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of mathematics. For other uses, see Calculus (disambiguation . This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. !lease help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. ("ecember #$%& Calculus Fundamental theorem 'imits of functions Continuity (ean value theorem )olle*s theorem "ifferential calculus+sho,.ntegral calculus+sho,/eries+sho,0ector calculus+sho,(ultivariable calculus+sho,/peciali1ed calculi+sho,v t e Calculus is the mathematical study of change,+%- in the same ,ay that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of operations and their application to solving e2uations. .t has t,o ma3or branches, differential calculus (concerning rates of change and slopes of curves , and integral calculus (concerning accumulation of 2uantities and the areas under curves 4 these t,o branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. 5oth branches make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite se2uences and infinite series to a ,ell6defined limit. 7enerally considered to have been founded in the %8th century by .saac 9e,ton and 7ottfried 'eibni1, today calculus has ,idespread uses in science, engineering and economics and can solve many problems that algebra alone cannot. Calculus is a ma3or part of modern mathematics education. : course in calculus is a gate,ay to other, more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, broadly called mathematical analysis. Calculus has historically been called ;the calculus of infinitesimals;, or ;infinitesimal calculus;. The ,ord ;calculus; comes from 'atin (calculus and refers to a small stone used for counting. (ore generally, calculus (plural calculi refers to any method or system of calculation guided by the symbolic manipulation of e<pressions. /ome e<amples of other ,ell6kno,n

calculi are propositional calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, and process calculus. Contents % =istory %.% :ncient %.# (edieval %.& (odern %.> Foundations %.? /ignificance # !rinciples #.% 'imits and infinitesimals #.# "ifferential calculus #.& 'eibni1 notation #.> .ntegral calculus #.? Fundamental theorem & :pplications > /ee also >.% 'ists >.# /ee also ? )eferences ?.% 9otes ?.# 5ooks @ Ather resources @.% Further reading @.# Anline books 8 B<ternal links =istory (ain article: =istory of calculus :ncient The ancient period introduced some of the ideas that led to integral calculus, but does not seem to have developed these ideas in a rigorous and systematic ,ay. Calculations of volume and area, one goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Bgyptian (osco, papyrus (c. %C#$ 5C , but the formulas are simple instructions, ,ith no indication as to method, and some of them lack ma3or components.+#- From the age of 7reek mathematics, Budo<us (c. >$CD&?? 5C used the method of e<haustion, ,hich foreshado,s the concept of the limit, to calculate areas and volumes, ,hile :rchimedes (c. #C8D#%# 5C developed this idea further, inventing heuristics ,hich resemble the methods of integral calculus.+&- The method of e<haustion ,as later reinvented in China by 'iu =ui in the &rd century :" in order to find the area of a circle.+>- .n the ?th century :", Eu Chong1hi established a method that ,ould later be called Cavalieri*s principle to find the volume of a sphere.+?(edieval

:le<ander the 7reat*s invasion of northern .ndia brought 7reek trigonometry, using the chord, to .ndia ,here the sine, cosine, and tangent ,ere conceived. .ndian mathematicians gave a semi6rigorous method of differentiation of some trigonometric functions. .n the (iddle Bast, :lha1en derived a formula for the sum of fourth po,ers. =e used the results to carry out ,hat ,ould no, be called an integration, ,here the formulas for the sums of integral s2uares and fourth po,ers allo,ed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.+@- .n the %>th century, .ndian mathematician (adhava of /angamagrama and the Ferala school of astronomy and mathematics stated components of calculus such as the Taylor series and infinite series appro<imations.+8- =o,ever, they ,ere not able to ;combine many differing ideas under the t,o unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, sho, the connection bet,een the t,o, and turn calculus into the great problem6solving tool ,e have today;.+@(odern ;The calculus ,as the first achievement of modern mathematics and it is difficult to overestimate its importance. . think it defines more une2uivocally than anything else the inception of modern mathematics, and the system of mathematical analysis, ,hich is its logical development, still constitutes the greatest technical advance in e<act thinking.; G John von 9eumann+C.n Burope, the foundational ,ork ,as a treatise due to 5onaventura Cavalieri, ,ho argued that volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimally thin cross6sections. The ideas ,ere similar to :rchimedes* in The (ethod, but this treatise ,as lost until the early part of the t,entieth century. Cavalieri*s ,ork ,as not ,ell respected since his methods could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal 2uantities he introduced ,ere disreputable at first. The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieri*s infinitesimals ,ith the calculus of finite differences developed in Burope at around the same time. !ierre de Fermat, claiming that he borro,ed from "iophantus, introduced the concept of ade2uality, ,hich represented e2uality up to an infinitesimal error term.+H- The combination ,as achieved by John Wallis, .saac 5arro,, and James 7regory, the latter t,o proving the second fundamental theorem of calculus around %@8$. .saac 9e,ton developed the use of calculus in his la,s of motion and gravitation. The product rule and chain rule, the notion of higher derivatives, Taylor series, and analytical functions ,ere introduced by .saac 9e,ton in an idiosyncratic notation ,hich he used to solve problems of mathematical physics.+%$- .n his ,orks, 9e,ton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations ,ith infinitesimals by e2uivalent geometrical arguments ,hich ,ere considered beyond reproach. =e used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a ,eight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his !rincipia (athematica (%@C8 . .n other ,ork, he developed series e<pansions for functions, including fractional and irrational po,ers, and it ,as clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor

