kean (eds.), Critical Approaches to Fiction, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York. See also Robie Macauley and George Lanning. Technique in Fiction, harper & Row, New York, 1964; Leon Surmelian, Techniques ofFiction writing: Measure andMadness, Anchor Books,New York, 1969; Cohn Wilsom, The Craft oftheNovel, Victor Gollanz Ltd., London, 1975; Morton Darwen Zabel, Craft and Character in Modern Fiction, Viking, 1957; Robert C. Meredith and John Fitzgerald. Structuring Your novel: From Basic Idea to Finished Manuscript. Barnes and noble Books, New York. 1972; John Braine, Writing a Novel, Eyre Methuen, London, 1974; Majourie Boutton, The Anatomy of the Novel, Reading the Novel, Harper & Row, New York, 1977. 2.
-. Keringnya Daya Kreatif Sendiri, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, September 1972.
3.
Kurinji tribbe is one ofthe 68 aboriginal tribes of New South Wales, See Frederick McCarthy(comp.) New Sourh Wales Aboriginal Place, Names, Euphonious Words with Their Meanings. Government Printer, Sydney, 1946. For details on the struggle of gurindji people for and and the establishment of Aboriginal Embassy outside Parliament House, Canberra and its closing down by force in July 1972 see Lorna Generations of Resistance, Longman Cheschire, Melbourne, 1981; and A. T. Yarwood and M. J Knowling, Race RElations in Australia, Methuen, Australia, 1982. Shanon Abmad, Sasterawan Sebagai Fighter Zarnannya, Mastika, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Disember 1968.
,
4.
5. 6. 7;
Keringnya Daya Kreatif Sendiri, op. cit.
Actually it is not the second, but the third story writen in Australia. GATRA, Kebangkitan, Alur Setar, 1969. See also Anak Nakal, Episod GATR.A, AlurSetar, 1971. Minggu Perpaduan Negara, Dewan Masyarakat. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, Rebmari 1969. See also Sulaiman Saleh, Masalah Hubungan Kaum di Malaysia and Masaiab Kebudayaan Dalam Mencapal Perpaduan Nasional,
8.
269
NOTE
Pemhangunan don Masalah Sodsial, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979; and Chew Hock Thye, Masalah Perpaduan Nasional, Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979. 9. For details see R. K. Vasil, The Malaysian General Election of 1969, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 19722; Anthony Reid, The Kuala Lumpur Riots and the Malaysian Political System,Ausrralian Outlook, December1969; andFelix V. Gaghiano. Communal Violence in Malaysia 1969: The Political Aftermath, Papers in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series, No. 13, Ohio University, 1970. hO. Tunku Abdul Rahman, May 13 Before and After, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Kuala Lumpur. 1969. A. H. Jhons, Cultural Options and the Role of Tradition, op. cit. Shalinon Ahmad, Keringnya Daya Krearif Sendiri, op. cit. Ibid. Ibid. See Yahaya Ismail, Srengenge: Sebuab Ulasan Novel Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, September 1973; Mohd. Yusof Hasan, Srengenge: Simbohisme Konflik Nilai, Dewan babasa, Dewan Ba/rosa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. June 1974 and in Hamzah Hamdani(ed.) Novel-novel Malaysia dan Kritikan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 182; and Norman Simms, Eloquent Silence, CRNLE Reviews Journal, Fhinders University, May 1980. 16. Shahnon Ahmad, Selesai Sudah, Heinemann Education Books(Asia) Ltd., Kuala Lumpur, 1977. The stories are translated by Harry Aveling in the colection The Third Notch andOther Stories, Heinema.tm Educational Books(Asia ) Ltd.. Kuala Lumpur, 1980. For criticism see Mohd. Yusuf Hasan, Kegehisahan Jiwa Manusia Dalarn Cerpen-cerpen Shahnon Ahmad, Jurnal Budaya Melayu, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, 1976; and Lloyd Fernando, Semangat Mengenahi Doro Dalam Cerpen-cerpen Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, September 1976. See criticism: Yahaya tsmail, Sampah ,Dewan bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,
11. 12. 13, 14, 15.
17.
270
NOTE Kuala Lumpur, May 1975; and Mana Sikana. Sampah Dengan Tema Kewujudan, Dewan Sastera, Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, August 1974. 18. ,Kegiatan SasteraMelayuModen MasihTradisional,Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, march 1973; and Fuedalisme Dalam Kesusasteraan Mclayu Barn, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, June 1973. ,Keringnya Daya Kreatif, op. cit. For other examples of Malay short stories on child psychology: All Majod. Penseh Sebatang, Dewan Masyarakat , Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. October 1965 and Dalam Din, Dewan Bahasa dna Pustaka, 1974; Zaid Ahmad, Mimpi Seorang Anak, Penulis, Kuala Lumpur. September 1969; Azizi Haji Abdullah, Beruk, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, December 1970; Anis, Kasih Sayang , Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, kuala Lumpur, May 1971; A. Rashid Ngah, Pelita Sebuab, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, June 1972; Salmah Mohsin, Anak Siapa?, Wanita, Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Kuala Lumpur, Augst 1972; Fatimah Busu, Anak Bumi Tercinta, Dewan Masyarakat, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, May 1975; Khadijah Hashim, Layang-layang Putus Tali, Dewan Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, September 1975; Zahari Affendi, Kunang-Kunang, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, August 1976; Noorjaya. Adik, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. February 1977; and S. Othman Kelantan, Pusaran, Dewan Sastera, Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur Junuary 1973. 21. 22. 23. 24. Shahnon Ahmad, tJubahan Novel, op. cit. TLK is probably an abbreviation of Tempat Letak Kerata, a car park. Shahnon Ahmad, Kegiatan Sastera Melayu Moden Masih Tradisional, op. cit. ,Fuedahisme Dalam Kesusasternan Melayu Barn, op, cit.
19. 20.
271
NOTE
CHAPTER SIX: THE RENEWED SOCIAL COMMITMENT

I. See Malaysia, Mid-Term Review of the Second Malaysia Plan, 1971-1975, The Government Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1973; and The Treasury of Malaysia, Economic Report 1974 -1975, Kuala Lumpur, 1975. See Ishak Shari, ;Some Comments on the Eradication of Poverty Uhder the Third Malaysia Plan, Southeast Asia Affairs, Instutute of Souheast Asian Studies, Singapore, 11977. 3. 4. See Report Far Eastern Economic Review, Hong Kong, 10-1-1975. The nationwide demonstrations resulted in the Governments implementation of Universities and Colleges Act which disallowed student involvement in politics. For details on the socio-pohitical situation of the time see Syed Husin Ali, Apa Erti Pembangunan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1977; and Kassim Ahmad, ilniversiti Kedua, Media tntelek, Kuala Lumpur, 1982. Shahnon Ahmad, Angan-angan Mr. Proudfoor, Berita Minggu, Kuala Lumpur, IS5-1975, or Mr. Proudfoot, Selesai Sudah, Heinemaan Educational Books (Asia) Ltd., Kuala Lumpur, 1977. 6. pun, 20-9-1975. 7.
, ,
2.
5.
Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur, Suara Rakyat, Kuala Lum-
Monyok, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,
Kuala Lumpur, Oktober 1975. 8.

