Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.

12* 2%13

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Left to their Fate? Effects of Mining on the Environment and Wellbeing of Residents in the Asutifi District, Ghana
+auda Suleman1* Simon ,ariwah 2 and -ollins .d/ei ,ensah 30 1.+e"artment of 1eogra"h2 and 3egional !lanning* 4niversit2 of -a"e -oast* 4niversit2 !ost (ffice* -a"e -oast* 1hana. Email5 dondauda6&72ahoo.com 2.+e"artment of 1eogra"h2 and 3egional !lanning* 4niversit2 of -a"e -oast* 4niversit2 !ost (ffice* -oast* 1hana. 3.+e"artment of 1eogra"h2 and 3egional !lanning* 4niversit2 of -a"e -oast* 4niversit2 !ost (ffice* -a"e -oast* 1hana. -entre for 4r8an and 3egional Studies* Sch. of 1eogra"h2* Earth 9 Environmental Sciences* 4niversit2 of :irmingham 4;#* :1$ 2<<. Email5collinsad/eimensah7gmail.com 0Email address of corres"onding author5 collinsad/eimensah7gmail.com Abstract 1hana e="erienced ra"id li8eralisation in the mining sector in the 1&'%s and &%s which led to the intensification of mining activities across mining >ones in the countr2. <his stud2 therefore e=amined how o"erations of Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited N11?# affect environmental /ustice in the .sutifi +istrict. 4sing @uestionnaires* in-de"th interview guides and o8servation checAlist* data for the stud2 were gathered from 216 randoml2 selected household res"ondents and 1% "ur"osivel2 selected Ae2 staAeholders. <he results revealed wides"read environmental in/ustices caused 82 mining that infringe on the rights of the residents of .sutifi +istrict to live in safe and health2 environment the2 are entitled to. <he "a"er recommends the a""lication of international 8est "ractices 82 Newmont to reduce the adverse im"acts of its activities on the environment and well8eing of residents* and a revision of e=isting legislations on mining in 1hana in order to safeguard the well8eing of communities affected 82 mining o"erations. Ke !ords" ,ining* environmental /ustice* mining-fringe communities* staAeholders. #$ %ntroduction 1hanaBs mineral "otential and the countr2Bs contri8ution to glo8al minerals out"ut* es"eciall2 gold is well acAnowledged. Indeed* it has 8een recognised that the mining sector is an im"ortant segment of the 1hanaian econom2 and has "la2ed a significant role in the countr2Bs socio-economic develo"ment since the colonial "eriod .Aa8>aa* 2%%&#. <he countr2Bs colonial name-1old -oast-reflects the dominance and im"ortance of the mining sector to the econom2 .Aa8>aa 9 +arimani* 2%%1#. Since 1&'3* when 1hana undertooA various economic "olicies such as Economic 3ecover2 !rogramme E3!# and Structural .d/ustment !rogramme S.!#* there has 8een a considera8le rise in investment and increase in the mining sector es"eciall2 in the gold sector Cutchful* 2%%2#. <he num8er of mines and e="loration com"anies increased considera8l2 as a result of generous incentives offered 82 government to investors. <he contri8ution of the mining sector to 1hanaBs foreign e=change earnings and the sectorBs attraction of foreign direct investments to the develo"ment of 1hana have 8een "henomenal. .t the later "art of 1&&%s the mining sector received su8stantial funds 4SD3 8illion# from foreign direct investment to su""ort the develo"ment agenda of 1hana Institute for Statistical Social and Economic 3esearch ISSE3* 2%%6#. ,ore than 12% accredited local and foreign mining com"anies o"erate in 1hana with several o"erating mines mainl2 in the 1old su8-sector which account for more than 3% "er cent of the countr2Bs foreign e=change earnings ,inerals -ommission* 2%11#. Notwithstanding the rise in mining activities and its contri8ution to 1hanaBs foreign e=change* it is not clear the Aind of 8enefits that mining communities and ordinar2 citi>ens of 1hana derive from mining. It has 8een argued that a thorough costE8enefit anal2sis of the effects of the mining sector to the ordinar2 1hanaian will "rovide a negative result +arimani* 2%%&F .Aa8>aa 9 +arimani* 2%%1#. Gactors such as the high level of fiscal incentives en/o2ed 82 mining com"anies and the high level of foreign e=change earnings mining com"anies are allowed to retain in offshore accounts have 8een "ointed out as the "ro8a8le factors that might cause such negative 8enefits HanAson* 2%%&F .Aa8>aa 9 +arimani* 2%%1#. <he negative environmental im"act of mining* the growing redundancies associated with the "rivatisation of state-owned mining com"anies* the growing incidence of conflicts 8etween mining communities and their chiefs on one hand and mining com"anies on the other hand are other factors that have 8een raised not allow the residents of 1hana to get much 8enefits from the mining sector .Aa8>aa 9 +arimani* 2%%1#. <he Iorld :anA 1rou" and I,G* in "articular* have 8een critical in 1hanaBs "olic2 shift from state intervention in the econom2 to a s2stem that has allowed marAet forces to determine resource allocation '6

Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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Cutchful* 2%%2#. <his is indeed the thrust of the structural ad/ustment "rogramme that 1hana em8arAed u"on in the 1&'%s to ensure the reorientation of develo"ment "olicies that consigned the state to "rovide an ena8ling environment for marAet driven and "rivate enter"rises-led economic growth .Aa8>aa* 2%%&#. Such develo"ment "olices have "aid little or no attention to environmental management strategies. Indeed* the conditionalit2 of structural ad/ustment lending that included trade and e=change rate reforms* review of national investment "riorities* "rivati>ation of "u8lic-sector enter"rises* and fiscal "olic2 reforms as asserted 82 Songsore 2%%3#* onl2 sought to "rovide license to multi-national mining com"anies to e=tract mineral resources in 1hana without due regard to the "rotection of the environment. In 2%%2* Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited N11?#* a gold mining com"an2 8egan full time o"erations of its .hafo ,ines in the .sutifi +istrict which is one of the de"rived districts in the :rong .hafo 3egion of 1hana where "ro8lems such as limited access to educational infrastructure* health facilities* "i"e-8orne water and "oor road networAs are "rofound .8ane* 2%%'F 1hana Statistical Service* 2%%'#. <he .sutifi +istrict is one "articular rural area in the :rong .hafo 3egion of 1hana where waste generated through the o"erations of Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited is found to 8e causing man2 environmental ha>ards Environmental !rotection .genc2* 2%11#. <he com"an2 em"lo2s the o"en cast method in its o"erations and currentl2 o"erates five o"en "its whiles develo"ing three others that are e="ected to 8e in o"eration 82 2%14 Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited* 2%12#. +es"ite the adverse effects that mining "ose to the .sutifi +istrict little has 8een done on mining and environmental /ustice right to live in a clean and safe environment# in the area. <his "a"er is an attem"t to 8ridge this ga8. <he o8/ective of the "a"er is to assess how mining infringe on the right of the dwellers of .ssutifi +istrict to live in a clean and safe environment that the2 are entitled to. <he outcome of the "a"er will "rovide good lessons to other mining fringe communities elsewhere to taAe informed decisions to "rotect the well-8eing of their residents. <he rest of the "a"er is structured as follows. <he ne=t section is focus on theoretical under"innings of environment and environmental /ustice. Section three looAs at the methods and data used. Section four "resents the results and discusses the Ae2 findings as informed 82 the literature. <he final section of the "a"er "rovides conclusion and the wa2 forward to "rotect the rights of residents of mining-fringe communities in the .sutifi +istrict to live in clean and safe environment. &$ 'he (once)t of Environment and Environmental *ustice In general* environment connotes a "lace where "eo"le live* worA or "la2. It has 8een conce"tualised to have four main com"onents which are natural* 8uilt* social and cultural environments 1irling* 2%%$#. <hese four com"onents therefore have to 8e in good condition if a health2 and sustaina8le environment is to 8e achieved. Several factors have 8een found to undermine the @ualit2 of the environment. . re"ort 82 the National Environmental Justice .dvisor2 -ouncil as cited in .d/ei ,ensah et al. 2%13# highlights the following factors to contri8ute to the deterioration of the @ualit2 of the environment5 a# co-e=istence of residential and industrial sites as a result of 8ad land use "lanningF 8# an oversaturation of communities with multi"le sources of environmental "ollution in highl2 congested s"acesF c# inade@uate documentation of most environmental health risAs in communitiesF d# lacA of a com"rehensive environmental enforcement and com"liance activit2 which results* for some communities* in a virtual non-e=istence of such activit2F e# lacA of health services and ade@uate information on environmental risAsF f# severe deca2 in the institutional infrastructureF and g# a high rate of social alienation and deca2 caused 82 living in degraded "h2sical environments ".4#. <hese factors and others indicate that most as"ects of the environment "articularl2 the natural and 8uilt environment which constitute the "h2sical environment are in the state of /eo"ard2* signif2ing that most "eo"le are living in unhealth2 environmental conditions .d/ei ,ensah et al.* 2%13#. <he conce"t of environmental /ustice emerged in the 1&'%s as grass root social movements in the 4nited States of .merica 4S.# to address in/ustices in environmental "ro8lems es"eciall2 on less "rivileged communities .g2eman* 2%%6#. <he focus of the conce"t of environmental /ustice is to achieve fair treatment and involvement of all "eo"le irres"ective of their colour* race* ethnicit2 and socio-economic status in addressing environmental "ro8lems such as "ollution* degradation and waste management "ro8lems :rulle 9 !ellow* 2%%6#. <he 4nited Nations 4N#* Iorld Cealth (rgani>ation* the Environmental !rotection .genc2 in 4S. and other international organisations have ado"ted this conce"t and stress on the need for individuals irres"ective of their 8acAground to 8e treated fairl2 in all matters concerning environmental ha>ards. <he sco"e of environmental /ustice since its ince"tion in the 1&'%s has e="anded from its initial focus on to=ic waste "ro8lems to include man2 issues that cut across social* economic and "olitical facets of the world. Gor e=am"le* issues concerning the siting of waste facilities* lead contamination* sanitation* housing* trans"ortation* resource location* e=traction of resources* and communit2 "artici"ation and em"owerment which are now covered in ?ocall2 4nwanted ?and 4ses ?4?4s# are now given much attention in the discourse of

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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' %&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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environmental /ustice .g2eman 9 Evans* 2%%4F .g2eman* :ullard 9 Evans* 2%%2F :ullard* 2%%1#. Iith res"ect of s"ace* the conce"t environmental /ustice was was initiall2 restricted to ur8an areas focusing on industrial waste management. Cowever* in the mid-1&&%s* mid 1&&%s* the conce"t 8egan to find s"ace in rural develo"ment studies as most of the e=tractive industries were located in and around remote rural settlements es"eciall2 in .frica* .sia and ?atin .merica. In "articular* increased investments in mining* lum8ering and oil and gas e="loration and the attendant negative im"acts on the environment and rural settlements :oon 9 .8a8io* 2%%&# called for studies into the e activities of e=tractive industries on the 8uilt environment of rural areas across the glo8e. Iithin the conce"t of environmental /ustice* "olitical and distri8utive /ustices are often highlighted. <he distri8utive /ustice focuses on e@uit2 in the distri8ution distri8ution of environmental 8enefits and risAs whilst the "olitical /ustice on the other hand concern itself with fairness in decision maAing on the environment :ullard* 2%%1#. ;aswan 1&&6# o"ined that distri8utive /ustice hel"s to address dis"ro"ortionate 8urden of environmental ha>ards that are often suffered 82 low-income low income or minorit2 communities. Ce further stressed that "olitical /ustice taAes care of the unfair involvement of the "oor or less "rivileged in the decision maAing "rocess on environmental ha>ards. >ards. In the conte=t of this "a"er* decisions a8out how to manage wastes emanating from the activities of the mining com"an2 without ade@uate involvement of mining-fringe mining fringe communities* constitute "olitical in/ustice. .ccording to .g2eman and Evans 2%%4#* the conce"t of environmental /ustice is under"inned 82 8oth "rocedural and su8stantive dimensions. ,eaningful involvement of all "eo"le into decision maAing on the environment constitute the "rocedural dimension whilst the su8stantive as"ect covers individualBs indivi the right to live in and en/o2 a clean and health2 environment. +$ Methods and Data <he "rimar2 location for this stud2 is the .sutifi +istrict in the :rong-.hafo :rong .hafo 3egion of 1hana. It is located 8etween latitudes 6J4%B and 6J1$B North and longitudes 2J1$B and 2J4$B Iest. ;en2asi* the district ca"ital* is a8out $%Am from Sun2ani* the ca"ital of the :rong .hafo 3egion ghanadistricts.com#. <he district shares 8oundaries with the Sun2ani ,unici"alit2 in the north* <ano South +istrict to the north-east* north +ormaa ,unici"alit2 to the north-west* west* .sunafo North ,unici"alit2 and .sunafo South +istrict to the south-west south and .hafo .no South and North districts .shanti 3egion# to the south-east south east Gigure 1#. Iith a total land surface area of 1$%% Am2* the district is one of the smallest in the :rong .hafo 3egion. In res"ect of develo"ment* the district is mainl2 rural and one of the most de"rived districts in the :rong .hafo 3egion 1hana Statistical Service* 2%%'#. 2%%'# .8out 31K of the "eo"le in the district live 8elow 8el the "overt2 line with 1$K of them living under conditions of e=treme "overt2 ghanadistricts.com#. Give communities in the +istrict* namel2 ;en2asi No.1* ;en2asi No.2* 12edu* Ntotoroso and Iamahinso were "ur"osivel2 selected for the stud2 Gigure 1# 8ecause 8ecause <he activities of Newmont is "rofound in these communities and the com"an2 also o"erates five o"en "its that are located close to these communities.

