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Construction Substructure

Foundations and Excavations


Site Preparation Once the survey work has been done on a site, prior to the building work commencing the site has to be stripped of all vegetation and top soil from under any part of the building or associated paths, roads and hard paving. Care must be taken with any trees as they may have Tree Preservation Orders (TPOs) on them, damaging a preserved tree can result in fines of up to !",""" per tree. Top soil can be defined as#

$t this stage the site consists of what is called sub%soil, can be many different materials. The ne&t stage is to establish what is called the Reduced Level, this is the level or group of levels at which the floor construction, paving formation and foundation e&cavation commences. This level will define the limit of what is called the Bulk Excavation. This work is controlled by means of either sight rails or more commonly now by the use of rotating laser%levelling e'uipment. Once at the reduced level we can now start to commence the foundation work, foundations have been defined as#

(ifferent types of sub%soil have different bearing capacities) the designer takes this into account when calculating si*es. +n the case of poor loadbearing capacity he designs a foundation that is wider to spread the load over a large area thus reducing the load per unit area. Strip Foundations The simplest of foundation type used is the Strip Foundation. The centre line of the foundation is marked on the ground in sand or spray paint and an e&cavator digs out a given trench width to a controlled depth all around the building and for any load bearing internal walls re'uired. p d The minimum width of this trench is determined by the width of the wall sitting on top of it and the thickness of the un%reinforced concrete strip placed in the bottom of the trench.

,-"

(epending on the nature of the sub soil that is being e&cavated and the depth, the sides of the e&cavation may need some form of support. This support will allow the trench to be filled with concrete without the concrete being contaminated with e&cavated material and allow the safe working of men within the trench, cleaning up the bottom or placing level pegs to control the depth of concrete.
loads act at ,-" and thus through base of foundation

pro.ection p / depth d / min 0-"mm

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The concrete would then be placed in the trench carefully and compacted and levelled ready to receive the substructure brick or blockwork.

3rick or block work

2ot less than ! & ( or 1""mm minimum

mass concrete foundation

$ny changes in level in the foundation must be planned, their height must not be greater than the thickness of the concrete to be used, and the concrete must overlap by twice the depth of the concrete foundation or 1""mm which ever is greater. +n certain circumstances where traditional strip foundations are inappropriate, the ade'uate bearing strata is at a low level, we may resort to using a method known as Trench Fill or Deep Strip Foundations. Trench Fill or Deep Strip Foundations +n this top of concrete to agreed level method the same setting out is used, but the e&cavation is much deeper down to an approved level. The width of the e&cavation is kept to a minimum, but often the very nature of the material that you are e&cavating through means that the trench ends ground level up wider than re'uired. +n order for this method to be economical the concrete is normally poured into the trench as soon as it is down to the re'uired depth, no cleaning up of the bottom takes place as this would re'uire men to go down into the trench. The e&cavation would be over 0.!m in depth and thus the sides of the e&cavation would need to be supported, incurring e&tra costs. +f neither of the previous two methods solve the problems posed by the ground conditions then we may choose the following#

as dug, often undulating sides of the e&cavation mass concrete fill to suitable level e&cavation to a suitable bearing level

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Reinforced Wide Strip Foundations +n poor load bearing conditions it is possible to reduce the load on the sub strata by widening the foundation, the effective width of an un%reinforced foundation is ,- " either side of the wall. +f we wish to make the foundation wider than that we must ensure that the wall cannot shear through the foundation.

+n order to make full use of the e&tra width we insert what is called steel reinforcement in the lower part of the concrete strip and this then counteracts the shear and spreads the load over the whole of the surface area of the strip and thus sub strata.
7teel reinforcing mesh or bar steel

Simple Raft Foundations This 'uite simply is the use of a large slab of reinforced concrete, which has the effect of spreading out the load of the building uniformly over the whole area of the footprint. The resulting loads on the supporting ground is thus lower and therefore the building can be constructed on poorer bearing capacity ground than a comparable strip foundation building could.