. Kemelut, Utusan Melayu Publications & Distributors, Kuala Lumpur. Oktober 1975.
9.
, Seluang Menolak Baung. Heinemann Educational Sooks(Asia) Ltd., Kuala Lumpur, 1978.
10.
For criticism see Umar Junus, Suatu Sikap Tentang Modenisasi: Penampilannya Pada Novel-novel Shahnon Ahmad, Widya, Adabi Gaya Pos Sdn. Bhd. Kuala Lumpur. Ogos 1979.
II. For criticism see Mohd. Yusof Hasan,
Seluang Menolak Baung: Rakyat dan Ubi
272
NOTE Gadung, Dewan Sastera, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, January 1979. 12. 13. 14. Shabnon Ahmad, Gubahan Novel, op. cit. p. 34. Wak Tempe, a tempe, a kind of foodstuff seller. Consumers Association of Penang (CAP), Pollution: Kuala Jurus Battle for Survival. Penang, 1976. For an analysis ofpeasant poverty see Ahmad Mabzan Ayob. Beberapa Sebab Petani Kita Mundur, Pembangunan don Masalah Ekonomi, Jilid. I, Dewan Masyarakat, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, Mac 1980. See Wang Gung wu, Literature and social Change, in Wang Gung Wu et. al. (eds), Society and the Writer: Essays on Literature in Modern Asia, Reasearch School of Pasific Studies, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1981. pp. l-6v.
IS.
16.
17. See 1-lasrom Hanin, Baling Manggugat Pemimpin Kedah, Dewan Masyarakat, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuaia Lumpur, March 1975.
273
APPENDIX
Selected Malay Novels
Abdullab Hussain, 1965. Terjebak, Kuala Lumpw: Pustaka Antara. __________________ 1965. Janganlah Jangan, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Angkatan Baru. __________________ 1965. Peristiwa, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1966. Rantau Selamat, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. __________________ 1967. Aku Tidak Minta, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. 1967. Kuala Lumpur Kira Punya. Kuala Lumpur: Syarikat Karyawan.
_________________
1971. Interlok, Kuala Lumpun: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1975. Intan, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Abdullah Sidek, 1932 Bercinta yang Tak Berfaedah, Pulau Pinang: C. Debab bin Haji Salleh. 1938. Gelombang ifidup, Muar: Jamitiab Press. __________________ 1960. Man Kita Berjuang, Singapura: Pustaka Melayu. Adibah Amin, 1968. Seroja Masih di Kolam, Singapura: Pustaka Melayu. Ahmad Rashid Talu, 1975. Iakah Salmah, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fajar Bakti. __________________ Kawan Benar, np., nd. Alias Ali, 1964. Gersang. Kuala Lumpur: Penenbitan Federal Berhad. 1966. Krisis, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berbad. 1967. Selasihku Sayang, Kuala Lumpun: Penerbitan Utusan MeIayu. 1967. Kalau Berpaut di Dahan Rapuh, Kuala Lumpun: Penerbitan Ria.
_________________
1971. AdatMuda Menanggung Rindu, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan
Utusan Melayu.
274
APPENDIX Alias Harun, 197 I. Meniti Buih, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Alis Murni, 1966, Letusan, Batu Pahat: Penenbitan Pustaka Bimbingan. Anas K. Hadimaja, 1965. Tumpas Lampus, Pulau Pinang: Saudara Sinaran Berhad. 1966. Jalan Pulang, Pulau Pinang: Saudana Sinaran Berhad. Arena Wati, 1961. ia/an Malam Ice Thu Kota, Brunei Darussalam: Pustaka Cahaya. 1963. Gelora, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1965. Lingkaran, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1969. Gandaria, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1971. Sandera, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka. A. R. Kamaludin, 1967. Lan don Maut, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berhad. 1967. Punah, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu. ,1967. Terkopak di Mana-mana, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu. ,1968. Tuhan Tak Sayang Padaku Lagi, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. A. Samad Ismail, 1966. Patah Sayap Terbang faa, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Setia Murni. .1967. Tembok Tidak Tinggi, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Baru. 1967. Orang Jauh, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Setia Murni. 1967. Kail Panjang Sejengkat, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu. 1967. Had, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. 1968. Menimba yang Jernih, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Baru. 1968. Menduga Lautan Dalam, Keluang: Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd. 1969. Orang Lama, Keluang: Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd. 1969. Detik-Detik Cemas, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. 1970. Hussein Zet, Keluang: Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd. A. Samad Said. 1961. Sauna, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka. 1966. Butan Tak Bermadu di Fatehpur Sikri, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung.
-
1967. Sungai Mengalir Lesu, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. A. Shukur Hanin, 1966. Getaran, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1968. Dan Kumpulan Terbuang. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. Atan Long, 1964. Subuh, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. A. Wahab Au, 1968. Angin Hitam, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu.
275
APPENDIX 1968. Pemburu, Kuala Lumpur: Syarikat Karyawan. Awang Had SalIch, 1966. Bin,, Warna. Kuala Lumpur: Usaha Penerbitan Menara. Azia Jahpin. 1971. Putanglah Pe,-antau, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Azizi Haji Abdullab, 1968. Gap-is Lintang Anak Hanam, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Sari. 1971. Senja Belum Berakhb, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. Hamzah, 1958; Rumah It,, Dunia Aku, Singapura: Geliga Ltd. Hanjn Aminurrashid, 1930. Melun Kuala Lumpur, Tanjung Malim: Ahmy & Co. Harun Hassan, 1970. Bukan Satah Ihu Mengandung. Petaling iaya: Penerbitan Belia Malaya. Hasan Ali, 1965. Tugu, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. Hassan ibrahim, 1963. Tikus Rahmat, Tampin: Kedai Buku Mustafa dan Yusuf. Ibrabim Oman, 1964. Desa Pingitan. Kuala Lumpun: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1965. Embun dan Tanah. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Barn. lshak Haji Muhammad, 1957. Putera Gunung Tahan. Singapura: Getiga Ltd. 1966. Anak Mat Lela Gilt,, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berhad. 1966. Yang Miskin dan Yang Mewah. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Barn. 1967. Anak Dukun Denaman. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. 1967. Tijah Tukang Cukun, H. C. Muhammad Abdul Rahman. 1968. Sate Saloon, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. Ismail Al-Falab, 1971. Badan Bentuab. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Babasa dan Puscaka. Jihathy Abadi, 1967. ia/an Penuh Dehu. Alun Setar: Pustaka Maha. I 967.Tenkuto.i, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. Kala Dewata, 1966. Hati Dan Hasrat, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Barn. Kenis Mas, 1967. Anak Titiwangsa, Ktala Lumpur: Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka. Khadijah Hashim, 1968. Badai Semalam, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional, 1968. Jatan ke Kuhur, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. 1971. Petangi Pagi, Johor Bahni: Penerbitan Penamas Malaysia. 1972. Merpati Putt, TerMing Lagi, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. M. Balfas. 1965. Retak, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. Muhamad Yusuf Ahmad, 1928. Zaman Sari, Seremban: Majalah Gum. 1928-1929. Mencani isteni, Seremban: Majalah Guru. Cenita Ski Mama/i, Majalab Gum, Seremban. Nora, I 965.Puntung Hanyut, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1963. (elodak, Alur Setar: Dinas Penerbitan Pustaka Sekolah. Ruhi Hayat, 1964. Lorong Senibu Liku, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berhad.
276
APPENDIX 1964. Menangkak/ah Senja Menutup Pandangan, Melaka: Pcnerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1965. Putus Sudah Kasih Sayang, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1966. Ganis Hitam Membetah Langit, Melaka: Penenbitan Abbas Bandung. 1966. Kembang di Taman Layu di Tangan. Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1967. Api dan Ainmata, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. 1967. Api 1w Masih Membana, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. 1967. Sonong Makan Tank Ma/can, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1967. Konfrontasi, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1968. Matam Tiada Benbintang, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. 1963. A/i Sa.stno, Keluang: Pustaka Pendidikan Sdn. Bhd. 1969. Rumah Kaca Digegan Gempa, Singapura: Pustaka Nasiona]. Salmi Manja, 1960. Han Mana Butan Mana, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berhad. 1961. Dani Mana Punai Me/ayang, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berhad. 1967. Hendak Hujan Hujan Se/ca/i, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Barn. 1968. Rindu Hi/ang di Tapak Tangan, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. 1968. Sayang (Jstazah Sayang, Kuala Lumpun: Penenbitan Utusan Melayu. 1963. Entah Mengapa Hatiku Duka, Kuala Lumpw: Pustaka Gunung Tahan. S. Othman Kelantan, 1966. Pen genian, Machang: Penerbitan Pustaka Mumi. 1967. Penentangan, Kuala Lumpur: 7ustaka Antan. ,1969. Angin Timun Lout, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu. 1973. Penjudian. Kuala Lumpw: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Syed Syeilch Al-Hadi, 1964. Fanidah Hanu,n, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1929. Hikoyat Putni Nuru/ Am, Pulau Pinang: Jelutung Press. Wijaya MalL 1964. Sisa Lout, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. 1967. Cinta Onang Tua, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu.
277
APPENDIX Yahaya Ismail, 1968. Langkah Kin, Kuala Lumpur: Syarikat Karyawan. 1969. Penghuni Kaman /4, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. Yahaya Samah, 1964. Layang-Layang Putus Ta/i, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Federal Berhad. 1966. Dahaga, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Baru.
278
BIBLIOGRAPHY Novels of Shahnon Ahmad

1965. Rentung, Melaka. Penerbitan Abbas Bandung, Harry Aveling (trans.), 1979 Rope of Ash, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 1965. Tendedah, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1966. Ranjau Sepanjang ia/an, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu, Adibah Amin (trans.), 1972. No Harvest But a Thorn, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 1967. Protes, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 1967. Menteni, Alur Setar: Dinas Penerbitan Pustaka Sekolah. 1969. Pendana. Singapura: Pustaka Nasional. 1973. Snengenge, Kuala Lumpw: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Harry Aveling (trans.), 1979. Snengenge. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann Educational Books (Asia) Ltd. 1974. Sampah, Kuala Lumpw: Dewan Babasa dan Pustaka. 1977. Keme/ut, Kuala Lumpun: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd. 1978. Seluang Menodak Baung, Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann. 1983. At-Shiqaq, (a fragment), dalam Dewan Sastena, April 1983.
Short Stories of Shahnon Ahmad