Figure #" Ma) of the Asutifi District sho!ing the stud areas Source5 -artogra"hic 4nit* +e"artment +e"artment of 1eogra"h2 and 3egional !lanning* 4-- 2%11# ''

Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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<he "a"er em"lo2ed a cross-sectional design which involves the retrieving of data from stud2 "artici"ants mostl2 from multi"le grou"s at a defined "oint in time or relativel2 8rief "eriod of time (lsen 9 1eorge* 2%%4#. 3ich and varied data have 8een found to 8e "rovided 82 cross-sectional design since it utilises data from different "artici"ants ,ann* 2%%3#. <he residents in the five communities* management of Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited* and regulators of the environment in the .sutifi +istrict constitute the stud2 "o"ulation of the "a"er. <he research a""roach was a mi=ed method which involved triangulation of 8oth @uantitative and @ualitative methods of data collection concurrentl2. <riangulation focuses on collecting and anal2sing 8oth @ualitative and @uantitative data in a single stud2 -reswell* 2%%3#. <he a""lication of multi"le sources of evidence hel"ed the "a"er to have a 8etter understanding of the research "ro8lem 82 converging numeric trends from @uantitative data and s"ecific details from @ualitative data ,ertens* 2%%3#. Cence* 8oth @uantitative method @uestionnaire#* and @ualitative methods in-de"th interview and o8servation# were used to collect data from the field. . sam"le of 216 household res"ondents was selected for the investigation. <he sam"le si>e was o8tained using the GisherBs formula which tooA into consideration the total num8er of "eo"le and households in the selected communities Gisher et al.* 1&&'#. <he household res"ondents were selected using the s2stemic sam"ling techni@ue. . sam"le interval was calculated using the total num8er of houses in the five communities. :ased on the sam"le interval for each communit2* res"ondents in the various housing units were selected for the stud2. <hus* after a random start* ever2 housing unit that corres"ond with the sam"le interval for each communit2 was selected. Gor houses with more than one household* the lotter2 method was a""lied to select one household. <his "rocedure was done re"eatedl2 until the sam"le assigned to each communit2 was e=hausted. <he "ur"osive sam"ling techni@ue was used to select ten Ae2 informantsF one re"resentative each from the +istrict .ssem8l2* the Environmental !rotection .genc2 E!.#* Gorestr2 -ommission* Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited* and ?ivelihoods and Environment 1hana ?E1# an environmental N1( o"erating in the .sutifi +istrict. In addition* one o"inion leader was selected from each of the five communities for an in-de"th interview. <hese res"ondents were selected on the 8asis of their level of e="ertise on issues that affect the environment* their contri8ution towards the develo"ment of mining-fringe communities and the role the2 "la2 in "rotecting the "o"ulace from harmful activities of mining. <hus* the total sam"le si>e for the stud2 was 226 res"ondents. :oth "rimar2 and secondar2 data were collected for the "a"er. !rimar2 data were collected through the use @uestionnaires* o8servation and in-de"th interview I+I#. <he data 8asicall2 focused on the 8acAground characteristics of residents* environmental "ro8lems affecting them as a result of the activities of Newmont and the role of regulators and staAeholders in ensuring environmental /ustice in the .sutifi +istrict which the residents are entitled to. !ersonal o8servations on the "h2sical environment of the stud2 area were also undertaAen to have first hand information on the ground. Secondar2 data relevant to the stud2 were o8tained from "u8lished 8ooAs* /ournals* news"a"ers* articles* re"orts* the internet* as well as from conference and worAing "a"ers. <he @uestionnaires were "rocessed and anal2sed using the Statistical !roduct for Service Solutions S!SS# version 16. <he @ualitative data from the In-de"th Interviews I+Is# were manuall2 anal2sed which involved transcri8ing the data* categorising the data under s"ecific themes and using them to su""ort discussions in the "a"er where a""ro"riate. +igital "hotogra"hs were taAen to su""ort the o8servation sessions. In all* the results of the "a"er were "resented using fre@uencies* "ercentages* ta8les* e=hi8its from "ersonal o8servations and direct @uotations from the stud2 "artici"ants. ,$ Results and Discussion <his section of the "a"er "resents the findings of the stud2. It is organised under four 8road areas. <hese are the activities and waste management "ractices of NewmontF negative im"acts of mining on the well8eing of the residents* negative effects of mining on the environment* and lacA of "rotection against environmental risAs caused 82 mining. 4.1 Activities and Waste Management Practices of Newmont Ghana Gold Limited <he activities of mining com"anies* "articularl2 large scale surface mines generate much waste on the environment. <hese wastes are either in a form of li@uid or solid waste. In e=amining the waste generated 82 Newmont* the stud2 initiall2 sought to find out how the com"an2 conducts its o"erations s"ecific to mining. In an interview with an official from Newmont* he descri8ed the mining o"erations of the com"an2 as follows5 .s 2ou Anow alread2* we o"erate surface mines. Ie have five large o"en "its from which we o8tain ore. <his "rocess is t2"icall2 conducted as drilling* 8lasting* haulage of the ore to "rocessing "lant. .t the "lant* we do crushing and screening* agglomeration and stacAing. <hen lime -a(# is a""lied to the ore to raise the "C to 8etween 1%.$ and 11.%. Sodium c2anide solution Na-N# is then used for dissolution of the gold* a "rocess usuall2 referred to as c2ainidation. Ginall2 gold is recovered through electro-winning. Each stage in the "rocess generates some form of waste 8ut we have wa2s and means of managing such