series. =e did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods ,ere still considered disreputable. 7ottfried Wilhelm 'eibni1 ,as the first to publish his results on the development of calculus. These ideas ,ere arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by 7ottfried Wilhelm 'eibni1, ,ho ,as originally accused of plagiarism by 9e,ton.+%%- =e is no, regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus. =is contribution ,as to provide a clear set of rules for ,orking ,ith infinitesimal 2uantities, allo,ing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Inlike 9e,ton, 'eibni1 paid a lot of attention to the formalism, often spending days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. 'eibni1 and 9e,ton are usually both credited ,ith the invention of calculus. 9e,ton ,as the first to apply calculus to general physics and 'eibni1 developed much of the notation used in calculus today. The basic insights that both 9e,ton and 'eibni1 provided ,ere the la,s of differentiation and integration, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an appro<imating polynomial series. 5y 9e,ton*s time, the fundamental theorem of calculus ,as kno,n. When 9e,ton and 'eibni1 first published their results, there ,as great controversy over ,hich mathematician (and therefore ,hich country deserved credit. 9e,ton derived his results first, but 'eibni1 published first. 9e,ton claimed 'eibni1 stole ideas from his unpublished notes, ,hich 9e,ton had shared ,ith a fe, members of the )oyal /ociety. This controversy divided Bnglish6speaking mathematicians from continental mathematicians for many years, to the detriment of Bnglish mathematics. : careful e<amination of the papers of 'eibni1 and 9e,ton sho,s that they arrived at their results independently, ,ith 'eibni1 starting first ,ith integration and 9e,ton ,ith differentiation. Today, both 9e,ton and 'eibni1 are given credit for developing calculus independently. .t is 'eibni1, ho,ever, ,ho gave the ne, discipline its name. 9e,ton called his calculus ;the science of flu<ions;. /ince the time of 'eibni1 and 9e,ton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing development of calculus. Ane of the first and most complete ,orks on finite and infinitesimal analysis ,as ,ritten in %8>C by (aria 7aetana :gnesi.+%#(aria 7aetana :gnesi Foundations .n calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of a sub3ect from precise a<ioms and definitions. .n early calculus the use of infinitesimal 2uantities ,as thought unrigorous, and ,as fiercely critici1ed by a number of authors, most notably (ichel )olle and 5ishop 5erkeley. 5erkeley famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed 2uantities in his book The :nalyst in %8&>. : recent study argues that 'eibni1ian calculus ,as more solidly grounded than 5erkeley*s empiricist criti2ue thereof.+%&- Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for

much of the century follo,ing 9e,ton and 'eibni1, and is still to some e<tent an active area of research today. /everal mathematicians, including (aclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals, but it ,ould not be until %?$ years later ,hen, due to the ,ork of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a ,ay ,as finally found to avoid mere ;notions; of infinitely small 2uantities.+%>- The foundations of differential and integral calculus had been laid. .n Cauchy*s ,riting (see Cours d*:nalyse , ,e find a broad range of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a (some,hat imprecise prototype of an (J, K 6definition of limit in the definition of differentiation. .n his ,ork Weierstrass formali1ed the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals. Follo,ing the ,ork of Weierstrass, it eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal 2uantities. 5ernhard )iemann used these ideas to give a precise definition of the integral. .t ,as also during this period that the ideas of calculus ,ere generali1ed to Buclidean space and the comple< plane. .n modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, ,hich contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been greatly e<tended. =enri 'ebesgue invented measure theory and used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions. 'aurent /ch,art1 introduced distributions, ,hich can be used to take the derivative of any function ,hatsoever. 'imits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. :nother ,ay is to use :braham )obinson*s non6standard analysis. )obinson*s approach, developed in the %H@$s, uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system ,ith infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original 9e,ton6'eibni1 conception. The resulting numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a 'eibni16like development of the usual rules of calculus. /ignificance While some of the ideas of calculus had been developed earlier in Bgypt, 7reece, China, .ndia, .ra2, !ersia, and Japan, the modern use of calculus began in Burope, during the %8th century, ,hen .saac 9e,ton and 7ottfried Wilhelm 'eibni1 built on the ,ork of earlier mathematicians to introduce its basic principles. The development of calculus ,as built on earlier concepts of instantaneous motion and area underneath curves. :pplications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of a curve, and optimi1ation. :pplications of integral calculus include computations involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, ,ork, and pressure. (ore advanced applications include po,er series and Fourier series. Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion. For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers ,restled ,ith parado<es involving division by 1ero or sums of infinitely many numbers. These 2uestions arise in the study of motion and area. The ancient 7reek philosopher Eeno of Blea gave several

