What is Phonetics?

Phonetics is the study of the articulatory and acoustic properties of the sounds of human
language.

PHYSICS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF SPEECH:

Introduction
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the major anatomical components of the speech
system for human language.

Major Terms
• trachea
• larynx
• glottis
• pharynx
• vocal tract

Subglottal System
Sound in human language is produced by the regulation of airflow from the lungs through
the throat, nose, and mouth. This airflow is altered in various ways by different aspects of
this speech system. The first major segment of the speech system is the subglottal system.
This subglottal system comprises the lungs, diaphragm and trachea.

The lungs are basically a pair of balloon-like sacs that inflate or deflate by the action of
the diaphragm, a muscle just under the lungs, attached to them. When the diaphragm is
lowered, the lungs inflate, and when the diaphragm is raised, air is pressed out of the
lungs, allowing them to deflate.

When this air is pressed out of the lungs, air travels up the trachea, or windpipe, to the
larynx, the next major segment of the speech system.
 See the lungs in action

The Larynx
The larynx is a mass of cartilage at the top of the trachea. It is commonly called the
voicebox.

The larynx contains folds of muscle called the vocal folds (sometimes called vocal cords).
These vocal folds are connected to the larynx by the arytenoid cartilage at the front, but
the other ends are left free. The opening between the vocal folds is known as the glottis.
These folds can be relaxed, letting air flow freely through the glottis, or tensed, so that
the air vibrates as it passes through the glottis.
Sounds that are produced with relaxed vocal folds are known as voiceless sounds, and
sounds that are produced with tensed vocal folds are known as voiced sounds. If the folds
are only partially closed, a whispered sound is produced.

Voiceless

Voiced

Whisper

Above the Larynx

The area above the larynx consists of three main areas: the pharynx, the nasal cavity, and
the oral cavity. The pharynx consists of the area above the larynx and below the uvula.
The oral cavity is the area from the back of the throat to the mouth. The major parts of the
oral cavity that are used in speech production are the uvula, the velum, the tongue, the
hard palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth, and the lips. The uvula is that fleshy blob that
hangs down in the back of the throat. The velum is the soft palate, and the alveolar ridge
is a mass of hard cartilage behind the teeth.

The following graphic shows these major parts of the area, which is also known as the
supraglottal system
Summary
In summary, this lesson has outlined the major parts of the anatomy that relate to speech
production. These parts are the following:

• Subglottal system, including lungs and trachea

• Larynx, including the vocal folds and glottis
• Supraglottal system, including the oral cavity, nasal cavity, and pharynx

In the next lesson, you will learn how consonants are classified in terms of the use of
these parts of the speech system.

CONSONANTS-1:
Introduction
In this lesson, the goals are to begin to learn how speech sounds are classified in terms of
their use of the speech system.

Major Terms
 • voicing
• place of articulation
o bilabial
o labiodental
o interdental
o dental
o alveolar
o alveopalatal
o palatal
o velar
o uvular
o pharyngeal
o glottal

Voicing
In the last lesson, you were introduced to the following states of the glottis: voiceless and
voiced. These states are determined by the action of the vocal folds in the larynx. If the
vocal folds are held apart, the glottis is in a voiceless state, while if the vocal folds are
held together, and allowed to vibrate, the glottis is in a voiced state.

Certain consonants in human language are distinguished by which state is active during
production of the sound. For example, pronounce the sound [m], as in mat, and hold the
sound. While producing this sound, place your fingers at the base of your throat. You
should feel the vibration of the vocal folds. Since the sound [m] is vibrating, this is a
voiced sound.

Now make the sound [p], as in pat. You can't really hold this sound, but again put your
fingers near the base of your throat while you say [p]. You shouldn't feel much vibration,
if any. This is because the vocal folds are held apart, making a voiceless sound.

