Physics 152 Lab Manual

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Physics II
University of Massachusetts Fall 2013
Contents
General Instructions Overview . . . . . . Enrollment . . . . . Schedule . . . . . . . Attendance . . . . . Moodle . . . . . . . Assignments . . . . . Grades . . . . . . . . Notekeeping . . . . . Lab Report . . . . . Oce Hours . . . . . Academic Honesty . Disability Services . Safety . . . . . . . . Lab Make-up Policy v v v vi ix ix x x xi xi xii xii xii xiii xiii 1 1 2 2 5 5 6 8 8 9 9
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1 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Liquid Nitrogen (LN2 ) 1.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Experiment Overview/Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Details of Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 How to measure rate of vaporization dm dt 1.5 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2 Ideal Gas Law 2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Experiment Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
2.3.1 2.3.2
2.4
2.5
Details of Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . How to measure the height (H ) of the air inside the cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 How to determine absolute pressure (P ) in the cylinder Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Room Temperature Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Ice Water Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3 DC Circuits 3.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Voltage Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis 3.2.3 Practice to Use Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . 3.3 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis 3.4 Resistors in Series and Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis 3.5 Light Bulb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 RC Circuits 4.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 RC Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Experimental Procedure . . . . . 4.2.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Capacitors in Series and Parallel . . . . . 4.3.1 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Experimental Procedure . . . . . 4.3.3 How to measure the capacitance wave generator . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Magnetic Field Mapping 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . 5.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . 5.3 Single Circular Coil . . 5.4 Helmholtz Coils . . . . 5.5 Solenoid . . . . . . . .
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31 31 32 32 33 34 36 36 36 39 39 40 41 41 42 43 45 45 45 46 46 47 47 47 47 47 48 48 49 49 50 51 51 51
6 RLC Circuits 6.1 Forced Oscillations, Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis 6.1.4 Details of Experimental Procedure . . . . 6.2 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Lab Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Details of Experimental Procedure . . . . A Safety A.1 Lasers . . . . A.2 Radiation . . A.3 Cryogenics . . A.4 High Voltage
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B Graphical Presentation of Data B.1 Graphing using Logger Pro . . . . . . . B.1.1 Importing Data into Logger Pro B.2 Graphing using Excel . . . . . . . . . . B.2.1 Importing Data into MS Excel .
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C Data and Error Analysis C.1 Expressing Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Uncertainties in Direct Measurements . . . . . C.2.1 Estimating Uncertainties from a Scale C.2.2 Uncertainties from a Digital Scale . . . C.3 Repeated Measurement (Statistical) Technique C.3.1 Mean Value (Average Value) . . . . . . C.3.2 Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . .
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C.3.3 Standard Deviation of the Mean . C.4 Propagation of Uncertainties . . . . . . . C.4.1 Addition and Subtraction . . . . C.4.2 Multiplication and Division . . . C.5 Simple Rules of Uncertainty Propagation D Laboratory Reports D.1 Structure . . . . . . D.1.1 Heading . . . D.1.2 Abstract . . . D.1.3 Questions and D.1.4 Conclusion . . D.2 Format . . . . . . . . D.2.1 Tables . . . . D.2.2 Equations . . D.2.3 Figures . . . . D.3 Composition . . . . . D.4 Content . . . . . . . D.5 Sample Report . . .
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General Instructions
Overview
The physics laboratory is a complementary learning process to the rest of the course. It is primarily designed to develop your skills in scientic observation, analysis, and writing. The subject matter is only loosely correlated with what you learn in lecture. Experiments in the lab will NOT necessarily be synchronized with the lectures, and you may often begin an experiment before all aspects of the experiment have been fully covered in lecture. Nonetheless, every eort is made to perform the experiments in a logical order, so that you can build upon previous experiences and skills. Occasionally, some experiments may lie outside the subject matter of the lecture and vice-versa. In all cases, your section instructor will take the responsibility for introducing you to the relevant concepts for the lab. The lab section instructor is responsible for weekly interactions with the students, including direct interaction in the lab, oce hours and individual lab report grades. In most lab matters, the section instructor is the nal authority.
Enrollment
For issues involving enrollment (adding, switching or dropping lab sections) please contact Kris Reopell (kreopell@physics.umass.edu), the physics department course manager and scheduler. Students that are special cases and wish to enroll in the lab only Physics 133, 134, 153, or 154 should contact Kris for assistance.
Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013 Repeated Courses
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For students that are repeating Physics 131, 132, 151, or 152 there is no lab exemption. The laboratory is integrated with the lecture into a single 4 credit course. There is no separate grade for the laboratory. Students repeating a course must complete all components of the course including lab. Scores for lab reports that were submitted in a previous semester will not be accepted in substitution for reports during current semester.
Schedule
There are six experiments scheduled for this semester. Each experiment is performed on a roughly two week cycle. Students will attend laboratory every other week (Week 1 or Week 2) according the Section Schedule and Weekly Schedule. Please note that there are University recognized holidays that will change the lab schedule from time to time. Please visit the University Registrars Academic Calendar to see when these holidays will occur. It is your responsibility to read and understand the times your lab sections will meet. Please check your schedule on SPIRE and cross reference it with the schedule below.
Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013
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Section Schedule
Section Schedule Physics 152(154) Fall 2013 Week 1 labs begin Sept ! "ou# &'00($ 10'10($ 12'20P$ 2'30P$ 4'40P$ 4 17 2 $on %ue 5 6 7 8 18 Week 2 )**ice "ou#s+,iscussions "ou# &'00($ 10'10($ 12'20P$ 2'30P$ 4'40P$ $on %ue Wed %hu F#i 12 10 Wed %hu 13 14 15 16 F#i
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Weekly Schedule
Physics 152(154) Weekly Schedule Fall 2013

Week of
Sept. 2 Sept. 9 Sept. 16 Sept. 23 Sept. 3$ Oct. % Oct. 1( Oct. 21 Oct. 2* No+. ( No+. 11 No+. 1* No+. 2, &ec. 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
Week
Experiment Number
1 1 2 2 3 3 ( ( , , 6 6
Experiment
No Lab Classes sta t Se!t" 3 LN2 Office Hours Ide ! " s L # Office Hours &' 'ircuits Office Hours )' 'ircuits Office Hours - .netic /ie!d - ppin. Office Hours )L' 'ircuits Office Hours
No Labs #ha$ks%i&i$% No&" 2' No Labs ( Classes e$d )ec" *
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How to gure out your lab schedule

Log onto SPIRE and look for your register lab section. In SPIRE you should see a two digit number with and L in front of it. For example if you are enrolled in Physics 131, you may see 131-L03. The 03 means lab section 3. Look at the lab Section Schedule and see where the section number is in the schedule; i.e., what Week, Day, and Time. The Day and Time should match the schedule in SPIRE. See which Week (1 or 2) your section will meet. Look at the lab Weekly Schedule and see the weeks of the semester your experiment will be perform. That will be the schedule you will follow.
Attendance
Attendance is mandatory. Attendance will be taken at each lab. You are required to attend the lab section you are formally enrolled in. Given the limited amount of space, personnel and equipment we do not permit open attendance; i. e., you may not sit in any lab section of your choosing. If you attend a lab section that your are not enrolled in and do not have approval you will not receive credit for your work. In the event you have a legitimate reason for missing lab (religious observances, illness, schedule conict due to extracurricular activity, or jury duty) and need to make up an experiment please see the Lab Make-up Policy. Additional information on attendance and absences can be found at the Oce of the University Registrar web site and the Academic Regulations handbook.
Moodle
Moodle is the learning management system (LMS) for the laboratory portion of the course. A separate Moodle course page from the lecture portion of the course will be maintained for the laboratory. All material pertaining to the laboratory (manuals, schedules, assignments, report grades) can be access through Moodle. You can access these materials by logging on to Moodle (http://moodle.umass.edu/) using your UMass NetID and password.
Assignments
You will perform six experiments this semester. The assignment associated with each experiment includes: Attendance and completion of the experiment, keeping a record of the data taken during the experiment, completion of in-lab questions, and writing a laboratory report.
Grades
Your grade is computed based on 6 experiments, 20 points per experiment for a total of 120 points. The point distribution for each experiment is: In-lab assignment includes: 2 points (10%) for your signed notebook data sheet, and 4 points (20%) for the answers to the in-lab questions. Lab Report includes: 1 point (5%) for abstract of your report, 12 points (60%) for answers to lab questions in report, and 1 point (5%) for conclusion to report. Totaling 20 points for each experiment. You are expected to complete all 6 experiments. At the end of the semester, the total score for all of your experiments is reported to your course instructor, who will determine how your lab grade is to be gured into your course grade. For students taking the lab only (Physics 133, 134, 153 or 154), without the lecture, the nal letter grade is determined by the lab faculty supervisor. To get a passing grade in the lab component of the course, a student MUST have performed all 6 experiments. A minimum grade of 60% is required to pass.
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Notekeeping
There are two options permitted for keeping notes: Digital notes: you will have the option of downloading from Moodle a worksheet or spreadsheet that you can ll out during lab using a laptop computer, then resubmit as an assignment through Moodle at the end of the lab period. OR, Carbonless copy notes: you can purchase a carbonless copy laboratory notebook from the University Textbook Annex. In the notebook you will record the same information on the worksheet, then submit a copy to your lab instructor at the end of the lab period. We strongly invite students to bring a laptop computer to lab and use the digital notes option, but the conventional lab notebook is acceptable.
Lab Reports
You will write a lab report for each experiment you perform this semester. A report is a testimony of the work you perform in the lab, your method of analysis, and the results that you obtain. Therefore, the style of writing a report is very dierent from any other style of writing you may have done (essay, term papers, articles, poems). Details on writing a laboratory report can be found in the Appendix D on Laboratory Reports. Reports will be due 8 days after the experiment is perform (1 day after oce hours), no later than 5:00 PM. Reports must be typeset, no hand written reports. Reports submitted after the deadline are considered late and will receive an automatic 20% deduction for each day late. Reports submitted more than 5 days after the deadline will not be accepted and will receive no credit. Printed copies of lab reports are to be submitted to drop boxes located in Hasbrouck. For P131(133) and P132(134) the drop boxes are located in the
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rst oor lobby of Hasbrouck. For P151(153) and P152(154) the drop boxes are located on the ground level of Hasbrouck near the vending machines. Submit your report to the drop box labeled with your course, section number, and lab section instructors name on it.
Oce Hours
Oce hours are held the week after the lab is done. Oce hours are usually the best time to have your questions answered. Oce hours will be held in the lab room at the same lab meeting time (except for certain sections of Physics 131(133) and 151(153) for which a dierent room will be made available). A list of oce hour locations is posted on Moodle.
Academic Honesty
Since the integrity of the academic enterprise of any institution of higher education requires honesty in scholarship and research, academic honesty is required of all students at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Academic dishonesty is prohibited in all programs of the University. Academic dishonesty includes but is not limited to: cheating, fabrication, plagiarism, and facilitating dishonesty. In the specic case of writing lab reports, collaboration is explicitly forbidden. Addition information on academic honesty can be found on the Ombuds Oce web site under Academic Honesty.
Disability Services
Some students are eligible to received accommodations as dened by Disability Services. Letters of accommodation are sent to the instructors of each course a student is enrolled in. In the specic case of physics laboratories the letters of accommodation are sent to the faculty supervisor of laboratories not the laboratory TAs. Before accommodations in the laboratory are implemented for an eligible student the student must: contact the faculty supervisor of laboratories and discuss which accommodations are applicable to the students laboratory work,
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provide the name and contact information of the eligible students consumer manager, agree to the accommodations specically discussed with the faculty supervisor of laboratories. Accommodations are not open ended. They apply only to specic courses and during a specic semester a student is enrolled. Accommodations do not automatically carry over from one semester to another. Accommodations do not release an eligible student from any requirements of the laboratory like completion of assignments, deadlines, or attendance of the laboratory. A student who is eligible for accommodations but does not meet the requirements of the laboratory will still be subject to point deductions for late submissions or loss of credit for work not submitted. Students are not obligated to divulge the reasons why they are eligible for accommodations. The reasons a student is eligible may be a sensitive matter and a student has a right to privacy.
Safety
Occasionally, we may be handling dangerous equipment. It is imperative that you treat all the equipment with care. Most equipment is painful to replace, and some items are hazardous objects that could cause physical injury or worse fatality. Your section instructor will give proper handling instructions for all the equipment. Please follow directions and keep things neat around the lab. Additional information on safety can be found in Appendix A on Safety.
Lab Make-up Policy