famous e<amples of such parado<es. Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, ,hich resolve the parado<es. !rinciples 'imits and infinitesimals (ain articles: 'imit of a function, .nfinitesimal, and .nfinitesimal Calculus Calculus is usually developed by ,orking ,ith very small 2uantities. =istorically, the first method of doing so ,as by infinitesimals. These are ob3ects ,hich can be treated like numbers but ,hich are, in some sense, ;infinitely small;. :n infinitesimal number d< could be greater than $, but less than any number in the se2uence %, %L#, %L&, ... and less than any positive real number. :ny integer multiple of an infinitesimal is still infinitely small, i.e., infinitesimals do not satisfy the :rchimedean property. From this point of vie,, calculus is a collection of techni2ues for manipulating infinitesimals. This approach fell out of favor in the %Hth century because it ,as difficult to make the notion of an infinitesimal precise. =o,ever, the concept ,as revived in the #$th century ,ith the introduction of non6standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, ,hich provided solid foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals. .n the %Hth century, infinitesimals ,ere replaced by the epsilon, delta approach to limits. 'imits describe the value of a function at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby input. They capture small6scale behavior in the conte<t of the real number system. .n this treatment, calculus is a collection of techni2ues for manipulating certain limits. .nfinitesimals get replaced by very small numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by taking the limiting behavior for smaller and smaller numbers. 'imits are the easiest ,ay to provide rigorous foundations for calculus, and for this reason they are the standard approach. "ifferential calculus (ain article: "ifferential calculus Tangent line at (<, f(< . The derivative fM(< of a curve at a point is the slope (rise over run of the line tangent to that curve at that point. "ifferential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. 7iven a function and a point in the domain, the derivative at that point is a ,ay of encoding the small6scale behavior of the function near that point. 5y finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is possible to produce a ne, function, called the derivative function or 3ust the derivative of the original function. .n mathematical 3argon, the derivative is a linear operator ,hich inputs a function and outputs a second function. This is more abstract than many of the processes studied in elementary algebra, ,here functions usually input a number and output another number. For e<ample, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs si<, and if the s2uaring function is given the input three, then it outputs nine. The derivative, ho,ever, can take the s2uaring function as an input. This means that the derivative takes all the information of the s2uaring functionGsuch as that t,o is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to si<teen, and so onGand uses this information to produce another function. (The function it produces turns out to be the doubling function.

The most common symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe6like mark called prime. Thus, the derivative of the function of f is fM, pronounced ;f prime.; For instance, if f(< N <# is the s2uaring function, then fM(< N #< is its derivative, the doubling function. .f the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change ,ith respect to time. For e<ample, if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output, then the derivative of f is ho, the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball. .f a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line , then the function can be ,ritten as y N m< O b, ,here < is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, b is the y6intercept, and: mN PfracQPte<tQriseRRQPte<tQrunRRN PfracQPte<tQchange in R yRQPte<tQchange in R <R N PfracQP"elta yRQP"elta <R. This gives an e<act value for the slope of a straight line. .f the graph of the function is not a straight line, ho,ever, then the change in y divided by the change in < varies. "erivatives give an e<act meaning to the notion of change in output ,ith respect to change in input. To be concrete, let f be a function, and fi< a point a in the domain of f. (a, f(a is a point on the graph of the function. .f h is a number close to 1ero, then a O h is a number close to a. Therefore (a O h, f(a O h is close to (a, f(a . The slope bet,een these t,o points is m N PfracQf(aOh 6 f(a RQ(aOh 6 aR N PfracQf(aOh 6 f(a RQhR. This e<pression is called a difference 2uotient. : line through t,o points on a curve is called a secant line, so m is the slope of the secant line bet,een (a, f(a and (a O h, f(a O h . The secant line is only an appro<imation to the behavior of the function at the point a because it does not account for ,hat happens bet,een a and a O h. .t is not possible to discover the behavior at a by setting h to 1ero because this ,ould re2uire dividing by 1ero, ,hich is impossible. The derivative is defined by taking the limit as h tends to 1ero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f for all small values of h and e<tracts a consistent value for the case ,hen h e2uals 1ero: PlimSQh Pto $RQf(aOh 6 f(a PoverQhRR. 7eometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The tangent line is a limit of secant lines 3ust as the derivative is a limit of difference 2uotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function f. =ere is a particular e<ample, the derivative of the s2uaring function at the input &. 'et f(< N <# be the s2uaring function. The derivative fM(< of a curve at a point is the slope of the line tangent to that curve at that point. This slope is determined by considering the limiting value of the slopes of

