Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Stainless Steels

Stainless Steel is a generic term for a large family of corrosion resistant alloys containing at least 10.50% chromium (according to the European standard EN10088) and may contain other alloying elements. Stainless steels are an important class of engineering metallic materials, which have been used widely in a variety of industries and environments. In addition, welding is an important fabrication technique for stainless steels. Numerous specifications, papers, handbooks and other guidelines have been published over the past 75 years that provide insight into the techniques and precautions needed to weld these metals successfully. Amongst the stainless steel grades, the austenitic ones represent a large variety of alloys and are the most widely used in service. Their implementation in high temperature environments, but also in cryogenic temperatures, distinguishes them from the other grades and makes them applicable in the petrochemical, shipping and other industries. This master thesis is written in order to study austenitic stainless steel grades, their weldability and their welding metallurgy. The thesis deals also with the mechanical effects, such as deflection and residual stresses, of the metal due to the welding process, by incorporating a numerical simulation model via finite element analysis and obtaining results that are compared with experimental measurements. Stainless steels are considered, in general, weldable metals, but there are many rules that must be followed to ensure that they can be readily fabricated and free of defects and that will perform in their service environment as expected. When the rules are not followed, problems are not uncommon during fabrication or in service. The problems that occur are often associated with improper control of the weld microstructure and other associated properties, or the use of welding procedures that are inappropriate for the metal and its microstructure.

Stainless steels also have good resistance to oxidation, even at high temperatures, and they are often referred to as heat-resisting alloys. Resistance to elevated temperature oxidation is primarily a function of chromium content. Some high chromium stainless steel alloys (25 to 35 wt % Cr) can be used to temperatures as high as 1000C. Another form of resistance, at elevated temperatures, is resistance to carburization, for which stainless steel alloys of medium chromium content (about 16 wt %) but high nickel content (about 35 wt %) have been developed. Most stainless steels are weldable, but many require special procedures. In almost all cases, welding results in a significant alteration of the weld metal and heat affected zone microstructure relative to the base metal. This can constitute a change in the desired phase balance, formation of intermetallic constituents, grain growth, segregation of alloy and impurity elements and other reactions. In general, these lead to some level of degradation of properties and performance and must be taken into account during the design and manufacture process.

1.2 History of Stainless Steel

The addition of chromium to steels and its apparent beneficial effect on corrosion resistance is generally attributed to Pierre Berthier, who in 1821 developed a 1.5 wt% Cr alloy that he recommended for cutlery applications. However, experiments with these steels revealed, that with increased Cr, the formability of the steel deteriorated dramatically, so interest in them waned until the early 20th century. We now can attribute this behavior to the high carbon content of these early alloys. Interest in corrosion-resistant steels reemerged between 1900 and 1915 and a number of metallurgist are credited with developing corrosion-resistant alloys. The onset of this renewed activity was made in 1897 by Goldschmidt in Germany with the development of a technique for producing low-carbon Cr-bearing alloys. Shortly thereafter, Guillet, in 1904, Portevin and Giesen, in 1909, published papers describing the microstructure and properties of 13 wt% Cr martensitic and 17 wt% Cr ferritic stainless steels. In 1909, Guillet also published a study of chromium-nickel steels that were the precursors of the austenitic grades

of stainless steels. Another development that would boost the stainless steel production up was the introduction of the direct-arc electric furnace by Heroult in 1899. All the above laboratory studies sparked considerable interest in corrosion-resistant steels for industrial applications and from 1910 to 1915 there was considerable effort to commercialize these alloys. The first reported commercial stainless steel alloys are attributed to Harry Brearly, who was a metallurgist at Thomas Firth & Sons in Sheffield, England. Brearly was investigating the failure of rifle gun barrels made of 5 wt% chromium and in August 1913, an acceptable ingot was cast of the following composition (wt%): 12.86% Cr, 0.24% C, 0.20% Si and 0.44% Mn. Out of this ingot, 12 experimental gun barrels were made, but did not show the expected improvement. Some of the ingot was used to produce cutlery blades and the age of stainless steel had begun. The first stainless steel ingot was cast in the United States by Firth Sterling Ltd. in Pittsburg on March 3, 1915. This eventually led to a U.S. patent, assigned to Brearly for cutlery grade steel. It covered the composition range from 9 to 16 wt% chromium and less than 0.7 wt% carbon. Steels made under this patent soon came to be called Firth Stainless.

1.3Types of Stainless Steel and their applications

Stainless steels are the most widely used steels, next to plain carbon and C-Mn steels. This is due to the fact that there are so many varieties of stainless steels available offering a wide range of properties suitable for use in many applications. Unlike other materials, where classification is usually by composition, stainless steel are categorized based on the metallurgical phase or phases, which is predominant. There are three phases possible in stainless steels. These three phases are martensite, ferrite and austenite. Stainless steels with two metallurgical phases are termed Duplex, containing approximately 50% ferrite and 50% austenite, taking advantage of the desirable properties of each phase. Precipitation-hardenable (PH) grades are termed such, because they form strengthening precipitates and are hardenable by an aging heat treatment. PH stainless steels are further grouped by the phase or matrix, in which the precipitates are formed, to martensitic, semi-austenitic or austenitic types.
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1.3.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels: Fe-Cr-C-(Ni-Mo) alloys These alloys have a chromium content that ranges from 11.50 to 18.00%. They have relatively high carbon content from 0.15 to 1.20% compared to other stainless steels and molybdenum can also be used. These grades can be hardened through heat treatment to offer strength and hardness. They are magnetic. The common uses are knife blades, surgical instruments, shafts, etc.

1.3.2 Ferritic Stainless Steel: Fe-Cr-(Mo) alloys In ferritic grades, carbon is kept to low levels (C<0.08%) and the chromium content can range from10.50 to 30.00%. While some ferritic grades contain molybdenum (up to 4.00%), only chromium is present as the main metallic alloying element. These grades cannot be hardened through heat treatment. Ferritic grades are magnetic and chosen when toughness is not a primary need but corrosion resistance, particularly to chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC), is important. Common uses are automotive exhaust systems, automotive trim, hot water tanks .

1.3.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels: Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo) alloys In austenitic grades, carbon is usually kept to low levels (C < 0.08%). Chromium content ranges from 16.00 to 28.00% and nickel content ranges from 3.50 to 32.00%. This chemical composition allows them to maintain an austenitic structure from cryogenic temperatures up to the melting point of the alloy. These alloys cannot be hardened through heat treatment. The key properties of these types of stainless steel are excellent corrosion resistance, ductility and toughness. Common uses are: Food processing equipment, equipment for the chemical industry, domestic appliances, and architectural applications.

1.3.4 Duplex-Austenitic-Ferritic Stainless Steels: Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo)-N alloys In duplex stainless steels, carbon is kept to very low levels (C < 0.03%). Chromium content ranges from 21.00 to 26.00%, nickel content ranges from 3.50 to 8.00% and these alloys may contain molybdenum (up to 4.50%). These grades have a mixed structure of ferrite (50%) and austenite (50%) and offer physical properties which reflect this structure. These alloys are magnetic, and offer higher tensile and yield strengths than austenitic
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stainless. steels. Common uses are in marine applications, petrochemical plant, desalination plant, heat exchangers and papermaking industry.

1.3.5 Precipitation Hardening (PH): Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo-Al-Cu-Nb)-N alloys High strength, middling corrosion resistance and ease of fabrication are the primary benefits offered by this family of stainless steel grades. These grades develop very high strength after a low temperature (500-800C) heat treatment. Since lower temperature can be used, concerns with part distortion are minimized, allowing them to be used for high precision parts. Precipitation-hardened stainless steels have an initial microstructure of austenite or martensite. The AISI in order to designate stainless steels uses, a system with three numbers, sometimes followed by a letter, for example, 304, 316, 316L, 410. Table 1.1 Types of Stainless Steels (AISI) 1 2 3 4 5 Martensite Ferritic Austenitic Duplex Precipitation hardened 4XX 4XX 2XX, 3XX Austenite and Ferrite PH

1.4 Phase Diagrams

The purpose of equilibrium phase diagrams is to describe phase transformations and phase stability in stainless steels. The phase diagrams that refer to stainless steels are the FeCr binary system, and the Fe-Cr-C and Fe-Cr-Ni ternary systems. These diagrams can only approximate the actual microstructure that develops in the weld, for two reasons: 1st: stainless steel base and filler metals contain even up to 10 alloying elements, which can not be accommodated in one phase diagram. 2nd: phase diagrams are built based on equilibrium conditions, while the rapid heating and cooling conditions associated with welding, result in non-equilibrium conditions.

1.4.1 Solidification-Phase relationships in the FeCr system There is complete solubility of Cr in iron and solidification of all Fe-Cr alloys occurs as ferrite at elevated temperatures stated Sedriks. Sindo Kou explained at low chromium concentrations a gamma loop of austenite exists in the temperature range 912 to 1394 oC. 304L and 316L steels, as having more than 16wt% Cr will be fully ferritic at elevated temperatures, while alloys with less Cr (<12.7%) will form at least some austenite within the gamma loop. In the Fe-Cr diagram for 304L and 316L steels due to high Cr (if Cr>20%) availability in both steels, a hard, brittle, low-temperature equilibrium phase, sigma phase (), is present, with (Fe, Cr) stoichiometry.

Fig. 1.1 The Fe-Cr phase diagram

The kinetics, of formation of sigma, is quite sluggish and precipitation requires extended time in the temperature range 600 to 800oC. A dotted horizontal line can be seen within the + phase field at the temperature of 475oC, designates a phenomenon called 475oC embrittlement, resulting from the formation of coherent Cr-rich precipitates within the -matrix. These precipitates are known as (alpha prime) and form within the temperature range 400o to 540oC. The presence of the above precipitates results in severe embrittlement in 304L and 316L steel.

1.4.2 Solidification-Phase relationships in the FeCrC system Carbon is an austenite-promoter and its addition in Fe- Cr system will expand the gamma loop. In order to view the Fe-Cr-C ternary system, Lippold et al. constructed a pseudobinary diagram (isopleths) which represents a two-dimensional projection of a threedimensional diagram as in figure 1.2, a pseudo-binary diagram, based on 17 wt% Cr with variable carbon content as a function of temperature. Here C1 is a (Cr,Fe)23C6 carbide and C2 is a (Cr,Fe)7C3 carbide, is a result of the addition of carbon in the alloy.

