Core 2 Directional terms:

Superior: towards the head Inferior: towards the feet Anterior: towards the front Posterior: towards the back Medial: towards the midline of the body Lateral: towards the side of the body Proximal: towards the bodies mass Distal: away from the bodies mass

Types of bonesLong Bones- long shaft wth bulding or flared ends. They have a hollow shaft inside them filled with bone marrow. They are weight bearing levers. (e.g. tibia femur, humerus) Short Bones- Compact bone that is rounded and irregular in shape. They allow for fine motor movements and con withstand heavy impacts. (e.g. carpals, tarsals) Flat Bones- Consists of spongy bone surrounded by a flat plate of compact bone. They work to prtect internal organs and provide attatchment sites for larger sketetal muscles. (e.g. ribs, pelvis, skull, scapula) Irregular Bones- Various shaped and sized bones that cannot be classified in any other category. (e.g. vertebrae)

Types of jointsImmovable (fibrous) joints: These joints occur where the bones are fused together so that no moverment is possible (e.g. bones of the skull and pelvis) Slighty moveable (cartilagenous) joints: These joints allow slight movement only and havve a tough layer of cartilage beween the bones (e.g. the joints between vertebrae) Freely moveable (synovial) joints: These joints allow free movement in one or a number of directions. The majority of joints in our body are synovial (e.g. hip, shoulder, knee and elbow) Structures of a synovial jointLigaments- fibrous bands that join bone to bone, they stabilise joints by restraining excessive movement and control the directions or length of movement. Tendons- inelastice cords of tissue that attatchment muscle to bone. Joints are strengthened by muscle tendons that extend over a joint. Synovial fluid- acts as a lubricant which keeps surfaces from grinding on each other. It also prodivdes nutrients to the cartilage. Hyaline cartialge- hyaline cartilage coats the end of the bones in synovial joints, this cushions the bones and allows them the slide past each other. It is the reason that the end of bones shine. Joint ActionsFlexion: angle of a joint is decreased Extension: the angle of a joint is increased Adbuction: movement of a limb away from the midline of the body Adduction: movement of a limb towards the midline of the body Rotation: Turning a joint around its horizontal axis Circumduction: circular movement of a body part Pronation: turning the hand so the palm faces downwards Supination: turning of the hand so that the palm faces upwards Dorsiflexion: movement of the ankle so that the toes point upwards Plantarflexion: movement of the toes so that they point downwards Inversion: Rotation of the foot to make the sole of the foot face inwards Eversion: Rotation of the foot to make the sole of the foot face outwards

Muscle actions Agonist- prime mover in an action, it is the muscle that contracts Antagonist- muscle that has to relax in order for the agonist to contract Stabiliser- muscles that act at a joint to stabilise it, these muscles shorten very little amount giving the major muscles a fixed base Types of muscle Contractions Concentric- during this contraction the muscle shortens causing movement of a joint Eccentric- during this contraction the muscle lengthens whilst still under tension Isometric- during this contraction the muscle fibres activate and create force but the muscle length does not change.

Respiratory system- respiration is the process by which the body takes oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.

Inspiration- this movement increases the volume of the chest cavity, decreasing the air pressue inside the lungs. In respone air from outside the body rushes into this low pressure site. Expiration- the lungs return to resting position drecreasing the volume of the lungs. Air is then forced out. Gaseous Transfer: gaseous transfer happens between the aveoli and the capillaries. The gases oxygen and Carbon dioxide move from areas of concentration to try spread out. This change in concentrations moves the oxygen from the air to the exygen depleted blood. And move the CO2 from the oxygen depleted blood back into the lungs to be expired.

Circulatory system- made up of blood, the heart, and blood vessels Components of blood: Plasma- nutrients, proteins, and hormones are disolved into the plasma which also contains most the CO2. As plasma is 90% water, when you sweat this is where you loose hydration. Red blood cells- formed in the bone marrow, their role is to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. They are flat disc shaped to increase surface area so that they can take up oxygen through gaseous exchange. They also contain iron and protein called haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to travel from lungs to cells. White blood cells- Formed in bone marrow and lymph nodes. They provide the body with protection against disease (immune system). These can change shape to mave against the blood flow to areas of infection. Platelets-tiny structures made from bone marrow cells that have no nucleus. They help produce clotting substances. Structure and funtion of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries

Heart- the heart is a muscular pump that contracts rhythmically, keeping the blood pumping and circulating throughout the body. Arteries- carry blood away from the heart, they have thick strong elastic walls Capillaries- capillaries link the arterioles and the veins, they are thin and allow for gaseous exchange Veins- veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart before moving back to the lungs.