secant lines. =ere the function involved (dra,n in red is f(< N <& D <. The tangent line (in green ,hich passes through the point (D&L#, D%?LC has a slope of #&L>. 9ote that the vertical and hori1ontal scales in this image are different. PbeginQalignRf*(& TNPlimSQh Pto $RQ(&Oh U# 6 &U#PoverQhRR PP TNPlimSQh Pto $RQH O @h O hU# 6 HPoverQhRR PP TNPlimSQh Pto $RQ@h O hU#PoverQhRR PP TNPlimSQh Pto $R (@ O h PP TN @. PendQalignR The slope of tangent line to the s2uaring function at the point (&,H is @, that is to say, it is going up si< times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process 3ust described can be performed for any point in the domain of the s2uaring function. This defines the derivative function of the s2uaring function, or 3ust the derivative of the s2uaring function for short. : similar computation to the one above sho,s that the derivative of the s2uaring function is the doubling function. 'eibni1 notation (ain article: 'eibni1*s notation : common notation, introduced by 'eibni1, for the derivative in the e<ample above is PbeginQalignR yTN<U# PP PfracQdyRQd<RTN#<. PendQalignR .n an approach based on limits, the symbol dyLd< is to be interpreted not as the 2uotient of t,o numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed above. 'eibni1, ho,ever, did intend it to represent the 2uotient of t,o infinitesimally small numbers, dy being the infinitesimally small change in y caused by an infinitesimally small change d< applied to <. We can also think of dLd< as a differentiation operator, ,hich takes a function as an input and gives another function, the derivative, as the output. For e<ample: PfracQdRQd<R(<U# N#<. .n this usage, the d< in the denominator is read as ;,ith respect to <;. Bven ,hen calculus is developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate symbols like d< and dy as if they ,ere real numbers4 although it is possible to avoid such manipulations, they are sometimes notationally convenient in e<pressing operations such as the total derivative. .ntegral calculus (ain article: .ntegral .ntegral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of t,o related concepts, the indefinite integral and the definite integral. The process of finding the value of an integral is called integration. .n technical language, integral calculus studies t,o related linear operators. The indefinite integral is the antiderivative, the inverse operation to the derivative. F is an indefinite integral of f ,hen f is a derivative of F. (This use of lo,er6 and upper6case letters for a function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.

The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, ,hich gives the algebraic sum of areas bet,een the graph of the input and the <6a<is. The technical definition of the definite integral is the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a )iemann sum. : motivating e<ample is the distances traveled in a given time. PmathrmQ"istanceR N PmathrmQ/peedR Pcdot PmathrmQTimeR .f the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed, but if the speed changes, a more po,erful method of finding the distance is necessary. Ane such method is to appro<imate the distance traveled by breaking up the time into many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and then taking the sum (a )iemann sum of the appro<imate distance traveled in each interval. The basic idea is that if only a short time elapses, then the speed ,ill stay more or less the same. =o,ever, a )iemann sum only gives an appro<imation of the distance traveled. We must take the limit of all such )iemann sums to find the e<act distance traveled. Constant 0elocity .ntegration can be thought of as measuring the area under a curve, defined by f(< , bet,een t,o points (here a and b . When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over the given time interval can be computed by multiplying velocity and time. For e<ample, travelling a steady ?$ mph for & hours results in a total distance of %?$ miles. .n the diagram on the left, ,hen constant velocity and time are graphed, these t,o values form a rectangle ,ith height e2ual to the velocity and ,idth e2ual to the time elapsed. Therefore, the product of velocity and time also calculates the rectangular area under the (constant velocity curve. This connection bet,een the area under a curve and distance traveled can be e<tended to any irregularly shaped region e<hibiting a fluctuating velocity over a given time period. .f f(< in the diagram on the right represents speed as it varies over time, the distance traveled (bet,een the times represented by a and b is the area of the shaded region s. To appro<imate that area, an intuitive method ,ould be to divide up the distance bet,een a and b into a number of e2ual segments, the length of each segment represented by the symbol V<. For each small segment, ,e can choose one value of the function f(< . Call that value h. Then the area of the rectangle ,ith base V< and height h gives the distance (time V< multiplied by speed h traveled in that segment. :ssociated ,ith each segment is the average value of the function above it, f(< Nh. The sum of all such rectangles gives an appro<imation of the area bet,een the a<is and the curve, ,hich is an appro<imation of the total distance traveled. : smaller value for V< ,ill give more rectangles and in most cases a better appro<imation, but for an e<act ans,er ,e need to take a limit as V< approaches 1ero. The symbol of integration is Pint P,, an elongated / (the / stands for ;sum; . The definite integral is ,ritten as:

PintSaUb f(< P, d<. and is read ;the integral from a to b of f6of6< ,ith respect to <.; The 'eibni1 notation d< is intended to suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so that their ,idth V< becomes the infinitesimally small d<. .n a formulation of the calculus based on limits, the notation PintSaUb PldotsP, d< is to be understood as an operator that takes a function as an input and gives a number, the area, as an output. The terminating differential, d<, is not a number, and is not being multiplied by f(< , although, serving as a reminder of the V< limit definition, it can be treated as such in symbolic manipulations of the integral. Formally, the differential indicates the variable over ,hich the function is integrated and serves as a closing bracket for the integration operator. The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is ,ritten: Pint f(< P, d<. Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and it can be sho,n that the antiderivative of a given function is actually a family of functions differing only by a constant. /ince the derivative of the function y N <W O C, ,here C is any constant, is yM N #<, the antiderivative of the latter given by: Pint #<P, d< N <U# O C. The unspecified constant C present in the indefinite integral or antiderivative is kno,n as the constant of integration. Fundamental theorem (ain article: Fundamental theorem of calculus The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations. (ore precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. 5ecause it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical ,ay of computing definite integrals. .t can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration. The fundamental theorem of calculus states: .f a function f is continuous on the interval +a, b- and if F is a function ,hose derivative is f on the interval (a, b , then PintSQaRUQbR f(< P,d< N F(b 6 F(a . Furthermore, for every < in the interval (a, b ,

PfracQdRQd<RPintSaU< f(t P, dt N f(< . This reali1ation, made by both 9e,ton and 'eibni1, ,ho based their results on earlier ,ork by .saac 5arro,, ,as key to the massive proliferation of analytic results after their ,ork became kno,n. The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integralsG,ithout performing limit processesGby finding formulas for antiderivatives. .t is also a prototype solution of a differential e2uation. "ifferential e2uations relate an unkno,n function to its derivatives, and are ubi2uitous in the sciences. :pplications The logarithmic spiral of the 9autilus shell is a classical image used to depict the gro,th and change related to calculus Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields ,herever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. .t allo,s one to go from (non6constant rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a problem ,e kno, one and are trying to find the other. !hysics makes particular use of calculus4 all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are interrelated through calculus. The mass of an ob3ect of kno,n density, the moment of inertia of ob3ects, as ,ell as the total energy of an ob3ect ,ithin a conservative field can be found by the use of calculus. :n e<ample of the use of calculus in mechanics is 9e,ton*s second la, of motion: historically stated it e<pressly uses the term ;rate of change; ,hich refers to the derivative saying The rate of change of momentum of a body is e2ual to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction. Commonly e<pressed today as Force N (ass X acceleration, it involves differential calculus because acceleration is the time derivative of velocity or second time derivative of tra3ectory or spatial position. /tarting from kno,ing ho, an ob3ect is accelerating, ,e use calculus to derive its path. (a<,ell*s theory of electromagnetism and Binstein*s theory of general relativity are also e<pressed in the language of differential calculus. Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and radioactive decay. .n biology, population dynamics starts ,ith reproduction and death rates to model population changes. Calculus can be used in con3unction ,ith other mathematical disciplines. For e<ample, it can be used ,ith linear algebra to find the ;best fit; linear appro<imation for a set of points in a domain. Ar it can be used in probability theory to determine the probability of a continuous random variable from an assumed density function. .n analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and lo, points (ma<ima and minima , slope, concavity and inflection points.