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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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wastes. <he a8ove findings im"l2 that several activities or "rocess are carried out 82 Newmont to mine and "roduce gold. Each of these activities in one wa2 or the other generated some form of waste onto the environment. -onse@uentl2* it was e="edient to find out from the "ers"ectives of residents living around the mines* how the various activities generate waste onto the environment. <a8le 1 shows the main activities of Newmont in the .sutifi +istrict that generated waste onto the environment. 'able #" Activities of -e!mont that generate !aste .ctivit2 "rocess# Gre@uenc2 !ercent Caulage of ore '6 4% !it construction $2 24 +issolution of gold 44 2% :lasting of rocAs 2% & -rushing of ore 1% $ Electro-winingErefining gold $ 2 <otal 216 1%% Source5 GieldworA* 2%11 Grom the "ers"ectives of residents living in the communities located closer to the mines* haulage of rocAs 4%K# was the dominant activit2 or "rocesses of Newmont that generated waste. !erha"s this was the most visi8le of all the activities of mining in the localit2. It was followed 82 "it constriction 24K# and dissolution of gold 2%K#. !ersonal o8servation made on the activities of the com"an2 corro8orated the res"onses from the residents. It was o8served that mountains of rocA wastes were "iled u" on the edges of "its where drilling and 8lasting of rocAs were on-going. <he lands surrounding these "its had also 8een littered with rocA wastes from the "its. +usts emanating from the movement of haulage vehicles and other heav2 dut2 e@ui"ments were dominant in the communities. In addition* smoAe and fumes that came from vehicles and the "rocessing "lant also contri8uted to the gas generated from the activities of mining. It was o8served that all the roads that linAed the five "its to the "rocessing "lant not tarred. <hese roads "assed through the five communities and so "roduced a lot of dusts when the haulage vehicles "assed through them. -hemicals used for "rocessing ore into gold such as lime and c2anide as well as grease and oils from various activities in the mine formed a significant "ro"ortion of the li@uid wastes generated 82 Newmont. <hese were confined to tailings dams located close to rivers and streams in the +istrict. <hese findings follows similar o8servations made .Aa8>aa and +arimani 2%%1# in the <arAwa ,ining 3egion of 1hana* where the activities of several large scale mining com"anies have generated large volumes of solid* li@uid and gaseous wastes onto the environment. ,ining com"anies around the world use different methods to dis"ose off wastes that are generated 82 their activities. Ihiles some of the methods were a""ro"riate* others have 8een found to 8e im"acting negativel2 on the environment Cilson 9 N2ame* 2%%6#. <o find out the form of waste management "ractices ado"ted 82 Newmont* an official of the com"an2 was asAed to descri8e its waste management "ractices. In res"ect of industrial wastes* the official indicated that5 <he management of waste from this mine is done in accordance to a""roved environmental "lans. <he s"ent hea" and waste rocA hea"s are sta8ili>ed and revegetated. <ailing slurries and c2anide are channelled into tailing dams that also are re-vegetated. Ie also have containment dams to contain water drawn from the "its. Each of the five "its has two containment dams around it. 3eagent containers and "acAing materials are sold out to contractors who dis"ose them off. Ie also sell s"ent oil and grease to end-users. Cowever* the official indicated that the com"an2 had not "ut in "lace an2 effective method of managing gaseous wastes such as dusts* fumes and smoAe that were generated 82 the haulage trucAs* earth-moving e@ui"ment and the "rocessing "lant. (n the management of domestic wastes* the official remarAed5 <he .hafo !ro/ect has a sewage and waste water treatment "lant* which treats faecal matter 8efore it is discharged. <he "lant uses the .ctivated Sludge !rocess* a 8iological treatment "rocess* which reduces levels of organic waste matter and treats 8acteria. Such "lants are used throughout the world to manage sewage and wastewater. <he facilit2 "roduces safe effluent for discharge in the form of a clear water and sludge effluent. Ie have contractors charged with discharging the sludge into s"eciall2 designated landfills far from human ha8itation. Ie 8urn "a"ers and wood "articles in incinerators. I must admit that monitoring of these contractors is "oor and so on some few occasionsF we were faced with some challenges where these contactors failed to "ro"erl2 manage these wastes generated 82 our worAers.

