International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Vol., 2(2), 79-85, 2013 Available online at http:// www.ijpbrjournal.

com ISSN 2322-4002 2013 VictorQuest Publications

Comparison of cognitive failures and academic performance among the students with and without developmental coordination disorder
Hasan Sadeghi , Abbass Abolghasemi , Nader Hajloo
1 2 2

1- Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran 2- University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran *Corresponding Author Email: sadeghi66@yahoo.com Abstract This study aimed at comparing the cognitive failures and academic performance between two groups of students with and without developmental coordination disorder. Therefore, fifty students diagnosed with developmental coordination disorder and fifty non-DCD students were selected from 12 elementary schools. Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ), Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ-25) and the grade average of students were used to measure the variables of the study. Results of the multivariate analysis of the variance (MANOVA) showed that DCD students have higher mean total scores of cognitive failures (P<0.5) and lower academic performance (P< 0>001). Results of the multiple regression analysis indicated that cognitive failures explain 83% of the variance of the changes related to the symptoms of DCD in these students (P<0.001) Results of the current study provide support for the cognitive failure and poor academic performance in DCD students. The results were similar to the results of the previous studies reporting that DCD students face more problems in the field of academic performance, cognitive and learning abilities as compared to their normal peers. Keywords: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) , cognitive failures Introduction Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is one of the common disorders reported with prevalence rate of 6% among elementary school students (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The disorder involves big and fine motor skills and also motor coordination. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR), DCD is defined as the motor skill disorder manifested by malfunction of motor coordination abilities and significantly interferes with daily activities of academic performance (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). In the development process, experience and puberty reciprocally affect skeletal- muscular and nervous- motor systems that improve childrens motor skills while they get older. Due to poor motor coordination, some children face problems in learning motor skills (Dewey et al., 2001). DCD manifests with poor functioning in daily activities that involve muscular coordination. In current syndrome, though the nervous-sense-motor system is sound, movements are not performed in a coordinated and skilled manner and impairments are seen in motor tasks (Miller et al., 2001). DCD may manifest as delays in fulfilling motor indices such as sitting, creeping and walking. Other manifestations include clumsiness in big or fine movements that result in poor performance in sports and also bad handwriting. In a study performed in Sweden, the results suggested that the ability to comprehend while reading is significantly lower in DCD children as compared to their normal peers (Dewey et al, 2001). According to the results of the study by Mitchell et al (2011), DCD students have poor performance in academic skills and face cognitive and learning problems. Cognitive failure is defined as the inability to