7reen*s Theorem, ,hich gives the relationship bet,een a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region " bounded by C, is applied in an instrument kno,n as a planimeter, ,hich is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a dra,ing. For e<ample, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flo,er bed or s,imming pool ,hen designing the layout of a piece of property. "iscrete 7reen*s Theorem, ,hich gives the relationship bet,een a double integral of a function around a simple closed rectangular curve C and a linear combination of the antiderivative*s values at corner points along the edge of the curve, allo,s fast calculation of sums of values in rectangular domains. For e<ample, it can be used to efficiently calculate sums of rectangular domains in images, in order to rapidly e<tract features and detect ob3ect 6 see also the summed area table algorithm. .n the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel so as to ma<imi1e flo,. From the decay la,s for a particular drug*s elimination from the body, it is used to derive dosing la,s. .n nuclear medicine, it is used to build models of radiation transport in targeted tumor therapies. .n economics, calculus allo,s for the determination of ma<imal profit by providing a ,ay to easily calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue. Calculus is also used to find appro<imate solutions to e2uations4 in practice it is the standard ,ay to solve differential e2uations and do root finding in most applications. B<amples are methods such as 9e,ton*s method, fi<ed point iteration, and linear appro<imation. For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Buler method to appro<imate curved courses ,ithin 1ero gravity environments. /ee also !ortal icon (athematics portal !ortal icon :nalysis portal (ain article: Autline of calculus 'ists 'ist of calculus topics 'ist of derivatives and integrals in alternative calculi 'ist of differentiation identities !ublications in calculus Table of integrals /ee also Calculus of finite differences Calculus ,ith polynomials Comple< analysis "ifferential e2uation "ifferential geometry

Blementary Calculus: :n .nfinitesimal :pproach Fourier series .ntegral e2uation (athematical analysis (ultivariable calculus 9on6classical analysis 9on6standard analysis 9on6standard calculus !recalculus (mathematical education !roduct integral /tochastic calculus Taylor series )eferences 9otes Jump up U 'atorre, "onald ).4 Fenelly, John W.4 )eed, .ris 5.4 5iggers, /herry (#$$8 , Calculus Concepts: :n :pplied :pproach to the (athematics of Change, Cengage 'earning, p. #, ./59 $6@%C68CHC%6#, Chapter %, p # Jump up U (orris Fline, (athematical thought from ancient to modern times, 0ol. . Jump up U :rchimedes, (ethod, in The Works of :rchimedes ./59 H8C6$6?#%6 @@%@$68 Jump up U "un, 'iu4 Fan, "ainian4 Cohen, )obert /onnY (%H@@ . : comparison of :rchimdes* and 'iu =ui*s studies of circles. Chinese studies in the history and philosophy of science and technology %&$. /pringer. p. #8H. ./59 $68H#&6&>@&6H., Chapter , p. #8H Jump up U Eill, "ennis 7.4 Wright, /cott4 Wright, Warren /. (#$$H . Calculus: Barly Transcendentals (& ed. . Jones T 5artlett 'earning. p. <<vii. ./59 $68@&86?HH?6&., B<tract of page #8 U Jump up to: a b Fat1, 0. J. %HH?. ;.deas of Calculus in .slam and .ndia.; (athematics (aga1ine ((athematical :ssociation of :merica , @C(& :%@&6%8>. Jump up U .ndian mathematics Jump up U von 9eumann, J., ;The (athematician;, in =ey,ood, ). 5., ed., The Works of the (ind, Iniversity of Chicago !ress, %H>8, pp. %C$Z%H@. )eprinted in 5r[dy, F., 0\mos, T., eds., The 9eumann Compedium, World /cientific !ublishing Co. !te. 'td., %HH?, ./59 HC%6$#6##$%68, pp. @%CZ@#@. Jump up U :ndrY Weil: 9umber theory. :n approach through history. From =ammurapi to 'egendre. 5irkhauser 5oston, .nc., 5oston, (:, %HC>, ./59 $6C%8@6 >?@?6H, p. #C. Jump up U "onald :llen: Calculus, http:LL,,,.math.tamu.eduL]dallenLhistoryLcalc%Lcalc%.html Jump up U 'eibni1, 7ottfried Wilhelm. The Barly (athematical (anuscripts of 'eibni1. Cosimo, .nc., #$$C. !age ##C. Copy Jump up U Inlu, Blif (:pril %HH? . ;(aria 7aetana :gnesi;. :gnes /cott College. Jump up U Fat1, (ikhail4 /herry, "avid (#$%# , ;'eibni1^s .nfinitesimals: Their Fictionality, Their (odern .mplementations, and Their Foes from 5erkeley to )ussell and 5eyond;, Brkenntnis, ar_iv:%#$?.$%8>, doi:%$.%$$8Ls%$@8$6$%#6H&8$6y.