Only legitimate and documented excused absences recognized by the University will be permitted to make-up a missed lab. Excused absences recognized by the University include: Religious Observances
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Required participation in athletic events. Prior notication of absence is required. Health or medical reasons. A note from UHS or doctor is required. Field Trip. Prior notication of absence is required Jury duty. Military service. Personal or family crisis, emergency or bereavement. Students are strongly urged to contact the Dean of Students Oce and notify them in such cases as soon as possible. The following are considered unexcused absences and NO make-up will be permitted: Truancy - skipping lab. Oversleeping. Forgetfulness. Procrastination. Confusion of where and when lab meet. If a student has a legitimate and documented excuse the lab must be made up with in 2 weeks of the original scheduled lab. After that time period there will be no make up and the student will receive a zero for the missed lab. The procedure for making up a missed lab is: Contact your lab section instructor as soon as possible. Present documentation verifying reason for absence. Schedule a time for a make-up. Start with attending lab 1) during oce hours on alternate week, 2) attending another lab section with permission of section instructor or 3) arrange a time with your section instructor to make up lab in lab make up room (Hasbrouck 201).
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If you know a head of time that you have a schedule conict due to another course, extra curricular activity or appointment, please inform your section instructor as soon as possible. It is much easier to arrange a make- up a head of time. The lab schedule is set before the beginning of the semester and it is the students responsibility to manage time and identify any possible schedule conicts. Some absences may be due to extended illness or bereavement and a lab make-up may not be possible in the allotted 2 week period. In these cases the student should contact the lab faculty supervisor as soon as possible. If faculty supervisor deems it warranted the student will receive a pass on the missed lab and the student will be graded on the remaining work he/she has completed.
Experiment 1 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Liquid Nitrogen (LN2)

To start with illustrationrubber band placed in LN2 becomes rigid and bends no more loosing its elasticity even after it is unfrozen. It is not fatal if small droplets of LN2 will fall on your skin, as they will roll over skin. But if you drink, pour on a cloth, try to keep LN2 in your palm or immerse a nger in LN2 , then you can get a severe frostbite.
1.1
Theory
Denition: One single atom can be considered to be a monatomic molecule. So, further only the general term molecule will be used here to stand for both termsatom and molecule. If one tries to adopt a microscopic approach for the description of gases, liquids, solids, etc., then she/he most probably will start with a mechanical description of motion of each molecule, i.e., will gure out forces between molecules, will dene molecules initial positions and velocities and, nally, will solve equations of motion. But even in 1 cm3 of air one have an extremely huge amountabout 1024 of molecules to handle. Thus such straightforward microscopic approach is an impractical insanity. However, there are alternatives, for example, thermodynamics, statistical physics, kinetic theory, etc. In contrast to classical mechanics, in thermodynamics to describe behavior of 1024 molecules in a given volume one introduces such macroscopic quantities as density, pressure, temperature, etc. For ex1
Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013
ample, temperature of a solid corresponds to average intensity of oscillations of molecules around their equilibrium positions. Consider heating of some system. One increases temperature or in other words intensies random activity at a microscopic scale. If at some critical temperature there is a qualitative change of the system state, the system is said to undergo a phase transition. For example, a crystal melts loosing its rigidity, or a liquid boils transforming into gas. We are going to be interested in the latter process. In a gas, molecules y independently rarely bumping into one another. In a liquid, molecules wander around, but they are kept together as a whole by attraction forces acting among molecules. When liquid has reached its boiling temperature its molecules are at the highest possible level of random activity. And additional energy one supplies to the liquid does not change its temperature, but is used by some amount of molecules to break bonds with their neighbors and to evaporate/free out in a gas. Because molecules evaporate independently they share the total supplied energy in equal portions. Thus the number of evaporated molecules is proportional to supplied energy, and, nally, at boiling point one gets Energy supplied = L M assevaporated , (1.1)
where L is nothing but a coecient of proportionality. L is called latent heat of vaporization. Physically, L is a macroscopic characteristic of boiling. Numerical value of L is specic to a particular liquid. It is sometimes helpful to think of L as the amount of energy required per unit mass of a substance to vaporize the substance at its boiling point.
1.2
Lab Goal
In this lab you will attempt to measure latent heat of vaporization of liquid nitrogen (LN2 ).
1.3
Experiment Overview/Procedure
Meditating a little on Eq. (1.1), you will understand that in order to achieve goal of 1.2 you need a device where you can control energy input into the
Figure 1.1: A double walled styrofoam cup standing on a scale with a resistor suspended within LN2 .
liquid and at a same time measure evaporated mass. [Or, a device where you can control rate of energy input into the liquid and at a same time measure rate of evaporated mass.] Consider apparatus depicted at Fig. 1.1. You have a double walled styrofoam cup standing on a scale with a resistor hanging inside. [A resistor is a device which converts electrical energy into heat. Familiar examples are the lament of a toaster or of a light bulb.] In your thermos bottle you have LN2 at a boiling temperature of 77 Kelvin (about 321 F). Once you pour LN2 in a cup, heat from a much warmer atmospheric surrounding environment, namely the room, will be conducted to LN2 from walls and top of a cup and also along wires. And if you turn on electrical circuit, then in addition the resistor will directly heat the volume of LN2 . As a result you will observe LN2 boiling and its level and mass decreasing as it continuously evaporates into the atmosphere. [Of course, temperature of boiling LN2 is not changing!] When heater is oncurrent through the resistor is switched onenergy balance for some small time t is: Eenv + V I t = L mon . (1.2)
Energy Eenv comes from the environment. The battery of constant voltage
V creates constant current I in the electrical circuit. As a result the resistor produces V I t amount of energy during time t.1 During time t, all supplied energy [left side of Eq. (1.2)] is used to evaporate mass mon of LN2 [right side of Eq. (1.2)]. Equation (1.2) is time dependent; longer you observe the system more energy will be supplied and more mass of LN2 will evaporate. Dividing both sides of Eq. (1.2) by t you can arrive to time independent dierential equation:2 dmon , (1.3) dt env on where Penv = E is the rate of energy supply from environment, and dm t dt is the rate of mass evaporation with heater on. If [and only if this is actually true in your experiment!] the level of LN2 in the cup does not vary a lot throughout your measurements, then you can assume constant environmental conditions to be present, i.e., the rate of energy supply from environment, Penv , can be assumed to be constant. Heating power of battery, V I , is constant. L is a number. Therefore, according to Eq. (1.3), the rate of evapon of LN2 should be constant. oration dm dt Penv + V I = L Your strategy to evaluate L from Eq. (1.3) will be: 1. measure constant V and I with voltmeter and ammeter. 2. determine constant rate of mass evaporation 3. correct for environmental heating Penv . Note that Penv is small but it is not negligible compared with V I . Step 3 can be carried out with the heater turned o. The energy balance is Eenv = L mo , (1.4)
dmon dt
(see 1.4).
where mo is evaporated mass of LN2 during some time t when heater is o. Dividing both sides of Eq. (1.4) by t you arrive to equation Penv = L dmo . dt (1.5)
1 If V is in Volt and I is in Ampere then combination of units for product V I is Volt Ampere = Joule/second Watt. m dm 2 Choosing t suciently small, t is replaced by the derivative dt . Basically, we are deriving dierential equations (1.3) and (1.5) for time dependant evaporated masses mo (t) and mon (t), respectively.
Note the same Penv as in Eq. (1.3). [Formally, you could have derived Eq. (1.5) by setting V and I to be 0 in Eq. (1.3).] Penv was assumed to be constant. L is a number. Therefore, according to Eq. (1.5), the rate of o of LN2 should be constant. If you measure constant rate evaporation dm dt dmo of evaporation, dt , (see 1.4), you will not be able to calculate L from Eq. (1.5) because you do not know the value of Penv . Instead, substitute Penv from Eq. (1.5) into Eq. (1.3) to obtain the nal formula for L L=
dmon dt
V I o dm dt
(1.6)
[You can say that the denominator in the equation above is the net rate of evaporation solely corresponding to the heating caused by the resistor.] To conclude, by analyzing vaporization both with, and without, heating through a resistor, using Eq. (1.6), you will be able to evaluate latent heat of vaporization L of LN2 .
1.4
Details of Experimental Procedure
Make sure that resistor does not touch walls of cup in the lowest and highest possible positions of a scale, so that it will denitely not stick cup during your manipulations with a scale. Making next attempt to measure dm do not forget to rell a cup with LN2 to dt the level of previous trial. This will ensure constant environmental conditions (i.e., one and the same Penv ) in all your trials.
1.4.1
How to measure rate of vaporization
dm dt
Set timer to cumulative regime and, also, choose seconds for units of a timer scale. Fill the cup up to the brim with LN2 . Set the scale to a value a little less than the current total mass of LN2 and cup. As soon as some LN2 has evaporated and scale becomes balanced, start timer [this rst value of mass you have read from the scale at zero time which corresponds to zero evaporated mass of LN2 ]. Reduce the balance mass, for example, by 5 g
and record time t1 when balance of scale will be achieved again [time t1 corresponds for evaporation of 5 g of LN2 ]. Reduce balance again by 5 g and record t2 [cumulative time t2 corresponds for evaporation of total 10g of LN2 ]. Having lled table similar to one below evaporated mass, g 0 5 10 15 ... time of evaporation, s 0 t1 t2 t3 ...
Plot evaporated mass versus time of evaporation. According to 1.3 you would expect a constant rate of vaporization, so you would expect to see that your data is tted well with a straight line. If this is the case then value . of the slope of the best t line is equivalent to the rate of vaporization dm dt Choose 5 g interval, or any other mass interval more suitable from your point of view, so that you will have about 5 readings while level of LN2 goes from the brim of a cup down to a point when the resistor is still below the surface of the liquid. If you choose mass interval to be too small then you will have not enough time to adjust scale; if too big, then you will get bored waiting and, moreover, you will not get enough points to plot.
1.5
Analysis
Before you start to carry out error propagation for L, Eq. (1.6), you need to understand rst what were the sources of random errors (i.e., what do you estimate to be the accuracy of your measurements of time, mass, voltage and current?). Do you observe on your plots the expected constant rate of evaporation dm dt for both parts of experiment? [In other words, does your linear t for you data of evaporated mass versus time of evaporation go through error bars of you measurements?] If not, then theory of 1.3 fails and as a result you cannot use Eq. (1.6).
How does your value of L = for LN2 compares to the table value? (Table value of latent heat of vaporization of LN2 is 199.2 J/g.)
Optional Thinking
Can you relate the facts below with the systematic error(s) of your experiment [if you actually had any systematic error(s)]? Maybe there is something else you can come up with!? When the cup is not lled to the top, for example is lled to 2/3 or 1/2, there is going to be some space in the cup above liquid for cold vapor to stay. And, it will eectively acts as an insulator preventing direct contact or heating of LN2 by room air. So, was it important to carry out both parts (heater o/heater on) of the experiment with LN2 being at about the same level? Should you have been careful not to breathe (or to breathe consistently) on the cup throughout your experiment? Does this even matter? Do you need to calibrate zero of your scale? In other words, think about how scale calibration aects your measurements/data and nal results.
Experiment 2 Ideal Gas Law