Fig. 1.2 Effect of carbon on the expansion of austenite phase field 1.4.3 Solidification-Phase relationships in the FeCrNi system Folkhard explained that the liquidus projection starts at the peritectic reaction on the FeNi system ( + L ) and moves down to the eutectic reaction (L +) on the CrNi system in the FeCrNi ternary system. On the Ni and Cr enriched side a ternary eutectic is formed at 13000C. Most stainless steel compositions inwide use occur on the iron-rich side of the ternary between 50 and 70 % iron. Liquidus and solidus projections of the FeCrNi system (70% Fe) shown along with the constituent binaries is shown in figure 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Pseudobinary section of the FeCrNi ternary diagram at 70% Fe, showing solidification modes

Four distinct modes are normally considered, viz., A, AF ,FA, F. Alloys solidifying in the A mode will remain unchanged to low temperatures, while those solidifying as AF would form some eutectic ferrite. Compositions that solidify in the FA and F modes pass through the ( ) two phase region and may re-enter the single-phase austenite field. This is due to the asymmetry of the two-phase field towards the primary ferritic side of the diagram, as seen in figure 1.3. Thus, alloys such as Type 304 and 316 that are fully austenitic at room temperature enter this two-phase region after AF/FA solidification and may undergo solid-state transformation to a fully austeniteic structure. Fredriksson had researched that the transition from peritectic to eutectic reaction in FeCrNi alloys occurs at 17.2% Cr and 11.9% Ni. Under equilibrium conditions, the peritectic reaction occurs only at iron contents above 75 % . David et al explained that solidification in leaner alloys such as Type 304, 316 tends to be peritectic while higher alloyed grades undergo eutectic type of reaction. For most stainless steels this means that the composition should be controlled to achieve the FA solidification mode, resulting in the presence of FN 3-20 in the weld deposit. Solidification

mode was found major determinant of hot cracking susceptibility, ensuring an FA or F mode ensures the best resistance to hot cracking. Details of various solidification modes with their equivalent ratio, reaction and microstructure are presented in table 1.2. Table 1.2 Solidification Modes, Reactions and Final Microstructure Creq/Nieq ratio and solidification mode association Solidification Mode A Fully Austenitic AF Austenitic Ferritic Equivalent ratio Creq/Nieq< 1.25 1.25 < Creq/Nieq < 1.48 Reaction L L + A A Microstructure Fully Austenitic

L L + A L + A Ferrite at cell and dendrite + (A + F) eut A + boundaries Feut Skeletal and/or lathy ferrite resulting from ferrite to austenite transformation Acicular ferrite or ferrite matrix with grain boundary austenite and Windmasttten side plates

FA Ferritic Austenitic

1.48 < Creq/Nieq< L L + F L + F 1.95 + (F + A) per/eut F+A 1.95 < Creq/Nieq LL+FF F+A

F Ferritic

Chapter 2
Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are widely used in several industries because of their excellent corrosion resistance as well as their good mechanical properties. Fully austenitic stainless steel welds are prone to hot-cracking during welding. Several studies have shown that a certain amount of delta ferrite were quite resistant to cracking. Low-temperature impact properties are good for these alloys, making them useful in cryogenic applications. Service temperatures can be up to 760 C or even higher, but the strength and oxidation resistance of these steels are limited at such high temperatures. Austenitic stainless steels can be strengthened significantly by cold working. Although there are a wide variety of austenitic stainless steels, the oldest and most commonly used are the 300 series. Most of these alloys are based on the 18Cr-8Ni system, with additional alloying elements or modifications to provide unique or enhanced properties. Type 304 is the foundation of this alloy series and along with 304L represents the most commonly selected austenitic grade. While type 316 substitutes approximately 2%Mo for a nearly equal amount of Cr to improve pitting corrosion resistance. These low-carbon grades (304L, 316L) have been widely used in applications where intergranular attack and intergranular stress corrosion cracking are a concern.

2.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables

According to the designation by the AISI, austenitic stainless steels include both the 200 and 300 series alloys. The 300 series alloys are by far the most widely used of the austenitic stainless steels grades. A list of the most common of the 300 series is provided in Table 2.1. The L grades represent low-carbon variants with a nominal carbon level of 0.03 wt%. These alloys have improved resistance to intergranular corrosion in corrosive environments. The H grades are used at elevated temperatures since they have higher elevated temperature strength than standard of L grades.

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Table 2.1 Classification of Austenitic Stainless Steel AWS Filler Metals Composition (wt %) Type 219 308 308H 308L 309 309L 310 316 316H 316L 317 317L 330 347 219 308 308H 308: 308Si 308LSi 309 309L 309Si 309LSi 310 C 0.06 0.08 0.04-0.08 0.04 0.15 0.04 0.08-0.20 0.08 0.04-0.08 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.18-0.25 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.04-0.08 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.12 0.03 0.12 0.03 0.08-0.15 Mn 8.0-10.0 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 1.0-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5 1.0-2..5 0.5-2.5 8.0-10.0 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 P 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 S 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 Si 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 .75-1.5 1.0 1.00 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.65-1.0 0.65-1.0 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.65-1.0 0.65-1.0 0.3-0.65 Cr 19.0-21.5 18.0-21.0 18.0-21.0 18.0-21.0 22.0-25.0 22.0-25.0 25.0-28.0 17.0-20.0 17.0-20.0 17.0-20.0 18.0-21.0 18.0-21.0 14.0-17.0 18.0-21.0 19.0-21.5 19.5-22.0 19.5-22.0 19.5-22.0 19.5-22.0 19.5-22.0 Ni 5.5-7.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0 12.0-14.0 12.0-14.0 20.0-22.5 11.0-14.0 11.0-14.0 11.0-14.0 12.0-14.0 12.0-14.0 33.0-37.0 9.0-11.0 5.5-7.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0 Mo 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 N 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 -

23.0-25.0 12-14.0 23.0-25.0 12-14.0 23.0-25.0 12-14.0 23.0-25.0 12-14.0 25.0-28.0 20-22.5

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316 316H 316L 316Si 316LSi 317 317L 330 347 347Si

0.08 0.04-0.08 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.18-0.25 0.08 0.08

1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5

0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.65-1.0 0.65-1.0 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.3-0.65 0.65-1.0

18.0-20.0 18.0-20.0 18.0-20.0 18.0-20.0 18.0-20.0 18.5-20.5 18.5-20.5 15.0-17.0 19.0-21.5 19.0-21.5

11-14.0 11-14.0 11-14.0 11-14.0 11-14.0 13-15.0 13-15.0 34-37.0 9.0-11.0 9.0-11.0

2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 0.75 0.75 0.75

Table 2.2 Composition of Standard Wrought Austenitic Stainless steel

Type 201 302 304 304L 304H 308 309 310 316 316L 317 321 330 347

C 0.15 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.04-0.1 0.08 0.20 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.08

Mn 5.5-7.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

P 0.06 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045

S 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

Si 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 .75-1.5 1.0

Cr 16.0-18.0 17.0-19.0 18.0-20.0 18.0-20.0 18.0-20.0 19.0-21.0 22.0-24.0 24.0-26.0 16.0-18.0 16.0-18.0 18.0-20.0 17.0-19.0 17.0-20.0 17.0-19.0

Ni 3.5-5.5 8.0-10.0 8.0-10.5 8.0-12.0 8.0-10.5 10.0-12.0 12.0-15.0 19.0-22.0 10.0-14.0 10.0-14.0 11.0-15.0 9.0-12.0 34.0-37.0 9.0-13.0

Mo 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0 -

N 0.25 -

* A single value is a maximum

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Many other alloys can be found amongst the austenitic grades, such as the superaustenitic grades. These alloys exhibit unique characteristics and weldability concerns. Austenitic stainless steels filler metals, usually, have similar composition with the base metal, but it can also vary depending on the welding procedure or the service application of the steel. Austenitic stainless steel filler metals are listed in Table 2.2, which is divided in three parts, reflecting to the AWS specifications for consumables: 1. Specification AWS A5.4 for covered electrodes used in the SMAW process. 2. Specification AWS A5.9 for bare wire and tubular metal-cored electrodes used in the GMAW and GTAW process. 3. Specification AWS A5.22 for gas-shielded flux-cored electrodes used in the FCAW process.

2.2 Role of Alloying Elements

Stainless steels are iron-base alloys with iron contents ranging from 50 to 88 wt% of the composition. The main alloying additions to stainless steel grades are chromium and carbon for the ferritic and martensitic grades, with the addition of nickel for the austenitic and duplex grades. Essentially all stainless steel grades contain manganese and silicon as intentional additions. Other alloying additions include molybdenum, niobium, titanium, aluminum, copper, tungsten, nitrogen and many others to improve their fabrication, develop special properties, enhance corrosion resistance, or influence microstructure. Impurity elements commonly found in stainless steels are nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus. All the above alloy and impurity element have some effect on weldability and performance. The level of these elements in the base or filler metal is controlled by the material specification, in order to assure that the steel will perform as anticipated. 2.2.1 Chromium The primary objective of the chromium addition is to provide corrosion protection to the steel. In the 304L and 316L austenitic stainless steels it is normally present in the range 16-22 wt% . 1. Chromium is also a key ingredient in the formation of intermetallic compounds as (alpha prime) which causes embrittlement in 304L and 316L steel. The percentage of
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chromium increases the stability of the oxide since it has a much higher affinity for oxygen than does iron. 2. Chromium is a substitutional element in BCC and FCC, and so from a mechanical properties standpoint, chromium will provide some degree of solid solution strengthening. 3. Chromium is also known as strong carbide former as (Cr,Fe)23C6 carbide, (Cr,Fe)7C3 carbide and the most common Cr-rich carbide is the M23C6, where M is predominantly chromium but may also have some fraction of Fe and Mo present.

2.2.2 Nickel The prime purpose of nickels addition is to encourage sufficient stable austenitic phase field. In the 304L and 316L austenitic stainless steels availability of nickel is in the range of 8-15 wt%. 1. Nickel is also a good solid solution strengthener with addition of nickel to a Fe20Cr alloy, in an aggressive chlorine containing environment, a decrease in stress corrosion cracking resistance occurs. 2. Presence of high Ni content decreases the crevice corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steels. 3. Fe-Cr-Ni(Mo) alloys system in nickel austenite steels, exhibit a wide range of mechanical properties that are unparalleled by any other alloy system today.

2.2.3 Manganese Its ability to stabilize the austenite in steel manganese is used the 304L and 316L steels, in which its content varies from 1 - 2.5 %. Manganese is essential to steel making because of these key properties. 1. The original purpose of manganese addition was the prevention of solidification cracking associated with the formation manganese sulfide as manganese combines more readily with sulfur, than does iron. 2. It has powerful deoxidation capacity, In austenitic stainless steels, such as the 304 type it appears to have little effect in promoting austenite versus ferrite. The effect of manganese on the mechanical properties of the alloy is minimal.

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3. The only negative aspect of manganese is its tendency to form inclusions in the steel, especially in the presence of sulphur.

2.2.4 Molybdenum Molybdenum is used in 304L and 316 L stainless steels in amounts 0.213 to 3 wt%. Even such relatively small percentages of molybdenum have powerful effects in improving the resistance to pitting in chloride environments and to crevice in both Fe-Cr alloys and FeCr-Ni alloys. 1. Molybdenum reduces the intensity of the oxidizing effect required to insure passivity and decrease the tendency of previously formed passive films to break down . 2. Molybdenum is a ferrite-promoting element and its presence will promote ferrite formation and retention in the microstructure . 3. Molybdenum is a carbide former.