Jump up U )ussell, 5ertrand (%H>@ . =istory of Western !hilosophy. 'ondon: 7eorge :llen T In,in 'td. p. C?8. ;The great mathematicians of the seventeenth century ,ere optimistic and an<ious for 2uick results4 conse2uently they left the foundations of analytical geometry and the infinitesimal calculus insecure. 'eibni1 believed in actual infinitesimals, but although this belief suited his metaphysics it had no sound basis in mathematics. Weierstrass, soon after the middle of the nineteenth century, sho,ed ho, to establish the calculus ,ithout infinitesimals, and thus at last made it logically secure. 9e<t came 7eorg Cantor, ,ho developed the theory of continuity and infinite number. ;Continuity; had been, until he defined it, a vague ,ord, convenient for philosophers like =egel, ,ho ,ished to introduce metaphysical muddles into mathematics. Cantor gave a precise significance to the ,ord, and sho,ed that continuity, as he defined it, ,as the concept needed by mathematicians and physicists. 5y this means a great deal of mysticism, such as that of 5ergson, ,as rendered anti2uated.; 5ooks 'arson, )on, 5ruce =. Bd,ards (#$%$ . Calculus, Hth ed., 5rooks Cole Cengage 'earning. ./59 H8C6$6?>86%@8$#6# (c`uarrie, "onald :. (#$$& . (athematical (ethods for /cientists and Bngineers, Iniversity /cience 5ooks. ./59 H8C6%6CH%&CH6#>6? /alas, /aturnino '.4 =ille, Binar4 Btgen, 7arret J. (#$$@ . Calculus: Ane and /everal 0ariables (%$th ed. . Wiley. ./59 H8C6$6>8%6@HC$>6&. /te,art, James (#$$C . Calculus: Barly Transcendentals, @th ed., 5rooks Cole Cengage 'earning. ./59 H8C6$6>H?6$%%@@6C Thomas, 7eorge 5., (aurice ". Weir, Joel =ass, Frank ). 7iordano (#$$C , Calculus, %%th ed., :ddison6Wesley. ./59 $6&#%6>CHC86_ Ather resources Further reading 5oyer, Carl 5en3amin (%H>H . The =istory of the Calculus and its Conceptual "evelopment. =afner. "over edition %H?H, ./59 $6>C@6@$?$H6> Courant, )ichard ./59 H8C6&6?>$6@?$?C6> .ntroduction to calculus and analysis %. Bdmund 'andau. ./59 $6C#%C6#C&$6> "ifferential and .ntegral Calculus, :merican (athematical /ociety. )obert :. :dams. (%HHH . ./59 H8C6$6#$%6&H@$86# Calculus: : complete course. :lbers, "onald J.4 )ichard ". :nderson and "on A. 'oftsgaarden, ed. (%HC@ Indergraduate !rograms in the (athematics and Computer /ciences: The %HC?6%HC@ /urvey, (athematical :ssociation of :merica 9o. 8. John 'ane 5ell: : !rimer of .nfinitesimal :nalysis, Cambridge Iniversity !ress, %HHC. ./59 H8C6$6?#%6@#>$%6?. Ises synthetic differential geometry and nilpotent infinitesimals. Florian Ca3ori, ;The =istory of 9otations of the Calculus.; :nnals of (athematics, #nd /er., 0ol. #?, 9o. % (/ep., %H#& , pp. %Z>@.