2.1 Theory
Denition: An ideal gas is a non-interacting gas of identical perfectly rigid point-like particles. Real gases are not something trivial. Indeed, at a microscopic level one deals with complex three dimensional molecules usually one has a mixture of dierent sorts of molecules in a gasthat, in course of collisions, start to rotate, vibrate, etc. [Even monoatomic noble gas is not a collection of perfectly rigid billiard balls!] Despite these complications it turns out that the simplest ideal gas approximation is often useful. For an ideal gas at the equilibrium state it is straightforward to derive two facts. First, for ideal gas its absolute temperature is proportional to average kinetic energy of particles.1 Second, pressure (P ), volume (V ) and absolute temperature (T ) of an ideal gas can be related by the equation of state, called
This fact, along with Eq. (2.1), is actually used to dene absolute/Kelvin (K) temperature scale. 0 K is the smallest possible absolute temperature, as it is related to idealization/practically unachievable situation when gas molecules are not moving. And, 1 K temperature change is set to be equal to 1 C, thus one has a simple conversion from the Kelvin temperature scale to the Celsius scale TCelsius = TKelvin 273.15.
() 1
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013 the Ideal Gas Law: P V = N kB T,
(2.1)
where N is the number of particles in the volume and kB = 1.38 1023 J/K is the Boltzmann constant.2 Here, the units of P are N/m2 , of V are m3 and of T are degrees Kelvin (K).
2.2
Lab Goal
Your tasks are (a) to see if the air in this Lab obeys the Ideal Gas Law,3 and (b) to estimate the temperature of absolute zero.4
2.3
Experiment Overview
In order to to check applicability of the Ideal Gas Law, Eq. (2.1), for approximate description of air one needs to come up with a device where one controls P , V , N and T . Consider, for example, apparatus depicted at Fig. 2.1. It facilitates measurements of pressure and volume as a sample of gas (air) inside a cylinder is compressed isothermally. [A process at a constant temperature is said to be isothermal.]Once you insert the piston and its weight has pushed the rubber seal below the air inlet hole, you have a xed amount of air (N molecules ) trapped inside the cylinder under the piston. The pressure (P ) of air inside
Normalizing N by the Avogadro number NA = 6.02 1023 [number of atoms in 12 g of carbon isotope 12 C] one can rewrite Eq. (2.1) in the following equivalent form P V = N NA (NA kB ) T = n R T,
2
where R = NA kB = 8.31 J/(mole K) is the universal gas constant and n = N/NA is called number of moles. 3 You cannot verify directly, for example, using light microscopy, that air consists of minute molecules [about 1010 m in diameter]. But you can indirectly prove this fact by showing applicability of the Ideal Gas Law for description of air. Note that existence of point-like particles is the key assumption in the derivation of the Ideal Gas Law. 4 This part of the lab is a good example demonstrating how in some pathological cases one can start with relatively precise data and, nally, after some calculations acquire very uncertain outcome.
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013
10
is varied by placing dierent weights on weight pan which is tted to the top of the piston (see 2.3.3). The gas cylinder is mounted inside another container, which can be lled with water at any desired temperature (T ). The function of the water is to provide a constant temperature environment for the gas. Volume of the trapped air V = H A, where A is a cross section area of the cylinder, and the height (H ) of the air inside the cylinder can be calculated from the height (h) of the pan above the surface of the table (see 2.3.2). If the air inside the cylinder was an ideal gas then its state should have been described by the Ideal Gas Law, Eq. (2.1). In the present case, it can be rewritten in the equivalent form 1 N kB T 1 = constant . (2.2) A P P Observing how close H of the trapped air follows Eq. (2.2) as P is varied, by loading the piston with dierent masses, at two dierent temperatures (room and ice temperature) will allow you to conclude how accurately air can be approximated to be an ideal gas. H=
2.3.1
Before doing anything else, measure the mass of the piston with the weight pan. Learn how to disassemble the weight pan and the cover of the water container without taking the piston out of the cylinderfollowing this procedure you will be adding ice in part 2.4.2. If the piston does not move smoothly inside the cylinder ask the TA to grease it. Look closely at the weights you are going to use; because they have boundary that covers the weight pan, you will need to measure height in a slot cut in them.
11
Figure 2.1: Sketch of experimental setup with a detailed depiction of Piston Cylinder geometry on the right-hand side.
12
2.3.2
How to measure the height (H ) of the air inside the cylinder
At the very beginning of the experiment, insert the piston in the cylinder and hold it so that you see the bottom edge of the piston in the air inlet opening. In such position, measure reference height h0 from the table top to the bottom of the weight pan. It will correspond to 15.24 cm of height of the air column inside the cylinderthe numbers 15.24 cm and 1.29 cm [diameter of the cylinder] are the manufacturers specication of the experimental setup (see Fig. 2.1). Knowing h0 it is obvious how to later recalculate H of the trapped air from measurement of the height (h) for an arbitrary position of the piston in the cylinder. Friction is important for estimating error of measuring H . At each pressure you can nd a range of heights, that is, a maximum and a minimum which depend on whether you last pushed gently the weight platform up or down with your nger.
2.3.3
How to determine absolute pressure (P ) in the cylinder
Pressure in the cylinder P is given by the atmospheric pressure Patm = 1.013 105 N/m2 plus the force exerted by the loaded piston per the crosssection area, A: Mtot g , (2.3) A where Mtot is the mass of the piston, the pan and the weight(s) and g is acceleration due to gravity. [Note you can calculate A from the information given on the diagram of Fig. 2.1.] P = Patm + You will know values of mass loads with much higher accuracy than heights. Thus in Eq. (2.3) it is safe to consider P to have no error.
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2.4
Experimental Procedure
Note the temperature each time you begin collecting the data for parts 2.4.1 and 2.4.2. [You do not need to keep the thermometer inside the water container during each set of measurements and do not hurry too much as it takes relatively long time for such a big volume of water in the container to change its temperature.]
2.4.1
Room Temperature Measurement
Start the experiment at the room temperature. Fill the water at approximately room temperature into the water bath. Enclose a sample of room temperature air into the cylinder by lowering the piston carefully into the cylinder. From this time on, do not remove the piston from the cylinder or raise the rubber seal above the air inlet hole. The reason is that you want to keep the same number of molecules of gas, N , in the apparatus throughout the experiment. Measure height H of the gas under the piston for each of 5 to 8 dierent weights (including zero load, when air is compressed only by the weight of the piston and the pan).
2.4.2
Ice Water Measurement
Drain some water and add some ice to the water bath (ice should be covered by water!). Wait until temperature stability is established (at a same time you can complete data analysis for part 2.4.1). Then repeat the same measurements as in the part 2.4.1 above.
2.5
Analysis
1 . If air is well approximated For both parts 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 plot H versus P by the Ideal Gas Law at everyday temperatures, such as room and ice temperature, then, according to Eq. (2.2), your data can be tted by a straight line with y -intercept equal 0. [Formally, according to Eq. (2.2), H should be 1 equal 0 when P equals (i.e., when P = 0). Or, in other words, a totally compressed ideal gas has zero volume, because ideal gas consists of point-like
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013 particles, see the denition in 2.1.]
14
Do your lines of best t pass through the error bars of all your data points, and do they have zero y -intercept? Can you conclude that the air in the Lab obeys the Ideal Gas Law? [See also Sec. Optional Thinking below.] In addition, calculate the temperature of the absolute zero in degrees Celsius. Lets pretend that we do not know that the temperature of the absolute zero () in degrees Celsius is Tabs = 273.15 C, then for conversion of temperature () from Kelvin (T ) into degrees Celsius (T () ) we should write T () = T + Tabs . And, if [and only if!] air is well approximated by the ideal gas idealization, then, according to Eq. (2.2), slopes (S ) of the linear ts of the graphs H ver1 for two temperatures of parts 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 [note that in Eq. (2.2) T sus P is in Kelvin] should be N kB (T1 Tabs ) , A () () N kB (T2 Tabs ) = A
() () ()
S1 = S2
(2.4) (2.5)
To solve this system of equations for Tabs we need to get rid of the second unknown N . So, we form ratio of slopes and after some math arrive to the nal formula: S1 T2 S2 T1 S1 T Tabs () Tabs = = 1 . ( ) ( ) S2 S1 S2 T2 Tabs
() () () () ()
(2.6)
Calculate your experimental value of Tabs = [do error propagation!]. () Compare it with the table value Tabs = 273.15 C. What are your conclusions? When you do the error propagation for Tabs note a dramatic increase of error from the denominator of Eq. (2.6). What are the original physical reason(s) for high uncertainty of the denominator, and, as a result, of your experimen() tal value of Tabs ? How might be improved experiment to determine more () precisely value of Tabs ?
()
15
Optional Thinking
Friction has the most pronounced eect when air is compressed only by relatively small weight of just the piston with the pan (no load).Piston can get stuck at the wrong height.How have you taken this into consideration during your data analysis? There is a possibility that your height measurements will be systematically oset. What could be the reason(s)? Estimate what will be the actual H of liquied air in this experiment at very high [innite] pressure. The density of air in the gaseous phase is 1.29 kg/m3 and the density of liquid air is 1125 kg/m3 . An alternative route to nd Tabs would be to plot H versus T () for a given pressure and xed amount of gas. According to Eq. (2.2), graph should come () out to be a straight line, with x-intercept (when H = 0) equal to Tabs . For a given P (or in other words weight load), you have only two dierent H measured (one at room and another at ice temperature). Thus you have () only two points to do a linear t of H versus T () in order to obtain Tabs , and this it is not nice. Why?Try to follow this alternative route.
()
Experiment 3 DC Circuits
3.1 Theory
Consider a metal at a microscopic scale. Positive ions of metal form a lattice, there are some neutral impurities, and electrons randomly move around. In order to have an organized ow of electrons one creates some favorable conditions for their motion. For example, one can use a battery to set the potential energy of electrons to vary along the wire. As a result, electrons travel along complicated zigzag paths scattering from the ion lattice and impurities (see Fig. 3.1). The corresponding average electron drifting for common household wiring happens with speeds of about 1 mm/s. There is a negligible kinetic energy of electrons associated with this drifting ow. The dominating eect is the transformation of the potential energy of electrons into vibration (i.e., heat) of metal ions and atoms of impurities during collisions with them. Voltage and current are the main physical quantities that describe the electron ow. Voltage is in one to one correspondence with the electron potential energy. Current is the rate of charge ow (its numerical value equals to the amount of charge that passes through the cross-section of a conductor per unit of time). It is convenient to discuss how ctitious positive chargesto be called further charge would have own in a circuit rather then talk about the negative charge ow, i.e., the electron ow, because ...
16
Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013
17
Figure 3.1: Current through a piece of a metal conductor (ow of many electrons). Long dotted curve depicts the detailed path of one particular electron. Positive charge moves or ows from higher to lower voltage. In contrast, negative charge moves from lower to higher voltage, so one would say that negative charge rises from lower voltage to higher voltage, which is inconvenient. If historically positive charge has been associated with electrons, then wording for metallic systems would have been simplier. [If you are interested in details see your text book, or ask your TA to describe in terms of electrons ow what happens in a circuit you have build.] For a wide class of objects, the value of current I is directly related to the applied voltage V . Ohms law is a mathematical representation of this fact V = I R, (3.1)
where the coecient of proportionality R is called resistance. The International System of Units [abbreviated SI] uses Ohm () for units of resistance, and also Ohm = Volt/Ampere. The value of resistance is specic for a given conductor. For example, consider the circuit in Fig. 3.3. The charge runs through the copper wires more freely, than through a carbon resistor R, since the later has higher concentration of impurities at microscopical scale. Thus Rwire R, and the charge owing through this circuit losses its potential energy (the voltage drops) solely at the carbon resistor. The circuits, more complicated compared to the case of a single resistor
18
(see Fig. 3.3), will include at least two resistors either in parallel or in series (see Fig. 3.4). In the case of resistors in series, the eect resistance Ref f can be calculated by adding the individual resistances together: Ref f = R1 + R2 In the case a resistors in parallel, the Ref f is: 1 1 1 = + Ref f R1 R2 (3.3) (3.2)
For simplicity, all resistors in these circuits are considered to be identical and the applied voltages to be the same. According to Ohms law, Eq. (3.1), the current in a single resistor is Isingle = V . R (3.4)
Nonohmic behavior, for example, is exhibited by a light bulb. Although, the bulb lament is a thin metal wire, its voltage-current characteristic does not follow Ohms law, Eq. (3.1). An increase of current corresponds to a dramatic increase of the lament temperature (observed as its brightness variation), and this aects conducting properties of the metal.Higher temperature manifests itself at the microscopic level in a higher intensity of oscillations of metal ions around their equilibrium positions, which makes the crawling of electrons harder.
3.2
Voltage Divider
Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.2. [When working with analog voltmeters and ammeters, pay attention to the polarity {positive (+) or negative (-)} of the terminals (see Fig. 3.2). The (-) terminal is often called COM (common). When dealing with light bulbs and resistors, polarity is not important.] The power supply delivers charge at constant (DC) voltage of 5 Volt to a point (a). Charge goes through the slide wire resistor losing its potential energy and eventually arriving to the common ground of 0 Volt. Positioning the sliding contact at some distance x from the bottom of the slide wire resistor, one can pick charge at voltages ranging from 0 Volt to 5 Volt at the point (b). In other words, this construction serves as a voltage divider. On the
19
Figure 3.2: Voltage source. way to the output, from point (b) to (c), charge goes through the ammeter. Ammeter practically does not disturb the charge ow, but simply counts the total charge q that passes through in time t and calculates the rate of ow, i.e., the current, I = dq . At the point (c) some tiny fraction of charge is dt taken by the voltmeter and is conducted to the common ground. This allows the voltmeter to determine the potential dierence between the two points. Thus the voltmeter measures the output voltage supplied to load.
3.2.1
Lab Goal
Build the voltage source depicted in Fig. 3.2. Test its output characteristics.
3.2.2
Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis
Put together the voltage source (see Fig. 3.2). You will use it in later parts of this lab. Without any load, i.e., the switch is o, measure and plot the output voltage as a function of the sliding contact position (x), measured from the bottom end of the slide wire resistor. Your TA may explain why a linear relationship should be expected.
3.2.3
Practice to Use Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is a fancy voltmeter that shows graphically how the voltage of a signal varies with time. You could have achieved the same results with
Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013 a simple voltmeter by measuring and plotting voltage versus time.
20
1. Connect the oscilloscopes channel 1 in parallel to the voltmeter (see Fig. 3.2). [Connect the ground (-) to the black jack and (+) to red jack.] 2. Set the switch above the input of channel 1 to DC. On the screen, you will see a horizontal line, as the voltage (y -axis on the screen) in your circuit does not change with time (x-axis on the screen). You can oset the voltage by the knob POSITION. 3. Set the switch above the input of channel 1 to GND.This disconnects the oscilloscope from the circuit and allows you to access the oscilloscope ground.Center the level of the oscilloscope ground, for example, in the middle of the screen by the POSITION knob (i.e., set the 0 Volt level for the y -axis in the middle of the screen). Then switch back to DC. 4. Set appropriate units for the vertical scale by VOLTS/DIV knob [the red calibration knob (CAL) in its center should be clicked fully clockwise]. For dierent positions of the sliding contact compare the voltage readings of the oscilloscope with the ones of the voltmeter.
Figure 3.3: Single carbon resistor R.
21
3.3
3.3.1
Ohms Law
Lab Goal
Verify the applicability of the Ohms law for a carbon resistor and evaluate its resistance.
3.3.2
You can burn the fuse of your ammeter if the current that you are trying to measure exceeds the ammeters range. Therefore before turning on the double-pole single-throw switch (see Fig. 3.2), set the ammeter to the 200 mAmp range. Load the voltage source that you have build in 3.2 with a single small carbon resistor (see Fig. 3.3). Measure voltage-current characteristic. [Note that 0 Volt / 0 Amp is a perfectly reasonable measurement.] Plot V as a function of I . If the carbon resistor can be described by the Ohms law, Eq. (3.1), then your data can be tted by a straight line that passes through error bars with the y -intercept that equals to 0 Volt. What do you observe? If the resistor is ohmic, determine its resistance R from the slope of the linear voltage-current characteristic. Also gure out R using the color code (see Fig. 3.5). And, also, measure R using digital multimeter as an ohmmeter. Compare all the values obtained above with each other, and make a statement about their mutual agreement!
3.4
3.4.1
Resistors in Series and Parallel

