12 principles form the theoretical basis of language learning and Teaching (PLLT). Teaching by principles Cognitive 1. Automaticity 2.

Meaningful learning 3. Anticipation of Reward 4. Intrinsic motivation 5. Strategic investment 6. Autonomy Socio-affective 1. Language ego 2. Willingness to communicate (WTC) 3. Language-culture connection Linguistic 1. The native language effect 2. Interlanguage 3. Communicative competence (CC)

Many students of FL learn the language with little or no sense of the depth of cultural norms, but, culture learning is a process that continues over the years and eventually SLA can lead to the acquisition of a new identity and acculturation. Learners can in that case experience culture shock when an intrusion of more and more cultural differences occurs and the learner feels homeless lost. Seeks help with fellow countrymen, but after that full recovery follows. Social distance refers to the cognitive and the affective proximity of two cultures that come into contact. Schuman hypothesis states that the greater the social distance between the 2 cultures, the greater is the difficulty the learner have in learning the second language. (Social distance consists of dominance l2 group is more economically, politically dominant than Tl, Integration, Cohesivenes the size of L2 group, Congruence are the cultures of two groups similar in their value system, Permanence what is the L2 grop's intendend lenght of residence in TL area) Criticism of this theory states that Actual social distance is perceived!, Learners can achieve proficiency if they learn how to balance their critical attitudes. Teachers in teaching SL should use techniques that promote cultural understanding (the use of role play, reading, films, simulation games Teachers should be aware of 4 conceptual categories to study cultural norms within their classroom: 1. Individualism vs. Collectivism (students that belong to collectivist societies speak in class only when they are called upon, or in small groups, more closed as opposed to members of individualist societies, collectivist societies tightly integrated, individualist society loosely integrated) 2. Power distance (it refers to how much one culture tolerates the inequality in power of the other and consider it normal), 3. Uncertainty avoidance (a characteristic of

III Socio-cultural Factors

We tend to perceive reality within the context of our own culture, and we have a tendency to believe that our own reality is the correct perception, but perception is always subjective. Context influences teaching and learning because language is a part of a culture, and culture is a part of a language, they are intrinsically interwoven. Culture is very important for SLA because SLA is also the acquisition of a second culture Having a positive attitude toward self, the native language group, and the target language group enhances proficiency. SL learners benefit from positive attitudes. Negative attitudes can deteriorate motivation for learning a second language. Teachers should be aware that everyone can have both positive and negative attitudes, which can be changed. We are also very prone to stereotypes and generalizations toward a certain culture, and learners and teachers of SL should try to understand cultural differences, and be aware of the fact that people are not all the same, and that cultural differences are a treasure.

culture which shows the extent to which people within a culture are made nervous by situations which they perceive as unpredictable strong uncertainty avoidance cultures are active, aggressive, emotional, intolerant weak less aggressive, more tolerant) 4. Masculinity vs. Femininity Language policy and politics Language and society are affected by the political ramifications of language and language policy. Every country has some form of explicit official, or implicit unofficial policy affecting the status of its native language and foreign languages. Internal and external language policy factors: Language-in-education policy, Access policy, Personnel policy, Curriculum policy, Methodology and material policy,Resource policy ,Community policy,Evaluation policy Institutional factors Educational culture, Institutional constraints World Englishes and EIL There are controversies about the status of English and its varieties, eg. Learning English in India really does not involve taking on a new culture since one is acquiring Indian English which has very few British cultural attributes, if any. This is called indianization/nativization of English and it has spread to an OUTER CIRCLE of countries that includes India, Singapore, Nigeria.. ( English is commonly learned by children at school age and is a medium for most of their education) The traditional dichotomy NS/NNS is linguistically questionable particularly when discussing the functions of English in multilingual societies. Instead oft his distinction, we Should view English in terms of a broad range of functions and the degree of its penetration into a countrys society.

There has been a global spread of English and the propagation of English as medium of education, commerce, government. The result of this is the issue of Linguistic imperialismLinguiscism which refers to the criticism that English is devaluing native languages through its colonial spread. Teachers should have the highest respect for the languages and cultures of their students. There should be a preservation of diversity. Linguistic imperialism and language rights: 1988 European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages. UN - Universal Declaration of Linguistic rights. Language - context Degree of willingness of students to participate (collectivism/individualism).,Uncertainty avoidance and the comfort zone. Gender issues. Background experiences of the teacher and students. Institutional constraints. Expectations of parents. Expectations of the broader context.

PERSONALITY FACTORS There is an importance of examining personality factors in building a theory of SLA because Sociocultural factors impact language learning in various aspects 1. Self esteem no successful cognitive or affective activity can be carried out without some degree of self esteem, self-confidence or belief in own capacities. It can occur on 3 levels: globally. sitational and task. Self esteem appears to be an important variable in SLA particularly in view of cross-cultural factors of SL learning. Self-esteem enables willingness to communicate which is very important for SL. Self Esteem and language success are both interacting factors and teachers can have a positive and influential