'eonid !. 'ebedev and (ichael J. Cloud: ;:ppro<imating !erfection: a (athematician*s Journey into the World of (echanics, Ch. %: The Tools of Calculus;, !rinceton Iniv. !ress, #$$>. Cliff !ickover. (#$$& . ./59 H8C6$6>8%6#@HC86C Calculus and !i11a: : (ath Cookbook for the =ungry (ind. (ichael /pivak. (/eptember %HH> . ./59 H8C6$6H%>$HC6CH6C Calculus. !ublish or !erish publishing. Tom (. :postol. (%H@8 . ./59 H8C6$6>8%6$$$$?6% Calculus, 0olume %, Ane60ariable Calculus ,ith an .ntroduction to 'inear :lgebra. Wiley. Tom (. :postol. (%H@H . ./59 H8C6$6>8%6$$$$86? Calculus, 0olume #, (ulti6 0ariable Calculus and 'inear :lgebra ,ith :pplications. Wiley. /ilvanus !. Thompson and (artin 7ardner. (%HHC . ./59 H8C6$6&%#6%C?>C6$ Calculus (ade Basy. (athematical :ssociation of :merica. (%HCC . Calculus for a 9e, Century4 : !ump, 9ot a Filter, The :ssociation, /tony 5rook, 9a. B" &$$ #?#. ThomasLFinney. (%HH@ . ./59 H8C6$6#$%6?&%8>6H Calculus and :nalytic geometry Hth, :ddison Wesley. Weisstein, Bric W. ;/econd Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.; From (athWorldG : Wolfram Web )esource. =o,ard :nton,.rl 5ivens,/tephen "avis:;Calculus;,John Willey and /ons !te. 'td.,#$$#../59 H8C6C%6#@?6%#?H6% Anline books 5oelkins, (. (#$%# . ;:ctive Calculus: a free, open te<t;. )etrieved % Feb #$%& from http:LLgvsu.eduLsLkm Cro,ell, 5. (#$$& . ;Calculus; 'ight and (atter, Fullerton. )etrieved @ (ay #$$8 from http:LL,,,.lightandmatter.comLcalcLcalc.pdf 7arrett, !. (#$$@ . ;9otes on first year calculus; Iniversity of (innesota. )etrieved @ (ay #$$8 from http:LL,,,.math.umn.eduL]garrettLcalculusLfirstSyearLnotes.pdf Fara1, =. (#$$@ . ;Inderstanding Calculus; )etrieved @ (ay #$$8 from Inderstanding Calculus, I)' http:LL,,,.understandingcalculus.comL (=T(' only Feisler, =. J. (#$$$ . ;Blementary Calculus: :n :pproach Ising .nfinitesimals; )etrieved #H :ugust #$%$ from http:LL,,,.math.,isc.eduL]keislerLcalc.html (auch, /. (#$$> . ;/ean*s :pplied (ath 5ook; California .nstitute of Technology. )etrieved @ (ay #$$8 from http:LL,,,.cacr.caltech.eduL]seanLappliedSmath.pdf /loughter, "an (#$$$ . ;"ifference B2uations to "ifferential B2uations: :n introduction to calculus;. )etrieved %8 (arch #$$H from http:LLsynechism.orgLdrupalLde#deL /troyan, F.". (#$$> . ;: brief introduction to infinitesimal calculus; Iniversity of .o,a. )etrieved @ (ay #$$8 from http:LL,,,.math.uio,a.eduL]stroyanL.nfsmlCalculusL.nfsmlCalc.htm (=T(' only /trang, 7. (%HH% . ;Calculus; (assachusetts .nstitute of Technology. )etrieved @ (ay #$$8 from http:LLoc,.mit.eduLans8C8$LresourcesL/trangLstrangte<t.htm /mith, William 0. (#$$% . ;The Calculus; )etrieved > July #$$C +%- (=T(' only .

B<ternal links Find more about Calculus at Wikipedia*s sister pro3ects "efinitions and translations from Wiktionary (edia from Commons 'earning resources from Wikiversity `uotations from Wiki2uote /ource te<ts from Wikisource Te<tbooks from Wikibooks Weisstein, Bric W., ;Calculus;, (athWorld. Topics on Calculus at !lanet(ath Calculus (ade Basy (%H%> by /ilvanus !. Thompson Full te<t in !"F Calculus on .n Aur Time at the 55C. (listen no, Calculus.org: The Calculus page at Iniversity of California, "avis Z contains resources and links to other sites CAW: Calculus on the Web at Temple Iniversity Z contains resources ranging from pre6calculus and associated algebra Barliest Fno,n Ises of /ome of the Words of (athematics: Calculus T :nalysis Anline .ntegrator (Web(athematica from Wolfram )esearch The )ole of Calculus in College (athematics from B).C"igests.org ApenCourseWare Calculus from the (assachusetts .nstitute of Technology .nfinitesimal Calculus Z an article on its historical development, in Bncyclopedia of (athematics, (ichiel =a1e,inkel ed. . Calculus for 5eginners and :rtists by "aniel Fleitman, (.T Calculus !roblems and /olutions by ". :. Fouba "onald :llen*s notes on calculus Calculus training materials at imomath.com (Bnglish (:rabic The B<cursion of Calculus, %88# +hidev t e :reas of mathematics :reas :rithmetic :lgebra elementary linear multilinear abstract 7eometry

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