2.2.5 Silicon Silicon, a ferrite stabilizer is added for deoxidation during melting. In 304L and 316L steel, its content ranges from 0.4 to 1.0 %. Silicon segregates during solidification particularly in combination with nickel, resulting in formation of low melting eutectic constituents. For the above reason, silicon is held below 1 wt%. 1. It has been found high addition of silicon in austenitic stainless steels, not only improves resistance to oxidation but also prevents carburising at elevated temperatures. 2. Silicon forms a number of silicides (FeSi, Fe2Si, Fe3Si, Fe5Si3) and a Cr3Si intermetallic element, all of which tend to embrittle the structure. 3. Austenitic grade 304L and 316L steel can be quite sluggish in the molten state during solidification and the addition of silicon in the weld filler metal can improve their fluidity.

2.2.6 Sulphur Sulphur is present in 304L and 316L steel as undesirable impurity (0.022 to 0.033 %). It is strongly rejected into the liquid during solidification of austenite, rapidly lowering the melting point of the inter dendritic liquid. A base material with extremely low sulphur

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content may produce a nearly unweldable alloy yet one that is crack insensitive when fusion welded. 1. It also forms low-melting sulphide films along the interdendritic and grain-boundary regions. 2. Sulphur is almost insoluble in all three major constituents viz. Fe, Cr, Ni of steel. The phase diagrams for sulphur binaries with all three elements show wide and deep solidliquid regions with low partitions coefficients for sulphur in austenite as shown in Table 2.2. 3. In alloys rich in austenite stabilizers, heats with excessive sulphur content may experience hot cracking or may affect the amount of hot cracking as opposed to its quality of weld puddle control or penetration .

Table 2.3, Partition coefficients of elements of 304 L and 316 L steel promoting hot cracking in austenite and ferrite, constitution and melting points of possible lowmelting phases. S.No. Constituent Temper -ature
0

Partition Coefficient

Low Melting Phases Structure Eutectic FeFeS Eutectic NiNiS Eutectic FeFe3P Eutectic NiNi3P Eutectic FeFe2Si Eutectic NiSi Ni3Si2 NiSi 996 Melting point 0C

C 0.091 0.035

Sulphur

1365

988 630 1048 875 1212 964

Phosphorous 1250

0.23

0.125

Silicon

1300

0.77

0.52

2.2.7 Phosphorous Phosphorus ranges from 0.31% to 0.45% in 304L and 316L steels. Like sulphur, phosphrous also formslow-melting eutectics with iron, chromium and nickel. The cracking tendencies of P and S tend to be combined and are assumed additive as shown in figure 2.1.
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1. It particularly harmful in 304L and 316 L since it has a strong tendency to spread as liquid films. 2. Low diffusivity of P in austenite and ferrite phases even at high temperatures virtually precludes homogenization. 3. Manganese additions are well-known to decrease cracking in high-S steels by forming higher-melting MnSeutectics in preference to FeS.

Fig. 2.1, Cracking susceptibility of 300 series stainless steel based on Cr/Ni

2.2.8 Nitrogen Nitrogen has potent effects on the microstructure and hence is expected to have strong influence on hot cracking behaviour of type 300L and 316L stainless steel. 1. N appears to act synergistically with S to increase cracking in fully austenitic 316L weld metal; low-S weld metal shows no effect on increasing N levels. 2. The beneficial effects of nitrogen to a refinement in the dendritic structure. 3. Nitrogen is a strong solid solution strengthening agent and even small additions of N can increase dramatically the strength of austenitic alloys and that is why their content levels should be controlled carefully in order to achieve the desired microstructure balance.
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2.3 Welding of Stainless Steel

The three most popular processes for welding stainless steels are shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc and gas metal arc (including fluxed cored arc) welding; however, almost all welding processes can be used. Stainless steel, although they are considered to be very weldable, are slightly more difficult to weld than mild steels. This is due to the fact that the physical properties of stainless steels exhibit several differences from those of the mild steels. These differences are: 1. Lower melting temperature 2. Lower coefficient of thermal conductivity 3. Higher coefficient of thermal expansion 4. Higher electrical resistance The above physical properties are not the same for all stainless steel grades. The metallurgical features are those that determine the physical properties and the weldability characteristics. In generally, the weldability of martensitic stainless steels is affected greatly by hardenability that can result in cold working. Welded joints in ferritic stainless steels have low ductility as a result of grain coarsening that is related to the absence of allotropic phase transformation. The weldability of austenitic stainless steels is governed by their susceptibility to hot cracking, similar to other single-phase alloys with a FCC structure.

2.3.1 Welding of 304L and 316 L stainless steel In general, 304L and 316Lsteels are readily weldable with common arc processes and other techniques, but very hard to keep flat, as the coefficient of linear expansion is 1.7 times that of mild steel. 308L may used as filler for 304L, as 304L being low carbon versions suffer from weld decay. For arc welding processes, the hot cracking tendency can be predicted by considering the relative amounts of the ferrite stabilizers to the amount of austenite stabilizers. While for fusion welding processes with either very high cooling rates or very low cooling rates the weld nugget morphology becomes more important than the primary mode of weld pool solidification.
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The beam processes are best suited to applications that favor very high aspect ratio weld nuggets (high depth to width ratio). The best gas for MIG welding for 304L and 316L is 97.5% Argon +2.5% CO2. Virtually all standard specifications in current use for the procurement of 304L and 316L allow for the possibility of receiving material overly rich in austenite stabilizers such that weld solidification as primary austenite could occur and lead to hot cracking in a production weld. The plot for SA 240 type 304L shows that approximately one tenth of the area enclosed by the limit lines will solidify as austenite, and additional fourth will solidify as primary austenite, one half will solidify as primary ferrite, while the balance will solidify as ferrite. Similarly for SA 240 type 316L, approximately one third of the possible compositions will solidify as austenite, one fourth as primary austenite, one third as primary ferrite and the balance as ferrite. It should be noted that the maximum carbon content permitted by the SA 240 was used for the calculations. In addition, due to the absence of specification limits for nitrogen, a typical amount of 0.07% was assumed.

Figure 2.2 A, 2.2 B, WRC 1992 constitutional diagram with SA 240 type 304L, SA 240 type 316L stainless steel

2.4 Welding Metallurgy of Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are formulated and thermo-mechanically processed in such way, that their microstructure is primarily austenite. Depending on the balance of ferrite19

promoting elements to austenite-promoting elements, the wrought or cast microstructure will be either fully austenitic or a mixture of austenite and residual ferrite. In order to observe the fully austenitic and the mixture of austenitic and ferritic microstructure. In case (a) the microstructure consists of austenitic grains and in case (b), some residual high-temperature ferrite (-ferrite) is aligned along the rolling direction. These ferrite stringers can result from the ferrite-promoting element segregation (primarily chromium) during solidification and thermo-mechanical processing (rolling). It is usually present in relatively low fraction volume (less than 2 to 3 %).The presence of -ferrite in the austenitic microstructure of wrought austenitic stainless steels can reduce the ductility and, potentially, the toughness of austenitic stainless steels. It can also be a preferential site for the precipitation of M23C6 carbides and -phase, which is an embrittling agent in stainless steels.

2.4.1 Weld Solidification Cracking Weld solidification cracking can be a formidable problem with the austenitic stainless steels. Cracking susceptibility is primarily a function of composition. Weld metals that solidify in the A mode and are fully austenitic tend to be the most susceptible, while those that solidify in the FA mode tend to be the most resistant to solidification cracking. High impurity levels, particularly sulfur and phosphorus, tend to increase the susceptibility in alloys that solidify in the A and AF mode. However, the addition of other elements, such as niobium, has shown a tendency to increase the resistance to solidification cracking. Weld restrain conditions and weld shape also influence cracking susceptibility. High levels of heat input resulting in large weld beads or excessive travel speeds that promote teardrop-shaped weld pools are most problematic with respect to cracking. Concave bead shape and underfilled craters a weld stops also promote solidification cracking. The A and AF modes are the most susceptible to cracking that the FA and F modes, which show good resistance in solidification cracking. In fact, the F mode is more susceptible to cracking than FA, but superior to A and AF. Thus, composition can be used very effectively to control weld solidification cracking. The principal reason for the superiority of the FA mode in solidification cracking resistance is the existence of a two-

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phase austenite + ferrite mixture along SGBs at the end of solidification that resists wetting by liquid films and presents a tortuous boundary along which cracks must propagate. Historically, a number of factors have been used to explain the beneficial effect of ferrite on solidification cracking resistance in austenitic stainless steels. However, some of those factors may have no significant or even negligible influence on the resistance to solidification cracking.

Figure 2.3 Weld solidification cracks in a) fully austenitic weld metal (FN 0) b) weld metal with FN 6 FA solidification mode

2.5 Types of Cracking in 304L and 316 L steel welds

Hot cracking occurs with temperature highest than 1200C and its due the presence of impurities with lower melting point than the bare metal. It can be further classified into three types. 2.5.1 Solidification cracking All metals show a typical dependence between ductility and temperature, increasing temperature in the solid state up to the solidus temperature (TS) leads to a higher ductility. But above TS a sharp decrease in ductility due to the presence of a second, liquid phase occurs, called the Brittle Temperature Range (BTR). If stresses are applied within the BTR, solidification cracking can take place. To minimize the BTR and to prevent solidification cracking the presence of elements, which can form phases with low melting points should be avoided. During cooling from the liquid weld pool these critical phases remain as a liquid at

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the solidification front. Additional stresses, caused by the inhomogeneous welding temperature field can lead to cracking.

Fig 2.4 Appearance of BTR and Ductility Dip

2.5.2 Liquification cracking Liquification cracking can occur, if hot cracking sensitive materials are heated up to temperatures above the melting point of the low melting critical phases but below the main solidification temperature of the alloy. Also in this case, stresses can lead to cracking. Control of impurity levels and minimizing heat input can reduce or eliminate this form of cracking. Minimal ferrite number to control liquification cracking for 304L stainless steel is 4.0 and for 316L is 2.5. 2.5.3 Ductility dip cracking High chromium nickel-base alloys show in a temperature range solid state grain boundary embrittlement phenomenon which is called Ductility Dip Cracking (DDC). Fine particles at the grain boundaries, especially carbides of type M23C6 can prevent grain boundary gliding and in further consequence the formation of voids and small cracks along grain boundaries.

2.6 The Emphasis of Ferrite on hot cracking

By assuring solidification as primary ferrite, the potential for cracking is effectively
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eliminated. The presence of delta ferrite causes a number of problems with the austenitic stainless steels: 1. The cracking sensitivity gain increased as ferrite content is increasing and which has inverse effect on, the ductility because of martensite formation and thus the potential for fracture increases. 2. If secondary operations like Electropolishing are performed, the delta ferrite will preferentially dissolve leaving a white or dull surface, especially true for welded parts . 3. As the ferrite is usually controlled to prevent microcracks as well as refines the grain size of the solidified metal, which results in better mechanical properties and cracking resistance in stainless steel welds. 4. Ductility of ferrite at high temperatures is greater than that of austenite, allowing relaxation of thermal stresses. The lower thermal expansion coefficient of ferrite as compared to austenite results in less contraction stresses and fissuring tendency. 5. Volume contraction associated with the ferrite-austenite transformation reduces tensile stresses close to the crack tip, which decreases cracking tendency. 6. Coarse grain formation in the HAZ occurring by recrystallisation and grain growth in fully austenitic metals increases susceptibility to liquation cracking, while ferrite forming compositions are not susceptible.