Now say the sounds [p] and [b], as in bat, with your fingers at the base of the throat.
When you say [p], there should be no vibration, but when you say [b], there should be
vibration. Think about what you are doing with your mouth to make both sounds. Both
sounds are made in basically the same way, but one is voiceless and one is voiced.

Speech and the Vocal Tract

As described in the earlier lesson, speech sound is created by airflow through the vocal
tract. In pulmonic sounds, which are the sounds we will consider here, the lungs push air
up into the trachea, through the larynx, and outward through the vocal tract.

So how are different sounds made? In part 1, we discussed that one way to make different
sounds is to vary the state of the glottis, making either a voiced or voiceless sound.
Another way is to vary the shape of the vocal tract. Imagine the vocal tract as a tube,
through which air passes. If this tube is simply open, the airflow creates a sound. But if
you alter the shape of that tube, the airflow moves differently, making a different sound.

Here's an experiment that some of you may have tried. Take an empty bottle and blow air
across the top of the bottle. If you can get the airflow just right, you should be able to
produce a low sound. Now fill the bottle halfway with water. Blow across the bottle
opening again. This time the sound is higher. If you put some more water in the bottle,
the sound will get even higher.

What's happening? For a more detailed discussion, you can view the lesson Acoustic
Phonetics. However, for now, just understand that if the bottle (vocal tract) is not as filled
with water (larger), the sound will be a deep, low sound. If the bottle (vocal tract) is filled
with water (smaller), the sound will be a higher sound.

When we make speech sounds, one thing that is happening is that we are varying the
shape of the vocal tract, making the sound different. For example, say the sound [t]. To
make this sound, you are raising the tip of your tongue behind your teeth and then
lowering your tongue. When you do this, the air builds up behind the closure made by
your tongue and teeth and is then released. When the air is released by the tongue, the air
travels outward through a small area, just from the teeth to outside the mouth.

Now say the sound [k]. To make this sound, you are bringing your tongue up to the
velum, closing off the airflow, and then lowering your tongue to release the air. This time,
when the air is released, it travels through a larger area before leaving the mouth. This
space is from the velum to the lips. Thus, the sound made by the airflow is different from
that made by [p].

The following diagrams illustrate the amount of space in the vocal tract available for [t]
and [k]:

[t] [k]

As the diagrams show, there is more space in the vocal tract for the release of air in the
production of [k] than for [t]. Therefore, two distinct sounds are produced.
The point at which the vocal tract is altered is known as the place of articulation. In the
next section, we will discuss the major places of articulation in classifying human speech
sounds.

Place of Articulation
The term place of articulation, as discussed in the last section, classifies speech sounds in
terms of where in the vocal tract the shape of the vocal tract is altered. In this section, we
will present the major places of articulation.

Bilabial
Bilabial sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the lips against each other.
Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [b], [p], [m].

Labiodental
Labiodental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the upper teeth towards
the lower lip. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [f], [v].

Interdental
Interdental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tongue between the
teeth. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: , .

Dental
Dental sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tip of the tongue towards
the back of the teeth. Such sounds are not present in Standard American English, but in
some Chicano English dialects and certain Brooklyn dialects, the sounds [t] and [d] are
pronounced with a dental articulation.

Alveolar
Alveolar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tip of the tongue
towards the alveolar ridge, the ridge of cartilage behind the teeth. Examples of such
sounds in English are the following: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], .

Alveopalatal
Alveopalatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the front of the tongue
towards the area between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Examples of such sounds
in English are the following: , , , .
Palatal
Palatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the tongue
towards the hard palate. An example of such a sound in English is [j].

Velar
Velar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the tongue towards
the velum. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [k], [g], .

Uvular
Uvular sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the back of the tongue
towards the uvula. Uvular sounds do not exist in English, but the French "r" is
pronounced by the uvular sounds and .

Pharyngeal
Pharyngeal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tongue root towards
the back of the pharynx. Pharyngeal sounds do not exist in Standard American English,
but are found in languages such as Arabic and Hebrew.