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It can 8e inferred from the a8ove findings that management of the com"an2 has "ut in "lace various methods to manage li@uid waste emanating from its activities. Cowever* some of these methods were not a""ro"riate. In "articular* 8urning solid wastes in incinerators and de"ositing sludge into landfills can 8e regarded as a "oor management "ractice even though it is the chea"est. .s indicated in the waste management hierarch2* the cost of incineration and discharging wastes into landfills is chea"er com"ared to other methods such as rec2cling and reuse 1irling* 2%%$#. <he com"an2 thus "referred incineration and land filling as a wa2 of reducing cost. .s a large scale mining com"an2 that generate large volumes of waste* it was e="ected that rec2cling and re-use of waste should have 8een the most "referred methods of waste management* 8ut this was not the case. <he findings also reveal "oor su"ervision on the "art of Newmont in managing its wastes as some contractors "rocured to manage wastes on its 8ehalf* failed to live u" to e="ectation. 4.2 Negative Effects of Mining on the Wellbeing of esidents In s"ite of the "ositive im"acts such as infrastructural develo"ments and creation of /o8 o""ortunities that mining hel"s to offer* mining activities in the .sutifi +istrict e="osed the local "o"ulation and in "articular the "oor* to serious risAs to their health* securit2* well-8eing* as well as to the sta8ilit2 of their em"lo2ment* income* and s"ending "ower ,c,ahon 9 3em2* 2%%1F .rmstrong* 2%%'#.4sing a three "oint ?iAert scale* residents of the mining-fringe communities e="ressed their o"inions on the adverse im"acts of mining on their well 8eing as indicated in <a8le 2. 'able &" .erceived adverse im)acts of mining on !ellbeing of residents ?evel of agreement K# Statements . 4 + <(<.? 3eduction in farmlands &4 1 $ 1%% Good insecurit2 &6 3 1 1%% !ressure on e=isting infrastructure '4 $ 12 1%% Cigh cost of living &4 2 $ 1%% Gamil2 disorganisation '3 6 12 1%% Inade@uate housing 6' ' 14 1%% +estruction of sources of water '2 11 & 1%% L.greeF 4M 4ndecided or uncertainF +M +isagree* NM 216 Source5 GieldworA* 2%11 It can 8e reali>ed from <a8le 2 that a significant "ro"ortion of the residents e="ressed strong agreement in res"ect of the adverse im"acts of mining on their well8eing. Gor e=am"le* Gor instance &4 "ercent of the res"ondents agreed that NewmontBs o"erations have led to reduction in farmlands* against 1 "ercent that were undecided and $ "ercent that disagreed. .gain* &6 "ercent agreed that mining o"erations have resulted in food insecurit2* com"ared with 3 "ercent and 1 "ercent that were uncertain and disagreed res"ectivel2. -onsidering the fact that more than si=t2 "ercent of the resident in these mining-communities were involved in farming .sutifi +istrict .sse8l2* 2%1%#* the taAing over of 2*426 hectares of farmlands of which 1*&6$ hectares had 8een activel2 cro""ed# 82 Newmont im"lies a significant reduction in the natural asset land# which is a Ae2 resource to rural residents* "articularl2 farmers. -onse@uentl2* food insecurit2 was 8ound to occur due "rinci"all2 to reduction in farmlands and farm si>es mainl2 8ecause NewmontBs mine concession covers large tracAs of lands that were originall2 used for farming. Notwithstanding the num8er of infrastructure "ro/ects undertaAen 82 Newmont in the various communities* '4 "ercent of the res"ondents agreed that mining o"erations have resulted in "ressure on "h2sical infrastructure such as "u8lic toilets* health facilities and "i"e8orne water. .Aa8>aa and +arimani 2%%1# had earlier intimated that the influ= of "eo"le to mining-fringe communities in search of /o8s and other o""ortunities that come along with the o"eration of large scale mines* increases the "o"ulation of such communities and thus e=erts "ressure on the few e=isting "h2sical infrastructure. (ne of the Anown negative effects of mining is the high cost of living within communities near mine locations .g8esin2ale* 2%%3F Cilson 9 N2ame* 2%%6#. ,ore than &% "ercent &4K# of the res"ondents attested to the a8ove finding. . num8er of factors were identified as 8eing res"onsi8le for the high cost of living in the stud2 area. Girst* there was dis"arit2 in incomes* in favour of mining com"an2 staff as the salaries of the 1hanaian staff in the mines are inde=ed to the 4S dollar ;ote2 9 .dusei* 2%%&#. <his raises their income far a8ove em"lo2ees in other sectors. ?iAewise* the e="atriate staffs of Newmont were "aid internationall2 com"etitive salaries* which further widened the income dis"arities in area. <hus* this grou" of high-income earners has influenced the "ricing of goods and services such as housing* food and other amenities. Iith lower incomes* the local "eo"le are out "riced 82 em"lo2ees of the mining com"an2 in the "urchase of goods and services* a situation that increase the cost of living for residents in mining-fringe communities. 4.! Negative Effects of Mining on the Environment In line with the tenets of environmental /ustice* three "oint ?iAert scale was used to seeA the views of the communit2 res"ondents on the effects of NewmontBs o"erations on the environment <a8le 3#.

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'able +" -egative effects of mining activities on the environment ?evel of agreement K# Statements . 4 + <(<.? !ollution of riversE streams 82 c2anide and effluents '$ 6 & 1%% .ir "ollution resulting from dust* smoAe and fumes from '1 3 16 1%% mining o"erations ?and "ollution from grease and oils from various activities '3 6 1% 1%% -racAs in 8uildings due to vi8rations from 8lasting o"erations '$ ' 6 1%% Siltation of rivers and streams 66 13 1% 1%% ?and degradation &2 2 6 1%% +eforestation '4 $ 11 1%% ?andsca"e destruction &1 4 $ 1%% L.M .greeF 4M 4ndecided or uncertainF +M +isagreeN* NM 216 Source5 GieldworA* 2%11 <he results in <a8le 3 im"l2 a strong agreement on the "art of residents of the five communities that the activities of Newmont have had wides"read negative conse@uences on the environment. . significant "ro"ortion of the residents agreed that water* air and land "ollution was a Ae2 conse@uence of NewmontBs o"erations on the environment. Gor instance '$ "ercent of the res"ondents agreed that NewmontBs o"erations have led to "ollution of rivers with c2anide and effluents* against 6 "ercent that were undecided and & "ercent that disagreed. Similarl2* '1 "ercent agreed to air "ollution resulting from various activities from the mines. Indeed* su8stantial evidence has 8een collated concerning the detrimental effects of NewmontBs activities on local water s2stems in the stud2 area .rmstrong* 2%%'#. (f ma/or concern is the mismanagement of c2anide and faecal matter which have led to the contamination of freshwater resources and soils. Gor e=am"le* in Ge8ruar2 2%1%* Newmont was found guilt2 82 a ,inisterial Investigative -ommittee and was ordered to "a2 1CO6 million to the 1overnment of 1hana for negligentl2 discharging c2anide into the Su8ri 3iver in the .sutifi +istrict 1hana News .genc2* 2%1%#. Earlier in +ecem8er* 2%%3* the com"an2 had 8een found guilt2 82 the Environmental !rotection .genc2 E!.# for discharging faecal matter from its Sewerage <reatment !lant to the 3iver .suo"re that serves downstream communities liAe ;waA2eArom* Ntotroso and ;en2ase No.1 and No.2 Iassa .ssociation of -ommunities .ffected 82 ,ining PI.-.,Q* 2%%'#. !er its activities* Newmont is worsening the water stress situation and also creating "u8lic health "ro8lems for the "eo"le in the area. Indeed* the adverse im"acts of such discharge on local fish and wildlife "o"ulations as well as the health and livelihoods of rural farming and indigenous communities is a matter of concern. 3es"ondents also e="ressed concern a8out land degradation* deforestation and alteration of the landsca"e of the area as a result of NewmontBs mining o"erations. .s indicated in <a8le 2* '4 "ercent of the res"ondents agreed that the o"erations of Newmont have resulted in deforestation. Gield o8servations revealed that one of the five o"en "its of Newmont was located in the :osomAese Gorest 3eserve* near Ntotroso. It was realised that some trees have 8een cut down to maAe wa2 for the construction of the "it and su8se@uent trans"ortation of mineral ore to the "rocessing "lant. <hus* even though the forest was a reserved one* the com"an2 had gone ahead to conduct mining o"erations in it* a "ractice that goes contrar2 to the laws on mining in 1hana. .n interview with an official of an environmental N1( confirmed this5 <he "resence of large o"en "its* rocA waste* to=ic chemicals as well as the dust and fumes emanating from the o"erations of Newmont has disastrous conse@uences on the environment. <he conse@uences of "olluted water* land and soils can 8e seen in terms of 8ad health* lost of agricultural "roductivit2 and damaged ecos2stems. <he 8eautiful landsca"e has also 8een destro2ed. <here is also loss of 8iodiversit2 as most of the flora and fauna s"ecies have 8een destro2ed 82 the o"erations of the com"an2. Even then* Newmont refuse to acce"t res"onsi8ilit2 for the adverse im"act of its activities on the environment and livelihoods. In res"ect of environmental degradation* res"ondents com"lained of missive destruction of the land in an around the mining concessions. .n o"inion leader in one of the affected communit2 remarAed as follows5 -onsidering the wa2 Newmont is destro2ing our environment* I can sa2 that the negative im"acts of mining far outweighs the 8enefits. In most "arts of this communit2* the environment is undergoing ra"id degradation and its immense economic value is diminishing due mainl2 to the heav2 concentration of mining activities in this area. <he decrease in land for agricultural "roduction has also led to a shortening of the fallow "eriod from 1%-1$ 2ears to 23 2ears. <he traditional 8ush fallow s2stem can no longer 8e "ractised due to inade@uac2 of land. <he com"an2Bs activities continue to reduce the vegetation of the area to levels that are destructive to 8iological diversit2.