1956. Bingung, datam Majatah Guru, 24 May 1956. p. 157. 1958. Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat. Utusan Zaman, 6 April 1958. 1958. Tiga Kali Gagal. Utusap Fi/em & Sports, 20 May 1958. 1958. 1958. 1958. 1959. Ayam dan Manusia, Utusan Zatnan, 13 July 1958. Nasib Seorang Bumh, Utusan Zaman, 21 September 1958. Bercuti di Kainpung, Utusan Zaman, 19 April 1958. Kisab Malam Lustrum, Maja/ah Fajan, 1959.
279
BIBLIOGRAPHY l959. Sesudah Merdeka. Ugusan Zaman, 19 April 1959. 1960. Tua, dalani Utusan Zaman, 10 January 1960. Di Tengah Keluarga, Dewan Bahasa, May 1960. pp. 276-285; Dehu Menah, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung, and 1970. Pertentangan. Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1960. Bung ZakluI, Utusan Zaman, 10 July 1960. 1960. Dr. Zaqiul. Benita Minggu. 28 August 1960; Debu Merab, op. cit. 1960. Malam Begitu Indah, Utusan Pemuda, 3 September 1960; and 1964. AnjingAnjing, Kuala Lumpur: Penenbitan Jambatanmas. 1960. Borang G. 147, Utusan Pemuda, IS October 1960; and Debu Merah, op. cit. 1960. Siplis, Benita Minggu. 30 October 1960; and Anjing-Anjing. op. cit. 1961. Bertemu Dengan Seorang Seniman, Urusan Zaman, 21 January 1961. 1961. Menghadapi Malam Mitam, Benita Minggu, 7 May 1961. 1961. Kipas Angin Mitsubishi Kami. Utusan Zaman, 18 June 1961; 1964. Penajunit yang Pu/ang. Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. 322-332 1964.DuaZaman, Kuala I96I. MitingdiK.L.,Dewanilahasa,July 1961 pp. Lumpur: Pustaka Antara Kuala Lumpur. 1961. Dunia Tuhan yang lndah, Ge/anggang Ft/em, 13 September 1961; and AnjingAnjing. op. cit. I962. Guntur, Gema Dunia, Kuala himpur: Penenbitan Bi Kanya, Bil. 7, l96Z and Anjing-Anjing, op. cit. 1962. Pak Utih, Benita Minggu, II March 1962. 1962. Penyambutan, Dewan Bahasa, June 1962, pp. 276-285; and Debu .nenah. op. cit. 1962. Babi Hutan, Benita Minggu, 26 August 1962 or 1962 Babi. dalam Mastika. September 1962, pp. 40-44; and Debu Merah, op. cit. 1962. Na Serang Tuan DO., Benita Minggu, 16 September 1962. 1963. Orang Berbudi dan Ibis (Cola, Benita Hanian, 7 February 1963or Tertikamnya Wakil Menteni, Debu Menah. op. cit. 1963. Gelungnya Tenpokab, Benita Minggu, 21 April 1963: and Debu Merah, op. cit. 1963. Catatanku, Utusan Zaman. 28 April 1963; and Anjing~Anjing,op. cit. 1963. Jahanam, Utusan Zaman, IS June 1963; and Penajuntt yang Pu/ang, op. cit. 1963. Jijak Kepala Nenek Moyang, Utusan Zantan, 14 July 1963. 1963. Terima Kerja, Benita Minggu, 2 September 1963. Ombak Kecil Berkocak, Anjing-Anjing, op. cit. 1964. Suamiku, Masrika. February 1964. 1964. Bapa, Dewan Masyanakat, February 1964, pp. 50-56; and Debu Menah, op. cit. 1964. Kahwin KrekotTiga Tiga, Benita Mtnggu. 29 March 1964; and Debu Menah, op. cit. 1964. Hikmat Bulan Sabit Haji Taha, Utusan Zaman. 12 April 1964.
280
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1964. Jangan Beritahu Orang Lain, U;uswi Zan~an,12 July 1964; and Debu Merak, op. cit. Bung Besar Punya Fatal, Wartawan Mingguan, 25 October 1964. Nafsu, Utusan Zaman, 25 October 1964. Gegaran, Utusan Zaman, 22 November 1964. Nadinya Masib Berdenyut, Utusan Za,nwi, 25 May 1965 or Jumpa Rasulullah, Debu Merak, op.cit. 1965. Barang, Mingguan Malaysia. 30 May 1965. 1965. Kekosongan, Berita Minggu, 30 May 1965. 1965. Kehilangari, Dewan Masyarak.at, November 1965. pp. 50-54; and 1966. Angin Retalc, Melaka: Penerbitan Abbas Bandung. Kepulangan, Debu Merjh, op. cit. Angin Timur Angin Barat, Debu Merah, op. cit. 1964. 1964. 1964. 1965. 2966. Napub, Mahawangsa,SMSAH, Jitra, 1966. 1966. Satu Macam Perangai, Utusan Zaman, 17 April 1966; and 1967 Konflik. Alur Setar: Pustaka Utara. 1966. Redup, Dewan Ba/usa, June 2966. pp. 34-46; and Angin Retak, op. cit. 1966. Kodok, Utusan Zasnan, 8 May 2966; and Konflik, op. cit. Konflik, Konflilc, op. cit. 1966. Beras dan Minyak Kereta, Angkatan Baru, September 1966 or Sarapan Pagi Minggu, Konflik, op. cit. 1967. Aku Tidak Cinta Padamu, Utusan Zaman, 4 June 1967. 1967. Hood Pindal, Dunia, Mastika, July 1967. 1967. Mimpi, Utusan Zaman, 13 August 1967. 1968. Cacingku Bukan Cacingmu, Utusan Zatnan, 28 January 1968. 1968. Mimpi di Carroll Street, Berita Minggu, 4 August 1968. 1968. Fudawali, UtusanZan,an, 18 August 1968. 1968. Temanku Afrika, Dewan Masyarakat, December 1968, pp. 51-55. 1970. Salam Sekeluarga, Dewan Masyaraka:, Febniary 1970, pp. 53-55. 1970. Al, DewanBahasa, May 1970. 1970. Denak, Dewan Masyarakat, June 1970. 1971. Kalau thu Sampai Takah Tip, Dewan Sastera, Februari 1971, pp. 4-7; 1972 Dalani Perja/anan, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, and 1975. Jejak Langkah, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa danPustaka. 1972. Igau, Dewan Sastera, December 1971. pp. 10-13. 1972. Kalbu, Dewan Bahasa. May 1972, pp. 224-231. 1972. Lagu Kitkitkit, 8cr/ta Minggu. 13 August 1972; 1974 Suara Semusim, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Jejak Langkah, op. cit. 1973. lak Kenjan, Dewan Sastera, April 1973, pp. 18-22; and 1974. Petnenang, Kuala
281
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1973. 1973. 1975. 1975. 1975. 1976.
1977. 1978. 1981.
1982. 1982.
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kelapa Nan Sebatang, Dewan Sastera, September 1973. pp. 18-21; and Pemeflung, Op. Cit. Perempuan, Berira Minggu, 2! October 1973; and Pe,nenang, op. cit. Angan-angan Mr. Proudfoot, Berita Minggu. Koala Lumpur, IS May 1975; and 1977. Selesai Sudah. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann. Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur, Suara Rakyat, September 1975. Moyok. Dewan Saste,-a, October 1975, pp. 37.39. Riak, Dewan Sasre,-a, November 1976. pp. 8-20; and in Shaidun Haji Shaani and Noorjaya (comp.), 1981. Jelapang, Penang: Teks Publishing Sdn. Bhd.. pp. 188222. Kemelut,Dewan Sastera, November 1977, pp.39-46;jnd in Shaidun Haji Shaari and Noorjaya, (comp.), Jelapang. op. cit., pp. 223-248. Ada, Dewan Sastera. July 1978. pp. 16-21; and in Noorjaya (comp.), 1983. Jelapang II, Kuala Lumpur: Teks Publishing Sdn. Bhd., pp. 1-17. Mayat dan Keluarga, Dewan Sastera, January/February 1981, pp. 8-21; and Hayat (trans.), Death and the Family, 1982 Tenggara 15. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka. October 1982. op. 66-109. Toni! Purbawara, Dewan Masyarakat, June 1982, pp. 52-56. Dongeng Merdeka, Dewan Masyarakat, October 1982, pp. 18-26.
Anthologies of Short Stories by Shahnon Ahmad

t964. Anjing-Anjing, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Jambatanmas (FTM). 1965. Dehu Merah, Metalca: Pentrbitan Abbas Bandung. 1977. SelesaiSudah, Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann, Haay Aveling (trans.) 1980. The Third Notch and Other Stories. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann Educational Books (Asia).
Translated Short Stories by Shahnon Ahmad

1957. 1958. 1960. 1960. Pelajaran yang Penghabisan, Majalah Guru, September 1957, pp. 304-305. Hilang Dana. Mastika, November/December 1958, pp. 32-34/46-47. Pertanda, Cepu Kencana, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Setanggi, Pustaka Remaja, Province Wellesly. 40-43. 1960. Harimau, Mastika, March 1960, pp. 1960. Namanya Emile, Mastika, May 1960. pp. 28-31. 1960. Warga Negara yang Baik, Mastika, September 1960. 1961. Bintang di Langit Pagi, Masrika, April 1961. pp. 36-41. 1961. Interview, Mastika, July 1961, pp. 36- 41.
282
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1963. Mata, Mastika, September 1963, pp.
76-80.
Plays by Shabnon Ahmad

1960. Si Attak Rempang Karam di Kota (with Jihaty Abadi), Alur Setar: Pustaka Maha.
Essays/Articles/Books by Shahnon Ahmad