Glottal
Glottal sounds are those sounds made at the glottis. Examples of glottal sounds in English
are the following: , .

On the next page is a diagram that illustrates all the places of articulation.

Place of Articulation
This diagram illustrates positions of the articulators in the articulation of certain
consonants. Run the mouse over the buttons, to see the specific articulations. The
consonant being represented is transcribed beneath the figure.
In the next lesson, you will learn how consonants are classified on the basis of the
manner in which the articulators modulate the airflow.

Introduction
In this lesson, the goals are to continue learning how speech sounds are classified in
terms of their use of the speech system.

Major Terms
• manner of articulation
o plosive
o fricative
o affricate
o nasal
o approximant
o glide

Manner of Articulation
In the last lesson, you were introduced to the places of articulation. These are the points
in the vocal tract at which the articulators alter the shape of the vocal tract to produce
distinct consonant sounds.
However, consonants are further distinguished on the basis of how the articulators alter
the shape of the vocal tract. That is, how is the airflow regulated by the tongue or lips.

In the following sections, you will be introduced to the major manners of articulation for
pulmonic consonants.

Plosives
A plosive is formed by the complete obstruction of the vocal tract by the articulators. This
obstruction is then released, allowing the air to "explode" out of the mouth.

When the air is blocked by the articulator, it begins to raise in pressure. Then, when the
air is released, the high pressure air rushes out into the lower pressure area beyond the
blockage. This results in a burst of air, signifiying a plosive. In the following diagram, the
dots represent the pressure of the air. The higher pressure area have more dots per area,
while the lower pressure areas have fewer dots per area.

Watch the air pressure for the stop [p]

Examples of plosives in English are , , , , , .

In the next section, you will be introduced to the fricative manner of articulation.

Fricatives
A fricative is formed by a constriction in the vocal tract by the articulators, such as the
tongue or the lips. However, unlike stops, the occlusion (blockage) in the vocal tract is
not complete. Some of the air is allowed to come through a very narrow opening. This air
becomes turbulent, because of the friction between the airflow and the narrow passage.

Fricatives happen in two ways. One way is simply for the air to flow through a narrow
opening, like in the sound . Another ways is for the air to be sped up through a narrow
passage and then forced across another area, like the teeth, which is the way the sound
is formed. In the following diagram, the dots represent moving air particles. The air
behind the occlusion is relatively slow, but the air that is forced between the tongue and
the roof of the mouth is much faster and more turbulent.

Watch the airflow for the fricative

Examples of fricatives in English are , , , , , .

In the next section, you will be introduced to the affricate manner of articulation.

Affricates
An affricate combines the manners of articulation for the plosive and the fricative. Like a
stop, the articulation of the affricate begins with a complete closure of the vocal tract by
an articulator. However, when the closure is released, the release is somewhat gradual,
providing a narrow space between the articulator and the mouth for the airflow to move
through. This narrow space creates an environment similar to a fricative, in that the
airflow moving out becomes turbulent for a brief period until full release of the closure.

Examples of affricates in English are , .

In the next section, you will be introduced to the nasal manner of articulation.
Nasals
A nasal is formed by the obstruction of the vocal tract and the lowering of the velum.
This lowering of the velum alows the airflow to flow out through the nasal cavity, rather
than through the oral cavity.

Watch the airflow for the nasal

Examples of nasals in English are , , .

In the next section, you will be introduced to the approximant manner of articulation.

Approximant
An approximant is formed by the constriction of the vocal tract, but with no obstruction
in the vocal tract. Therefore, no turbulent airflow, as in a fricative. Instead, the air is
allowed to flow freely through the vocal tract.

Examples of approximants in English are , , , .

The sound is also known as a lateral approximant, since the articulators do touch at a
central point, but the air is allowed to flow through one or both sides of the contact point.

Other Articulations
There are two other articulations in varieties of English that should be noted here: the tap
and the trill.
A tap is formed by a quick contact between an articulator and the vocal tract. In Standard
American English, for example, there is the tap , which can be found in the middle of
words such as ladder, and butter.