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complete tasks that can be naturally performed. Cognitive failures include absent-mindedness, memoryrelated problem, unintentional mistakes and not remembering the names (Wallace, 2004). Several studies indicate meaningful positive correlation between cognitive failures and task performance (Tipper & Baylis, 1999). Researches also indicate the relationship between cognitive failure, anxiety, psychological tension and affection disorders (Sullivan & payne, 2006). Cognitive failures have multi-dimensional structure (Wallace & Payne, 2006). Categories of cognitive failures include making mistakes in shaping the goals, activating patterns and running the actions. Such failures have positive relationship with event learning, high-load capacity of short-term memory, decreased consciousness level and deviated attention. Results of the study by Tseng et al., (2010) showed that children with motor coordination impairment have problems in motor imaging and spatial memory. Martini (1995) suggested that DCD children have self-adjustment problems. Mandich et al. (2003) indicated that DCD children are aware of their motor problems or the children, often have negative thoughts about themselves; So, they reflect poor cognitive, academic and motor function. Learning and adaptation features in DCD children is often accompanied with motor difficulties (Dewey, Kaplan, Crawford & Wilson, 2002; Kirby & Sugden, 2007; Stephenson & Chesson, 2008; Tseng Howe Chuang & Hsieh, 2007). All these companion problems lead to behavioral or academic failures (Gillberg, 2003; Kirby & Sugden, 2007; Watemberg, Waiserberg, Lerman-Sagie, 2007). Research evidence implies that DCD children are faced with significant problems in cognitive functions (Smith & Anderson; 2002, Katarina et al, 2012). Studies determined that DCD children had lower scores in attention and learning (reading, writing and spelling) compared with their normal peers. Results these studies showed that DCD children have much more cognitive problems (Dewey et al., 2002). Previous literature mostly emphasized on identifying the characteristics of DCD children and little attention was paid to investigating the psychological factors. They emphasized the identification of characteristics of children with developmental coordination disorder and did not sufficiently discuss cognitive failure and academic performance in DCD children. Therefore, the current study attempted to compare the cognitive failure and academic performance of typically developing students and the role of cognitive failures in predicting the symptoms of DCD and academic performance of students. Method Participants Statistical population of the current study includes all the students studying in the first and second grades of the guidance schools (n=990) of Ardebil in 2012. Before the study, a meeting was held between school principals and the members of representatives of students parents in schools about the collaboration among teachers, parents and school principals and their consent for the study was withdrawn. DCD children were heterogeneous group and it was likely that different evaluations wouldnt have resulted in similar results in identifying DCD children. So, sampling the DCD children was performed in two steps. Participants were between the 10 and 14 years old, selected from 12 elementary schools of three regions of Ardebil. A letter describing the goals of the study, informational consent letter, Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) and the Iranian version of application of the DCDQ (Salehi et al., 2012) were sent to the parents. Out of 990 questionnaires sent, 800 questionnaires were filled out. the 80 students with scores below 57 (Wilson et al., 2007) in CDCQ were randomly selected. In the second step for the accurate diagnosis of DCD students, the childrens self-perceptions of adequacy and predilection for physical activity (Hey, 1992) were performed upon which, finally 50 students were selected because of the comparative-scientific nature of the study (The selection criteria were similar, i.e. the number of students with developmental coordination disorder was equal with the number of normal students selected from the same class). Measures Developmental coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) first version of DCD-Q (Wilson et al., 2000; Wilson et al;, 2009) consisted of 19 items; but the revised version consisted of 15 Questions and is appropriate for 1-to 5-year-old children. Overall, these items evaluate the three factors, controlling motor, elegant motors-hand writing and general coordination (Wilson et al. 2009). Regarding the accepted criteria of the coefficient (0.7), the resulted value indicates the reliable and high validity coefficient of the retest of the tool (Katarina, 1993). Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ; Bioadbent, Cooper, FitzGerald & Parkes, 1982): The questionnaire consists of 24 items and the subjects answer the items on a five order scale (ranging from