Lab Goal
Study properties of resistors in parallel and in series.
3.4.2
You will be given two identical carbon resistors in a sense that their resistance R will be the same according to their color coding. You can nd out R directly from their color codes [or measure resistance of each resistor (R1 ,
22
and R2 ) according to the procedures of 3.3]. This allows you to make prediction for the expected value of the eective total resistance of the parallel and series connections to be R and 2R, respectively [see Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3]. 2 Do not forget to carry out error propagation! Using the procedures of 3.3 measure the eective total resistances of the parallel and series connections [also note uncertainty of your measurements]. Are your measurements in the agreement with your expectations?
Optional
For circuits with single resistor (see Fig. 3.3), two resistors in parallel and two resistors in series (see Fig. 3.4), measure the total current in these circuits at a xed voltage, e.g., at 3 Volt. (Check to be sure the voltage has not changed between trials; adjust it if necessary.) Substitute Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 for R in Eq. 3.4 and calculate Iseries and Iparallel How do your ndings for the total current in these circuits compare with your calculation?
3.5
3.5.1
Light Bulb
Lab Goal
Observe nonohmic voltage-current characteristic of a light bulb.
Figure 3.4: Circuits with two resistors R in parallel and in series.
23
Figure 3.5: Color code scheme for labelling resistors. Colors for M , N , P : 0 1 2 3 4 Black Brown Red Orange Yellow 5 6 7 8 9 Green Blue Violet Gray White
Examples: a) Brown, Black, Black, Colorless: R = 10 100 20% = 10 2 b) Yellow, Violet, Black, Gold: R = 47 100 5% = 47 5% c) Gray, Orange, Brown, Silver: R = 83 101 10% = 830 10%
Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis Similar to 3.3 measure voltage-current characteristic for a light bulb over as wide range as possible, for example, going from 0 Volt to 2 Volt in 0.25 Volt increments, then 2Volt to 5Volt in 0.5Volt increments. Plot V as a function of I . Why can (or maybe cannot) you claim that your data represents nonohmic behavior?
Experiment 4 RC Circuits
4.1 Theory
Charge can be stored on two conductors placed near each other; such a combination is called a capacitor. Usually, but not necessarily, the conductors are in the form of parallel plates. One way of charging a capacitor is to connect the two plates to a battery. In Fig. 4.1 the battery causes a momentary ow of electrons from the top plate through the battery to the bottom plate. One can prove that amount of charge Q on either plate is directly proportional to applied voltage V (potential dierence across capacitor created by the battery), thus Q = C V, (4.1) where C is the coecient of proportionality called capacitance. Details of a capacitor construction determine the numerical value of C , for example, for the case of a pair of parallel plates close together C A/d, where A is the area of each plate, and d is their separation. The International System of Units [abbreviated SI] uses Farad (F) for units of capacitance. If a charged capacitor is connected across a resistor R as shown in Fig. 4.2(a), current will begin to ow through the resistor. Solving corresponding dierential equation it can be shown that the voltage across the capacitor will decay exponentially from the initial voltage Vi toward zero. The equation governing the time dependence of the voltage decay is V (t) = Vi et/RC = Vi et/ , 24 (4.2)
Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013
25
++ ++
+Q -Q
V -- --
Figure 4.1: A parallel plate capacitor connected to a battery.
t=0
(a) R C
++ ++ +
-- --
V V(t) (b)
t=0
Vf
V V(t)
Figure 4.2: (a) The upper sketch shows process of a capacitor discharge, and (b) the lower one depicts charging of a capacitor. In both cases the voltmeter on the right side of each diagram is used to monitor the voltage V (t) across the capacitor.