7teel reinforcing bars PILED FOUNDATIONS. 2ot a new concept, used for thousands of years % prehistoric man used 3irch piles in his lake dwellings. 4e now use steel and concrete, the basic principles are the same. The idea of using piles is to produce a uniform, strong and stable base for a building. This can be the timber and reed hut of prehistoric man or a concrete and glass office building in any city. These are the same three basic criteria for all foundation work. 0. UNIFORM % $ny building regardless of si*e, shape etc. needs a uniform strength foundation, so that it does not e&hibit the same tenancies as the 56eaning Tower of Pisa5.

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!. STRONG % The base needs to be able to support the imposed load of the building, so we do not get a building with four basement levels instead of one. 1. STAB E % $ skiing hotel on the side of a mountain needs a stable foundation, easier for the skiers to find ne&t year if it does not slide down the mountain. Three distinct and different functions for the pile to perform % but what is a pile8 One definition is #%

The way in which piles transmit the structural loads to the lower subsoil classifies them into two main Performance related areas, END BEARING piles and FRICTIONA BEARING piles. a. END EARIN! piles do .ust this, the forces are transmitted vertically downwards to a firm strata.
T!pica" End Bearin# $i"e

Arran#e%ent

+mposed load of building or structure :round level

Typically loose filled material or soft sub% strata incapable of supporting normal foundation loads overlying a strong sub% strata at an economic level for piling

9orces transferred vertically down through the pile and straight into the surrounding sub%strata

7trong sub%strata capable of absorbing the vertically transferred forces

b. FRI"TIONAL EARIN! piles rely on the pile being gripped by the surrounding strata and the forces being dissipated through that strata.

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T!pica" Frictiona" $i"e Arran#e%ent

+mposed load of building or structure :round level

Typically loose filled material or soft sub% strata incapable of supporting normal foundation loads

7ub%strata gripping the pile and absorbing the transferred forces

9orces transferred through the pile and out into the surrounding sub% strata

4ithin these two basic classifications we can then further divide up the piles into two types based on the process used to construct them. DIS$ ACEMENT $I ES and RE$ ACEMENT $I ES& the former are driven displacing the soil, the latter are bored out and the ground replaced with concrete and steel. '( DISPLA"E#ENT PLIES& piles that displace soils, including pre%cast concreter pre%formed, partially pre%formed and driven insitu piles. Timber pile would also come under this category though not often used e&cept in sea defences and in developing countries.

T!pica" Disp"ace%ent $i"e

Pre%formed pile forced into the ground :round level :round heave at surface caused by pile being forced into the ground

Typically loose filled material or soft sub%strata incapable of supporting normal foundation loads