A trill is formed by the rapid vibration of the tongue tip against the roof of the mouth.
This vibration is caused by the motion of a current of air. This sound, represented by ,
is found, for example, in varieties of British and Scots English. It is also known as a
"rolled r".

Summary
In this lesson, you have been introduced to several manners of articulation. These are
listed below:

• Plosive
o Formed by a blockage of the vocal tract, followed by an explosive
release of air
• Fricative
o Formed by slight contact between articulators, allowing turbulent
airflow
• Affricate
o Formed by a blockage of the vocal tract, like plosive, followed by a
gradual release of turbulent air, like a fricative
• Nasal
o Formed by the lowering of the velum, allowing air to flow through the
nasal cavity
• Approximant
o Formed by the constriction of the vocal tract, but with no blockage of
the airflow
• Tap
o Formed by a quick contact between articulators
• Trill
o Formed by the rapid vibration of the tongue tip by a current of air
Introduction
In this lesson, the goals are discuss how vowel sounds are classified in terms of their use
of the speech system.

Major Terms
• tongue height
• tongue backness
• lip rounding
• tense
• lax

Vowel Classification
In the last two lessons, you were introduced to the classification of consonant sounds.
The classification of consonants were shown to be based on three aspects of articulation:
place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.

In this lesson, you will be introduced to the classification of vowel sounds. The
classifcation of vowels is based on four major aspects: tongue height, tongue backness,
lip rounding, and the tenseness of the articulators.

In the first section, you will be introduced to the classification of vowels based on tongue
height

Tongue Height
The first aspect of vowel classification that you will be introduced to is that of tongue
height. Vowels are classified in terms of how much space there is between the tongue and
the roof of the mouth, which is determined by the height of the tongue.

There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: high, low, and mid.

In English, examples of high vowels are , , , . These are vowels with a relatively
narrow space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Examples of low vowels are
, . These are vowels with a relatively wide space between the tongue and the roof of
the mouth. Examples of mid vowels are [e], , , . These are vowels whose tongue
positions are roughly between the high and low vowels.

These classifications are quite relative, as different languages have different canonical
tongue heights for different classifications.

As illustration of tongue height, observe the following diagrams for the vowels , , .
As you can see from the diagrams, the tongue height of the high vowel is much higher
than that for the low vowel , while the tongue height for the mid vowel lies
somewhere in between the two.

Tongue Backness
The second aspect of vowel classification that you will be introduced to is that of tongue
backness. Vowels are classified in terms of how far the raised body of the tongue is from
the back of the mouth, which is called the backness of the tongue.

There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: front, back, and central.

In English, examples of front vowels are , , [e], , . These vowels are articulated
relatively forward in the mouth. Examples of back vowels are , , , . These
vowels are articulated relatively far back in the mouth.. Examples of central vowels are
, . These are vowels whose tongue positions are roughly between the front and back
vowels.

These classifications, like the tongue heights, are quite relative, as different languages
have different canonical tongue backnesses for different classifications.

As illustration of tongue backness, observe the following diagrams for the vowels , .
As you can see from the diagrams, the articulation of the front vowel is much farther
forward than that for the back vowel .

In the next section, you will be introduced to the classification of vowels in terms of lip
rounding.

Lip Rounding
Another aspect of vowel classification is the presence or absence of lip rounding. Some
vowels, such as the vowels and , are formed with a high degree of lip rounding. Such
vowels are called rounded vowels. Some vowels, such as and , are formed without
such rounding, and are called unrounded vowels.

In the next section, you will be introduced to the classification of vowels in terms of
tenseness.

Tense vs. Lax

Another aspect of vowel classification is commonly characterized in terms of the
tenseness or laxness of the articulators. Some vowels, such as the vowels and [e], are
formed with a high degree of tenseness. Such vowels are called tense vowels. Some
vowels, such as and , are formed without a high degree of tenseness, and are called
lax vowels.