1 kOmh
26
+
DC power 0 to 15 supply Volt
R
switch
V V(t)
Figure 4.3: Circuit to be used to observe slow RC decay. where = RC is the time constant of the decay. SI units of are seconds. [Using Eq. (4.1) one can rewrite Eq. (4.2) to describe exponentially decreasing charge Q(t) on the plates of the capacitor.] This exponential function has some rather remarkable properties. Note that it takes forever for the voltage to reach zero. Note also that at the end of each time interval , the voltage is less than it was at the beginning of the time interval by a factor of e1 no matter when the time interval began. [e is the base of the natural logarithm, and e1 = 0.3678 . . . or approximately 37%.] Thus when one decay time has passed (t = 1 ), the voltage is approximately 37% of its initial value. After two decay times (t = 2 ) the voltage is about 13.5%, after 3 about 5%, etc. After ve decay times (t = 5 ), the voltage is less than one percent of its initial value [e5 = 0.0067 . . .] and for most practical purposes it is zero. For charge buildup the same time constant applies. If an uncharged capacitor is connected to a battery of voltage Vf through a resistor R, as shown on Fig. 4.2(b), the voltage across the capacitor grows exponentially from zero to the battery voltage according to the following equation V (t) = Vf (1 et/RC ) = Vf (1 et/ ). (4.3)
27
4.2
4.2.1
RC Decay
Lab Goal
Study the decay of charge on the capacitor in the Resistor-Capacitor (RC) circuit by using a digital voltmeter. Obtain the value of capacitance.
4.2.2
Slow voltage decay across a capacitor can be monitored directly with a digital voltmeter (DVM). Wire the circuit shown in Fig. 4.3. Be sure to observe the polarity for both the capacitor and the DVM. Select the 20 Volt scale of the DVM. With switch open and R set on the decade resistance box at 100 , or less, check the DVM reading. It should be zero, or no more than 1 in the last digit. If it is not, put a short circuit (a wire) across the capacitor terminals, see that the voltage falls to zero, then remove the short. Set R to 300 k. With the variable DC power supply on, but turned down, close the switch. Now turn up the voltage to about 10 Volt. Measure the voltage across the discharging capacitor as a function of time by opening the switch and recording V (t). Obtain at least 10 to 15 values. Plan your experiment so that your nal measurement of voltage will at least ten times smaller than your initial one. [The actual initial voltage does not matter, but it will be more convenient to make the rst measurement at 10 Volt.]
4.2.3
Analysis
Check that the measured voltage across the capacitor indeed decays exponentially according to Eq. (4.2). [Plot your data of V versus t to see how it looks. You cannot yet claim the curve to be exponential, unless you have special software, like Origin, to carry out an exponential t.] Note that taking a logarithm of both sides of Eq. (4.2) you arrive at a linear relationship between ln V and t, ln V (t) = ln Vi t/. (4.4) Thus it is convenient to plot voltage versus time using the logarithmic scale for the voltage axis, or, equivalently, you can plot ln V versus t. If in this representation your data points are close to a straight line, then you have veried that the discharge of the capacitor is described by Eq. (4.4) and,
28
consequently, by the original Eq. (4.2). [Moreover, if this is true, then you can also state that you have used in your RC circuit good capacitor and good resistor, because only two basic Eqs. (3.1,4.1) where used to derive Eqs. (4.3,4.2) describing charging and decay.] Once the functional form of V (t) is established, nd the time constant from the slope of the linear t of ln V versus t. Finally, calculate the value of C . Do not forget to take into account the uncertainty of your measurements! What is the uncertainty of C after error propagation? Does your result agree with the nominal value of the capacitance?Look at the capacitor actually used in your circuit. Record the value printed on it; it should be 220 F 20%.
Optional
In anticipation of the next part of the lab, make a spot measurement of the time constant by adjusting the initial voltage (Vi ) to 10 Volt and timing the fall to 3.7 Volt. Alternatively you could time the drop from an arbitrary Vi to 0.37 Vi . Compare this result for with that in the previous part.
Optional Thinking
Actually, the eective resistance is not just R that you have set on the decade resistance box, but is instead R in parallel with 10 M input resistance of the DVM. Thus even if you remove R from the circuit, the capacitor will still discharge very slowly through the DVM. To see this, repeat the experimental procedure without R in the circuit, except this time measure only a few voltages at intervals of one minute. Find the time constant. Is it what you expect?
4.3
4.3.1
Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Lab Goal
Experimentally establish formulas for the eective capacitance of two capacitors connected in series and parallel.
29
To scope Channel 1 Function Generator To scope Channel 2 To scope Ground
Figure 4.4: Circuit to be used to observe fast charging and discharging of capacitor.
4.3.2
You will be given two capacitors of nominal capacitance 0.5 F 10%, and 1 F 10%, and also a decade capacitance box. Come up with a strategy to invent formulas for eective capacitance of two capacitors connected in series and parallel. For example, carry out some meaningful measurements of the eective capacitance of parallel and series connections (see 4.3.3), think, put forward a hypothesis, test it, if it does not hold true, think more, come up with some other bright idea...
4.3.3
How to measure the capacitance by using a squarewave generator
Wire the circuit shown in Fig. 4.4, using R = 2000 and C = 0.5 F. The voltage source is a square-wave generator [actually a function generator, set to give square-wave output], and is displayed on channel 1 of the oscilloscope. In a square wave, the voltage jumps from +V0 to V0 at a preset frequency. This simulates the switch in Fig. 4.3 being opened and closed repetitively, alternately charging and discharging the capacitor many times
30
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.5: Both channel 1 and 2 are displayed simultaneously on the screen of the oscilloscope. Solid curves are the time-dependent voltage across the capacitor for dierent frequencies of the square-wave generator. Dotted lines represent output of the square-wave generator. In the (a) case frequency of the square-wave generator is adjusted correctly, in the (b) case one should decrease frequency. each second. This repetition enables you to observe the capacitor voltage decay and buildup on channel 2 as a stationary pattern on the oscilloscope screen. [The instructor will help you with the operation of the oscilloscope as needed.] Set the generator on the square-wave output at the frequency 100 Hz. Adjust the TIME/DIV on the scope to about 1 ms/DIV. You should see a wave form that looks like Fig. 4.5(a). If the wave form looks like Fig. 4.5(b), reduce the frequency of the square-wave generator until the wave looks like Fig. 4.5(a). Measure the time constant using either decreasing or increasing capacitor voltage. The way to do this is to nd the time it takes the voltage to drop to 37% from its maximum value, or to nd the time it takes the voltage to rise to 63% of the way up to the nal value. [Note that from Eq. (4.3) it follows that V ( ) = Vf (1 e1 ) 0.63Vf .] Estimate the uncertainty in your measurement of the time constant. Calculate the capacitance. Does your value agrees with the nominal value?
Experiment 5 Magnetic Field Mapping

5.1 Introduction
A magnetic eld B is a vector quantity which exists in space in the vicinity of magnetic poles and is analogous to the electric eld E which exists in the vicinity of electric charges. Whereas E -elds always exert forces on electric charges, B -elds only exert forces on a charge that is moving. In addition the velocity v of the charge must have a component perpendicular to the direction of B . The relation ship between the force F , the charge q , v and B is given by F = qv B . This is a vector cross product so the magnitude of the force is F = qvB sin , where is the angle between v and B . This equation denes the magnetic eld B and its units are Teslas (T). We shall not be concerned with magnetic forces in this lab. Another relationship between electricity and magnetism is that a wire carrying an electric current I produces a magnetic eld B in its vicinity. The magnitude of B is proportional to I and the distribution of B in space depends on the geometry of the wire arrangement. We shall be studying the eld due to a circular coil, and Helmholtz coils, which is two coils of radius R separated along their axes by a distance equal to R. Finally we shall study a solenoid which is a coil helically wound and cylindrical in shape. A third relationship between electricity and magnetism is that a changing magnetic eld B passing through a coil induces a voltage across the terminals of the coil. The magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to
31
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Magnetic Field Mapping Fall 2013
32
the rate of change of B . This is known as Faradays Law and will be stated in a generalized mathematical form when you do it in the lecture course. This is used in the lab to observe an oscillating B -eld as a voltage on the oscilloscope.
5.2
Apparatus
Fig. 5.1 illustrates the eld measuring device which is called a pick-up coil or probe. The coil is inserted in an oscillating magnetic eld Bmax sin t. The changing magnetic eld induces an oscillating voltage Vmax cos t in the coil. The amplitude of the voltage Vmax is proportional to Bmax .
Figure 5.1: Pick-up coil.
5.3
Single Circular Coil
The entire experimental arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 5.2. The example shown is to measure the eld along the axis of a single circular coil of radius R. The pick-up coil is shown at a distance x from the center of the coil. Measure Vmax on the oscilloscope as a function of x starting at x = 0 (the center of the coil) to a distance in excess of the radius of the coil. The variation of B (x) along the axis of the coil is given by the ratio:
33
B ( x) 1 = B (0) x 2 1 + (R )
3/2
(5.1)
1. Make a plot of V (x)/V (0) versus (1 + (x/R)2 )3/2 and t the best straight line. 2. Measure and make a plot of Vmax vs r at x = 0. There is no simple for these data, but you will make a qualitaive comparison with your plot from section 5.4, part 2.
Figure 5.2: Experimental setup for magnetic eld mapping.
5.4
Helmholtz Coils
A Helmholtz pair of coils consists of co-axial coils separated by a distance equal to their radius R as illustrated in Fig. 5.3. This arrangement gives almost a uniform (constant) magnetic eld in the region near the axis and between the coils. Measure Vmax along the axis vs the distance x from the center. Estimate the fractional variation of the eld over the entire region. Also measure Vmax vs r at the center of the coils (x = 0).
34
1. Show that the eld along the axis is just the sum of the elds due to the 2 displaced single coils. 2. Plot Vmax vs r at the center of the coils (x = 0). There is no formula for these data, but the plot can be compared the plot from section 5.3, step 2. What qualitative dierences do you notice between the two plots?
Figure 5.3: Helmoltz pair and solenoid.
5.5
Solenoid
A solenoid is a helically wound coil in the shape of a cylinder.It is illustrated in Fig. 5.3. Near the axis, inside the coil, and at a distance from the ends larger than the radius the eld is nearly uniform. The eld along the axis of a solenoid is: B= 0 N I (sin 2 sin 1 ) 2L (5.2)
1. Measure Vmax along the axis vs distance x (Let x = 0 be the center of the solenoid) for distances inside AND outside the solenoid. Make at plot of Vmax vs x for distances inside and outside the solenoid. How does the magnet eld compare to the single coil and the Helmholtz coils?
35
2. Measure Vmax vs distance r along diameter of inside (x = 0) AND outside of solenoid. Discuss your results.
Experiment 6 RLC Circuits