2.6 Embrittlement Characteristics in 304L and 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel

2.6.1 Low Temperature Embrittlement Between the weld fusion line and the HAZ there is a residual strain of 15-20%. Since all the Low temperature sensitisation LTS related cracking has been in this region, it is pertinent to study the LTS behaviour of stainless steels which are in cold-worked condition. It was analysed that type 304 L and 304 stainless steels have a tendency to transform into martensite upon cold rolling. The martensite phase sensitised very fast between 300oC to 500o C. This changed the LTS behaviour completely from that of an all-austenitic stainless steel. He stated that the sensitized 304 showed intergranular cracking, the DOS developed in the annealed materials
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after the LTS treatment was not sufficient to make it susceptible to inter granular stress corrosion cracking. However, type 316LN stainless steel was found to be the most resistant grade of stainless steel to LTS.

Fig. 2.5; Complete intergranular cracking of the sensitized type 304 stainless steel (a) intergranular facets of the fracture surface and (b) secondary intergranular branches emanating from the main intergranular crack.

2.6.2 Thermal Aging Embrittlement Phenomenology (TAE) TAE is a time and temperature dependent degradation mechanism. It is caused by the thermally activated movement of lattice atoms over a long period of time. This degradation process can occur without application of mechanical load. 1. Aging behavior above 500oC temperatures Prolonged exposure in the temperature range of 565-925C results in chromium depletion from the grain boundaries, making them susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Islands were typically found to be all ferrite or all sigma. These ferrite regions were substantially enriched in chromium, with levels nearly identical to those found in sigma phase. These observations indicate that the nucleation of sigma phase in ferrite is the rate limiting step for the transformation. They indicate that although the chromium enrichment of ferrite is a necessary step, it is not sufficient for sigma formation. Also, the fact that partially transformed ferrite areas were rarely observed indicates that once nucleation of sigma phase begins as shown in figure 2.6.

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Fig. 2.6; The Fe-Cr phase diagram indicating sigma phase embrittlement. The most rapid sigma-phase formation occurs in the range of 700-900C. Sigma phase embrittlement has been shown to cause severe loss of ductility, toughness, and corrosion resistance resulting in cracking and failure of components, especially those subjected to impact loads or excessive stress. 2. Aging at temperatures 475C The aging at temperatures less than 550C showed no evidence of ferrite to sigma phase transformation but precipitation of M23C6 carbide at the austenite/ferrite interface was found to occur. During the initial stages of aging, within the ferrite a fine scale spinodal decomposition of ferrite into iron rich alpha and chromium rich alpha phases was observed. Abundant precipitation of G-phase was also observed in addition to the spinodal decomposition within the ferrite. G-phase is a nickel rich silicide that has been identified in austenitic stainless steel welds and castings. If austenitic steels are used in the temperature range 350-550C, a serious decrease in toughness will be observed after shorter or longer times. The phenomenon is encountered in alloys containing from 15 to 75 % chromium and the origin of this embrittlement is the spinodal decomposition of the matrix into two phases of body-centered
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cubic structure, and . The former is very rich in iron and the later very rich in chromium. This type of embrittlement is usually denoted as 475C embrittlement. 2.6.3. Hydrogen Embrittlement (HEE) Embrittlement effects are typically confined to near-ambient temperatures, maximizing near room temperature and diminishing at higher or lower temperatures. Ductile failure on hydrogen charged samples can be explained by the presence of relatively low amounts of hydrogen. A high content of hydrogen is necessary to introduce brittle fracture in 304L and 316L austenitic steels. In relation with the hydrogen content of the material, hydrogen embrittlement can occur not only in the form of brittle cracks. Hydrogen embrittlement is a very complicated process with many underlying mechanisms. To date, three main embrittlement mechanisms have been proposed: 1. 2. 3. Hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE), Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP), Hydride-induced embrittlement (HIE).

Fig. 2.7 A; Brittle transgranular and intergranular multiple cracking on specimen surface, B, Ductile fracture near brittle zone,( Cathodic charging on type 316L steel during slow strain rate test, cathodic polarisation 100 mA/ cm2, strain rate 10-6 s-1, strain to fracture 13%.) 1. Hydrogen Enhanced Decohesion (HED) Diffusion of hydrogen is influenced both by temperature and chemical potential gradients. In this case, the chemical potential gradient refers to the force imposed on the atoms due to a concentration gradient. A lattice expansion caused by the hydrostatic tensile

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stress surrounding a crack tip locally reduces the effective hydrogen concentration and, thus, the chemical potential, resulting in a flux of hydrogen toward it. 2. Hydrogen-Enhanced Localized Plasticity (HELP) Hydrogen concentration on a local scale can increase dislocation activity in the immediate vicinity. The increase in local dislocation activity causes local stress concentration, contributing to failure initiation at planar defects where hydrogen is not present. A brittle fracture surface facilitated by the HELP mechanism will have evidence of slip, dimples, and tear ridges. 3. Hydride-Induced Embrittlement (HIE) The process consists of the diffusion of hydrogen, precipitation of hydrides, heat flow, and material deformation. Crack propagation is assisted through the repeated formation and cleavage of hydrides in the stress zone at the crack tip. A hydride nucleates in an area reaching terminal solid solubility, and creates an additional stress concentration at its tip. The stress field between the hydride and crack tips facilitates the growth of the precipitate toward the crack. Effect of temperature on HEE HEE increased with decreasing temperature, reached a maximum at around 200 K and decreases rapidly with decreasing temperature down to 80 K. Sensitization enhanced HEE and decreased a temperature immune to HEE. HEE of the type 316 series stainless steels from 300 K to the maximum HEE temperature depended on the transformation of strain induced martensite and the behavior. Below the maximum HEE temperature depended on the diffusion of hydrogen.

Fig.2.8; Grade 316 tested in 25 MPa H2 at 20oC showing martensite ahead of a crack tip.
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Effect of fatigue on HE Fatigue crack growth rates in the presence of hydrogen are strongly frequency dependent for 304L & 316 L steels. With decreasing loading frequency down to the level of 0.0015 Hz, the non diffusible hydrogen definitely increases fatigue crack growth rates. If the non diffusible hydrogen at O-sites of the lattice is reduced to the level of 0.4 wppm by a special heat treatment, then the damaging influence of the loading frequency disappears and fatigue crack growth rates are significantly decreased. Effect of nitrogen on HE Addition of nitrogen improved resistance to hydrogen cracking regardless of the failure mode. Fracture surfaces of cathodically charged steels showed intergranular brittle zones on each side of the fracture surfaces. AlSl type 316 with nitrogen alloying stainless steel is more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than AlSl type 321 with nitrogen alloying steel. Nitrogen alloying of stainless steel increased the mechanical properties in hydrogen environments by increasing the stability of austenite. 2.6.4 Internal Reversible Hydrogen Embrittlement (IRHE) and Hydrogen Gas Embrittlement (HGE) At low temperatures IRHE occurred below a Ni content of 15% increased with decreasing temperature, reached a maximum at 200 K, and decreased with further decreasing temperature, similarly to the temperature dependence of HE in 316 stainless steel. At room temperature, IRHE and HGE could be observed below a Ni content of 14% and decreased with increasing Ni content.

Fig.2.9; Schematic presentation of typical fracture surface obtained after hydrogen embrittlement test, cathodic charging on type 316 L.
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Dimple ruptures caused by hydrogen segregation occurred in only IRHE at 150 K. The content of strain-induced martensite increased with decreasing temperature and Ni content. Thus, the susceptibility to IRHE and HGE depended on Ni content. IRHE and HGE could be controlled by the amount of strain-induced martensite above 200 K, whereas they were controlled by the hydrogen transport below 200 K. 2.6.5 Synergistic telluriumcaesium embrittlement Old has mentioned that fission products such as caesium, cadmium and tellurium might embrittle the austenitic stainless steel cladding of fast reactor fuel pins in certain conditions. Admson reported the observation of rapid, severe embrittlement of AISI 316 stainless steel by liquid telluriumcaesium mixtures in the temperature region 500700C. Hot shortness occurs with the most pronounced loss in ductility. The influence of molten tellurium and tellurium/ cesium mixtures on the mechanical properties is that steel got embrittled at temperatures above 600oC due to extensive chemical interaction and grain boundary penetration; adding even 2% cesium at 600oC caused tellurium to severely embrittle the steel; similarities to zinc embrittlement exists indicating that tellurium may also degrade by a two step process, with cracks initiating because of the chemical interaction, but propagating because of surface energy reductions. 2.6.6 Swelling and void induced embrittlement Void swelling of 304L and 316 L steel falls strongly in swelling rate at temperatures below 335C and should not reach large swelling levels even at high dpa levels. Large voids associated with cracking along denuded zone adjacent to grain boundaries at 335C and 73 dpa in an annealed stress-free tube when tested in reactor component. High dose neutron irradiation at elevated temperatures causes swelling of austenitic steels, which is a dominating effect in changing not only the volume of the metal, but also causing significant and measurable changes in both electrical resistance and elastic moduli. Neustroeve stated that lower dpa rates decrease the duration of the transient regime of swelling and therefore increase swelling at a given exposure level. It has also been convincingly shown that lower dpa rates cause swelling to occur at lower temperatures that encompass all temperatures of relevance to PWR and VVER internals in 304L steel. Voids
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initially harden the matrix, but as the swelling level becomes significant, the elastic moduli decrease strongly, with the consequence that the steel actually softens with increasing swelling, even as the elongation decreases as a result of void linkage during deformation, the strength again decreases as swelling increases. Finally, zero deformation levels occur at higher swelling levels, arising most likely from a segregation of nickel to void surfaces that induces a martensitic instability and produces a zero tearing modulus.

Fig. 2.10; Large voids associated with cracking along denuded zone adjacent to grain boundaries at 335C and 73 dpa in an annealed stress-free tube.

2.8 Welding Metallurgy of Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are formulated and thermo-mechanically processed in such way, that their microstructure is primarily austenite. Depending on the balance of ferritepromoting elements to austenite-promoting elements, the wrought or cast microstructure will be either fully austenitic or a mixture of austenite and residual ferrite. In order to observe the fully austenitic and the mixture of austenitic and ferritic microstructure, two wrought austenitic stainless steels are shown in Figure 2.11 In case (a) the microstructure consists of austenitic grains and in case (b), some residual high-temperature ferrite (-ferrite) is aligned along the rolling direction. These ferrite stringers can result from the ferrite-promoting element segregation (primarily chromium) during solidification and thermo-mechanical processing. It is usually present in relatively low fraction volume (less than 2 to 3 %).