:round displaced hori*ontally by the pile being forced into the ground

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i. Precast "oncrete Piles % :enerally up to !"m in length, ranging from !;- % -!" mm in diameter capable of supporting loads ranging from 1-" k2 %0!-" k2 depending on the bearing strata. They are end bearing piles, there can be little or no frictional bearing, since the driving process tends to mould any cohesive soils round the pile forming a slip plane. Concrete piles are mostly made up from a range of standard length sections, these can then be .ointed on site as the pile is being driven. The sections can be made of concrete containing various types of cements which can along with chemical treatment can produce piles that can withstand attack in corrosive ground conditions. They can however be used in some soils to form friction piles depending on the nature of the soil. ii. Precast "oncrete "omposite Piles % +n this type a pre cast concrete shell is driven into the ground to a predetermined level once this segmental shell is in place the steel mandrill is with%drawn and a reinforcement cage and concrete introduced to fill the shell producing a composite pile. $n advantage of this type is that lengths up to <"m can be achieved. The concrete shells are produced of Polypropylene reinforced concrete, which means that a thin walled shell of high strength can be produced without the problems of cover to steel reinforcement. iii. SP "ased Piles ) These too are composite piles, the steel casing provides some of the re'uired strength of the pile. This type is particularly useful when you re'uire a large amount of pile up above the surface level. Casings made of steel strip butt welded to form a helical tube, one end is closed and this end is filled with dry concrete or stone to a depth of up to two and a half times the diameter of the tube. $n internal drop hammer then drives the tube into the ground to the re'uired depth (in theory any depth is possible by welding on more tube but !"m is the norm.) The concrete is then poured in and the bonding reinforcement set in the last !m to enable the pile cap to bond to the pile. +f the pile is re'uired to have a large unsupported length then the reinforcement will e&tend down well below the ground level. This type is often used in soft ground conditions and particularly for .etty use in deep water, thus keeping the pile void clean until the concrete is poured. iv. Dri$en "ast In situ Piles % These use an open ended steel casing to keep the pile hole open during construction, a steel drive shoe is attached to the bottom of the tube. The casing is then driven down into the ground to the depth re'uired for bearing. The shoe is then discarded and concrete and steel are introduced into the casing, as the casing is withdrawn the concrete fills the void left, the movement of the casing can be used to compact the concrete. Care must be taken with the raising of the tube and placing of the concrete so that voids and necking do not take place. :round water can be a problem with this type of pile whilst the concrete is setting. This type of pile can derive some frictional bearing from the soil due to the irregular surface shape. $ll the previous types use a hammer action to penetrate the soil) conse'uently they produce noise and unacceptable vibrations that may affect surrounding buildings. The modern forms of piling rig can also use localised vibration to help push in the pile and thus can cause less damage. These companies use a local vibration system and often call their systems 'uiet or silent piling systems &' REPLA"E#ENT PILES ) $ replacement pile is e&actly that, we take out a column of ground and :round removed by >oid then filled with replace it with a column of steel and concrete. They can take advantage ofpile both end and frictional an auger to create a concrete to create void bearing due to the irregular surface shapes produced.
:round level T!pica" Rep"ace%ent $i"e Arran#e%ent

i. Percussion ored Piles ) These are the most widely used type for small diameter piles up to 1"m. The advantage of the Tripod rig is that it re'uires less working space than any other type, both hori*ontal space and vertical space. The steel casing is started by using the weighted cutter as a hammer, once the casing is down into the ground about ="" mm the cutter is then dropped repeatedly into the tube, the spoil taken out of the hollow cutter on the surface. The casings are screwed together and tends to sink under its own weight as the centre is cut out, on reaching the re'uired depth the concrete and steel are introduced the casing is gradually withdrawn, this movement or an internal drop hammer used to compact the concrete.

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ii. Rotar( ored Piles ) Traditionally done with a crane or lorry mounted auger, often using a steel casing to maintain the bore whist working. This auger is used to cut the hole, it is raised and lowered to remove the spoil until the depth is achieved the auger is then removed, the concrete and steel introduced and the casing removed. 6arge diameter auger piles can be formed up to a diameter of 1.<m. To increase the bearing capacity of the pile the base can be undreamed up to 1 times the dia of the pile using an undereaming tool. iii. "ontinuous Fli)ht Au)er Piles ) This is a modern method of producing piles up to <"" mm in dia. This auger conveys the spoil up to the surface whilst drilling. This means that the auger does not have to be removed from the hole keeping it clear and doing away with the need for a casing. Once the hole is at the correct depth the concrete is pumped down the centre of the hollow stem and as the auger is withdrawn the concrete fills the void left. The reinforcement is then pushed into the unset concrete. *' "ONTINUOUS +ELI"AL DISPLA"E#ENT PILES * Originally developed as a rotary displacement bored pile by 2.>. 9rankie 7.$. of 3elgium, Cementation (now ?avaerna 9oundations) were the first to take a licence for use in the @.?. This process produces a helical type cast insitu pile with a high bearing capacity. +t produces no spoil as the auger head actually compacts the soil as it is screwed into the ground and re'uires no casing. +t is 'uiet and produces little or no vibration. 7teel and concrete are introduced down the hollow stem. Piles of up to !!m can be achieved with dias. from 1<" % -<" mm. This piling system combines the two types of bearing systems very well, it is both an end bearing pile and a frictional bearing pile. 2ow many of the specialist piling companies have developed their own versions, the system is particularly advantageous on contaminated sites with it producing no spoil to dispose of. ,' TESTIN! ) Once the piles are formed they need to be tested to ensure that they will produce the designed bearing capacity. On a large contract there may be up to si& test piles, but remember each one costs money. Piles can be tested in several ways, they can be loaded by the use of a hydraulic .ack set between a pre loaded platform or kentledge, the load increased in stages by the .ack and any deflection measured for a known load. $lternatively piles can be constructed each side of the pile to be tested, a beam is then fi&ed across the two e&tra piles, above the test pile and the .ack set in between the two, the process is then as with the previous method. $ cheaper method that is gaining popularity is to determine the 5rate of penetration5. $ known load produces a certain penetration in this stratum, then a computer in the rig gives a direct read out of the bearing capacity achieved related to all the previously programmed site data. +ntegrity tests are increasingly performed these days, these are done by passing ultra sonic waves down through the piles, collecting the echo and processing the data in a computer. This data provides information on the density of the pile, detects any voids or cracks and can determine the depth of the pile. -' APPLI"ATIONS % Pilling is generally used in low%rise traditional construction because other foundation types are unsuitable. $de'uate bearing strata may be too deep for strip foundations or trench fill, rafts may be unsuitable due to the si*e, shape or loadings produced by the chosen method of construction, such as point loads produced by a steel framed building. +mposed loads may be too great for ground consolidation to be effective, so piling may be the only way forward. Piles can be used to support the point loads produced by a steel portal framed building, all the frames can be supported on e'ually strong base. The floors can be supported on ground beams which span between the pile caps.