6.1
6.1.1
Forced Oscillations, Resonance

Theory
The term oscillatory motion in physics has a wider meaning than just a displacement of an object back and forth. Oscillatory motion is dened to be any periodic or almost periodic process, i.e., when one or several values of some physical quantities repeat themselves exactly or almost exactly after equal or almost equal intervals of time. We are going to discuss oscillatory circuit (see Fig. 6.1) under both free and forced oscillation conditions. It consists of an inductor L, capacitor C and resistor R connected in series. Oscillations of the charge Q(t) on the in the plates of the capacitor (and the corresponding current I (t) = dQ dt circuit) are equivalent to a one-dimensional oscillations of the displacement ) of an object attached to a x(t) (and the corresponding velocity v (t) = dx dt spring.1 More specically, in the oscillatory circuit, L is equivalent to the mass m of the object in the mechanical system, C 1 is equivalent to the force constant k of the spring, R is equivalent to the damping coecient, and the time-varying voltage output V (t) of the generator is equivalent to the external driving force. Such systems are called driven damped harmonic oscillators.
Both situations are described by one and the same dierential equation. Moreover, many other physical systems have equivalent behavior, for example, small oscillations of a pendulum, vibrations of molecules and so on. Sound waves and electromagnetic waves are also closely related phenomena.
1
36
Physics 152(154) Laboratory RLC Circuits Fall 2013
37
In an oscillatory circuit, the capacitor accumulates energy in the form of electric eld produced by the charge Q(t) on its plates. The inductor, e.g., a solenoid, accumulates energy in the form of a magnetic eld produced by . the current/charge ow I (t) = dQ dt In the case of an object attached to a spring, the spring holds potential energy when an object is displaced to x(t) from its equilibrium position. The object has a kinetic energy when it is moving with the velocity v (t) = dx . dt It is very important that the period T of free oscillations (i.e., no external voltage/force) of the harmonic oscillator (i.e., no damping) does not depend on the initial conditions,2 and, as a consequence, T does not depend on the amplitude of oscillations. For the oscillatory circuit T = 2 LC and for the . In other words, T depends on the parameters mechanical system T = 2 m k of the system that determine the potential and the kinetic energies. The period T determines the natural frequency f0 of the free oscillations and the corresponding natural angular frequency 0 : f0 1 1 = T 2 LC and 0 2f0 = 1 . LC (6.1)
Once the alternating with the angular frequency driving voltage/force of the amplitude V0 has been applied, V (t) = V0 sin (t), (6.2)
it can be shown that the current in the circuit, I (t), varies at the same angular frequency , but with some phase shift : I (t) = V0 sin (t + ) R2 + L
1 C 2
(6.3)
Measured voltage VR (t) across the resistor (see Fig. 6.1) divided by R is the cur(t) rent I (t) owing in the loop, I (t) = VR R , since, according to the Omhs Law, VR (t) = I (t) R.
The amplitude of oscillations of I (t) in Eq. (6.3) (see Fig. 6.2) has its maximum as a function of at so-called resonant angular frequency res , which
Initial conditions of oscillator are, for example, initial capacitor charge/pendulum displacement and initial current in the circuit/pendulum velocity.
2
38
function generator V(t)
I(t) +Q(t) -Q(t)
L C
V(t) To Oscilloscope Channel 1 V R(t) To Oscilloscope Channel 2 To Common Ground
Figure 6.1: RLC circuit. minimizes the denominator of Eq. (6.3), res L 1 res C =0 1 res = . LC (6.4)
Apparently, the resonant angular frequency is equal to the natural angular frequency, res = 0 , and fres = f0 . Your TA will explain in detail the physics of this coincidence common to most oscillating systems.3 Note that the resonant frequency f0 does not depend on the damping R, but R limits the amplitude of the current at resonance. R C Omh() Farad(F) L f, Henry (H) Hertz (Hz)
Table 6.1: International System of Units

To have a child-swing oscillate at maximum amplitude you push it once it comes, for example, to the most right position. This happens about once per period T . So, for the resonance to occur, the frequency of your pushing should be about the natural frequency, 1 f0 = T , of the child-swing. During such forced oscillations, friction limits the amplitude preventing the child-swing from overturning (and, correspondingly, circuit from burning the fuse, spring from breaking, etc.).
3
39
6.1.2
Lab Goal
Study the resonance in the RLC circuit. Obtain the value of the inductance.
6.1.3
To build the RLC circuit you will be given an inductor, the decade capacitance box, and the decade resistance box. Suggested range for C is 10-10000 nF and 500-5000 for R. [1]: Check the theoretical prediction that the resonant frequency f0 at the xed L and C does not depend on the variations of R in the RLC circuit. Choose some value of C (for example, 75 nF) and some value of R (for example, 0.5 k). Achieve resonance and measure f0 (see 6.1.4). Then, for example, increase R twofold, achieve resonance and measure f0 . Try some other values of R. [2]: Once the irrelevance of R to resonant frequency f0 is established, check that f0 follows the functional form of Eq. (6.1) by measuring f0 at dierent values of C over as wide range of capacitance as possible. In order to have a pronounced response of the RLC circuit to a change of frequency of the driving voltage near the resonant frequency f0 , choose a small value for R, for example, R 100 . 1 One possible kind of analysis is to plot f0 versus C 2 . [If you think a little, then you will realize that for such an analysis it would have been nice to choose C = 10, 16, 28, 59, 204, . . . nF.] Do the data lie on a straight line that passes through the origin? Deduce the value for L and its uncertainty from the slope and compare it to the value of inductance written on the top of your inductor (about 130 mH). A better way to carry out the analysis of presumable power-law-dependant data (see Eq. (6.1)) is to plot f0 versus C using logarithmic scales on both axes. This is equivalent to studying the dependance of log f0 on log C . And, from Eq. (6.1) it follows that log f0 = log 1 2 LC = log 1 1 log C. 2
2 L
Do the data lie on a straight line with the slope 1 ? Deduce L and its 2 uncertainty from the y-intercept and compare it to the provided value.
40
The advantage of the second method is that you do not need to think about the good choice of values of C for measuring f0 , since for any geometrical progression of values of C , for example, for C = 10, 100, 1000, 10000 nF, the values of log C are evenly spaced. Do not hesitate to ask your TA about this approach, it will take only 5 minutes. [Note that you cannot actually set 10000 nF on the decade capacitance box, but setting 9999.9 nF will do the trick.]
6.1.4
Assamble the RLC circuit shown on Fig. 6.1. Channel 1 will display the voltage V (t) driving the circuit. Channel 2 will display the response of the circuit VR (t). Set the function generator to produce a SINE-wave. Connect the frequency counter to the SYNC output of the function generator. This way you will know frequency f of the output signal more accurately than from the reading on the frequency dial of the function generator. Set INTERNAL/CHANNEL 1/PEAK-PEAK AUTO for the oscilloscope trigger mode. Adjusting the frequency to some specic value, do not forget to set the corresponding frequency range on the function generator. For example, if you have found out that resonant frequency is about 5 kHz, then set function generator to the closest range of 10 kHz. Reminder: by the oscilloscope SEC/DIV knob you can adjust the horizontal time scale.
amp How to achieve a resonance (method A): Look at the amplitude VR of the voltage across the resistor VR (t) (channel 2) as a function of the source frequency (i.e., keep the amplitude of the source voltage constant and vary the source frequency). Having hit the resonant frequency f0 you will observe amp the maximum value of VR .
How to achieve a resonance (method B): Investigate the relative phase shift of a driving signal (channel 1) and voltage across the resistance (channel 2). The phase shift will vanish at resonance and both signals will almost
41
match each other.4 The best way to see this is to adjust ground levels of channel 1 and 2 to coincide at the middle of the oscilloscope screen and then switch channel 1 and 2 to AC mode.
Optional
Choose some particular values for R and C . Select dierent shapes of driving voltage, i.e., TRIANGLE or SQUARE. Do you see resonance response as you vary the source frequency? Does the resonant frequency diers from the one obtained with SINE-wave? Ask your TA for explanation.
6.2
6.2.1
Impedance
Theory
For a circuit consisting only of a battery and a resistor, V = I R according to the Omhs law. In our case, we have a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor in the circuit, and the circuit is driven by time-varying voltage, Eq. (6.2). Nevertheless, one can similarly introduce an eective resistance (called impedance) by V (t) = I (t) Re . (6.5) For amplitudes V0 and I amp of V (t) and I (t), respectively, this equation yields V0 = I amp Re . Making use of Eq. (6.3) we obtain I amp ( ) 1 = = Re ( ) V0 1 R2 + L
1 C 2
(6.6)
(6.7)
1 Here Re is nothing but frequency-dependent eective conductance of the ( ) amp RLC circuit. Curve of I V0 versus (or f 2 ) for xed R, L and C is called the resonance curve (see Fig. 6.2).
It is known that, at resonance, the phase shift in Eq. (6.3) is 0, so VR (t) V (t)! (t) Thus I (t) = VR at resonance, meaning that oscillatory and damping parts of the system are eectively decoupled.The LC circuit experiences oscillations at its natural frequency, while the external driving source perfectly takes care of damping by supplying the necessary power to be dissipated in the resistor.
42
At resonance, according to Eq. (6.7), the eective resistance of the RLC circuit, Re (0 ), is minimal and its value is equal to R. Thus you can make the following statement: driving RLC circuit by an external voltage of resonant frequency f0 results in the maximum amplitude of the oscillating current (divergent in the limit R 0). An RLC circuit can be interpreted as a frequency lter. Indeed, relationship between amplitude of the output voltage across resistor and amplitude of the input signal from the function generator
amp VR ( ) = I amp ( ) R = V0
R . Re ( )
(6.8)
R . Figure 6.2 shows angular frequency dependant scaling of magnitude Re ( ) depicts this characteristics of a lter across a wide range of angular frequency . Width/broadness/sharpness of the resonance peak determines selectivity of the lter.5
6.2.2
Lab Goal
Measure resonance curve for a given RLC circuit and compare it to the theoretical prediction of Eq. (6.7). Experiment Overview/Procedure/Analysis
amp ( ) changes as you detune f from f0 for Measure how the amplitude VR V amp ( ) the given RLC circuit. Calculate = 2f , and also calculate R . RV0 Plot the theoretical expectation Eq. (6.7) for resonance curve amp I amp ( ) VR ( ) 1 = = Re ( ) V0 R V0
versus and results of your measurements on the same graph. Do you see an agreement?
amp VR ( )
Note that the circuit that consists of just a single resistor R has Re ( ) R, thus V0 and lter has no selectivity and corresponding resonance curve, Fig. 6.2, will be a horizontal line.
43
6.2.3
Fix value of C from 10 to 100 nF and R to be in the range 1000-50000 . Find resonant frequency f0 . Measure the amplitude of the voltage across the amp resistor VR (0 ) on the channel 2 at resonance. Measure the amplitude of the driving voltage V0 on the channel 1. It should amp be equal to VR (0 )! amp Measure the amplitude of the voltage across the resistor VR ( ) on the channel 2 at frequencies above and below the resonance, for example, amp amp when VR ( ) is 75%, 50% and 25% of its resonance value, VR (0 ). If the amplitude of the driving voltage varies as you take measurement, then inform your TA about this fact!
Optional
Measure and plot on the same graph several resonance curves for several values of R at some xed L and C . Observe that the position of resonance peak f0 does not change, and that the curves are getting broader and shallower with the increase of R.
44
amp
Figure 6.2: Resonance curve.Amplitude of the current in the circuit I amp versus angular frequency of the driving voltage.
Appendix A Safety
The laboratory is a controlled environment; one in which you may encounter hazards that are not common in other environments. It is therefore important that you observe all of the safety rules that pertain to the laboratory. Failure to do so could result in harming yourself or others in the laboratory.
A.1
Lasers
We typically use Helium-Neon (He-Ne) lasers in the introductory physics laboratories. These kind of lasers are low power (< 1mW) lasers. The general rule is never look directly into the laser or shine the laser in another persons eye. Additional information on laser safety can be found on the UMass Environmental Health & Safety web page.
A.2
Radiation
The radioisotopes used in lab are low activities but precautions should be observed. The general rules for handling radioisotopes and minimizing exposure are: Minimize time of exposure. Maximize distance between radioisotope and yourself. Use shielding whenever possible.
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Physics 152(154) Laboratory Safety Fall 2013
46
Do not handle radioisotopes directly. Use tweezers and wear protective clothing (gloves, goggles). Additional information on radiation safety can be found on the UMass Environmental Health & Safety web page.
A.3
Cryogenics
Some of the experiments use inert cryogenic liquids like liquid nitrogen (LN2 ). The boiling point of LN2 is 77 K (195 C or 312 F). Exposure to LN2 could cause cryogenic burns (blistering), frostbite or hypothermia. Rapid expansion in a closed space could cause asphyxiation due to oxygen being displace. In most cases the quantities of LN2 that students will use during the lab is just a few uid ounces. Student will be required to wear eye protection and aprons during labs with LN2 . Additional information on radiation safety can be found on the UMass Environmental Health & Safety web page.
A.4
High Voltage
There is no specic denition of high voltage. In general any voltage that can cause a shock is consider high. The general rule is to avoid any devices that can cause a shock. Observe all signs that warn of high voltage. The specic danger is when your body becomes a part of a circuit ; especially across your heart. The rule of thumb is not to touch a high voltage source with both hands. Your heart lies between your arms and if there is a suciently high voltage between your arms, then current could pass through your heart causing brillation and your heart could stop beating. Some less dangers are electrical burns and muscle spasms or seizures.
Appendix B Graphical Presentation of Data