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Figure 2.11; Microstructure of Type 304 A) fully austenitic and B) austenite with ferrite stringers The presence of -ferrite in the austenitic microstructure of wrought austenitic stainless steels can reduce the ductility and, potentially, the toughness of austenitic stainless steels. It can also be a preferential site for the precipitation of M23C6 carbides and -phase, which is an embrittling agent in stainless steels. The description of the transformation behavior of austenitic stainless steels can be achieved with the use of the Fe-Cr-Ni pseudobinary diagram, at 70% constant iron, which can be seen in Figure 2.12

Figure 2.12 Pseudo-binary section of the Fe-Cr-Ni system at 70% iron

2.9 Heat Affected Zone

The nature of the heat affected zone (HAZ) in austenitic stainless steels depends on the composition and the microstructure of the base metal. In this particular area, next to the
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fusion zone, some metallurgical reactions may occur. Some of them are the grain growth, the ferrite formation, precipitation of carbides and grain boundary liquation. Most stainless steels are welded in the solution-annealed or hot-rolled condition, so grain growth is usually restricted unless weld heat inputs are extremely high. Some grain coarsening can usually be observed, but in most cases it is not dramatic. In base metals that have been strengthened by cold working, recrystallization and grain growth can result in significant HAZ softening. In this case, a distinct HAZ results and the grain size is clearly larger than of the base metal. Regarding the ferrite formation in the HAZ, as shown in the pseudo-binary diagram, alloys whose compositions are to the right of the fully austenitic solidification range will form ferrite when heated to temperatures just below the solidus temperatures. The higher the Creq/Nieq ratio of the alloy, the more likely ferrite formation will be. When ferrite forms, it is usually along the grain boundary. Formation of Ferrite along the HAZ grain boundaries will restrict grain growth and also minimize the susceptibility to HAZ liquation cracking. The degree of ferrite formation is usually low since the austenite-to-ferrite transformation is relatively sluggish and the HAZ thermal cycle is normally quite rapid. Also, there is the possibility that some of the ferrite that forms during elevated temperature exposure transforms back to austenite on cooling. The HAZ of the austenitic stainless steels can be heated up to temperatures approaching the solidus of the alloy, thus many of the precipitated that are present may dissolve. This can lead to a supersaturation of austenite matrix during cooling, resulting in the formation of various precipitates. Carbides and nitrides are the most likely precipitates to form in the HAZ of the austenitic stainless steels. These precipitates will usually form along grain boundaries or, if ferrite is present, at the ferrite-austenite interface. Even though not apparent metallographically, it is likely that these precipitates will be present in the HAZ of most austenitic alloys. The precipitate size, distribution and morphology are depended on the alloy composition and the HAZ thermal cycle. Another metallurgical reaction that can occur in the HAZ of austenitic stainless steels is the local melting along the austenite grain boundaries. This usually results from the segregation of impurity elements that reduce the grain boundary melting temperature. Alloys

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Figure 2.13 Ferrite along the austenite grain boundaries in the HAZ of Grade 304L

undergo constitutional liquation, a phenomenon that can lead to HAZ liquation cracking. Segregation of impurity elements, particularly sulfur and phosphorus, to the grain boundaries can also promote liquation.

2.10 Preheat, Interpass Temperature and Post Weld Heat Treatment

In general, preheat and interpass temperature control is not required for austenitic stainless steels as it is for transformable (martensitic) steels. High preheat and interpass temperatures will slow the cooling rate, but this will have little effect on the ferrite-toaustenite transformation, since it occurs in very high temperatures, where preheat and interpass temperature control has very little effect on cooling rate. In cases where carbide precipitation leading to sensitization is a concern, interpass temperature may need to be controlled below some maximum since slow cooling through the carbide precipitation range may be damaging. Post weld heat treatment is often required in thick-section weldments to relieve residual stresses. Because the coefficient of thermal expansion is much larger for austenitic stainless steels than e.g. the ferritic stainless steels, the magnitude of the residual stresses can be extremely large. Postweld stress relief may be necessary to reduce distortion in the component, particularly if postweld machining operations are required or if the weldment must maintain dimensional stability in service. Reduction of residual stresses is also crucial, if there is the potential for stress corrosion cracking in service.
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The postweld heat treatment that is selected should be depended on the intention of thermal treatment, such as stress relief or microstructure modification. Stress-relief heat treatments are generally conducted in the temperature range 550 to 650 C, which is below the nose of the curve for carbide precipitation, and also below the temperature range in which embrittling compounds form. It can be noted from that sensitization is possible if stress-relief treatment requires several hours, as may be the case in heavy section weldments. In this situation, the use of low-carbon base and filler metals or stabilized grades is recommended. Higher postweld heat treatment may be desirable in some cases, in order to relieve more effectively residual stresses, or to modify the as-welded microstructure. Special care should be taken in the range of 650 to 900 C, since both M23C6 carbides and sigma () phase form rapidly. The carbides formation may sensitize the material, while sigma phase can lead to embrittlement and loss of toughness. Postweld heat treatment can be possible in this range, if the weld metal is fully austenitic and if the base and filler metals are low carbon grades. Weld metals that contain ferrite form sigma phase rapidly.

Figure 2.14 Precipitation of M23C6 carbides

When the weldment undergoes postweld heat treatment in the range of 950 to 1100 C, it will be completely relieved from residual stresses and also its as-welded microstructure will be modified, without the formation of carbides or sigma phase. Heating above 950 C followed by rapid quenching will remove any carbides in the original
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microstructure, while heating to temperatures approaching 1100 C will dissolve some or all of the ferrite, depending on the hold time at temperature, composition of the weld metals and the as-welded ferrite content. If this extreme heat treatment is used, rapid cooling to room temperature by water quenching is generally required since carbide precipitation may occur during slow cooling.

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Chapter 3
Literature Review
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) type 304 is the foundation of 300 series austenitic stainless steels is by far the oldest, largest and most important group in the stainless steel range [1]. While type 316L substitutes approximately 2% Mo for a nearly equal amount of Cr to improve pitting corrosion resistance. The L grades represent lowcarbon variants with a nominal carbon level of 0.03 % depending on the specification to which it is manufactured, which are used for general stainless steel fabrications, elevated temperature applications and resistance to pitting corrosion respectively [2] 300 series of austenitic stainless steels usually solidify during welding as a mixture of austenite and ferrite. The ferrite almost fully transforms to austenite on cooling, but there could be retention of a few percent of ferrite in the weld metal which leads to hot cracking [3]. Hot cracking refers to cracking that occurs during welding, casting, or hot working at temperatures close to the melting point of the material [4,5]. Several theories had been advanced to explain the phenomenon of solidification cracking [6,7,8,9]. The initial theories took into account that hot cracking is associated with segregation [7,8]. Later, Scherer et al claimed that crack-resistant weld deposits can be produced if ferrite is restricted to 535% in the completed weld [10]. Maziasz stated that irradiation stability and creep properties can be improved by surplus addition of elements like phosphorus and boron and a minimum content of phosphorus [11]. However, Hull examined that impurity elements such as sulphur and phosphorus, and minor alloy elements such as boron, silicon, titanium and niobium promote hot cracking, particularly in fully austenitic steels [12]. Savage et al and Lundin et al had also explained the Varestraint test and its modifications that had been used in a large number of studies on hot cracking susceptibility of materials, for weldability comparisons and process and alloy development [13,14]. However, these theories were not entirely satisfactory, as several exceptions could be found and the freezing range appeared to be only
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one of many factors influencing cracking [15,16,17]. The purpose of this review is also to examine the current understanding of Hot Cracking Susceptibility (HCS) in type 304L and 316L austenitic stainless steels with particular emphasis on significant impurities and alloying elements along with influence of phase transformations on hot cracking. All welding processes are employed with the aim of obtaining a welded joint with the desired weld-bead parameters, excellent mechanical properties with minimum distortion [18]. Methodologies exist to provide a structured framework for the welding process parameters improvement [19]. One iteration of the methodology is applied to determine S/N ratio and effects of the process variables on Grade 316L-PMTM austenitic stainless steel MIG under dry environment [20]. MIG is one of the superior welding processes having high productivity with all positional welding capability compared with other processes. It produces welds that are generally about 510% stronger at room temperature than welds from SMAW and SAW processes and are similar to those of gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) deposit after similar post weld heat treatment (PWHT) [21]. A comprehensive literature review of the application of Response surface methodology in the area of welding has been introduced herein. Tarang explained that for determining the mechanical properties of the weld in GTAW, the weld bead geometry plays significant role [22]. For producing an satisfactory high quality joint, the input welding process variables which influence the bead geometry must be properly selected and optimized for MIG process stated by Mostafa [23]. Rayes demonstrated a central composite rotatable design to develop a mathematical model for predicting maximum weld bead penetration as a function of welding process parameters [24]. Murugan developed mathematical models using a five-level factorial technique to predict the weld bead geometry for depositing 316L stainless steel onto structural steel IS2062 [25]. Gunaraj predicted and optimized weld bead volume for the SAW and determined the main and interaction effects of process control variables on important bead geometry parameters quantitatively [26]. Kannan optimized FCAW process parameters for deposition of duplex stainless steel on low carbon structural steel plates by developing mathematical models using multiple regression method and optimized percentage dilution using particle swarm optimization technique (PSO) [27]. Siva optimized the weld bead parameters of nickel based overlay
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deposited by plasma transferred arc surfacing [28]. Mechanical properties of metal injection moulded 316L stainless steel using both prealloy and master alloy techniques was determined by Heaney [29]. Kaladhar determined optimum process parameters during turning of AISI 304 steels using Taguchi method and ANOVA [30]. Ananthapadmanaban reported the experimental studies on the effect of friction welding parameters on properties of steel [31]. Mumim investigated the hardness variations and microstructure at the interfaces of steel welded joints [32]. From the literature, it can be inferred that many studies were carried out to design the experiments for the study of effect of process parameters on weld bead geometry for different grades of stainless steel for various welding processes but no work has been reported for study of effect of process parameters and optimization Grade 304L and Grade 316L-PMTM. The Grade 316L-PMTM is an austenitic stainless steel, based on the 316L 1.4435 chemistry, therefore can be used in conjunction with 316L and 316LS-PXQTM without risk of corrosion caused by differences in electrical potential by welding or any other joining process [33]. Grade 304L and Grade 316L-PMTM is increasingly used as chemical, surgical and medical industry, marine engineering, textile industry equipment due to its very rigid requirements on the microstructure, micro cleanliness, high corrosion resistance, high improved machinability especially against pitting corrosion in chlorine environment [34]. Since these alloys are accepted for various industrial applications much study of the properties as a function of process parameters has been performed. To ensure the final quality of weld, it is important to know the effect of welding parameters on the processs outcome as well as welds should be defect free and deposited with the desired geometry, with efficiency, and with a minimal waste of material [35]. A concern, when welding the 304 L and 316L austenitic stainless steels, is the susceptibility to solidification and liquation cracking as well [36]. Kain affirmed major issues in shaping the design life are the selection of material and life prediction of austenitic stainless steel the issue of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). He ensured that absence of sensitisation and Low Temperature Sensitisation (LTS) over the complete design life of the components will ensure freedom from early onset of intergranular stress corrosion cracking [37].
38