1960. Siapakah Ajip, Tanya Kamil, Siapakah Kamil Tanya Shahnon,Berita Minggu, 36 October 1960. 1960. Memberi Isi kepada Sastera Melayu, Berita Minggu, 24 September 1960. 1961. Pengajaran Mengarang di Sekolah-sekolah Rendah dan Menengali,Berita Minggu, 22 October 1961 1962. Kronik dalam Kesusasteraan Melayu, Berita Minggu, 9 September 1962 3964/1965. Peralihan Tema dalam Cerpen Melayu Moden, Bahasa, Bil. 4., 1964/1965. 1965. 1966. 3966. 1966. 1967. 1967. 1967. 3968. 1968. Gun, dan Pembangunan Moral, Jiwa dan Semangat, Sanrajiwa, 1965, pp.21-26. Worksyop Penulis, Cenderamata Penulis Kedah, 1966. Menulis dan Menilai Cerpen, Angkatan Baru, September 1966, pp. 12-IS. Masalah Perwatakan dalam Cerpen, Angkatan Baru, October 1966, pp. 29-33. Mengapa Saya Mengarang Protes, Inspirasi, SMSAH, Jitra, 1967. Antara Gelisab dan Senang Hati Manusia, Mastika, September 1967, pp.28-30. Pengarang sebagai Manusia Luar, Mastika, September 1967, pp. 28-30. Orang Australia yang Sial, Utusan Zaman, Il August 1968. Sasterawan sebagai Fighter Zamannya, Mastika, December 1968. pp. 38-42.
1968. Wawancara dengan Drs. Li Chuan Siu, Dewan Masyarakat, December1968, pp. 40-42. 1969. Universiti Mahasiswa Australia, Mastika, January 1969. 1969. Mengapa Aku Menulis Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Dewan Masyaralait, June 1969. 1971. Mengapa Terdedab, Dewan Sastera, January 1971, pp. 38-40. 1971. Mengenal Chaitil Anwar di Tahun 70-an, Dewan Sastera, August 1971. pp. 4852. 1972. Cabaran yang Sinis, Dewan Sastera, January 1972, pp. 36-37. 3972. Semna Orang Banggul Derdap Pandai Tembak, Utusan Malaysia, 2 June 1972. 1972. Rentung: Pendahuluan. Utusan Malaysia, 17 June 1972. 1972. Rentung Berpusar Tiga: Egoisma, Cinta Damai dan SeLfishness Dewan Sastera, July 1972, pp. 44-45. 1962. Seni Sastera sebagai Seismograph Kehidupan, Mingguan Malaysia, 6 August 1972.
283
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1972. Keringnya Daya Kreatif Sendiri, Dewan Sastera, September 1972, pp. 55-57. 1972. Gatra Dengan Kematangan Kesusasteraan Melayu, Utusan Zaman, I October 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1973. 1974. 1972. Pengarang Kita Mesh Kurang Ajar?, Mingguan Malaysia 28 January 1973. Kegiatan Saslera Melayu Moden Masih Tradisional?, Dewan Sasrera, March 1973, pp. 11-12. Konvensyen Silas Melayu, Rep-ira Minggu. IS March 1973. Damonodan Goenawan Dipagut Kosong-Seni,DewanSastera. April 1973, pp. 41-43. Sastera Kita Merosot?, Berita Minggu. 20 April 1973. Sarjana Kita Hanya Peminggir, Berita Minggu, 27 May 1973. Feudalisme dalam Kesusasteraan Melayu Ban,, Dewan Sastera, June 1973, pp. 40-4!. Rentung dan Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan: Satu Pengakuan yang Nakal, Widya, July 1973, pp. 44-51. Jihaty Abadi: Radang Sepanjang Ruang, Dewan Sastera. July 1973. 34-37. Pengbayatan Sajak Noor. S.!., Mi,gguan Malaysia, IS July 1973. Embun Bukan Puisi Kabur?, Mingguan Malaysia, t9 August 1973. Penulisan Kreatif di USM untuk Bakat-bakat Sedia Ada, Mingguan Malaysia,
10 March 1974. 1974. A. S. Amin: Keunikan dan Perkembangan sebagai Seorang Penyair, Dewan Bahasa. April 1974, pp. 170-200. 1974. Kassim Ahmad dan Kesonderannya. Dewan Sastera, April 1974, pp. 46-50. 1974. Gum-Guru Hams Bertindak sebagai Murid-Fonim, Utusan Melayu, 2! May 1974. 3974. Kekinian dan Penantian: Ulasan Sajak.sajak Pendatang karya Muhammad Haji SalIeh, Dewan Sastera, May 1974. pp. 44-48. 1974. Kebebasan dalam Cipta Karya Seni Penting, Mingguan Malaysia, 14July 1974. 1974. GAPENA dengan Salah Langkahnya, Mingguan Malaysia, 4 August 1974. 1975. Ambiguiti Puisi M. Ohazali, Dewan Bahasa, March 1975, pp. 188-205. 1975. Penulisan Profesional: Apakah SaLts Impian flu Harapan? Utusan Malaysia, II April 1975. 1975. Keanekaragainan Kesan dan Puisi Latiff Mohidin, Dewan Bahasa, May 1975, pp. 320-330. 1975. Pengamh Kuning dalam Sastera Malaysia, titusan Zaman, 1 June 1975. 1975. Noor S. I. sebagai Penyajak Bunyi, Dewan Sastera, July 1975, pp. 8-12. 1975. KeunikanCintaSaloma-Ramlee: SalomaSaja yangLayak Merakamkan Kisahnya, Berita Minggu, 3! August 1975. 1975. Penyair Kehilangan Kemanusiaan, Dewan Sastera, November 1975. pp. 14-19.
284
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1975. Kuliah Masih Begitu Perlu lagi di Vaisiti?, Berira Minggu, 16 November 1975. 1975. Pensyarah: Tiga Kualiti Penting Perlu Ada Padanya, Berira Minggu. 30 November 1975. 1975. Dasar Penulisan Novel dan Cerpen, Dewan Sastera, December 1975. pp. 2-9. 1976. Mempertajam Sensitiviti dan Persepsi, Jamal Masakini, USM-KKBS, 3976. 1976. Kedudukan dan Pembedahan Puisi, Dewan Sastera, January 1976, pp. 14-19). 1976. Polemik dan Pergolakan Puisi Kaburdi Semenanjung Malaysia. Dewan Bahasa, June 1976, pp. 336-352. 1976. Perspektif: Kegersangan Novel Kila, Mingguan Timur, 13 June 1976. 1976. Ulasan Sepi, Perempuan Tua dan Tugu dan Mata, Dewan Sastera, July 1976, pp. 40-42. 1976. Ulasan Cerpen ZamanBulan Jun: Cerita, Ideadan Manusia Perlu Ada Jalinan Scmpuma, Utusan Zaman, II July l97& 3976. Kenapa Ada Pengarang Pilih-pilih Tempat untuk Menulis Cerpen yang Baik, Mingguan Malaysia. II July 1976. 1976. Ulasan Si Labah Tua dan Kunang-kunang, Dewan Sassera, August 3976, pp. 40-42. 1976. Ke Mana Hams Kita Pergi, Dewan Sastera, August 3976, pp. 2-4. 1976. Pandai Bercerita Saja Tak Cukup, Utusan Zanpan, 8 August 1976. 1976. Keretapi Mel: Kesannya Tajam, Mingguan Malaysia. 8 August 1976. 1976. Ulasan Fakurdabakia, Dalam Samar Malam, Tiada Warna Mengiringi Senja dan Harimau, Dewan Sastera, September 1976, pp. 39-40. 1976. Cerpen Mingguan Malaysia Kian Ben Layanan, Mingguan Malaysia, 12 September 1976. 1976. Cerpen Sekarang Membosankan, Utusan Zaman, 12 September 1976. 1976. Ulasan Capa Rengat, Kakak dan Jamuan, Dewan Sastera, October 1976, pp. 3638. 1976. Antara Pengarang dan Tukang Cenita, Litusan Zaman, 17 October 1976. 1976. Cerpen September Banyak Aspek Cinta, Mingguan Malaysia, 17 October 1976. 1976. Ulasan Ketakutan dan Buluh Serumpun, Dewan Sastera, November 1976. pp. 30-33. 1976. Pengarang Kurang Gunakan Imaginasi, Mingguan Malaysia, 14 November 1976. 1976. Unsur Ketegangan Berjaya Pikat Pembaca (Itusan Zaman, 14 November 1976. 1976. Dr. Mahathir dengan Materialisme dan Kerohanian, SinamMerdeka, 28 November 1976. 1976. Ulasan Juan, karya S. Othman Kelantan, Dewan Bahasa, December 1976, pp. 835-840. 1976. Sastera Malaysia Kurang Dikenali di Indonesia, Kontpas, 17 December 1976.
285
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1976. Empat Aspek Kemanusiaan yang Menarik, Utusan Zaman, 19 December 1976. 1976. Saya Lebib Cinta Din Saya sebagai Novelis, Tempo, 25 December 1976. 1977. SejarahPerkembanganPuisiBaruMelayu,DewanSastema. January 1977,pp. 1619. 1977. Ulasan Paman, Pembebasan Seorang Puteni Kepingin dan Udang Pengantin, Dewan Sastera, January 1977, pp. 40-42. 1977. Pa Ghazali Jawi dengan Sasterawan, Bintang Timum, 12 March 1977. 1977. Peluang Pelajar Torus Cita-cita, Bintang Timur, 2 April 1977. 1977. Antara Dakwah dan Politik, Bemita Harian, it May 1977. 1977. Seni KeranaAllah untuk Manusia Saja yang Benar, Bintang Timur, 18 May 1977. 1977. Lawatan Muhibbah ke Medan, Bintang Timur, 25 June 1977. 1977. Jasad dan Rohani Lambak Karangan Zaid Ahmad, Dewan Sastera, July 1977, pp. 57-60. 1977. 4 Jenis Oriented Masa Kini, Bintang Timur, 16 July 1977. 1977. Sebersih Manakah Pulau Pinang, Bintang Timur. 13 August 1977. 1977. Perangi Dadah Cara Kampung, Binlang Timur, 20 August 1977. 1977. Ragam yang Seronok Jadi Tontonan, Binning Timum, 27 August 1977. 1978. Sastera Melayu dan Islam, Dewan Sastera, October 1978. pp. 53-57. 1978. Pengkritik Mengikut Takrif lmamAl-Ghazali, UtusanZaman, 3 December 1978. 1979. Nilai Imaginasi Menurut Islam, Dakwah, January 1979. pp. 33-36. 1979. Aliran Absurd Menggila di Malaysia. Dakwah, February 1979, pp. 23-27. 1979. Peneterapan Islam Menerusi Kreatif, Hikmah, February 1979. pp. 81-83. 1979. lImu Tanpa Iman Akan Membawa ke Jalan Sesat, BeritaMinggu, 4 March 1979. 1979. Siti Sauna: Sebuab Renurtgan Kembali, Dewan Sastera, October 1979, pp. 47SI. 3979. Gerakan Sulit Dan Luar, Panji Masyamakat, November 1979, pp. 27-30. 1979. Manusia Tidak Dapat Menyelesaikan Masalah Manusia?, Berita Miaggu, 16 December 1979. 1981. Islam dan Cabaran Pembangunan, Al-Amqam. June 1981. 1981. Penulisan Kreatif Persoalan Nilai dalam Penghasilan.Dewan Sastera, September 1981, pp. 47-53. !982. Konsep Amanah Dalam Pekerjaan. Berita Harian, 27 May 1982. 1982. Kepimpinan Senius Kepimpinan Popular, Berita Minggu. 29 August 1982. 1982. Cinta, Ucapan Penerimaan Anugerah Sastera Negara. 9 Oktober 3982, Dewan Sastera, November 1982. pp. 15-16. 1983. Sastera Islam, Mingguan Malaysia, Parts I-V, 16 January, 23 January, 30 January, 6 February and 13 February 1983. 1983. Masalab Kegiatan Kesusasteraan sebagai Satu Ibadat, Dewan Saslema, January 1983, pp. 47-50; and Utusan Malaysia, 3 February 1983.
286
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1983. Sastora Islam Berteraskan Pandangan Hidup Islam, Dewtrn Sastera, March 1983. pp. 47-51. 1983. Nilni Perasaan,lntelok dan Wahyo di Dalam Kesusasteraan, Mastik~,April and May 1983. 1983. Sastera Islam: Antara Dalani-Diri Dengan Luar-Diri,D.rwanSastema, May 1983, pp. 46-50. Pembangunan Masyarakat Islam, Utusan Malaysia, 28. 29, and 30 December 1983. 1978. Penglihatan Dalam Puisi, Koala Lumpur: Utusan Melayu Publications. 1979. Guhahan Novel, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1981. Kesusasteraan dan Etilc,j Islam, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fajar Bakti. 1983.
Essays/Articles on Shahnon Ahmad