Graphs are pictorial representations of data. In a graph it is much easier to see trends in data and infer from the trends the physics of the experiment the data comes from.
B.1
B.1.1
Graphing using Logger Pro

Importing Data into Logger Pro
Start Logger Pro. From the menu select File > Import From > Text File.... From the le manager window select the le that you exported from DataStudio and click Open. In most cases Logger Pro will automatically plot the data from the le you selected.
B.2
B.2.1
Graphing using Excel

Importing Data into MS Excel
Start Excel. From the menu select File > Open... From the le manager window select the le that you exported from DataStudio. If you do not see the le listed go to Files of types and select either All Files or Text Files. Select the data le and click Open. The Text Import Wizard will open. Select the Delimited radio button, then click Finish.
47
Appendix C Data and Error Analysis

The basic activity of any experiment is to make measurements. Data (plural for datum) are the collection of measurements and quantitative observations made during an experiment. There is no such thing as perfect data! No matter how well an experiment is designed, no matter how well the instruments used are calibrated there will always be some limitation in how well the data are known. That limitation is called error. Once an experiment is completed the data are analyzed to determine a result. Since the data have errors, the result has error too. Therefore, the analysis of data and error go hand in hand. You cannot do one without the other. An important note: many times we will use the word uncertainty instead of error. In the context of experimental science, the two words mean the same thing.
C.1
Expressing Measurements
Every measurement has two parts: a best value and an error. There are two common ways of expressing a measurement. The rst is in terms of the absolute error : xmeasured = xbest x (C.1)
The symbol is typically used to indicate the quantity that represents the error in the measurement. The symbol is use to indicate that the mea48
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Data and Error Analysis Fall 2013
49
surement is really a range of values between xbest + x and xbest x. Note that x has the same units as the measurement. For example, if x is the measurement of an objects position in meters, then x is also in meters. The second way to express a measurement is in terms of the fractional error : fx = x xbest (C.2)
the advantage of the fractional error is it can also be easily express as a percent error too. Consider this example: a student weights a golf ball and gets a values of mball = (46.4 0.1)g . Then the fractional error would be: 0.1 g 46.4 g = 0.002 or 0.2%
fm =
(C.3)
Now the mass of the ball can be express in terms of the percent error: mball = 46.4 g 0.2% Note that the fractional or percent error have no units. (C.4)
C.2
C.2.1
Uncertainties in Direct Measurements

Estimating Uncertainties from a Scale - Interpolation
The simplest measurement one can make is comparing an object to a scale like a ruler. Look at Figure C.1 below: If we assume the edge of the arrow is aligned with the edge of the ruler, and the edge of the ruler represents the zero of the rulers scale, then what is the length of the arrow? Since the tip of the arrow lies between the markings on the ruler, we have to interpolate the position of the arrow tip. A reasonable value for the length of the arrow may be 5.5 cm. How do we choose a reasonable estimate of the uncertainty? I stress the word estimate because uncertainties are just that, estimated values. One way to estimate
50
Figure C.1: Ruler measuring length of arrow
the uncertainty is by considering what is not a reasonable value of the length of the arrow. Most people would agree that the length of the arrow is less than 5.9 cm and greater than 5.1 cm. Can we make a better estimate of the length of the arrow? Perhaps less than 5.8 cm and great than 5.2 cm. We continue this process until we reach a point where we are uncertain what the length is. Our rst estimated was 5.5 cm, but someone else may see 5.6 cm or 5.4 cm. The result is there is an uncertainty in the actual value of the length of the arrow. The range of values that represent a reasonable estimate of the length is the uncertainty in the length. In this particular case 0.1 cm is our estimate. The length of the arrow would be recorded as: larrow = (5.5 0.1)cm (C.5)
From the example of the length of the arrow we can express our measurement as: larrow = 5.5cm 2% (C.6)
C.2.2
Uncertainties from a Digital Scale
Throughout the semester we will use digital devices to make measurements like a digital balance to measure masses or a stopwatch to measure time. What is the uncertainty in a digital measurement? Unlike a scale on a rule, there is no way to interpolate the value from a digital display. What you see is what you get. The rule of thumb for digital display is an uncertainty of 1 in the last digit. In Fig. C.2 the digital balance displays a mass of 45.03 grams. We assumes the least certain digit is the 3. There is no way for us to tell how the
51
Figure C.2: Measuring a mass with a digital balance
balance chose 3 as the last digit, so the best we can say is the uncertainty is 0.01 grams. The measurement is recorded as: mmeasured = (45.03 0.01)grams (C.7)
C.3
Repeated Measurement (Statistical) Technique
If a measurement is repeated in independent and unbiased ways, the results of the measurements will be slightly dierent each time. A statistical analysis of these results then, it is generally agreed, gives the best value of the measured quantity and the best estimate of the uncertainty to be associated with that result.
C.3.1
Mean Value (Average Value)
The usual method of determining the best value for the result is to compute the mean value of the results: If x1 , x2 , ..., xN are the N measurements of the quantity x, then the mean value of x, usually denoted by x, is dened as x= x1 + x2 + .... + xN 1 = N N
N
xi
i=1
(C.8)
C.3.2
Standard Deviation
The uncertainty in the result is usually expressed as the root-mean-squared deviation (also called the standard deviation), usually denoted as x (Greek letter sigma). Formally, the standard deviation is dened as:
52
(x1 x)2 + ... + (xN x)2 (C.9) N 1 Lets decipher Eq. C.9 in words. Eq. C.9 tells us to take the dierence between each of the measured values (x1 , x2 , ...) and the mean value x. We then square each of the dierences (so we count plus and minus dierences equally). Next we nd the average of the squared dierences by adding them up and dividing by the number of measured values. (The 1 in the denominator of Eq. C.9 is a mathematical renement to reect the fact that we have used the N values once to calculate the mean. In practice, the numerical difference between using N and using N 1 in the denominator is insignicant for our purposes.) Finally, we take the square-root of that result to give a quantity which has the same units as the original x values. x =
C.3.3
Standard Deviation of the Mean
Now Eq. C.9 gives the deviation for any one of the individual measurements xi , but what about the deviation of the average x itself? There is a simple way of calculating it. Simply divide the standard deviation of x by the root of the number of measurements N : x x = N It is this quantity x that is often called the Standard Error. (C.10)
Note that in the case of possibly hundreds of measurements, calculating Eq. C.8 and Eq. C.9 by hand or with a calculator would be a very long and tedious exercise. Fortunately most calculators and spreadsheet programs like Excel have built-in functions to calculate the average (AVERAGE) and standard deviation (STDEV) quickly. We strongly encourage you to use these programs and functions.
C.4
Propagation of Uncertainties
Often the physical quantity of interest is not one that can be measured directly but is calculated from other measured quantities. Since all measured
53
quantities have associated uncertainties, how do those uncertainties aect the calculated quantity? There are various rules for propagating the measured uncertainties into the calculated uncertainties.
C.4.1
Addition and Subtraction
Figure C.3: Dimensions of brass block
Imagine we have a brass block with dimensions illustrated in Fig. C.3. Lets imagine we measure the blocks dimensions l, w, and t and estimate the uncertainties in these measurements using techniques from Section C.2.1. Lets calculate the perimeter around the face of the brass block. Both length and width of the block have uncertainties. its not to hard to gure out what the uncertainty of the perimeter of the block is (Eq. C.22): p = 2l + 2w (p p) = 2(l l) + 2(w w) = 2(l + w) 2(l + w) p = 2l + 2w
(C.11)
Actually the form of C.11 over estimates the uncertainty in the perimeter. We have to think of l and w as independent measurements. To properly propagate the uncertainty of independent measurements, we add the uncertainties in quadrature. p = (2l)2 + (2w)2 (C.12)
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Data and Error Analysis Fall 2013 Another example is the dierence (d) between the l and w: d = lw (d d) = (l l) (w w) = (l w) (l + w) d = l + w
54
(C.13)
Note that uncertainties l and w are added together even when taking the dierence of two numbers (Eq. C.23). The reason is the measurements of l and w are independent of each other. Again, simply adding the uncertainties would over estimate the uncertainty in the dierence so we have to add the uncertainties in quadrature: p = (l)2 + (w)2 (C.14)
Note the absence of the extra factor 2.
C.4.2
Multiplication and Division
Now lets calculate another quantity, the surface area A = lw of the block. Here is how we would determine the uncertainty in A (Eq. C.24):
A = lw (A A) = (l l)(w w) = (lw wl lw lw) A l w l w ) = lw(1 ) A(1 A l w l w
(C.15)
At this point lets make an approximation. If the fractional uncertainties l w and are small (much less than 1), then the product of the fractional l w l w uncertainties is even smaller and can be neglected. The result for the l w fractional uncertainty in A is: A l w = + A l w
(C.16)
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Data and Error Analysis Fall 2013 Now add the fractional uncertainties in quadrature: A = A l l
2
55
w + w
(C.17)
There is a similar derivation of the fractional uncertainty for the ratio R = l/w. The fractional uncertainty of R (Eq. C.25) is the same as the area A: l w R l w = + R l w R = Now add the fractional uncertainties in quadrature: R = R l l
2
(C.18)
w + w
(C.19)
C.5
Simple Rules of Uncertainty Propagation

A = B+k A = B
1. Adding a constant k to measurement B :
(C.20)
2. Multiply a measurement B by a constant k : A = kB A = k B The uncertainty is multiplied by the constant. 3. Adding two measurements A and B together: C = A+B C = (A)2 + (B )2 The uncertainties add in quadrature.
(C.21)
(C.22)
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Data and Error Analysis Fall 2013 4. Subracting two measurements A and B : C = AB C = (A)2 + (B )2 The uncertainties still add in quadrature. 5. Multiplying two measurements A and B : C = AB C A = C A
56
(C.23)
B B
(C.24)
The fractional uncertainties add in quadrature. 6. Dividing two measurements A and B : C = C C = A B A A

2
B B
(C.25)
The fractional uncertainties still add in quadrature. 7. Measurement B raised to power n: A = Bn B A = |n| A B The fractional uncertainty multiplied by absolute power n.
(C.26)
Appendix D Laboratory Reports