Some languages have a similar distinction in the articulation of vowels. This

classification is in terms of the position of the tongue root. In these languages, the
primary classificational feature for the vowels and [e] is not that the articulators are
tense, but that the root of the tongue is pushed forward, opening up the pharynx. Such a
condition is known as Advanced Tongue Root (ATR). Vowels such as and , on the
other hand, do not have ATR in those languages that have that distinction.

Summary
In this set of lessons, you have been introduced to the classification of vowel sounds in
human language. The four classifications are as follows:

• Tongue Height
• Tongue Backness
• Lip Rounding
• Tense vs. Lax

ACOUSTIC PHONETICS:::::::::

What is Sound, Anyway?

Sound is the result of the disturbance of air by some kind of movement. These
disturbances of the air are called sound waves. Examples of the types of movement that
cause this disturbance of air are the vibrations of a tuning fork, a guitar string, or a rubber
band.

Let's take the guitar string as an example. The disturbance in the air is the movement of
air molecules as a result of the movement of the string back and forth. When a guitar
string is plucked, the string quickly moves back and forth. As it goes in one direction, the
string pushes the air molecules closest to it. These air molecules then get closer to the air
molecules surrounding it. This is called compression.

Here's a little note about air molecules. They prefer to be equidistant from each other. If
an air molecule gets too close, the surrounding air molecules move away, attempting to
reestablish the status quo.

So, when the air molecules closest to the string are compressed against the surrounding
molecules, a chain reaction is set up, in which the surrounding air molecules move away
from the first ones, and are then compressed against other air molecules, which then
move away, and so on, and so on.

But that's not the end of it. As stated above, the guitar string moves back and forth. So,
after the guitar string moves in the first direction, causing compression, it then moves in
the opposite direction. As it does so, it pulls away from the surrounding air molecules.
When this happens, those air molecules are now farther away from the air molecules on
the other side of the string. This is called rarefaction. Since air molecules prefer to be
equidistant from each other, they will move towards the molecules that are too far away.
This, in turn, pulls them away from the surrounding air molecules, which then move to
restablish the correct distance.

Then, the guitar string moves back again, causing compression, and the whole thing starts
over again.

The following animation is an illustration of compression and rarefaction.

The arrow represents the movement of the guitar string, and the individual circles
represent air molecules. The chain reaction through the surrounding air caused by
compression and rarefaction is the sound wave.

As the guitar string vibrates at a certain number of times within a second, the surrounding
air molecules within a certain distance from the string will move back and forth at that
same number of times within a second.

The next section discusses the parts of a sound wave and how to calculate them.

Riding the Waves

In the last section, it was mentioned that the movement of the air molecules through
space is the sound wave. A sound wave in which repeats at regular intervals is called a
periodic wave. In this section, you will be given an understanding of the parts of a simple
perodic wave.

The wave can be graphed with the movement (or amount of pressure exerted by the air
molecules) on the vertical axis and the time on the horizontal axis. Such a graph will look
like the following:
The amount of air pressure exerted on the air molecules is the amplitude, plotted along
the y-axis. The time at which the sound wave travels is on the x-axis. The wavelength of
the wave is the distance travelled during one single cycle.

Determining the formants of a vowel

A vowel's formants are the frequencies at which it resonates; that is, the frequencies
which are particularly loud in an acoustic signal. Each vowel has its own set of signature
formants. Vowels in different dialects also have different formant patterns. This tutorial is
intended to show you how to determine vowel formants in your own speech.

Extracting formants is no simple task. It involves recording your sample and creating a
spectrogram. Fortunately, there is software that allows a user to do all of these. The
Language Samples Project uses Praat, a shareware product created by the linguist Paul
Boersma. When using Praat, there is an intermediate step, which is to convert the
recorded sample into a Praat object.

REFERENCE: http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics.html