Osama M. Alyousif estimated that intergranular cracking was resulted from hydrogen embrittlement due to strain-induced formation of martensite along the grain boundaries, while transgranular cracking took place by propagating cracks nucleated at slip steps by dissolution [38]. M. G. Adamson reported the observation of rapid, severe embrittlement of 316 austenitic stainless steel by liquid telluriumcaesium mixtures in the temperature region 500700C [39]. Thus any observed deleterious effect of chemical environment on the alloy mechanical properties such as the hot embrittlement of austenitic stainless steel by liquid zinc is very important [40,41]. Old has mentioned that fission products such as caesium, cadmium and tellurium might embrittle the austenitic stainless steel cladding of fast reactor fuel pins in certain conditions [42]. Toribio has examined the embrittlement process in steels at different strain rates. He observed that the deleterious effect of hydrogen generally decreased with increasing displacement rate [43] Grargi discusses the mechanistic aspects of thermal aging embrittlement (TAE), as well as manifestations of TAE in austenitic stainless steel welds and castings [44]. Also of interest is the anticipated swelling behaviour of the steels at high exposure levels and potentially higher swelling levels associated with life extension. Thus to limit detrimental effect caused by temperature, it is of great importance to the economy to reveal details of effect of various embrittlement on austenitic stainless steel. Hence an attempt has been made to correlate important MIG process parameters such as welding current (I), arc voltage (V), welding speed (S), and electrode stick out (L) with weld deposit area. The results illustrate significance of selected critical input process parameters over weld deposit area (WDA). The degrees of importance among them varied according to the responses of interest. Numerical simulation and experiments of Grade 304 L and 316L-PMTM austenitic stainless steel butt welding.

39

Chapter 4
General Description of Metal Inert Gas welding (MIG )

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece, causing them to melt, and join. Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air. The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used.

Fig. 4.1 Schematic diagram of MIG process

4.1 Welding Equipment

1. DC output power source 2. Wire feed unit 3. Torch 4. Work return welding lead 5. Shielding gas supply, (normally from cylinder)
40

Fig. 4.2 Block diagram Flux Cored Arc Welding 4.1.1. Power sourceMIG welding is carried out on DC electrode (welding wire) positive polarity (DCEP). However DCEN is used (for higher burn off rate) with certain selfshielding and gas shield cored wires. DC output power sources are of a transformer-rectifier design, with a flat characteristic (constant voltage power source). The most common type of power source used for this process is the switched primary transformer rectifier with constant voltage characteristics from both 3-phase 415V and 1- phase 240V input supplies. The output of direct current after full wave rectification from a 3-phase machine is very smooth. To obtain smooth output after full wave rectification with a 1- phase machine, a large capacitor bank across the output is required. Because of the expense of this, many low cost 1-phase machines omit this component and therefore provide a poorer weld characteristic. The switches to the main transformer primary winding provide the output voltage steps at the power source output terminals. Another method of producing different voltages at the power source output terminals is to use a Thyristor or a Transistor rectifier instead of a simple diode rectifier. This system offers continuously variable output voltage, which can be particularly useful on robot installations and the cost of this type of rectifier can be partly offset with no need for primary voltage switch or switches and a single tapped main transformer primary winding. Most MIG power sources have a contactor or relay used to switch the output ON/OFF with
41

operations of the trigger on the MIG torch. The switch off operation of this contactor is normally delayed to allow the welding wire to Burn back out of the molten weld pool. A thermostat is fitted on the hottest point in the power source, in series with the contactor coil to provide thermal protection to the machine. Power source performance is measured by its ability to provide a certain current for a percentage of a 10 minute period before Thermal Cut- Out. This is the Duty Cycle.

Fig 4.3 (A) V-I curve for a typical constant current power source (B)V-I curve for a typical constant voltage power source 4.1.2 The Wire-feed Unit The wire-feed unit, or sub-assembly where this is mounted in the power source cabinet, provides the controlled supply of welding wire to the point to be welded. According to the welding wire size and Arc voltage provided by the power source, a constant rate of wire speed is required, in MIG welding the power source provides Arc voltage control and the wire feed unit provides welding wire speed control. Most modern wire feed units control

Fig. 4.4 Scehmetaic illustration of a wire feeder with two roll

42

the wire feed speed via a DC motor and thyristor control PCB to provide continuous control of Armature volts and hence RPM of motor. The wire feed motor spindle has a feed roller fitted and another pressure roll, adjustable spring mounted to lightly grip the wire and push it up the length of the MIG torch. 4.1.3 The MIG Welding Gun This assembly consists of (a) A gun which houses a trigger to initiate and stop the electrode feed and flow of the gas, electric current to the arc, and if used water for cooling the torch, (b) A nozzle which directs the shielding gas to the arc and weld pool, (c) A contact tube at the axis of the nozzle to transfer welding current to electrode and (d) A system of cables, hoses and electrical connections, power and water. The torch may be air cooled or water cooled. Water-cooled guns are recommended for use with welding currents greater than 200 amperes. Air-cooled guns are preferred for most applications less than 200 amperes, although water-cooled guns may also be used. Air cooled guns are lighter and easier to manipulate. This provides the method of delivery from the wire feed unit to the point at which welding is required. The MIG torch can be air cooled or water cooled and most modern air cooled torches have a single cable in which the welding wire slides through a Liner. Gas flows around the outside of this Liner and around the tube the Liner sits in is the power braid and trigger wires. The outer insulation provides a flexible cover. Water cooled MIG torches are similar to the above, but gas hose, liner tube, power lead (including water return pipe), water flow pipe and trigger wires are all separate in an outer sleeve.

4.1.4 Shielding Gas This is a complicated area with many various mixtures available, but the primary purpose of the shielding gas in the MIG process is to protect the molten weld metal and heat affected zone from oxidation and other contamination by the atmosphere. Different types of shielding gases are used in the MIG process, and the melting rate, beadprofile and penetration of weld changes due to gas type. At the same time, the type of
43

the shielding gas affects the spattering, welding speed and the mode of metal transfer and thus the overall mechanical properties of the weld metal. Pure carbon dioxide or argoncarbon dioxide and argon-oxygen mixed gases are generally used for welding of iron based metals. For the same welding current the high melting rate, greater penetration, large and convex weld profile will be obtained when carbon dioxide is chosen as a shielding gas. When pure carbon dioxide shielding is used, a complex interaction of forces occurs around the metal droplets at the wire tip. These unbalanced forces cause large, unstable droplets to grow and transfer to the molten metal in a random action. This is the reason for an increase in spatter along the weld bead. Also pure carbon dioxide generates more fumes. Argon, helium and argon-helium mixtures are used in many applications for welding non-ferrous metals and alloys. These inert gas mixtures provide lower melting rate, smaller penetration and narrow bead contour. Argon is cheaper than helium and helium-argon mixtures and it also produces less spatter. Unlike argon, helium improves the weld bead penetration profile (higher melting rate, deeper penetration and convex surface profile). But, when helium is used, welding voltage rises for the same arc length and the consumption of shielding gas increases more than when argon is used. The shielding gas should also have a pronounced effect on the following aspects of the welding operation and the resultant weld. 1. Arc Characteristics 2. Mode of Metal Transfer 3. Penetration and Weld Head Profile 4. Speed of Welding 5. Undercutting Tendency 6. Cleaning Action 7. Weld Metal Mechanical Properties

4.2 Process variables

Selection of process variables has considerable influence on the weld quality, weld geometry, and weld metallurgy.

Welding current Arc voltage

44

Electrode extension Travel speed and angle Wire feed speed Electrode angles Electrode wire type Shielding gas composition

Though many direct and indirect parameters affect the quality of weld, the major key process parameters affecting the bead geometry are selected viz. arc voltage, welding current, welding speed and electrode stick out were selected. 4.2.1. Welding current Welding current is the most influential variable in arc welding process which controls the electrode burn off rate, the depth of fusion and geometry of the weldments. Welding current is the most influential parameter because it affects bead shape, controls the rate at which electrode is melted and therefore also controls the deposition rate, heat affected zone, the depth of penetration, and the amount of base metal melted. Penetration and reinforcement increase with the increase in welding current. If the current is too high at a given welding speed, the depth of fusion or penetration will also be too high so that the resulting weld may tend to melt through the metal being joined. High current also leads to waste of electrodes in the form of excessive reinforcement and produces digging arc and undercut. This over welding increases weld shrinkage and causes greater distortion. Bead width increases with welding current until a critical value is reached and then starts decreasing if the polarity used is DCRP. When DCSP polarity is employed bead width increases with the increase in current for entire range. For the same flux, heat affected zone also increases with the increase in welding current.

45

If the current is too low, inadequate penetration or incomplete fusion may result. Too low current also leads to unstable arc, inadequate penetration and overlapping.

4.2.2. Welding voltage This is the electrical potential difference between the tip of the welding wire and the surface of the molten weld pool. The voltage principally determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external appearance. High welding voltage produces wider, flatter and less deeply penetrating welds than low welding voltages. Depth of penetration is maximum at optimum arc voltage. Increasing the welding voltage with constant current and welding speed produces flatter, wider, less penetrated weld beads and tends to reduce the porosity caused by rust or scale on steel. Higher voltage also bridges an excessive root opening when fit-up is poor. Increase in arc voltage also increases the size of droplets and hence decreases the number of droplets. The time of the movement of droplet transfer also increases. Further increase in voltage increases the possibility of breaking the arc and disrupting the normal welding process. Increase in voltage also enhances flux consumption which increases pick up or loss of the alloying elements and therefore affects the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the weld metal. Excessively high voltage produces a wide bead shape that is subject to cracking, increases undercut and creates difficulty in removing slag. Lowering the voltage produces stiffer arc, which improves penetration in a deep weld groove and resists arc blow. An excessively low voltage produces a narrow bead and causes difficult slag removal along the bead edges.

4.2.3. Welding speed Welding speed is the linear rate at which an arc is moved along the weld joint. With any
46

combination of welding voltage and welding current, the effect of changing the welding speed confirms to a general pattern.

Fig. 4.5 Effect of process parameters on weld bead

Weld penetration is affected more by welding speed than any variable other than current. Higher welding speed results in less heat affected zone and finer grains. If the welding speed is increased, power or heat input per unit length of weld is decreased and less filler metal is applied per unit length of the weld, resulting in less weld reinforcement. Thus, the weld bead becomes smaller.

Excessive speed any cause undercutting, porosity, arc blow, uneven bead shape, cracking and higher slag inclusion in the weld metal Within limits, welding speed can be adjusted to control weld size and penetration. Relatively slow welding speed provides time for gases to escape from the molten metal, thus reducing porosity. An excessive slow speed produces a convex bead shape which is subject to cracking and excessive arc exposure which is uncomfortable for the operator. Too low welding speed may also result in a large molten pool that flows around the arc, resulting in rough bead, slag inclusions and burn through of the weld plate. The welding speed did not affect the metal deposition rate significantly.