Systemic circulation: systemic circulation is theflow of blood from the heart to the body and back. Pulmonary circulation: pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back. Blood Pressure: blood pressure refers to the force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels. Te flow and pressure of blood in the arteries rise with each contraction of the heart and falls when it relaxes. Systolic pressure: the highest pressure recorded Diastolic pressure: the lowest pressure recorded

WHAT ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS INFLUENCE MOVEMENT EFFICIENCY? Components of physical fitness Health related components - Cardiorespiratory fitness: the ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to all parts of the body. - Muscular endurance: the ability of your muscles to contract repeatedly without fatigue. - Strength: the ability to exert force in order to overcome resistance. - Flexibility: the range of movement around a joint. - Body composition: the proportion of fat versus lean tissue in the body. Skill related components - Power: combination of strength and speed. A powerful person can complete a strength task quickly. - Reaction time: the time it takes to respond to a stimulus. - Coordination: the ability to use the senses to gather information, send it to the brain and to then produce the right movement. - Balance: the ability to maintain a stable body position whilst either stationary or moving. - Agility: the ability to change direction quickly. - Speed: the ability to move from point A to point B quickly.

Measurements of health related physical fitness. - Cardiorespiratory endurance can be measured by the multi stage fitness test. It tests the ability of the muscles to utilise oxygen that has been breathed during exercise.

- Muscular strength can be tested using the grip strength dynamometer to determine the hand and forearm strength. - Muscular endurance can be tested using a series of push ups. - Flexibility of the legs and lower back can be measured by the sit and reach test. - Body composition can be measured by the skin fold test.

Measurements of skill related physical fitness. - Power can be measured by the standing long jump test which measures the power in the leg. - Agility can be measured by the utilisation of the Illinois Agility Run. - Coordination is measured by the hand wall ball toss. - Balance is measured by the stork stand, the balance in a stationary position. - Reaction time can be measured using the ruler test. - Speed can be measured by a 50m sprint.

HOW ARE BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES REFLECTED IN THE WAY WE MOVE?

Motion Linear Motion - When a body and all parts connected to it travel the same distance in the same direction and at the same speed. Angular Motion - Movement about an axis of rotation. the axis of rotation is an imaginary line about which a body part of a body rotates. General Motion - A combination of linear and angular motion. Distance - The length of the path taken when a body moves from one point to another.

Displacement - The movement of a body from one location to another in a particular direction. Speed - The rate at which a body moves from one place to another. The average speed can be calculated as follows:

Speed = Distance Time Velocity - Equal to displacement divided by time.

Velocity = Displacement Time - Used for calculations where the object does not travel in a straight line. Acceleration - The rate at which velocity changes in a given amount of time. Momentum - The quantity of motion that a body possesses. - It is a product of mass and velocity and is expressed in kilograms per metre/second.

Force - Force is something that causes a change in state. It could be a push or a pull. - Force = mass x acceleration How the body applies force - Internal forces are those that develop within the body; that is the contraction of a muscle or muscle group, causing the angle of a joint to decrease. - External forces come from outside the body and act on it in one way or another. Gravity acts on the body and prevents it from leaving the ground. - Applied forces are those that are supplied to surfaces. As this happens a similar force opposes it, this is known as a reaction force. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. How does the body absorb force? - Prevention of injuries. - Athletes prepare for impact by placing the shock absorbing joints in extension but not in a locked position. - The position of the limbs provides more distance to absorb the force compared to the flexed position. When contact occurs, extended joints flex due to the force of impact and immediately absorb that force. - Force is gradually reduced by eccentric contraction of the extensors. - Force of impact is distributed over either a greater time or area of the body or both. Application of force on an object - Objects with greater mass require larger forces to act upon them in order to produce the same movement as an object with a smaller mass.

Balance and stability Centre of gravity - The point around n object that is completely balanced. - Objects of a regular shape- COG is in the middle. - During movement our COG also moves.

- In order to be most stable our COG must be inside our body. Also COG lower to the ground increases stability. Base of support - The larger the base of support the greater the stability of the object. - It is the amount of ground that supports you.