Dismali, 1965. Monyet (Shahnon Ahmad) Meoggemparkan, Mingguan Malaysia, 25 April 1965. Yahaya Ismail, 3965. Rentung: Menggemparkan Watak dan Mentaliti Orang-orang Melayo di Kampung, Mingguan Malaysia. 16 May 1965. 1965. Terdedah Lahir atau Batinnya?, Be,-ita Minggu, 14 November 1965. Ilias Zaidi. 1965. Terdedak: I-Iingga ke Celah-celah yangTak Bolch Dipandang, Mingguan Malaysia, 14 November 1965. M. Balfas, 1966. Rentung oleh Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Bahasa, January 1966, pp. 1620. A. Tueew, 1966. Dua Novelet Karangan Shahnon Ahmad, Dewtrn Bahasa, March 1966, pp. 107-113. l-Iamzah. 1966. Hamzah Kontra Shahnon Ahmad, Bahasa, August 1966. pp. 150-154. 1966. Zainal Abidin Haji Baharuddin. Karya-karya Shahnon Abmad: Anjing-Anjing, Rentung dan Terdedak. Ba/usa. August 1966, pp. 139-142. Yahaya Ismail, 1967. Krisis Dalam Sastera Melayu Moden. Mastika, February 1967, pp. 15-22. Mahmud Ahmad, 1967. Rentung karya Shahnon Ahmad, Medan Sastera, September 1967, pp. 698-709. Rusdi Haji Salleh. 1968. Ran/au Sepanjang Jalan Membicarakan Faktor-faktor dan .Masanya, Penulis, February 1968, pp. 159-163. Mohd. Noor Azam, 1967. Trajidi Banggul Derdap, Dewan Ba/usa, June 1967. H. B. Jassin, 1968. Ranjau Sepanjang Ia/an. Novel Ketiga Shahnon Ahmad, Hanson, September 1968, pp. 271-280. Umar Junus, 1968. Ranjan Sepanjang Jalan, Dewan Bahasa, December 1968, pp. 544-
287
BIBLIOGRAPHY 546. Mohd. Yusof Hasan, 1968. Tinjauan Selayang Pandang Ranjau Sepanjang Ia/an, Mastika, December 1968, PP. 44-50. Siti Hawa Saleh, 1968. Dan kelab Knitik Pena: Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan Karya Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Bahasa, December 1968. Yabaya Ismail, 1968. Menteri oleh Shahnon Ahmad, Kesusasteraan ModenDalam Esei dan Krizik 2, Singapura: Pustaka Nasional, pp. 137- 142. All Haji Ahmad (Ails Murni), 1969. Perdana Novel karya Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Bahasa. August 1969, pp. 368-37!. C. Skinner, 1960. A Note on Communalism in Malay Literature, The May Tragedy in Malaysia, B. Kinley of Howitt Hall, Melbourne: Monash University MalaysiaSingapore Students Organization, July 1969. Ismail Hussein, 1969. Sastera Melayu dan Perpaduan Kaum, Maslika, December 1969. A. H. Johns, 1971. Manusia Dalam Alam Tanpa Betas Kasihan, Dewan Saslera, March 1971, pp. 34-38; 56-59; 1971 Sumbangan Sbahnon kepada Sastera Melayu Menakjubkan, Mingguan Malaysia, 28 February 1971; 1974 Man in a Merciless World, Search For Identity, Modern Literature and the Creative Arts in Asia, Sydney: Angus and Robertson Publishers. 1973. Man in a Merciless World, Tenggara 6, Universiti Malaya, 1973; or 1979Man in a Merciless Universe: The Work of Shabnon Alimad, Cultural Options and the Role of Tradition, Canberra: Auslralia National University Press. Umar Junus, 1971. Rentung, Ranjau Sepanjang Ia/an, Menteri, Ikhtisas dan Analisa Novel-novel Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Melayu Ban; PP. 91-109. Suratman Markasan, 1971. Gaya Bahasa Ranjat.Sepanjang Ia/an, Sasrerawan, October 1W71,pp. 108-Ill. Mohd. Ismail Othman, 1971. Kajian dan Pembicaraan Rentung, Alur Selar: Syarikat Kerjasama Pegawai-pegawai Melayu. Mohd. YusofHasan, 1971. Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Alur Setar: Dinas Penerbitan Pustaka Sekolah. Zalcry Abadi, 1972. Shahnon Kecewa Dengan Umar Junus, Mingguan Malaysia, 12 March 1972. Achdiat Kartamihardj, 1972. Ranjau Sepanjang Ia/an, Dewan Sastera, June 1972, pp. 40-41. Mohd. Mi Muda, 1972. Ulasan Novel Ranjau Sepanjang Jalan, Kota Bhani: Aman Press. Mohd. Yusof Hasan, 1972. Kajian dan Pembicaraan Rentung. Alur Setar: Dinas Penerbitan. A. Wahab Ali, 1972. Rentw,g, Penulis, April-August 1972 pp. 344-356. A. Bakar Harnid, 1973. Arab Perkembangan Kesusasteraan Melayu Moden di Malaysia, Seminar Kesusasteraan Nusantara 1973.
288
BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdullab Tahir, 1973. Saw Tir,jauan Singkat Rentung. Widya, February 1973. Pena Patriot, 1973. Shahnon Ahmads Novels: A Critical Evaluation, T,-u(h 1. Febmary/ March 1973, pp. 3-6. Zurinah Hassan, 1973. Shahnon Ahrnad, Thc Sunday Mail, II February 1973. Ramli Leman Soemowidagdo, 1973. Catajan Singkat Tentang Pnotes: Sebuab Novel Shahrson Ahmad, Dewan Bahasa, May 1973, pp. 194-210. Zakry Abadi, 1973. Shahoon Ahrnad: Hugo Orang Melayu, Mathka, May 1973, pp. IS25. Yahaya Ismail, 1973. Srengenge: Sebuah Ijlasan Novel. Dewan Sastera, September 1973. pp. 45-47. Nahmar Jamil, 1973. Ketawa Dengan Shabnon, Mastika. November 1973. pp. 93-97. Abdullab Hussain, 1974. Kenduri S,-engenge di Banggul Derdap, Dewan Sastena, June 1974, pp. 30-32. Kassim Ahmad, 1974. Ranja~ SepanjangIa/an Karya yang Aneh. Sukses, UKM, 1974, pp. 12-16. Mohd, Yosof Hasar,, 1974. Snengenge: Simbolisme Konflik Nilai, Dewan Ba/usa, June 1974, PP. 302-307. Li Chuan Siu, 1975. Shahnon Ahmad, An Intradadion to the Promotion and Develop,nent of Modern Malay Literature - 1942-1962, Jogyakarta: Penerbitm~Yayasan Karsisios, pp. 185-190. Ainors Muhammad, 1975. Wawancara Airson Muhammad dengan Adibah Amin Sekitar Persterjemahan Novel Ranjau Sepanjang Jakrn. Dewan Sastena, May 1975, pp. 2-5. Yahaya Ismail, 1975. Sampah, Dev,an Ba/usa, May 1975. pp. 349-351. Zairsal Abidin Abo Bakar, 1975. Shahnon Abmad dan Karya, DewanBahasa. December 1975. pp. 846-849. Mohd. Yosof Hasan, 1976. Kegelisahan Jiwa Manusia Dalam Cerpen-cerpen Shahnon Ahmad, I~rn~il Budaya Melayu, UKM, 1976. pp. 1-10. Abdullab Tahir. 1976. Kajian Ekstrmsik Ranjaa Sepanjang Jalan dan Nectar In A Siese, Benita Hanian, 8 January 1976. Abdul Rahman Yusof, 1976. P,-otes dan Ziarah: Satu Perbandingan, Dev,an Bahasa. April 1976, pp. 220-227. Ilias Zaidi. 1976. Shahnon Ahmad, Biografi Penulis dan Karya, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes. pp. 246-25!. Mana Sikana, 1976. Sampah: Dengan Tema Kewujudan, Dewan Sastera, July 1976, pp. 44-47. Lloyd Fernando. 1976. SemangatMengenali Dm Dalam Cerpen-cerpenShah~on Ahmad. Dewan Sastera, September 1976, pp. 51-55. Omar Saad, 1976. Ulasan Teks STP Hikayat Hang Thah, Ateis dan Ranjau Sepanjang
289
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jalan, Laurent Matzger, 1976. Keazanian Dalam Watak-watak Shahnon Ahmad, Deaan Sastera, October 1976, pp. 43-44. Md. SaIIeh Yaapar, 1977. Shahnons No Harvest hut a Thorn: On the Fate of the Malay Peasantry, Manila: University of the Philipines, 20 March 1977. Jumanoh Abdul Bunga, 1977. Wawancara Dengan Shahnon Ahniad, Mastika. September 1977, pp. 76-81, Mohd. Yusof Hasan, t978. Dan Kemungkaran ke Jalan Kemakrufan: Cerpen Riak oleh Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Sastera, January 1978. pp. 27-32. Li Chuan Siu, 1978. Ikhtiar Sejarah Pergerakan dan Kesusasteraan Melayu Moden, Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara, pp. 502-509. Ahmad Kamal Abdullah, 1978. Bawuk dan Riak: Bahasa sebagai Tampuk Sastera, Dewan Sastera, May 1978, pp. 36-38. Dharmala N.S., 1978. Novel Shabnon Tiada Ada Plot, Variasi, May 1978. pp. 116-121. Yahaya Ismail, 1978. Yahaya tsmail Menyorot Shabnon Ahmad, Widya, August 1978, pp. 6-8. 56-57. Umar Junus, 1978. Seluang Menodak Baung, Dewan Sastera, August 1978. pp. Suhaimi Haji Muhammad, 1979. Tanggapan Mutakhir Shahnon Ahmad Terhadap Kesusasteraan, Masti/ca, March 1979, pp. 104-117. Edwin Thumboo, 1979. Shahnon Ahmads No Harvest but a Thorn, Journal Southeast Asia Studies, September 1979. pp. 89-103. Umar Junus, 1979. Suatu Sikap Tentang Modenisasi: Penampilannya pada Novel-novel Shahnon Abmad, Widya. August 1979, pp. 14-16. Mohd. Yusof Hasan, 1979. Kata-kata Daerah Dalam Karya Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Bahasa, December 1979, pp. 74-85. Mary Gee, 1979. Shahnons Search For Identity, Asiaweek, 20 December 1979. Kassim Ahmad, 1979. Pesimisme Sepanjang Jalan, Dialog Sasterawan, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pena. Patrick Yeoh, 1980. Bid Against Awesome Power of the Mountain, Business Time, 22 February 1980. Abdul Abmad, 1980. Sastera yang Hak, Sastera yang Bermoral, Dewan Masyarakar, March 1980, pp. 38-39. KS. Maniam, 1980. Dual Role A Writer, Seeker, Business Time, 1980. David Prescott, 1980. Translation Does Not Affect Quality of Work: Tale ofhow Superstitions Rule life in a Malay Village, The Straits Times, 17 May 1980. Norman Simms, 1980. Eloquent Silence, CRNLE Reviews Journal, Adelaide: Flinders University, May 1980, pp. 21-23. Jenit Chen, 1980. More With a Whimper ThanWith a Bang, Business Time, August 1980.
290
BIBLIOGRAPHY