4.2.4 Electrode stick out(extension) The distance between the current pick-up tip and the arc root, called electrode stick out, has a considerable effect on the weld bead geometry. Normally the distance between the contact tip and the work is 25-40 mm.
47

The melting rate of the electrode increased with the increase in the stick out. The depth of penetration decreases with the increase in electrode stick-out. This factor needs to be given due consideration where deeper penetration is required. The heat affected zone decreased with the increase in stick- out. Increasing the speed of travel and maintaining constant arc voltage and current will reduce the width of bead and also increase penetration until an optimum speed is reached at which penetration will be maximum.

Increasing the speed beyond this optimum will result in decreasing penetration. Decrease in the heat input per unit length of the weld. If the welding speed decreases beyond a certain point, the penetration also will decrease due to the pressure of the large amount of weld pool beneath the electrode.

Fig. 4.6 Electrode stick out (extension)

48

Chapter 5
Experimental Set up: TORNADO MIG Series
TORNADO 400 MIG series products are semi-automatic gas shielded metal-arc welding machines with IGBT inverter technology, which consist of power source and wire feeder. The machine has the characteristics of stable welding process, low spatter and good weld. The molten pool is easy to be controlled, operation is simple to be done and efficiency is high. Suitable for all position welding of common low carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium and its alloys, etc.

5.1 Standard Accessories

1. Power source 2. MIG Torch 3. Earth clamp 4. Earth lead (5 m) 5. Wire feeder (FP60-100E) The following are its unique features: 1. Soft-start ignition. 2. 2/4-step welding modes switch. 3. Adjustable arc force, crater current, crater voltage, welding current and welding voltage. 4. Welding voltage and welding current can be preset and displayed digitally. 5. Fast-feed by spot. 6. Protective functions: overheat over-current, under-voltage and power phase absence, etc.

49

Fig. 5.1 TORNADO MIG 400 machine 5.1.1 Filler wire:A copper coated low alloy wire for GMAW of high strength low alloy steel (HSLA) steels, such as tractor cylinder, automobile composition, wagon manufacturing. Light, medium and heavy fabrication workshop involving high strength materials. Wires are designed to produce excellent beads with CO2 in all position. Table 5.1 (A) Composition of base and filler wire for Grade 316L-PMTM.

C Base Metal Filler Metal 0.030 0.030

Si 1.00 0.78

Mn 2 1.50

P 0.045 0.022

S 0.03 0.022

Cr 19.0 18.0

Mo 3.00 4.3

Ni 15.0 12.0

N 0.024

Cu 0.17

Fe Bal

Table 5.2 (B) Composition of base and filler metal for Grade 304 L. C Base Metal Filler Metal 0.035 0.08 Si 0.46 0.50 Mn 2.0 1.70 P 0.045 0.020 S 0.03 0.02 Cr 20.0 18.0 Mo 0.40 Ni 13.0 12.0 Cu 0.20 Fe Bal

50

5.2. Shielding gas for GMAW:-

Shielding Gases Argon and helium are the two inert shielding gases used for protecting the molten weld pool. The inert classification indicates that neither argon nor helium will react chemically with the molten weld pool. However, in order to become a conductive gas, that is plasma, the gas must be ionized. Argon has a lower thermal conductivity also affects the shape of the arc and the temperature distribution within the region. Argon has a lower thermal conductivity rate about 10% of the level for both helium and hydrogen. Argon has a lower thermal conductivity also affects the shape of the arc and the temperature distribution within the region. Argon has a lower thermal conductivity rateabout 10% of the level for both helium and hydrogen.

51

Chapter 6
Numerical simulation and experiments of Grade 316L-PMTM and Grade 304 L austenitic stainless steel butt Welding
In the present work, numerical simulation of the V groove butt welding of controlled-rolled 16-mm-thick micro-alloyed HSLA steel plates of Grade 316L PMTM having the chemical composition given in Table 6.1 is attempted, together with a comparison with experimental results. Its low carbon content make this alloy not sensitive to chromium carbide precipitate (Cr23C6), even after repeated heat treatments, thus reduces the chances of occurrence of intergranular corrosion. During welding, 304L and 316L steel series experiences almost no transformation and it can be considered as a single phase material.

6.1 Introduction
The welding process used, was the Metal inert gas welding (MIG) method. Multi pass butt joining of steel plates of size 350 mm x 150 mm plates with close V groove preparation at the angle of 60o with root opening 3mm as shown in Figure 6.1(A), was carried out by Metal inert gas welding (MIG) with variation in input variables. Electrode is re- dried at 300oC for 1 hrs, for best results. The details of the welding parameters used in this work are presented in table 6.3 and 6.4.

Fig.6.1 (A) Schematic diagram of single V-groove, 3 mm opening Fig.6.1(B) Appearance of the weldment

52

6.2. DIAGRAMME OF INVESTIGATION The work to be carried out was planned in the following order: 1. Identification of important process variables; 2. Finding different levels of the identified process variables; 3. Development of design matrix; 4. Conducting experiments as per the design matrix; 5. Recording the responses, viz. bead penetration, and bead width and weld reinforcement; 6. Development of mathematical model; 7. Calculation of regression coefficients; 8. Checking the adequacy of the developed model; 9. Development of final mathematical model by testing the significance of regression models; 10. Presenting the main and significant interaction effects of process parameters on response.

6.2.1 Identification of process variables Table 6.1 and 6.2 shows independent controllable process variables, which were identified based on their significant effect on WDA to carry out the experiments. Table 6.1 -Welding parameters and their levels for Grade 316L PMTM steel,

Symbol Welding parameters I V S L Welding current Arc voltage Welding speed Electrode stick out

Units Amp Volts mm/sec Mm

Level 1 Level 2 160 180 24 26 5 7 19 25

S/N ratio 64.14710 65.30625 64.34706 65.13329 66.18940 63.29096 66.18940 63.29096

Optimum

65.30625 65.13329 66.18940 66.18940

53

Table 6.2 Welding parameters and their levels for Grade 304L steel. Symbol Welding parameters I V S L Welding current Arc voltage Welding speed Electrode stick out Units Amp Volts mm/sec Mm Level 1 Level 2 175 225 24 28 4 5 17 23 S/N ratio 68.1950 70.0374 68.91683 69.31996 69.20727 69.02507 69.53814 68.68754 Optimum

70.0374 69.31556 69.20727 69.53814

Fig. 6.2 (A) Effect of controllable factor (WDA) on S/N ratio for Grade 316 L PMTM steel

54

70.5 70 69.5 69 68.5 68 67.5 67 Welding current Arc voltage Welding speed Electrode stick out Series1 Series2

Fig. 6.2 (B) Effect of controllable factor (WDA) on S/N ratio for Grade 304L steel

6.2.2 Development of design matrix and recording the responses

In this study and L16 orthogonal array with five columns and sixteen rows with full replication of 24 (=16) factorial design was used. This array has fifteen degrees of freedom and it can handle two-level process parameters. Therefore, only sixteen experiments are conducted to record the response. The levels for each factor were the highest value and the lowest value of the factors, at which the outcome was acceptable. These values were outcomes of trials runs. Highest value has been represented by 1 and the lowest value has been represented by 2 as mentioned in Table 6.3 (a) and (b). Different levels of identified process variables are mentioned in Table 6.2. The experiments were conducted as per the design matrix at random to avoid effect of systematic errors creeping into the system. The weld deposit area (Aw) was calculated by addition of area of penetration (Ap) with area of reinforcement (Ar) of the weld. The cladded plates were cross-sectioned at midpoints to obtain test specimens of about 15 mm width. Then the specimens were ground and polished by the usual standard metallurgical procedures. The polished surfaces were etched with 2% nital. After etching, the weld bead profiles were traced using an optical profile projector at 10 X magnification.

55

6.2.3 Overall loss function and signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio

The critical input variables that may contribute to improved quality were identified by looking at the amount of variation present as a response. As a result, four quality characteristics corresponding to WDA were obtained using Taguchi quality loss function (TQLF) characteristic can be expressed as: Higher is better Lij = (1/r 1/ yijk 2) (6.1)

where Lij is the loss function of the ith quality characteristic in the jth experiment, r is the number of test, and yijk the experimental value of the ith quality characteristic in the jth experiment at the kth test. As a result, TQLF for four quality characteristics corresponding to WDA are obtained using Eq. (6.1). The overall loss function is further transformed into the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio by applying Eq.6.2. j = -10 log (Lij) (6.2)

The S/N ratio for each level of input variables corresponding to the overall loss function is shown in Table 6.2 (a) and (b) . The largest signal-to-noise ratio (average) is the optimum level, because a high value of signal-to-noise ratio indicates that the signal is much higher than the random effects of the noise factors. The largest S/Navg for critical input parameters is indicated by optimum and the effect is shown in the Fig. 6.1 and 6. 2 .The dash line indicates the grand average of performance. From Table 6.3 (A) as for Grade 316 PMTM the optimal bead width is obtained by applying welding current 180 A, arc voltage 26 V, welding speed 5 mm/sec, and electrode stick out 19 mm i.e., I2-V2-S1-L1. From Table 6.3 (B) as for Grade 304L the optimal bead width is obtained by applying welding current 225 A, arc voltage 26 V, welding speed 4 mm/sec, and electrode stick out 23 mm i.e., I2-V2-S1-L2.

56

Table 6.3 (A)-Design matrix using L16 orthogonal array with measured response and S/N ratio for Weld deposit Area (WDA) for Grade 316 L PMTM.

S.No. Welding Current Arc Voltage Welding Speed

Design matrix Electrode Stick Out Weld Deposit area (WDA) MSD (Mean square deviation) 4622500 66.64877 1638400 62.14420 2637376 64.21172 2592100 64.13652 2205225 63.43453 3204100 65.05706 2059225 63.13704 5062500 67.14365 4000000 66.02060 2280100 63.57954 5134756 67.10520 3960100 65.97706 4284900 66.31941 2190400 63.31941 3422500 65.34343 1690000 62.27887 S/N Ratio

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1

1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1

1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2

1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2

2150 1280 1624 1610 1485 1790 1435 2250 2000 1510 2266 1990 2070 1480 1850 1300

Grand average of performance 64.74643

57

Table 6.3 (B)-Design matrix using L16 orthogonal array with measured response and S/N ratio for Weld deposit Area (WDA) for Grade 304L.