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never to always). The Questionnaire measures the absent-mindedness, memory-related problems, non-intentional mistakes and not remembering the names. Wallece (2004) reported the Cronbach's alpha coefficient and validity coefficient of the questionnaire were 96% and 51%, respectively. Evaluating Academic Performance: To evaluate the academic performance of students with and without DCD, their annual total average grades that were recorded in their academic files were taken. In the current study, the annual total average grade is considered in data analysis of academic performance evaluation. Results In DCD and non-DCD students, 62% were male and 38% were female. 62% and 33% of the parents of CDC and non-CDC students had under diploma degree, and 44% and 56% of them had diploma degree or higher. Average age (SD) of DCD and non-DCD Students ranging between 12 to 14 years were 12.94 (0.74) and 12.84 (0.79). Average Scores (SD) of cognitive failures of DCD and non-DCD students were 71.91 (11.46) and 31.56 (4.97) respectively. Thus, the average scores of academic performance in DCD and non-DCD students were 17.92 (1.64) and 18.58 (1.14) respectively (Table 1). Table 1- Mean and standard deviation of cognitive failures and academic performance variables DCD Non DCD MSD MSD Distrust 26.066.18 12.262.80 Memory 19.724.13 8.842.18 Blunders 20.283.97 8.241.56 Names 5.781.63 2.22.46 Total 71.9411.46 31.564.97 Academic performance 17.921.64 18.581.14 Before using the parametric test of multivariate analysis of variance, Box and Levine tests were used to regard their assumptions. According to Box test that was not meaningful for any of the variables, the homogeneity condition of variance and covariance matrices is properly respected (P>0.05) group variances is respected. Wilks Lambda test showed that the group effect on the combined cognitive failure and academic performance is meaningful [Wilks=0.157, F=26.02]. According to the above test, it was possible to use MANOVA. Results indicated that there is a meaningful difference in test one variable of two groups. Ata square (that is the correlation coefficient square of the dependent variables and group members indicates that there is a meaningful difference between three groups regarding the cognitive failures and academic performance (~86%); It means that 86% variance is due to the dependent variables. Results of the MAVOVA indicates that DCD student have significantly higher mean scores (P<0.001) of absent-mindedness (F1,96 =206.59) memory-related problems (F1,96=276.02), non-intentional mistakes (F1,96=397.62) and not remembering the names (F1,96=219.96) that normal students do (Table 2). Thus, mean score of academic performance (F1,96=5.45) is meaningfully lower in DCD students than non-DCD ones (P<0.01). Table 2- Results of the analysis of multivariate variance on mean of cognitive failures and academic performance in students with developmental coordination disorder and typically developing variables SS df MS F P PES Distrust 4761.00 1 4761.00 206.59 .000 .678 Memory 3014.01 1 3014.01 276.02 .000 .738 Blunders 3624.04 1 3624.04 397.62 .000 .802 Names 316.84 1 316.84 219.96 .000 .692 Academic performance 10.890 1 10.89 5.45 .022 .053 Also, Independent t-test used to compare the mean total scores of the cognitive failures of two groups. Results showed that the mean total score of DCD students is meaningfully higher (t=22.85,

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df=98, P<0.001) than non-DCD students. To determine the effect of every variable and cognitive failures and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) multi-regression equation was used to measure the predictive variables and criterion variable, respectively. Results of the multi-regression analysis indicated that 83% of the variance of symptoms is determined by cognitive failures variables. Considering the beta values, absent-mindedness (Beta= 0.847), memory-related problems (Beta= -0.484), unintentional mistakes (Beta= -0.340) and not remembering the names (Beta= -0.569) can determine the changes related to DCD in these students (P<0.001) [Table 3]. Results of the multi-regression analysis showed that only 8% of academic performance variance is determined by cognitive failures variables. Regarding the beta values, only absent-mindedness (Beta= -0.280) could define the changes related to academic performance in DCD students (P< -1) [Table 3]. Table 3- Results of the analysis of multiple regressions of cognitive failures and academic performance in students with developmental coordination disorder Unstandardized Standardized t(P) Coefficients Coefficients Variables ARS Beta Constant Distrust Memory Blunders Names Constant Academic performance Distrust Memory Blunders Names .078 .079 .083 .084 .729 .807 .835 .836 -.855 -.485 -.342 -.069 -.280 -.042 -.136 -.024 -1.186 -.882 -.591 -.373 19.204 -.048 -.009 -.029 -.016 B 73.511 SE 1.233 .073 .138 .141 .449 1.233 .073 .138 .141 .449 59.63 (.000) -16.341 (.000) -6.390 (.000) -4.203 (.000) -.832 (.401) 52.334 (.000) -2.884 (.005) -.251 (.803) -.698 (.487) -.119 (.906)