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this system is eminently suitable for medium and long span industrial and commercial units, thus enabling this type of development to make use of cheap poor 'uality reclaimed land. The ne&t 'uestion is what type of pile is suitable for the pro.ect. 9actors that will influence this decision will include the nature of the ground, depth to suitable bearing strata, any shallow bands of peat or other compressible materials, the loadings of the buildings, access to and on site and the pro&imity and state of surrounding buildings. 7ee table of depths and properties. SOIL STA ILISATION AND I#PRO.E#ENT 4hen deciding on foundation types for any building the information gained from a detailed siteAsoil investigation is essential. This will decide whether the ground is suitable or not for strip or raft foundations to be used. +f it is not suitable for these type of foundations, it may not be bad enough to warrant the use of piles due to cost. There are some other alternatives as set out below# % 0) (o not build at all on this plot of land. !) +f the problem strata is at a level that is accessible, it is possible to e&cavate and replace the poor strata with granular fill which is compacted in layers. 2ot generally economic over depths of ,."" m. 1) Surcharge the ground. Place on top of the ground a pile of material which should be at least the weight of the building. 6eave it in place for a previously calculated time period, so that the ground can settle and be able to support the weight of the pile of e&cavated material and thus the weight of the eventual building. Bas its problems, time can be a factor, finding the e&cavated material and then disposing of it. ,) Dynamic onsolidation. This is an e&tremely cost effective techni'ue of ground improvement on larger sites. The techni'ue involves the controlled dropping of heavy steel tampers(weights), usually from standard crawler cranes. 4eights of up to 0- tonnes are normally used and drop heights of up to !"m. The techni'ue was originally developed in the early 0=C"Ds by a 9rench engineer, 6ouis Eenard and has been widely available in the @? since 0=C1. The treatment can be effective up to 0!m in depth and provide safe ground bearing capacities in the range of 0""k2Am! to !""k2Am!. :round conditions suitable for improvement by this method include, natural granular soils, essentially granular made ground(filled ground), and occasionally refuse depending on structure.

@sually several tamping passes are re'uired to achieve the re'uired effect, and careful monitoringAtesting of the works forms an essential part of ground improvement. On a typical pro.ect there may be up to four passes, with drops for the first pass on a 0"m grid, and subse'uent passes on closer spacings, say Cm and -m. There could be up to 0" drops on each tamping position. The ob.ective of the early tamping passes is to improve the deeper layers, while subse'uent passes aim