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(8servation of some as"ects of the "h2sical environment showed negative effects of NewmontBs activities on the environment. Gigures 2* 3 and 4 show the e=tent to which the activities of the com"an2 were causing "ro8lems for the residents.

Figure &" River Asua)re )olluted b effluents from from -e!mont0s o)erations Source5 GieldworA* 2%11

Figure +" A mountain of roc/ !aste at one of -e!mont0s o)en )its in -totroso Source5 GieldworA* 2%11

Figure ," (rac/s on some buildings in Ken asi -o$# due to blasting b -e!mont Source5 GieldworA* 2%11 ?iAe iAe other mining com"anies* Newmont tends to /ustif2 its actions with the assertion that it "a2s ta=es and ro2alties to the 1overnment of 1hana and also undertaAe Social 3es"onsi8ilit2 !rogrammes S3!s# aimed at develo"ing communities within its o"erational o"erational areas. Cowever* /udging 82 the e=tremel2 "oor state of the ma/orit2 of residents in mine-affected affected communities* the small "ortion of mining revenue &K of the total# allocated to local authorities for communit2 develo"ment "ur"oses a""ears to 8e grossl2 insufficient i to su""ort &3

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the Ainds of "rogrammes needed to ade@uatel2 mitigate the negative socio-environmental im"acts of NewmontBs activities. 4.4 Lac" of Protection against Environmental is"s #a$sed b% Mining ,atters on lacA of "rotection against environment risAs caused 82 mining activities came u" strongl2 in the stud2. ,ore than &% "ercent of the res"ondents com"lained of lacA of su""ort from the central government and other "u8lic sector mining su""ort organisations to mitigate the negative im"acts of mining on their livelihoods. 3es"ondents were also concerned a8out the a""arent lacA of su""ort from Newmont* the local government +istrict .ssem8l2# and traditional leadershi" on matters relating to the negative im"acts of mining on the various communities. It also emerged that information on the activities of the mining com"an2 such as its total concession* schedules for 8lasting rocAs and movement of heav2 dut2 machiner2 was inade@uate. Ihen res"ondents were asAed whether the2 had access to information concerning the activities of Newmont that have a 8earing on the environment more than 6% "ercent answered in the negative. <his was confirmed during an interview with an o"inion leader who said5 Newmont is not read2 to tell us the truth a8out the im"act of its activities on our environment and health. ,ost of the information we get is 8ased on hear-sa2. Ihen 2ou confront management of the com"an2 for information on its o"erations* the2 will Aee" on tossing 2ou u" and down until 2ou 8ecome fed- u" and give u". It should 8e noted that* the ,ineral and ,ining .ct of 1hana* .ct 6%3 does not o8lige mining com"anies to com"ulsoril2 disclose information concerning their activities to the "u8lic individuals and institutions that want information from a mining com"an2 in res"ect of its o"erations are re@uired to "a2 for such information. <his* together with the cum8ersome and 8ureaucratic "rocedures involved in seeAing information from mining com"anies* serves as a disincentive for residents of mining-fringe communities and "revents them from doing so. Cence* there is deficienc2 in 1hanaBs mineral "olic2 which is 8eing e="loited 82 mining com"anies. <he seriousness with which the activities of Newmont were destro2ing the environment raised a lot of @uestions a8out the role of the ,inerals -ommission* the Environmental !rotection .genc2 and the Gorestr2 -ommission in securing the environment and well-8eing of the affected "eo"le. :2 its mandate* the ,inerals -ommission recommends mineral "olic2* "romotes mineral develo"ment* advises government on mineral matters* ensure environmentall2 sustaina8le and serves as a liaison 8etween the government and the mining industr2 ,inerals -ommission* 2%%$#. <he E!. is su""osed to "rotect the countr2Bs natural resources as well as the health and welfare of the "eo"le 82 ensuring environmentall2 sound resource e=traction. <he Gorestr2 -ommission is res"onsi8le for the management of the countr2Bs forest to ensure a 8alance 8etween mineral e=traction and sustaina8le forest resources. Cowever* the stud2 revealed that the E!. did not have an office in the .sutifi +istrict. <he onl2 office of the E!. was located in Sun2ani* the regional ca"ital of the :rong .hafo 3egion which was 8edevilled with logistical constraints as indicated 82 an official of the agenc2#* and thus cannot "erform its roles effectivel2 and efficientl2. <he agenc2 onl2 conducted ins"ections on the activities of the mining com"an2 u"on recei"t of com"lains from the leadershi" of some affected communities. <he +istrict Gorestr2 -ommission also com"lained of inade@uate staff and logistics such as vehicles to carr2 out its duties effectivel2. Cence* the -ommission was not even aware that one of the five forest reserves in the district* the :osomAese 3eserve* was encroached on 82 Newmont. Indeed* the a8ilit2 of these agencies to enforce environmental @ualit2 standards and other regulator2 measures is undermined. Grom the "ers"ectives of the staAeholder institutions* a num8er of challenges including inade@uate human and financial resources have "revented them from "erforming their roles effectivel2 and efficientl2. Gor instance the .sutifi +istrict .ssem8l2 admitted that it was aware of the environmental ha>ards faced 82 the inha8itants of the district. .n official of the .ssem8l2 admitted that his outfit has received several com"lains from the residents a8out how the activities of Newmont was im"acting negativel2 on their environment and health. Cowever* the official was not a8le to "in-"oint an2 "ractical measures "ut in "lace to address these "ro8lems. Ce attri8uted the failure of the .ssem8l2 to address the com"laints to man2 challenges with financial and logistical constraints 8een "redominant. <he official from the .ssem8l2 remarAed5 Ensuring that the residents in .sutifi +istrict es"eciall2 those in mining-fringe communities live in good and health2 environment is one of the Ae2 "riorities of the .ssem8l2. .s at now we have not 8een a8le to achieve this as a result of some challenges. Ginancial* logistical and other miscellaneous challenges are maAing it difficult for us to constantl2 monitor the activities of Newmont and "unish those destro2ing the environment. Ceads of the other staAeholder institutions conceded that the2 have not lived u" to the e="ectations of the "eo"le with res"ect safeguarding the environment and well-8eing of residents living in mining-fringe communities. <his* the2 attri8uted to financial and logistical constraints. (ne head remarAed5