Cognitive failures

Discussion Results of the current study showed that DCD students have significant problems in cognitive failures than normal students. Current result is parallel with the results of the study performed by Wong et al. (2009). DCD students have problems in most activities requiring mastery on educational and academic function (Wong et al., 2009). A similar study showed that DCD children have problems in working memory, attention, remembering, inhibitory skills and any tasks that requires planning, supervision, conformity and sequence (Alloway & Temple, 2007; Hill, 2001; Liversey, Keen, Rouse & white, 2006). Studies indicate that children who were categorized into motor difficulties group in Henderson motor disorder test (stat, Moys & Henderson, 1984 are more disturbed than their peers (Schoemaker & Kalverboer, 1994). The existence of anxiety leads to cognitive malfunction in DCD children. It means that motor coordination problems first lead to reduced self-efficacy and self-esteem and increased anxiety and these factors gradually reduce cognitive abilities including, attention, concentration, learning, remembering and finally predict the cognitive disorders in these children including absent-mindedness, unintentional mistakes and memory-related problems (Smith & Anderson, 2000). Jill, Cheryl and Lara (2011) concluded that DCD children have problems in learning new motor skills. Thus, these children showed lower level of cerebral oxygen performing motor skills and had reduced activity of cerebellum and network located in the frontal bone and brain regions related to visualspatial learning (Jill et al., 2011). In an another research DCD children had lower scores in all motor skills and functional abilities than normal children (Katerina et al., 2012) Results of the current study showed that DCD students showed lower academic performance compared with normal students. The current result is similar to the

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results of the previous studies (Chen et al., 2009). The research shows that despite motor malfunction and poor social skills, DCD students enter the school. So when identifying the reason for their academic problems, it can be said that from the beginning they should be put aside from school activities and should not be supported by their peers, and the mentioned condition remains in their academic performance as a constant feature i.e.- since DCD children have problems in shift of accuracy and precision in performing common complex tasks at school (such as dictation or doing class tasks in a limited time), these problems finally lead to academic failures of these students (Helmks, Schneider and Weinert, 1986). Results of the multi-variate regression analysis showed that cognitive failures explain 83% variance of developmental coordination disorder, and cognitive failures had meaningful predictive value for developing the disorder. The current result shows that 17% variance and the remaining factors are explained by other variables that are influential on DCD. Cognitive failures explain only 8% of the variance of the academic performance of DCD students and among them, only the absent-mindedness had meaningful predictive power for academic performance of DCD students. The current result shows that 92% of the variance and the remaining factors are explained by other variables influential on DCD students. Having in mind the lack of contrary results in literature, it can be concluded that cognitive failure have significant effects on DCD; while its effect on academic performance is not significant, thus much research is required in the current field. Limitations and suggestions Lack of controlling the comborbid disorders of DCD in subjects is a limitation of current research because it is likely that co-morbidity of some motor-nerve disorders like Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or learning disorders had affected the results of the study that should be noted by future researchers. Thus, it is suggested that the cognitive failure and academic performance to be investigated in different groups of nervous-developmental disorders to achieve better understanding of the possible damages. In that regard, the results of the current study present important implications for the necessity of compiling cognitive-motor education for DCD children. References Alloway T P, Temple K J, 2007. A comparison of working memory skills and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and moderate learning difficulties. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 214: 473487. Asonitou K, Koutsouki D, Kourtessis T, Charitou S, 2012. Motor and cognitive performance differences between children with and without developmental coordination disorder DCD. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 33: 9961005. Chia-Liang T, Chien-Yu P, Yu-Kai C, Chun-Hao W, Ko-Da T, 2010. Deficits of visuospatial attention with reflexive orienting induced by eye-gazed cues in children with developmental coordination disorder in the lower extremities: An event-related potential study. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 31: 642655. Chen Y, Tseng M H, Hu F C, Cermak S A, 2009. Psychosocial adjustment and attention in children with developmental coordination disorder using different motor tests. Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States. Eva M, Roethlisberger M, Neuenschwander R, Roebers C M, 2011. Development of cognitive skills in children with motor coordination impairments at 12-month follow-up. Child Neuropsychology, 172, 151172. Dewey D, Wilson B N, 2001. Developmental coordination disorder: What is it? Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 20: 527. Dewey D, Kaplan B J, Crawford S G, Wilson B N, 2002. Developmental coordination disorder: Associated problems in attention, learning, and psychosocial adjustment. Human Movement Science Journal. 21: 905918. Dewey D, Cantell M, Crawford S G, 2007. Motor and gestural performance in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental coordination disorder, and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 13: 246256.

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