1~7.

41 Power Plant Engineering

The effective furnace volume is reduced by not firing the upper burners at low loads (or by tilting the burners downward). The heat absorption at low loads is reduced and the gas temperature entering the convective superheater is kept near the desired level. Separately fired furnaces for superheat regulation give a good degree of control over a wide range. The rate of firing is ad usted to yield a flat steam temperature load curve. Tbis system is not generally economical for large utility boilers and is usually used in the chemical process industry. !eheater outlet steam temperature is re"uired to be controlled for the same reasons as those for regulating superheater outlet temperature# and the methods used are generally the same.

8. Separately fired superheater

6.81

AIR PREHEATER

The temperature of feedwater in present day$s power plants with five or more feedwater heaters goes up to 17%&'(% )*# It means that the temperature of flue gases leaving the economiser cannot be below '7%&4(% )* (because for gas&to+ gas heat e,change# the temperature difference between gas and air is# say# of the order of 1%%-*). .t sucb a bigh temperature of e,it gases# the loss of energy withstack e,haust is high# and so the efficiency of the boiler will be low. /t is possible to cool the e,it gases in the heating of air supplied for the combustion of fuel. The use of hot air makes the combustion process more efficient by making it more stable and lessening the energy losses due to incomplete combustion and unburnt carbon. The application of bot air also leads to the increase of theoretical flame temperature and to the intensification of radium beat transfer in the furnace. .s a result of the increased furnace e, it temperature# gas temperatures throughout tbe steam generator are raised above the levels which would prevail in tbe absence of an air preheater. This also enhances convective heat transfer in downstream heat e,changers. The gas temperatures e,iting the air prebeater vary from 101 to 1(%-*. not only for the prevention of acid corrosion problems (to remain above dew point. temperature) but also for proper dispersion of e,haust gases from the stack to the atmosphere. 2hile flue gases enter the air preheater at temperatures varying between 011 to 41%-* and are cooled to 101&1(%-*. air is heated from FD fan outlet temperature (4%&3% -*) to '(%&4%% -* and sometimes still higher. 4or the same energy input to the furnace# the preheating of air saves fuel. This saving in fuel and the conse"uent increase in boiler efficiency arc appro,imately proportional to the air temperature rise in the air preheater, Typical fuel savings are 45 for a 11%-* rise.in air temperature and above 115 for a '(%-* rise in air temperture in the preheater# 6reheated air is also re"uired for the operation of pulveri7ed coal furnaces. .ir (primary) of the temperature range 11%& 4'%-* is needed for drying coal in the pulveri7er. .ir is also used for transporting pulveri7ed coal to the furnace Copyrighted material

Steam Generotors

!3'7:5!

and burning il there. Small stoker fired units do not need preheated air. However, it is beneficial to use preheated air in large stoker fired boilers, but the air temperature should not exceed 180 to prevent damage to the stoker moving parts. !ir preheaters are in general divided into two t"pes# the recuperative and regenerative. In recuperative air preheaters, heat is directl" transferred from the hot gases to the air across the heat exchanging surface. $he" are commonl" tubular, although some plate t"pes are still in use. $ubular units are essentiall" counter%flow shell%and%tube heat exchangers in which the hot gases flow inside the vertical straight tubes and the air flows outside &'ig. (.)* &a+ and &b,+, -affles arc provided 10 maximi.e air contact with the hot tubes. $he tubes are mechanicall" expanded into top and bottom tube sheets. $he rate of heat transfer from gas to air is given b"

-ames

Fig. 6.45
QI\P11 n rug c/, ..

(a) Tubular air preheater

(I. -I. ) =
l / CUa cp 0.

(/a -/a
/

= U.,4.(tJ)log-""""

(639)

where and 1rd

2

--=
V.

A"

-+-+ h; Ai hd Ai

x.,
kw AI...

+-'II. A.

&(.)0+

heat transfer coefficient due to deposits on the inside heating surface, W/m"2 3. $he temperature profiles of gas and air are shown in 'ig. (.)(. Since the gas is flowing through the tubes.
W
g
0

1C 2 II - d, p. (V ).