A lab report is the formal document that conveys to the reader the experiment you perform and the results you found. A report is a factual record of what was done during the experiment. It addresses all the who, what, where, when, and why.
D.1
Structure
The basic structure of a lab report consists of four parts: a heading, an abstract, answers to lab report questions, and a conclusion. The details of writing these parts are given below.
D.1.1
Heading
The heading begins with the title of the report. The title should be a descriptive statement of the experiment positioned at the top-center of the rst page. The heading also includes: Author (your name). Course and section number. Lab room. Date.
57
Physics 152(154) Laboratory Lab Reports Fall 2013
58
These should be listed along the left margin of the report. The heading is a part of the report; no cover page.
D.1.2
Abstract
The abstract is a synopsis of the experiment. Abstracts are typically one paragraph long (4 to 6 sentences). The abstract should highlight the essential parts of the experiment but not a lot of details. Even though the abstract is the rst paragraph of the report it is typically written last. Once all of the data are analyzed, questions are answered, and the conclusion is made, then the abstract is written.
D.1.3
Questions and Answers
The main body of a report is a series of answers to questions. The answers could be as simple as stating your result or more conceptual answers describing the underlying physics to the experiment. Every question has an implicity Why? Explain. A terse answer with out explanation will not receive full credit. Some questions may be computations; ie., you must perform some kind of calculation. Show your work! Numerical results without derivation will not receive full credit.
D.1.4
Conclusion
The conclusion is a brief summary of the experiment, usually a single paragraph long. The conclusion should clearly state what are the experimental results; for example, what is your experimental value for free fall acceleration g . How well does your experimental results agree (within error) with the expected value. Also, if there are assertions that you are trying to test in the experiment, you want to state why those assertions are true and what experimental evidence do you have that shows the assertions are true. On a rare occasion if your results do not agree with expected value, your results may be inconclusive. In cases like this you want to explain if there is some wrong with the measurements made or ways to correct or improve the experiment you performed.
59
D.2
Format
Lab reports are to be typeset, not hand written. Typically a word processor like Microsoft Word or LibreOce Writer is used to write a report. Reports incorporate a variety of components like tables, gures, and equations. The details on how to format these components are given below. Some standard formatting for the text of the report are: Pages are letter (8.5in by 11in) portrait. Times New Roman 12pt. font. Left and right margins set to 1in. Lines are double-spaced.
D.2.1
Tables
Here are some standard formatting rules for tables: Tables are lists of measurements arranged in columns. The top of each column is a heading with the name of the physical quantity and the UNITS the quantity is measured in. A spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or LibreOce Calc is the best way to make tables. Once you produce a table, you can copy/paste the table into the document of your report.
D.2.2
Equations
Physics is a heavily mathematical science, and equations are a short hand for communicating physics principles and concepts. Think of an equation as a mathematical sentence.
D.2.3
Figures
The typical gure in a physics laboratory report is a graph plotting one physical quantity vs. another physical quantity. Some standard formatting for graphs include:
60
A title at the top of the graph. The title should be of the form Yvariable (vertical axis) vs. X-variable (horizontal axis). For example a graph of Position vs. Time would have the values of position on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. the axes should be labeled with the physical quantities and correct UNITS! the scales of the axes should be multiples of 1, 2, 5, or 10.
D.3
Composition
Good writing skills matter. Poor writing can alter the content (meaning) of an answer or even contradict the correct answer. Physics is a logical, selfconsistent science, so the writing should be logical and self-consistent too. Reports will be graded as submitted, so any mistakes that alter the content of an answer will be marked down. The reader (your lab instructor) cannot second guess what you intended the answer to a question to be, so make sure your answers mean what they say and say what they mean. Use spellchecker Proofread! Revise and rewrite as need. Use denite, specic, concrete language Be clear!
D.4
Content
The content of the report addresses the subject matter; the principles, ideas and concepts the report is about. Since we believe physics is a logical, self-consistent science, the content of the report should be logical and selfconsistent as well. - Clarity: the underlying principles are clearly articulated, all relevant terminology is dened. You should be specic in the language used. Avoid vague or ambiguous statements.
61
- Completeness: all elements of the report are present. Missing or omitted content will mislead or confuse the reader. - Conciseness: specic and to the point. The writer should avoid redundant, irrelevant or circuitous statements. Stay on topic. - Consistency: all elements of the report direct the reader to a single, logical conclusion. Avoid illogical, erroneous, unsubstantiated, specious, irrelevant statements and contradictions.
D.5
Sample Report
Below is an example of how a lab report is written. The sample report illustrates all of the structure,formatting, and composition for writing a proper report.
Measurement of
Jane Smith Physics 131 Section 14 Hasbrouck 210 Sept. 18, 2013 $it'e Hea%in1 ;bstract 1i(e (ery short %escription o& e periment. 4 to < sentences on'y.
Abstract In this e periment !e measure the number pi " #. $he %imensions o& a set o& p'astic %isks o& (arious si)es are measure%. *ur ob+ecti(e is to measuret pi o a precision o& 0.01,. *ur measurement o& pi is =3.1414 0.0003 . Questions & Answers 1. In your o!n !or%s, %e&ine pi " #. -hat .uantities %o you nee% to measure/ -hat uncertainties are associate% !ith the measure% .uantites/ Pi " # is an irrationa' number0 a number that cannot be e presse% as a &raction o& t!o inte1ers. 2eometrica''y pi is %e&ine% as the ratio o& a circ'e3s circum&erence "C# to its %iameter "d# "4.. 1#. = 5i1ure 1 i''ustrates the %imensions o& a circ'e. :ariab'es ita'ici)e% to %istin1uish &rom te t. 4.uations positione% in center o& pa1e !ith re&erence number. C d "1#
5i1ure 18 9imensions o& a circ'e. C is measure% to 60.1mm an% d is measure% to 60.01mm. 2. -hat are the units o& pi/
5i1ures positione% in center o& pa1e !ith captions an% re&erence number at bottom.
Pi has no units0 it is a %imension'ess number. 7oth the circum&erence an% %iameter are measure% in the same units. Since pi is the ratio o& circum&erence to %iameter, the units cance'. 3. Ho! %i% you measure the %iameter "d# o& the %isk/ -hat is the a(era1e d/ 2i(e tab'e o& measurements.
9ata are 'iste% in co'umns.
%iameter % "60.0=mm# >>.>? >>.>? >>.>> 100.02 >>.>> 100.00 >>.>8 Ao'umn hea%in1 !ith (ariab'e an% BCI$SD
$he %iameter o& the %isk is measure% usin1 a %ia' ca'iper. $he %iameter is measure% se(en times across se(en ran%om'y chosen %iameters. $he a(era1e %iameter is d @ "100.0060.01#mm. 4. Ho! %i% you measure the circum&erence "C# o& the %isk/ P'ot the %istance tra(e'e% by the %isk (s. the number o& o& rotations. $he %isk3s circum&erence !as measure% by ro''in1 the %isk a'on1 the e%1e o& the a meter stick. $he %istance "s# the %isk tra(e'e% !as measure% &or each rotation "n#. $he %istance tra(e' is re'ate% to the number o& rotations by8
s =Cn
"2#
; p'ot o& s (s. n is a strai1ht 'ine !ith the best &it s'ope e.ua' to the circum&erence o& the %isk.
9istance tra(e'e% s "mm#
P'ot o& %ata %epen%ent (s. in%epen%ent (ariab'e. ; es 'abe'e% an% numbere% in mu'tip'es o& 1, 2, =, or 10.
9istance "s# (s. Eotations "n#

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Cumber o& Eotations n
5i1ure 28 P'ot o& 9istance (s. Eotations $he best &it s'ope to %ata is C =( 314.1?0 0.00=) mm
=. Aa'cu'ate your e perimenta' (a'ue o& pi. -hat is the precision o& your (a'ue/ = C/d = 314.1?0 mm / 100.01 mm = 3.1414 Aa'cu'ations sho!s !ork.
*ur e perimenta' (a'ue o& pi is =3.1414 0.0003 . $he precision o& our (a'ue is 0.01,. <. 9oes the (a'ue o& pi %epen% on the si)e o& the %isk/ -hy or !hy not/ $he (a'ue o& pi is in%epen%ent o& the si)e o& the %isk. -e measure% pi usin1 three %i&&erent si)e %isks. %iameter % "mm# Aircum&erence A "mm# 30 =0 100 >4.238 1=?.0?8 314.1== pi 3.1413 3.141< 3.141=
;'' three (a'ues o& pi are consist !ithin 0.01, o& the accepte% (a'ue. $here is no %i&&erence in our measure% (a'ue o& pi &or %i&&erent si)e %isks. ?. -hat is the accuracy o& your e perimenta' (a'ue o& pi/ Aa'cu'ate the percent %i&&erence compare% to the true (a'ue o& pi. %diff = 3.1414/ = 0.0000< = 0.00< ,
$he e perimenta' (a'ue is !ithin 0.03, uncertainty o& the true (a'ue an% there&ore is consistent !ith true (a'ue. 8. -hich measurement has the 'ar1er e perimenta' uncertainty/ C or d/ fC = 0.00= mm / 314.1?0 mm f d = 0.00002 = 0.002 , = 0.01 mm / 100.01 mm = 0.0001 = 0.01 ,
$he percent uncertainty in d "0.01,# is &i(e times than the percent uncertainty in C "0.002,#. *ne !ay to %ecrease the percent uncertainty in d is to measure a 'ar1er %isk. $he abso'ute uncertainty o& 0.01mm !ou'% remain the same, but the percent uncertainty !ou'% %ecrease as the %iameter o& the %isk increases. Conclusion *ur measurement o& pi is, =3.1414 0.0003 an% is consistent !ith the true (a'ue !ithin the 0.03, e perimenta' uncertainty. $he 'ar1est source o& uncertainty is the measurement o& the circum&erence d. -e &oun% no %epen%s o& the (a'ue o& pi on the si)e o& %isk measure%.

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Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Physics II

University of Massachusetts Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013 Repeated Courses

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Weekly Schedule Fall 2013

No Labs #ha$ks%i&i$% No&" 2' No Labs ( Classes e$d )ec" *

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

How to gure out your lab schedule

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Lab Make-up Policy

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory General Instructions Fall 2013

Experiment 1 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Liquid Nitrogen (LN2)

Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013

Details of Experimental Procedure

How to measure rate of vaporization

Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory LN2 Fall 2013

Experiment 2 Ideal Gas Law

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013

Details of Experimental Procedure

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013

How to measure the height (H ) of the air inside the cylinder

How to determine absolute pressure (P ) in the cylinder

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013

Room Temperature Measurement

Ice Water Measurement

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Ideal Gas Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013

Practice to Use Oscilloscope

Figure 3.3: Single carbon resistor R.

Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Study properties of resistors in parallel and in series.

Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013

Observe nonohmic voltage-current characteristic of a light bulb.

Figure 3.4: Circuits with two resistors R in parallel and in series.

Physics 152(154) Laboratory DC Circuits Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013

Figure 4.1: A parallel plate capacitor connected to a battery.

Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013

Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013

To scope Channel 1 Function Generator To scope Channel 2 To scope Ground

How to measure the capacitance by using a squarewave generator

Physics 152(154) Laboratory RC Circuits Fall 2013

Experiment 5 Magnetic Field Mapping

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Magnetic Field Mapping Fall 2013

Figure 5.1: Pick-up coil.

Single Circular Coil

Physics 152(154) Laboratory Magnetic Field Mapping Fall 2013

Figure 5.2: Experimental setup for magnetic eld mapping.