S.No. Welding Current Arc Voltage Welding Speed

Design matrix Electrode Stick Out Weld Deposit area (WDA) MSD (Mean square deviation) 6985449 10870209 9126441 9351364 9351364 10023556 5635876 12475024 6225025 7187761 4161600 11128896 5400976 13498276 7551504 7823209 68.44194 70.36238 69.60301 69.70875 69.70875 70.01022 67.50961 70.96041 67.94141 68.56594 66.1926 70.46452 67.32472 71.30278 68.78033 68.93385 69.11320 S/N Ratio

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2643 3297 3021 3058 3058 3166 2374 3532 2495 2681 2040 3336 2324 3674 2748 2797

Grand average of performance

58

6.2.4 Developing empirical relationship

The response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the parameters in this study. RSM is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for designing a set of experiments, developing a mathematical model, analyzing the optimum combination of input parameters, and expressing the values graphically. The response function represents any of the weld dimensions can be expressed as the following equation: Y = f (I, V, S, L) (6.3)

The second order response surface model for the four selected parameters is given by equation 4. where Y is the dependent variable, which is to be predicted: X1, X2, X3,Xk are the k known variables on which the predictions are to be made and 0,1, 2, 3, k are the coefficients, the values of which are determined by the method of least squares. Y = 0 + 1 X1 + 2 X2 + 3X3 + 4 X4 + 12 X5+ 13 X6+ 14 X7 + 23 X8 + 24 X9 + 34 X10 + 123 X11+ 234 X12+ 134 X13+ 124 X14 (6.4)

6.2.5 Evaluation of coefficient of models

The values of different coefficients for different responses were calculated as per the modeling as given in table 6.4. The value of regression coefficients gives an idea as to what extent the control variables affect the responses quantitatively. Higher value of coefficients signifies higher influence of the variable on the response. Inverse relationship between variable and response is found when the value of coefficient is negative. Table 6.4 (A) Regression Coefficient and Grade Values for Grade 316 L PMTM steel Coefficient Value Coefficient Value 0 109.7 23 - 0.42 1 7.15 24 10.92 2 14.96 34 - 11.94 3 - 18.12 123 -10.32 4 - 0.42 234 9.76 12 5.43 134 - 0.46 13 9.91 214 -10.03 14 0.625

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Table 6.4 (B) Regression Coefficient and Grade Values for Grade 304 L steel Coefficient Value Coefficient Value 0 289.019 23 - 13.88 1 30.094 24 11.0 2 6.75 34 - .925 3 - 2.59 123 -9.3 4 - 12.85 234 -8.22 12 3.08 134 - 7.805 13 5.5 214 -8.22 14 5.75

6.2.6 Testing the coefficient for significance The estimated value of the coefficient of the model indicates as to what extent the important process variables affect the responses quantitatively. The result through analysis of variance as given in Figures 6.2 shows that welding speed and arc voltage has the significant parameters that affect WDA. The value of F- ratio for a desired level of confidence (95%) was achieved that indicated model may be considered adequate within the confidence limit. Table 6.5 (A) Results of ANOVA on composite desirability for Grade 316 L PMTM steel WDA SS Welding 1 2 3 Current Arc Voltage Welding Speed Electrode 4 5 6 Stick out Errors Total 0.353 9748.27 10955.14 1 100 1 11 15 0.936 0.01 102.245 447.60 656.67 8.46 37.04 53.5 1 1 1 0.177 0.376 0.06 2.02 0.83 3.83 % Contribution Degrees of freedom P Value F Value

S.No.

Parameters

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Table 6.5 (B) Results of ANOVA on composite desirability for 304L

S.No.

Parameters

WDA SS % Contribution

Degrees of freedom 1 1 1

P Value

F Value

Welding 1 2 3 Current Arc Voltage Welding Speed Electrode 4 895 6 Stick out Errors Total 165.12 669.85 1792.89 14.7 100 1 11 15 0.174 0.68 905.65 45.56 6.71 80.6 4.1 0.6 0.117 0.645 0.959 0.67 0.12 4.11

6.2.7 Development of the final models The values of the regression coefficients give an idea as to what the control variables affect the responses quantitatively. Without sacrificing accuracy, regression coefficients having less significance can be eliminated along with responses with which they are associated. After determining the significant coefficient, the final model was developed using only theses coefficients. The regression analysis of the input parameters is expressed in linear equations as follows: WDA (316 PM TM) = 109.7 + 7.15 I + 14.96 V 18.12 S 0.42 L + 5.43 IV + 9.91 VS + 0.625 SL 0.42IL + 10.92 VL 11.94 IS 10.32 IVS + 9.76 VSL 0.46 ISL 10.03 IVL (6.5)

WDA (304 L)

= 289.019 + 30.094 I + 6.75V 2.59 S 12.85 L + 3.08 IV 13.88 VS - 0.925 SL + 5.75 IL + 11 VL + 5.5 IS 9.3 IVS 8.22 VSL 7.805 ISL 8.22 IVL (6.6)
61

Chapter 7
Results and Discussion

The main effects of the different process parameters on WDA predicted from the designed matrix are depicted in figure 7.1-7.4, showing general trends of cause and effects for Grade 316PMTM steel. The results from ANOVA indicate that welding speed and arc voltage is significant welding parameters that affect WDA. The output results from the predicted model were calculated from the corresponding input data. It had been found that welding current directly influences the depth of penetration and the extend of base metal fusion. The arc voltage highly influences on the external bead appearance and weld bead shape. The welding speed has a pronounced effect on the weld size and penetration for a given combination of welding current and welding voltage. Measured value from the experiment and predicted value from multiple regression techniques are shown in Table 8.1(a).

Fig 7.1 Effect of welding current on WDA

Fig 7.2 Effect of arc voltage on WDA .

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Fig 7.3 Effect of welding speed on WDA Fig 7.4 Effect of electrode extension on WDA.

The main effects of the different process parameters on WDA predicted from the designed matrix are depicted in figure 7.5-7.8, showing general trends of cause and effects for Grade 304L steel. The results from ANOVA indicate that welding current, electrode stickout and arc voltage is significant welding parameters that affect WDA. The output results from the predicted model were calculated from the corresponding input data. Measured value from the experiment and predicted value from multiple regression techniques are shown in Table 8.1 (b).

Fig 7.5 Effect of welding current on WDA

Fig 7.6 Effect of arc voltage on WDA.

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Fig 7.7 Effect of welding speed on WDA Fig 7.8 Effect of electrode extension on WDA.

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Chapter 8
Conclusion

Results indicate that process variables of MIG influence Grade 304L and Grade 316L-PMTM austenitic stainless steel to a significant extent. Welding current and electrode stick out has more predominant effect on the weld geometry than that of other parameters for 304L steel while was welding speed has minor effect on WDA. Arc voltage was secondary critical parameters which plays significant role on WDA. For 316L PMTM, welding speed and arc voltage has the considerable factors that affect WDA while electrode stick out has minor effect on WDA. Stable arc with few little spatters was obtained while using the optimum process variables viz. I2-V2-S1-L1 for Grade 316L-PMTM and I2-V2-S1-L2 for Grade 304L. Better weld bead appearances were obtained after MIG process, which is pointed out that MIG process provides better appearance and weld quality. Hot cracking in 304L and 316L is amplified by low-melting eutectics containing impurities such as S, P, Si, N. It could be diminished by small increase in C, N, Cr, Ni, Si or by substantial increase in Mn content. To avoid formation of excess ferrite and to control cracking, weld metal should have a ferrite content of atleast 3 to 5 ferrite number, hence it become essential to evaluate the hot crack susceptibility of 304L and 316L type austenitic stainless steels to the chemical composition of the alloying material. The embrittlement phenomenon in 304L and 316L austenitic stainless steel welds exposed to high temperature is accelerated by the existence of delta ferrite which further transforms to intermetallic phases. Cracks can also occur in various regions of the weld with different orientations, in the underlying weld metal or adjacent HAZ due, to low-melting liquid phases, which allow boundaries to separate under the thermal and shrinkage stresses during weld solidification and cooling. The Thermal aging embrittlement in 316L weld was higher compared to 304L weld for similar aging condition. SA Type 304 SS and is most susceptible to high swelling rates and maximum irradiation temperature has been estimated
65

to be in the range of 380-420C. Specific alloy composition and alloying additions can also have a major effect on weldability, mechanical properties and the as microstructure of weldment.

Table 8.1 (A) Results from multiple regression analysis and experiment for Grade 316PMTM . No. of experiments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Measured Experiment WDA 2073.6 1316.571 1604.571 1604.571 1426.286 1843.2 1426.286 2246.4 WDA 2150 1280 1624 1610 1485 1790 1435 2250 No. of experiments 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Measured WDA 1996.8 1481.143 2246.4 1996.8 2073.6 1481.143 1843.2 1316.571 Experiment WDA 2000 1510 2266 1990 2070 1480 1850 1300

Table 8.1 (B) Results from multiple regression analysis and experiment for Grade 304L. No. of experiments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Measured WDA 2631.874 3255.853 3020.354 3078.09 3011.66 3132.35 2351.728 3500.043 Experiment WDA 2643 3297 3041 3058 3058 3166 2374 3532 No. of experiments 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Measured WDA 2444.333 2655.682 1998.032 3303.159 2350.821 3652.408 2720.048 2778.598 Experiment WDA 2495 2681 2040 3336 2324 3674 2748 2797

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This study also show that MIG method provide better welding and less spatter rates compared with the other methods such as GMAW. The reason why lower spatter rate obtained during MIG welding process is that cored wire included slag made powder and flux provide formation of little and less drops by changing metal transfer mode during the welding process. Welding current during MIG process with flux cored wire has lower values than that of GMAW process with solid wire. The results obtained from multiple regression technique are consisted with experiment results. This thesis had presented application of Taguchi method and regression technique to determine the optimum process parameters for Grade 304L and Grade 316L-PMTM. The proposed mathematical model is used to predict the MIG process parameters for any given welding conditions for Grade 304L steel and Grade 316PMTM.

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Chapter 9
Scope for Future Research

In future we may discuss about the mechanical properties of 304L and 316L austenitic stainless steel for the process of MIG welding. We may used MIG process to find out the characteristics of the metal after it is welded .The prime parameters viz. welding current, arc voltage, polarity, electrode stick out, nozzle angle, gas composition or diameter of electrode can be varied and various mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, ductility, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength breaking point, or various welding defects viz. HAZ, porosity, cracking may be observed in processes and analyzed. We can also vary the process parameters, which has significantly low values with respect to response and we can take any other process parameter which may play an effective role to response.

68

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List of Publications

1. The Emphasis Of Phase Transformations And Alloying Constituents On Hot Cracking Susceptibility Of Type 304L and 316L Stainless Steel Welds, International journal of engineering science and Technology (IJEST), ISSN : 0975-5462, Vol. 4 No.05, May 2012, PP. 2206-2216. 2. Modelling and Experimental Validation of 316L PMTM steel under dry environment Using self adapted RSM, International Journal of Emerging trends in Engineering and Development ISSN 2249-6149 (IJETED), ISSN 2249-6149, Issue 2, Volume 5, July 2012, PP. 290-300. 3. Characterization of Indigenously Developed 15Cr-15Ni-2.2S-P modified 304 L Austenitic Stainless Steel using self adapting RSM, International Journal of Advanced Scientific and Technical Research (IJEMSA), ISSN 2249-9954, Issue 2 volume 4, August 2012.PP.702-707. 4. A Review on Effect of Preheating And/Or Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) on Hardened Steel, International Journal of Technical Research and Applications
(IJTRA), ISSN: 2320-8163,volume 1, Issue 2, May-June 2013, PP. 05-07.

5. Emphasis of Embrittlement Characteristics in 304L and 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel, Journal of Institution of Engineers Series-C (Under Peer Review from 6th Feb2013).

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