81

&(.)1+ Copyrighted material

I"~t

/
or clnder hopper

Fig. 6.45

(b) Air heater arrangement

where

n = number of tubes,
d, = inside diameter of tubes; about 50 rom

Copyrighted material ,

Steam Generators

't't7]

Pi

density of gas at inlet to the air preheater (I))8Ybe approximately obtained from

Rg(Tg}i Rg = characteristic gas constant = !"87 #$%#g & p = '! ( bar (T g}j = inlet gas temperat)re ('*!) (+g}i = inlet gas ,elocity- .hich is abo)t '"/'0 m%s! 1rom 23! (4!0')- n can be determined! If the fo)ling of the heating s)rface (inside) is not considered and the thic#ness of the t)bes is smallI I x'" I -=-+-+-

Pi =

Uo

hi

k~. ho

'g,
Ia-

/ '
1ig! 4!04

ISl ~

'"
110 or 5-

Temperature profiles of gas and air in APH

6oth hi and ho being small- the o,erall heat transfer coefficient Vo is lo.ranging bet.een ( and 4 W oi &! 1rom 23! 4!(7- Au can be estimated and since A. = nnd! I, do being the o)tside t)be diameter! the length of the t)bes- I, ean be comp)ted! 8ost- cleaning re3)irements and f)el type determine the diameter of the t)bes )sed! 9odem steam generators )sc : /4: rnrn ;< heater t)bcs! Regenerati,e air preheaters- #no.n as storage type heat exchangers- ha,e an energy storage medi)m- called the matrix- .hich is alternately exposed to tbe hot and cold fl)ids! =ben the hot fl)e gases flo. thro)gh the matrix in the first balf of the cycle- the matrix gets heated and the gas is cooled! In the next half of the cycle .hen air flo.s thro)gh the matrix- air gets beated and the matrix is cooled! The cycle repeats itself! The beat transfer from gas to air is tb)s periodic- the amo)nt depending on the n)mber of heating/cooling cycles exec)ted per second! The most common type is the rotary air preheater- #no.n as "#ungstrom air phreheater$ .hich consists of a rotor dri,en by an electric motor thro)gh red)ction gearing at a lo. speed .ith "/0 rpm! The rotor is Copyrighted material

137:rl

Power PlantEngineering

divided into a number of radial sectors, 12 to 24 in number, each sector being filled with steel sheets, either tlat or corrugated (Fig. 6.47). These sheets form the heat transfer surfaces. Two blank o osite sectors act as seals to revent leakage of air to the gas ath and vice!versa. "s the rotating sectors enter the hot gas #one, the$ are rogressivel$ heated b$ the gas storing energ$ as sensible heat. %hen the$ enter the air #one, the$ rogressivel$ give u this heat. to the air.
&'( gas inlet
HOI

air oultet

Heating surface Rotor )otation

Flue!gas outlet (al

Housing

Air inlet

*asketed heating surface

haft "+ial seal

(stationar$)

(b)

Fig_ 6_47 (a) Details of a regenerative air preheater (Ljungstrom APH) (b) Another view oj a regenerative air preheater Copyrighted material

Steam Generators

1~.'l:~1

Rotary air preheaters are compact heat exchangers with a large heat transfer surface being accommodated in a small volume. They are relatively cheap and have good heat transfer characteristics. They are almost as popular as tubular air preheatcrs in power station practice. However, there are certain drawbacks, viz., (a) flow openings being plugged by fly ash, (b) sealing of gas to air path and vice-versa, and (c) large pressure drops for both gas and air. f air is re!uired to be heated to "##$% or above, two stages of air preheating are used with the economiser installed in between the two air prebeaters.The first air preheater (from the gas side) may be tubular, while the second one may be rotary.

61 FLUIDIZED

BED BOILERS

&luidi'ed bed boilers produce steam from fossil and waste fuels by using a techni!ue called fluidi'ed bed combustion whicb bas been discussed in the last chapter. These can be of two types( . )ubbling fluidi'ed bed ()&)) boilers *. %irculating fluidi'ed bed (%&)) boilers In )&) boilers, crushed coal (+-*# mm) is in,ected into the fluidi'ed bed of limestone ,ust above an air-distribution grid at the bottom of the bed (&ig. +."-).
&lue gas and dust .# particulate- removal system

%onvective
tube bank
Furnace water

rimary cyclone
Cyclone fines recycle feed Line

walls

/ubmerged Coal and limestone rube bank

reed hopper
Transport air
supply !ir "an

0rid plate

)ed drain lube

&ig. +."-

Schematic of bubbling fluidized bed boiler

The air flows upwards through the grid from the air plenum into the bed, where combustion of coal occurs. The products of combustion leaving the bed contain a large proportion of unburnt carbon particles which arc collected in cyclone separator and fed back to the bed. The boiler water tubes are located in the furnace. Copyrighted material