David J. Banks, 1980. Islam and Political Change in Rural Malay Society: Shahnons Novels as Data, State University of New York, November 1980. Rosnah Abdul Majid, 1981. Shabnon yang Sudah Berubah, Mingguan Malaysia, and Shahnon Lain Hub Lain Parang, Utusan Zaman, 22 March 1981. Baharuddin Zainal, et. al. (eds.), 1981. Shahnon Ahmad, Wajah: Biograji stratus Penulis, Koala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Yut Yusof, 1981. Ulasan Buku: Srengenge Hasil Karya Shahnon Ahmad, Permai, 1981, pp. 28~29, Zairi Riza, 1982. Kesusasteraan dan Etika Islam oleh Shahnon Ahmad, Utusan Zaman, 6 June 1982. AhmadJ.Hosin, 1982. Penulis Tak Bermoral DikutukAllah,MingguanTanahair, 3 June 1982. Sidang Pengarang, 1982. Antara Sastera dan Islam, Sarina, June 1982, pp. 12-15. Abdul Rabman Rukaini, 1982. Percobaan Awal Mendekati Kesusasteraan dan Pandangan Islam, Dewan Sastera, June 1982, pp. 52-53. Md. Salleb Yaapar, 1982. Imaginasi Moden Dalain Karya-karya Shahnon Ahmad, kertaskerja Dialog Utara, Pulao Pinang, 5-7 Augost 1982. Ismail Hussein, 1982. Shahnon Anak Kreatif Malaysia Merdeka, Pickle Umum Anugerah Sastera Nagara. 9 Oktober 1982, Dewan Sastera, November 1982, pp. 13-14. Kassim Ahmad, l982. Menujo Sebuah Teori Sastera Islam, Dewan Sastera, November 1982, pp. 25-28. 1983. Menuju Sebuah Teori Sastena Islam: Jawapan kepada Shahnon Ahmad, Dewan Sastera, February 1983, pp. 33-37; and Utusan Malaysia, 11 March 1983. 1983. Seal Definisi dan Penilaian, Dewan Sastera, April 1983, pp. 4547. 1983. Pandangan Hidup Tauhid dan Estetika Islam, Dewan Sastera, June 1983, pp. 45-49. A. A. Navis, 1980. Sastera Islam: Satu Utopia?, Dewan Sastera, 1980. October 1983, pp. 45-48.
Selected Essays/Articles
Ahmat Adam, 1981. Bahasa dan Sastera Dalam Sejarah Pergerakan Kebangsaan di Tanab Melayu, Imej dan Cita-cita, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Abdul Aziz Mat Ton, 1972/1973. AI-Imam Sepintas Lalu, Jurnal Sejarah, Universiti Malaya, 1972/1973. Abdul Rabman Haji Embong, 1968. Intelijensia Melayu Sebelum Perang Dalam Hubungan Dengan Perkernbangan Sastera Melayu Moden, Dewan Bahasa, March 1968.
291
BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdul Rahim Zain, 1961. Ishak Haji Muhammad dan Roman-romannya, Dewan Bahasa, May 1961. Abdulbab Hussain, 1967. Penggalakan Daya dan Peningkatan Mutu Novel, Dewan Sastera, July 1977. Abdullah Sidek, 1961. Perkembangan Novel Melayu Sebepas Perang Dunia yang Kedoa, Dewan Bahasa, September 1961. A. Bakar Hamid, 1967. Beberapa Catatan Mengenai Kesusasteraan Melayu Dan Sudut Pertumbuhan Masyarakatnya, Dewan Bahasa. September 1967. 1969. Ahmad Rashid Talu Dengan Jakah Salmah?nya, Fenulis, 1969. 1971. Perpaduan Kaum dan Nasionalisme Dalain Kesusasteraan Melayu Sesudah Perang Dunia Kedua, Dewan Sastera, May 1971. 1973. Novel dan Sudut Pandangan, Dewan Sasrera, November 1973. Ahmad Boestamam, 1971. Gerakan Nasionalisme di Malaysia, Dewan Masyarakat, November 1971. Au Haji Abmad, 1976. Pengajian Kesusasteraan: Beberapa Pendekatan Ekstrinsik, Dewan Sasrera, March 1976. 1976. Kritikan Dalam Pengajian Kesusasteraan. Dewan Sastera, July 1976. 1976. Realiti. Imaginasi dan Kreativiti di Dalam Kontek Hasil Kesusasteraan Malaysia, Dewan Sastera, August 1976. I 977:K~daduk~ Novel sebagai Media Sastera Dalam Masyarakat, Dewan Sastera, May 1977. Andaya, B.W. and Matheson, V., 1979. Islamic Thought and Malay Tradition The
Writings of Raja Ali Haji ofRiau, A. Reid and D. Man (eds.), 1979. Perceptions ofthe Fast in Southeast Asia, Singapore: Heinemann. Anwar Ridhwan, 1973. Kesusasteraan dan Masyarakat: Satu Pendekatan, Dewan Bahasa, September 1973. A. Wahab Ali, 1973. Kesusasteraan Melayu Tahun-tahun Enam Puluhan, Dewan Sastera, October 1973. Fernando Lloyd, 1971. Hubungan Kesusasteraan-kesusasteraan Sukuan Dengan Kesusasteraan Kebangsaan, Kertaskerja Kongres Kebudayaan Kebangsaan, Kuala Lumpur, 1971. Azizah Kassim, 1983. Setinggan di Kuala Lumpur: Beberapa Fakta dan Salah Faham, Manusia dan Masyarakat, Universiti Malaya, 1983. Hadiah Karya Sastera, 1972. Ulasan Panel Hadiah Sastera 1971, Dewan Sastera, May 1972. 1973. Laporan Panel Hadiah Karya Sastera 1972, Dewan Sastera, April 1973.
292
BIBLIOGRAPHY .1974. Laporan Panel Hakim 1973, Dewan Sastera, April 1974. .1975. Laporan Panel Hakim 1974, Dewan Sastera, August 1975. Hamdan Yahaya. 1975 Perjuangan dan Kebangsaan Tahun 1930-an Dalam Futera Gunung Tahan dan The Filipino Rebel: Sans Analisa Perbandingan, Dewan Bahasa, October 1975. Hamdi, 1962. Buku, Penulis dan Pembaca: Membicarakan Novel Sauna, Dewan Bahasa, June 1962. Hamzah Abd. Majid Hussein, 1959. Nilaian Saya Tentang Beberapa Novel Melayu. Bahasa, 1959. Ishak Haji Muhammad. 1976. llham Mencipta Putera Gunung Tahan, Dewan Sastera, April 1976. Ishak Tadin, 1960. Datuk Onn and Malay Nationalism 1946-1951, Journal ofSoutheast Asian History, March 1960. Ismail Hussein. 1965. Membicarakan Ceramah Prof. Tueew Mengenai Sastera Melayu Moden, Angkatan baru, January 1965. 1974. Masalah Kesusasteraan Dalam Pembangunan, Dewan Sastera, August 1974. 1977. Kepimpinan Melayu Dalam Kebudayaan, Dewan Sastera, January 1977. 1977. Kedudukan Novel sebagai Media Sastera Dalam Masyarakat: Dr. Ali Ahmad, Dewan Sastera, May 1977 1977. Kaum Elita dan Pembinaan Masyarakat, Dewan Sastera, July 1977. Johns, A. H.. 1959. The Novel as a Guide to Indonesian Social History. Bijdragen tot de Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde, Vol. 115, 1959, and 1979. Cultural Options and the Role of Tradition, Canberra: Australian National University Press. 1980. Prayer, Spirituality and Mysticism in Islam, Australian Minaret, Journal of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils, Zetland, NSW, July 1980. 1980 From Coastal Senlement to Islamic School andCity: lslamization in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and Jan, J. J. Fox et. al. (eds.), 1980. Indonesia: Australian Perceptive, Canberra: Australian National University Press 1981. In search of the lost Chord: Adventure in New Literatures,Wang Gungwu et. al. (eds.). Canberra: Society and the Writer,: Australian National University Press. Kassim Ahmad, 1973. Pengarang Kila Hart Ini dan Masalah-masalabnya, Dewan Sastera, October 1973. Khoo, Kay Kim, 1970/1971. Tahun 1920-an Dalam Sejarah Malaysia, Jurnal Sejarah, Universiti Malaya. 1970/1971.
293
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lyon, M. L., 1979. The Dakwah Movement in Malaysia, Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs, Sydney, December 1979. Marwan Sulaiman, 1971/1972. UMNO 1948-1955, Jehat, Universiti Malaya, 1971~ 1972. Mohd. Affandi Hassan, 1973. Beberapa Pandangan dan Saranan Tentang Teori dan Praktik Dalam Kesusasteraan Melayu Moden, Dewan Sastera, June 1973, 1976. Korupsi Intellektual dan Korupsi Sastera Dalam Kegiatan Kebudayaan di Malaysia, Dewan Sastera, October 1976. Mohd. Noor Azam, 1964. Suatu Tinjauan Tentang Kritik Sastera, Dewan Bahasa, June 1964. Mohd. Noor Haji Nawawi, 1981. Peasant Revolution and Rebellion: A Note, Manusia dan Masyarakat, Universiti Malaya. Jilid. 2, 1981. Mohd. Taib Osman, 1964. Kesusasteraan Melayu Moden, Fenulis, 1964. 1969. Kesusasteraan Melayu Dengan Corak Masyarakat Budayanya, Fenulis, 1969. 1971. Konsep Kesusasteraan Malaysia: Peranan Kesusasteraan Dalam Negara yang Membangun Dewan Sastera, February 1971. 1974. Kesusasteraan Melayu dan Perubaban Socio-Budaya, Dewan Bahasa, August 1974. Mohd. Thani Ahmad, 1974. Penghasilan Cerpen-cerpen Melayu Dalam Tahun-tahun Enam Puluhan, Dewan Sastera~ February 1974. Muhammad Haji Salleh, 1974. Kritikan Sastera di Malaysia, Dewan Sastera, January 1974. Ongkili, James P., 1971/ 1972. Perkembangan Nasionalisme, Jebat, Universiti KebangsaaB Malaysia, 1971/1972. Raden Soenarno, 1960. Malay Nationalism, 1896-1941, Southeast Asian History, 1960. Reid, Anthony, 1969. The Kuala Lumpur Riots and the Malaysian Political System Australian Outlook, December 1969. Rudner, Martin, 1970. The Malaysian General Election of 1969: A Political Analysis, Modern Asian Studies, London: Cambridge University Press. Rustam A.Sani, 1975. Novel-novel Melayu Dengan Persoalan Perubahan Sosial Masyarakat Desa, Dewan Sastera, March 1975. Shellcock, T. H. and Ungku Aziz, 1953. Nationalism in Malaya, W. L. Holland (ed), Asian Nationalism and the West, New York. Siti Hawa SalIeh, 1967. Suatu Tinjauan Perkembangan Novel Melayu Dalam Masa Sepuluh Tahun, Dewan Bahasa, September 1967. Syed Hussein Alatas, 1965. Collective Representations and Economic Development, Kajian Ekonomi Malaysia, June 1965. 1972. Feudalism in Malaysian Society: A Study in Historical
294
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Continuity, Modernization and Social Change, SydBey: Angus and Robertson. Ungku Aziz, 1975. Footprints on the Sands of Time - The Malay Poverty Concept over50 years, From Zaba to Mis andthe Second Five Year Plan, Stephen Chee and Khoo Siew Mun (eds.), Malaysia Economic Development and Policies, Watson, Conrad William, 1975. Keadaan Sastera di Malaysia Kini, Kertaskerja Han Sastera Sarawak. Yahaya Hussin, 1967. Cinta sebagai Dasar Karya Sasterawan, Mastika, October 1967. Yahaya Ismail, 1968. Novel-novel Melayu di Dalam Tahun 1967, Bahasa, 1968. 1969. Perkembangan Novel-novel Melayu di Malaysia, Budaya Jaya, Jakarta, 1969. 1974. Ahmad TaI,t: Novelis Melayu yang Pertama, Desvan Bahasa, December 1974. Yahaya Udin Nasution, 1972. Ishak Haji Muhammad, Dewan Sastera, February 1972. 1975. Kesusasteraan Malaysia Mutakhir, Dewan Sastera, July 1975. Zaba, 1931. Modem Developments, A HistoryofMalayLiterature, JMBRAS 0 Journal ofthe Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1931. 1941. ReceBt Malay Literature, Journal ofthe Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1941. Zainal Abidin Abdul Wahid, 1981. Bahasa, Sastera dan Faham Kebangsaan di Malaysia, Thief dun Cita-cita, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Academic Exercises/Theses