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,2 institution has onl2 one office s"ace for four staff. :esides* we have no vehicle to hel" us "erform our duties. <he onl2 motor 8iAe availa8le has 8een grounded for 2ears. In most cases we rel2 on the Newmont for vehicles and instruments to do our worA which is affecting our o"erations 8ecause some of the residents that we have 8een com"romised 82 the mining com"an2. <he a8ove findings underscore the weaAness of the various staAeholders in safeguarding the environment and well 8eing of residents of mining-fringe communities in the .sutifi +istrict. In the event that the various institutions are constrained 82 inade@uate logistics and financial resources as o8served in the .sutifi +istrict* ensuring environmental /ustice 8ecomes a ma/or "ro8lem. <he conse@uences are that the health and well-8eing of the "eo"le cannot 8e guaranteed. Eventuall2* residents living in mining-fringe communities are left to their fate. 1$ (onclusions and .olic %m)lications <his "a"er has esta8lished that the right of residents of mining-fringe communities in the .sutifi +istrict to live free from environmental ha>ards has 8een taAen for granted. <he activities of Newmont are the main driving force 8ehind the current trend of events. <he ina8ilit2 of staAeholders to secure the environment is a clear manifestation of leaving the residents to their fate. :oth the "rocedural and su8stantive connotations of environmental /ustice as e="ressed 82 .g2eman and Evans 2%%4# have eluded the residents. -onse@uentl2* the residents continue to live in a ha>ardous environmental condition caused 82 the mining o"erations. :esides* the concerns and views of the residents on the "oor environmental conditions in which the2 are living in are "ersistentl2 down "la2ed or neglected 82 the relevant staAeholders. In order to "rotect the environment and well-8eing of residents of mining-fringe communities in the .sutifi +istrict* the following recommendations have 8een suggested. Newmont should a""l2 international 8est "ractice to reduce the adverse im"acts of its activities on the environment and well-8eing of residents. <he com"an2 should 8uild more containment dams to control c2anide and other chemicals in the event of s"illage. .lternative sources of water such as "i"e-8orne water should 8e "rovided to the residents so that the2 will sto" using water from the streams and rains that are alread2 "olluted. Institutions that regulate the activities of mining com"anies should 8e ade@uatel2 resourced 82 the government* "articularl2 with logistics and finance. <his will ena8le them effectivel2 monitor the activities of Newmont and also a""l2 the necessar2 sanctions whenever the com"an2 flouts the laid down environmental com"liance standards. <he e=isting legislation on mining and other environmental guidelines in 1hana are riddled with loo"holes that are 8eing e="loited 82 mining com"anies. . second looA at these laws with em"hasis on how to mitigate the adverse effects of mining on the "eo"le is necessar2 in order to safeguard the well 8eing of communities affected 82 mining o"erations. Gor instance* the "rovisions in the ,inerals and ,ining .ct* .ct 6%$ that allows mining com"anies to hold more than $%K of their concessions must 8e reviewed. <his has 8ecome necessar2 8ecause man2 mining com"anies including Newmont hold large tracAs of lands that would otherwise 8e availa8le to farmers. .lso* the confidentialit2 clause that allows non-disclosure of Environmental .udit 3e"orts on mines must 8e removed to facilitate "u8lic access to such re"orts. <his can hel" "ut the mining com"anies on their toes when it comes to minimising the negative im"acts of their o"erations on the "eo"le and the environment. References .8ane* ..,. 2%%'# !overt2 in 1hana5 Gocus on the northern regions* In5 S. :. ;endie and !. ,artens Ed.#* Governance and s$stainable develo&ment. -a"e -oast5 ,arcel Cughes !u8licit2 1rou"#* "". 16%-16'. .d/ei ,ensah* -.* :ine2* S. (. and +auda* S. 2%13#. 4r8an environmental in/ustice in 1hana5 <he activities of small-scale "alm oil "roducers in the .hanta Iest +istrict. 'nternational (o$rnal of )evelo&ment and *$stainabilit%* 2 3# "u8lished online 8efore "rint. .g8esin2ale* !. 2%%3#. 1hanaBs gold rush and regional develo"ment5 <he case of the Iassa Iest +istrict. *P 'NG esearch *eries+ 445142-16$. .g2eman* J. 2%%6#. Environmental /ustice and sustaina8ilit2* In5 ,. .tAinson* S. +iet> and E. Neuma2er Eds.#* ,andboo" of s$stainable develo&ment. -heltenham5 Edward Elgar* "". 34-3&. .g2eman* J.* :ullard* 3. +. and Evans* :. 2%%2#. E="loring the ne=us5 :ringing together sustaina8ilit2* environmental /ustice and e@uit2. *&ace and Polit%+ 6 1#* 66-&%. .g2eman* J. and Evans* :. 2%%4#. Just sustaina8ilit25 <he emerging discourse of environmental /ustice in :ritainR -he Geogra&hical (o$rnal+ 16% 2#51$$-164. .Aa8>aa* <. 2%%&#. Mining in Ghana. 'm&lications for national economic develo&ment and &overt% red$ction. -anada5 International +evelo"ment and 3esearch -entre I+3-. .Aa8>aa* <. and +arimani* .. 2%%1#. 'm&act of mining sector investment in Ghana. A st$d% of the -ar"wa