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to improve successively higher layers. 9inally the uppermost layer would be compacted using a vibrating roller. -) !i"ro#compaction and !i"ro#displacement. >ibro%compaction consists of inserting a vibrating probe suspended from a crane into soft sand, the resulting hole is then filled up with more sand and vibrated until the sand has reached the re'uired bearing capacity. >ibro%displacement involves the introduction of granular columns into the ground and thus increasing the bearing capacity. This is done by inserting the vibrating pokers into the ground and forming a vertical void in the ground which is surrounded by consolidated strata by virtue of the vibro action. 7ingle si*ed stone usually ,"mm is then introduced into the void and compacted in layers to form stone columns. +n reasonably stable ground a top fill method may be used as shown below# %

4here the ground is more likely to collapse when the poker is removed, a bottom feed type of system has been developed, this eliminates the problem of the void collapsing before the stone is introduced. The only way vibro%displacement could be used in this type of ground prior to this system being developed was to use the wet system, where the void was kept open by using .ets of water to fill up the hole until the stone is introduced.

<) !i"ro oncrete olumns. $ $ similar system to the former vibro ones, but in this case we form a concrete column in the ground which will act as a concrete pile. Often 'uicker and more economical than normal piling techni'ues# %

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C) Fet grouting. This method use a probe which is lowered into a pre%formed hole and then by the use of compressed air and water under pressure washes out a cavity in the soft soils. This cavity is then filled with a cement grout that mi&es with the sub%soil and sets and produces a solid mass. Co%p"ex Ra+t Foundations 9oundation choice depends upon# % Total loading of the building, 2ature and bearing capacity of the subsoil.

+f we are considering a raft type of foundation, it generally means that there is some doubt as to the suitability of the GnormalD pad type foundation that one would use in the case of framed buildings. The most economical type of foundation for framed buildings is generally the pad type, providing that the ground conditions are uniform and of sufficient bearing capacity.

Pad 9oundation

7teel or concrete column

Concrete base

$ raft has the ability to take all of the building live and dead loads and combine them then spread them out over the whole of the area of the raft. Thus if a framed building measuring 0""m & 0"m, weighing 0"""tonnes was supported on 0" columns the with pad foundations !m & !m, the total weight on each column thus pad would be 0""tonnes. 7pread over the ,s' m of the pad, it would need the ground bearing capacity to be at least !-tonnes per s' m. +f we used a raft, the ground bearing capacity needed could be reduced. The same 0"""tonnes is still spread over 0" columns, but then each of the columns is effectively supported by one tenth of the area of the raft, area of raft / 0""" s' m, one tenth / 0"" s' m. Thus the ground under the raft would need to be capable of

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supporting 0tonne per s' m. +t is thus possible to build on ground that is not capable of supporting high point loadings that would result from the use of pad foundations. 4e can also use rafts where a piece of ground does not have uniform load bearing capacity, if C-H of the site is capable of supporting !tonnes per s' m then the load could be carried on this and the rest of the site could be capable of supporting only .!-tonnes per s' m. The higher the load and the more comple& the building, the more comple& and rigid the raft must be. 4hen using rafts for framed buildings, we ensure that the loads on each column are capable of being transferred into the raft without the columns punching through the raft. there would need to be a large amount of shear steel in this area or a large cross%sectional area to the base of the column. Column bases were often splayed where they met the raft, thus increasing cross%sectional area.
7olid Iaft 9oundation

Columns with haunched bases bearing on the raft

@p to C""mm thick reinforced concrete raft Concrete upstandAwall

7olid rafts are used to good effect with framed structures and can be of the region of C""mm in thickness, fairly heavily reinforced, be simple to construct and thus they can compare with such as piling or other foundation techni'ues in cost terms.

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3eam and 7lab Iaft Columns bear on intersection of beams

@pstand or downstand beams Ieinforced concrete slab and beams

3eam and slab rafts are then used where ground conditions are more variable, and the raft needs to be more structurally rigid. 4e can use downstand beams or upstand beams which ever is the most appropriate method for that particular situation.

Cellular Iaft

$ cellular raft can also be used, this is the above upstand raft with a built%in top and thus becomes cellular. The cell depth usually ends up sufficient Columns bear on to use this void as parking or some other use. The raft then is very deep and thus very rigid. intersection of beams

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