Azizan Zainul Abidin, 1975. Ishak Haji Muhammad; His Views on and Attitudes to the Social Conditions of Malaya as Expressed in his books Anak Mat Lela Gila and Putera Gunung Ta/tan, Academic Exercise, University of Malaya. Baharuddin Musa, 1960. Ishak Haji Muhammad - Pandangannya Terhadap Politik, Ekonomi dan Sosial yang Terdapat dalam Buku-buku Ceritanya, Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Malaya. Marina Merican, 1960. Syed Syeikh_Al-Hadi dan Pendapat-pendapatnya Mengenai Kemajuan Perempuan (Sebagaimana Tersiar didalam Majalah Al-Ikhwan), Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Malaya. Tan Seng Huat, 1961. The Life and Times ofSyed Syeikh Al-Hadi, Academic Exercise, University of Malaya. Mohd. Helmi Hussain, 1966. Cents Pendek Shahnon Ahmad, Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Malaya. Mohd. Daud Haji Hamzah, 1968. Perwatakan di Dalam Novel-novel Shahnon Ahmad Hingga 1967, Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Malaya.
295
BIBLIOGRAPHY Mohd. Yusof Hasan, 1970. Novel-novel Shahnon Ahmad: Dafi Segi Sosiologi, Psikologi dan Filosofi, Latihan llmiah, Universiti Malaya. Rustam A. Sani, 1970. Novel Dengan Perubahan Sosial Masyarakat Desa, Latihan tlmiah, Universiti Malaya. Mazlan Mat Yassin, 1970. Pengkajian Watak-watak Dalam Novel-novel Melayu Malaysia, Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Malaya. TanChin Kwang. 1971. Latarbelakang lntelektual Penulis-penulis Cerpen Melayu Selepas Perang Dunia Xedua (1946-1970), Tesis Sarjana, University of Singapore. Yahaya Ismail, 1973. Perkembangan Fiksyen Melayu Dan Hikayat kepada Novel,Tesis Saijana, Monash University, Melbourne. A. Wabab Au, 1973. Imej Manusia Dalam Sastera: Satu Kajian Perwatakan Dalam Novel-novel Tahun Enam Puluhan, Tesis Sarjana, Universiti Malaya. Matheson, Virginia, 1973. Tuhfat al-Nails: A Nineteenth Century Malay History Critically Examined, Ph.D Thesis, Monash University, Melbourne. Ramli Mat, 1974. Cerpen-cerpen Shahnon Abmad, Latihan Ilmiah, Universiti Ke bangsaan Malaysia. Raja Uteh Raziah Raja Abdul Rashid, 1974. Loghat Daerah Dalam Novel Shahnon Abtnad - Loghal Penekanan ke Alas Stmkzur dan Fungsi, Latihan Jlmiah, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Ali Abmad, 1975. Majalah Guru - the Magazine of the Malay Teachers (with Particular Reference to the 1924-1932 Period and the Role Played Muhammad Yusuf Abmad), Ph.D Thesis, Monash University. Shahnon Ahmad. Xekahuran Puisi A. S. Amin, Tesis Sarjana, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Mohd, Yusof Hasan, 1976. Bahasa Daenah Dalam Karya-karya Shahnon Ahmad, Tesis Sanjana, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Abdullab Tahir, 1980. Pnoses Penciptaan Tiga Novelis Melayu: Ishak Haji Muhammad, A. Samad Said dan Shahnon Afimad, Tesis Satjana, (Jnivensiti Malaya. Wooderoft-Lee, C. P., 1976. The Woman Behind the Mask, MA. Thesis, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. Manderson, L. H., 1978.lhe Development of the Pergerakan Kaurn I/ni UMNO 19451972, Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty ofAsian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. Scherer, Savitri, 1981. Prom Culture to Politics, Ph.D Thesis, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. Norainy Ali, 1982. Pranioedya Ananta Toer Selected Early Works 1949-1952, MA. Thesis, Faculty of Asian Sludies, Australian National University, Canberra. Robbins, Bronwyn, 1983. Religious and Humanistic Issues in the Works of A. A. Navis, Subthesis, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.
296
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
A. Bakar Hamid (ed), 1981. Esei Pilihan Keris Mas, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Abdullah Hussain, 1982. Harun Aminurrashid: Pembangk~t Semangat Kebangsaan, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Abdul Latif Abu Bakar, 1977. Is/zak Ha/i Muhammad: Penulis dan A/ill Politik Sehingga 1948, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Universiti Malaya. Abu Bakar Hamzah, 1970. Ilham 13 Mei, Kota Bharu: Ismall Enterprise. Abul Ala Al-Maududi, 1981. Towards Understanding Islam, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional. 1973. Islamic Way ofLife, Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations. Ahmad Boestamam, 1972. Dr. Burhanuddin Putera Setia Melayu Raya. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Kejora. 1979. Datuk Onn yang Saya Kenal, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Adabi. Ali Abmad, 1974. Tema Sajak Melayu 1933-1969, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Al-Amir Sjakib Arsalan, 1955. Mengapa Kaum Muslimin Mundur?, H. Moenawar Chalil (trans.), Jakarta: Penerbit Bulan Bintang. Allen. J.. 1967.The Malayan Union, New Haven: Yale University Press. Allport, 0. W., 1937. Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, New York: Holt. Arnold, T. W., 1938. The Folklore of Capitalism, New Haven: Yale University Press. Asmab Hj. Oman (ed.) 1979. Darulaman, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Universiti Malaya. Awang Had SaIIeh, 1974. Pelajaran dan Perguruan Melayu di Malaya Zaman British, Koala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Ayob Yamin and Hamzah Hamdani (eds.), 1980. Penulisan Kreat(f Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Baharnddin Zainal, 1980. Esei Pib/zan, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Bass. J., 1973. Malaysian Politics, 1968-1970 Crisis andResponse, Berkeley: University of California, Bauer, P. T. and Yamey, B. 5., 1957. The Economics of Underdeveloped Countries, Chica~o: University of Chicago Press. Beachcroft, T. 0., 1968. The Modest Art: A Survey of the Short Stories in English, London: Oxford University Press. BIau, P. M., 1955. The Dynamics ofBureaucracy, Chicago: University ofChicago Press. 1965.Bureaucracy in Modern Society, New York: Random House. Bloch, M., 1961. Feudal Society, L. A. Manyon (Trans.), London: Routledge and Kegan
297
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Paul. Borgatta, B. E. (ed), 1969. Social Psychology: Readings and Perspective, Chicago: Rand and McNally. Bottomore, T. B., 1964. Elites and Society, London: C. A. Watts & Co. Buchanan-Brown, I, (ed), 1973. Cassells Encyclopaedia of World Literature, Vols. 1, Ii, 111, London: Cassell & Company Ltd. Burhanuddin Al-Helmy, 1954. Falsafah Kebangsaan Meluyu, Bukit Mertajam: Pustaka Semenanjung Chamhuri Siwar (ed.),1979. Peml,angunan dan Masalah Ekonomi, Jilid. 1, II, Koala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 1979. Kehendak dan Bentuk Reformasi Tanah di Malaysia, Koala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Chandra Muzaffar, 1979. Protector?, Penang: Aliran Publications. Chee, Stephen and Khoo Siew Mun (eds.) 1975. Malaysian Economis Development and Policies, Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Economis Association. Colmer, John (ed), 1969. Approaches to the Novel, Adelaide: Rigby Limited, Dalches, David, 1969. Critical Approaches to Literature, London: Longmans, Green & Company Ltd. 1969. A Study of Literature: For Readers and Critics, London: Andre Dcutsch Ltd. 1970.TheNovel andthe Modern World, Chicago: Phoenix Books, University of Chicago Press. Davis, Robert Murray (ed), 1969. The Novel: Modern Essays in Criticism, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Drew, Elizabeth A., 1967. The Modern Novel, New York: Kennikat Press, Port Washington. Eliot, T. S., 1960. The Sacred Wood, Methuen: University Paper Backs. Enloe, Cynthia H., 1970. Multi-Ethnic Politics: The Case ofMalaysia, Berkeley: University of California. Etzioni, A. and Halevy E.E. (eds.), 1964: Social Change, Sources, Patterns and Consequences, New York: Basic Books. Firth, R., 1950. Elements of Social Organization, London: Watts & Co. 1946. Malay Fishermen, Their Peasant Economy. London. Forster, E. M., 1974. Aspects ofthe Novel, Edward Arnold, London, 1974 or 1979.Aspekaspek Novel, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Friedmann, J., 1964. Intellectuals in Developing Countries, Kyklos, 13. Friedman, Melvin, 1955 Stream of Consciousness. A Study in Literary Method, New Heaven: Yale University Press. GAPENA, 1980. Kesusasteraan Melayu dan Islam: Satu Pertembungan Pemikiran, Kua-
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NOVELS TROUBLED YEARS