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mining region. +raft 3e"ort for S.!3I. .rmstrong* .. <. 2%%'#. 1old striAe in the 8read8asAet5 Indigenous livelihoods* the Iorld :anA* and territorial restructuring in western 1hana. )evelo&ment e&ort+ 1'52$-4'. .sutifi +istrict .ssem8l2 2%1%#. )istrict )evelo&ment Plan/ evised. .sutifi5 .sutifi +istrict .ssem8l2. :oon* E. ;. and .8a8io* G. 2%%&#. #or&orate social res&onsibilit% in Ghana. Lessons from the mining sector. . "a"er "resented at the 2&th .nnual -onference of the International .ssociation for Im"act .ssessment* .ccra* 16-22 ,a2. :rulle* 3. J. and !ellow* +. N. 2%%6#. Environmental /ustice5 Cuman health and environmental Ine@ualities. Ann$al eview of P$blic ,ealth+ 265 1%3-124. :ullard* 3. +. 2%%1#. Environmental /ustice in the 21st -entur25 3ace still matters. Ph%lon* 3 4#* 1$1-161. -reswell* J.I. 2%%3#. esearch design. 0$alitative+ 1$antitative and mi2ed method a&&roaches 2nd Ed.# -alifornia5 Sage !u8lications. +arimani* .. 2%%&#. I,G and Iorld :anA grou" under fire. Mining and Environment Agenda* 251-4. Environmental !rotection .genc2 2%11#. Large scale mining o&erations and environmental &rotection/ )raft Ann$al e&ort. .ccra5 Environmental !rotection .genc2. Gisher* .. J.* ?aing* J. StoecAel 9 <ownsend J. 1&&'#. ,andboo" for famil% &lanning o&erations research design. New HorA5 <he !o"ulation -ouncil. 1hana News .genc2 2%1%#. Newmont Ghana Gold Limited fined millions for c%anide s&illage at Ahafo Mines. 3etrieved Novem8er 4* 2%11 from www.ghananewsagenc2.orgsEnews 1hana Statistical Service 2%%'#. Ghana living standards s$rve% re&ort 3fifth ro$nd4. .ccra5 1hana Statistical Service. 1irling* 3. 2%%$#. $bbish5 )irt on o$r hands and crisis ahead. ?ondon5 <ransworld !u8lishers. Cilson* 1. ,. and N2ame* G. 2%%6#. 1old mining in 1hanaBs forest reserves5 . re"ort on the current de8ate. Area+ 3'516$-1'$. Cutchful* E.* 2%%2* Ghana6s Ad7$stment e2&erience. A &arado2 of reform..ccra5 Ioeli !u8lishing Services. Institute of Statistical Social and Economic 3esearch ISSE3#* 2%%6* -he state of the Ghanaian econom% in 2889. .ccra5 4niversit2 of 1hana. ;aswan* .. 1&&6#. Environmental /ustice5 :ridging the ga" 8etween environmental laws and S/usticeS. American :niversit% Law eview+ 42 2#5 4$-$6. ;ote2* N. .. and .dusei* !. 2%%&#. Pro7ect finance mechanisms+ h$man rights and s$stainable develo&ment in Ghana6s mining sector. -he Newmont and AngloGold mining &ro7ects+ +raft !a"er. .ccra5 Gacult2 of ?aw- 4niversit2 of 1hana. ,ann* -. J. 2%%3#. (8servational research methods* research design II5 -ohort* cross sectional and case-control studies. Emergenc% Medical (o$rnal+ 2%5$4-6%. ,c,ahon* 1. and 3em2* G. 2%%1#. *ocio/economic and environmental effects of large mines on the comm$nit%; #ase st$dies from Latin America+ #anada+ and *&ain. Iashington +-5 <he Iorld :anA. ,ertens* +. ,. 2%%3#. ,i=ed methods and the "olitics of human research5 <he transformative- emanci"ator2 "ers"ective* In5 .. <ashaAAori and -. <eddlie Eds#* ,andboo" of mi2ed methods in social and behavioral research. <housand (aAs* -.5 Sage* "". 13$T164. ,inerals -ommission 2%11#. *tate of s$rface mining in Ghana/)raft e&ort. .ccra5 ,inerals -ommission. ,inerals -ommission 2%%$#. Ann$al e&ort. .ccra5 ,inerals -ommission. Newmont 1hana 1old ?imited 2%12#. -he socio/economic im&act of Newmont Ghana Gold Limited. .ccra5 Stratcom .frica !u8lishers. (lsen* -. and 1eorge* +. ,. 2%%4#. #ross/sectional st$d% design and data anal%sis. 3etrieved ,a2 16* 2%1% from www.college8oard.comE"rodUdownloadsE2esE42&6U,( +4?EU%$."df. Songsore* J. 2%%3#. egional develo&ment in Ghana. -he theor% and the realit%. .ccra5 Ioeli !u8lishing Service. Iassa .ssociation of -ommunities .ffected 82 ,ining PI.-.,Q 2%%'#. WA#AM condemns c%anide s&illage b% Newmont into rivers and streams in As$tifi )istrict. Iritten corres"ondence with E!.-1hana 3eference Num8er5 I.-EI.E%2#. HanAson* !.I.;. 2%%&#. <he d2namics of the gold mining industr2 and its effects on settlements and livelihoods in Iassa Iest +istrict* 1hana* In5 J. .gergard* N. Go/d and ;. ). 1ough Eds.# $ral/ $rban d%namics. livelihood mobilit% and mar"ets in African and Asian frontiers ?ondon5 <a2lor and Grancis#* "" 6'-''.

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