K.K 889 -4379 -4101 ISBN 983 - 62 - 1232 - 9

wife - and children

35 66 95 140 185 231 247 274 279 56 15

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

instrumental in the development of Malay conciousness towards their

Setia Asyik kepada Maksyuknya atau Faridah Hanum. Tale of a

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEAR5

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLEI) YEARS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

1 SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

SI-IAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

1969-1974: (v) Tension and

Selesai Sudah (1977)

Srengge (1973) Sampah (1974)

Tetamu dan Kuala Lumpur (1975) Mr. Proudfoot (1975)

Toni! Purbawara (1982)

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROuBLED YEARS

5HAHNON AHMAD AND H15 EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

Table II: Production of Shahnons Short Stories and Translation: 19571963

No. of Original Stories

No. of Translated Stories

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 9 5 6 8 34 4 0 13 2 0 I 18

OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

Dok Mai Sod, Interview by Patrick Ng Kah Onn, and Mata

Shahnons interest in themes of social criticism influenced his

as malam,jantan titutes in a brothel.

cerpen zaman mi hampir sama saja, iaitu mengisahkan soal- soal

period of his development as a period of passion:

Lutfi sewaktu saya mula-mula mengarang dalam pertengahan

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

other towns throughout country because of the political climate in

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

prostitute, is threatened by Kiahs arrival at Kak Dons brothel;

Suntings schooling depends on her mothers source of livelihood.

venereal disease. During the attack, he is unable to bear the severe

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

The moral is that promiscuity is a bad thing and may result in

stairs of the next bordello, you only live once.6

The stories Malam Begitu lndah, Guntur and Siplis reveal

two weaknesses in the prevailing social system. Firstly, it is socially

The other two stories Catatanku and Ombak Kecil Berkocak

pant in a complicated affair in which she disgraces her parents and

SHAHNON AHMAD AND HIS EARLY WORKS

NOVELS OF THE TROUBLED YEARS

Kecil Berkocak and Hamid in Kawan-kawan dan Pangkat-pangkat

and other high ranking officials.

a pupil. The story examines his background as a teacher including