effect on both the linguistic performance and self-esteem in students. 2.Inhibition set of defenses to protect one's ego, language ego very potential, egoistic nature of SLA, learners take on a new identity as they learn language, an adaptive language ego may lower the inhibitions that impede success. There is a direct relationship between inhibition and pronunciation ability in SL. Teachers should create a context in which students are made to feel free to take risks, SL learning presupposes the making of mistakes we test our language by trial and errors. 3. Risk taking important characteristic of successful learning of SL, learners have to be able to gamble a bit, willing to try out hunches about the language, Risk- taking can be impeded because of a bad grade, fail on the exam, reproach from the teacher, fear of looking ridiculous.. To impede these fears, learners should feel comfortable while using SL in the classroom, teachers should create a climate of acceptance and self-confidence. 4. Anxiety feeling of uneasiness, frustration.. Components of foreign language anxiety are the learners inability to adequately express mature thoughts and ideas, fear of negative social evaluation, test anxiety. There is a distinction between Debilitative anxiety (harmful), and Facilitative anxiety (helpful some concern over a task to be accomplished is a positive factor, a key to success 5. Empathy putting yourself into someone else's shoes very important for cross cultural empathy 6. Extroversion in classroom teachers usually admire the talkative student who participates freely in discussions, whereas introverts are sometimes thought as not being as bright as extroverts, extroverts actually need other people in order to feel good, they can be shy also, and introverts can have an

inner strength that extroverts don't have. Teachers need to consider cultural norms in their assessment of a student's presumed passivity in the classroom. Myers Briggs character types: 1. Introversion vs. Extroversion, 2. Sensing vs. Intuition (how we perceive the world around us, 3. Thinking vs. Feeling (ways of arriving at conclusions) 4. Judging vs. Perceiving one's attitude towards the outer world 7. Motivation the fulfillment of needs is rewarding, typically examined in terms of the intrinsic and extrinsic motives. Intrinsic motivation no apparent reward except the activity itself, more powerful motivation. Extrinsic motivation for a reward from the outside world (money, prizes, grades) This motivation are applicable to a foreign language classrooms around the world. We challenge the situations (Krashen i+1) In SLA: Instrumental orientation/motivation refers to the acquiring language as a means for attaining instrumental goals (furthering a career) Integrative orientation/motivation describes learners who wish to integrate themselves into the culture of SL group What are learning strategies? Specific actions, behaviours, steps or techniques that students use to improve their progress in developing L2. Frequently used techniques for assessing students' L2 strategies include informal or formal interviews, group discussions, language learning diaries, dialogue journals between student and teacher, open-ended surveys. Observational methods are difficult because many strategies are internal and cannot be observed.Learning strategies represent the learner's input, processing of the language and communication strategies represent the output how we express meaning. Strategies contribute tu the communicative competence.

While using strategies learners develeop selfdirection. L2 learners use: Affective strategies (anxiety reduction through laughter, mediation, self-encouragement), Social (asking questions, cooperating with the native speakers of the language), Metacognitive (paying attention, planning language tasks, monitoring errors) Memory related (grouping, imagery, rhyming), General cognitive (reasoning, analyzing, summarizing, practicing), Compensatory ( quessing meanings from the context, usnig synonyms, gestures to convey meaning). Some of the benefits o using strategies are that learnes are willing to guess accurately, want to communicate, are unhibited about mistakes, monitor their own speech. less successful learners use translation, memorization and repetition, and although both less successful and successful learners use the same amount of strategies, less successful learners apply them in a random manner without connecting strategies and task. ESL teachers can help their students to recognize the power of consciously using language learning strategies to make learning quicker, easier and more effective and fun. They can do it by means of diaries, surveys or interviews. Strategy training can help students make effective use of multiple strategies. teachers can help students to become aware of their own style preferences through checklists, tests, interviews, teachers use techniques such as communicative games, rapid reading, fluency exercises and in this way help their students to practice successful strategies. Strategic techniques lower inhibitions (playing guessing games, role plays..), encourage risk taking (fluency exercises where errors are not corrected) build student's self conidence (tell students that you do believe in them, a list of their strenghts, positive use of the language), help develop intrinsic motivation (remind learners about the rewards for learning english), promote coooperative learning(direct

students to share their knowledge, competition games)help them to use intuition, help them to set their own goals. Learning styles How we learn a set of facts from a unique perspective. Every person, student and teacher alike, has a learning style and learning strengths and weaknesses. We can divide them according to:perceptual learnig styles: Sensory preferences: Visual (prefer lectures, oral instructions, conversations), Auditory (working with tapes), Kinesthetic(movement oriented) Tactile (touch oriented). Field independet style ability to perceice a particular, relevant item in a field of distracting items, enables you to distinguish parts from whole, to concentrate on sth, too much FI is not good, we have to be able to see the relationships also: Field dependent style, the ability to get the big picture. Both FI and FD are necessary for most of the cognitice and effective problems we face. Field-independent learners are:task-oriented, set their own paths in life cool in their interaction with othersmore analytical and need less teacher directioncompetitive and self-confident, concentrate on the details of language, such as grammar rules, and enjoy playing with words and sentences, attention to its parts, they are sometimes unable to see the big picture. Field-dependent learners are: dependent on external structure, favoring interpersonal relations. socialized, empathic and sensitive to the feelings of other people, more interested in conveying an idea than is grammatical correctness, focus on the whole picture and do not care so much about the details, successful at learning the communicative aspect of a second language (may neglect accuracy).

Left brain/Right Brain: Left Brain intellectual, remembers names, responds to verbal instructions, experiments systematically, makes objective judgements, reliance on language in thinking, prefers talking and writing, controles feelings. Right brain Intuitive, remembers aces, responds to illustrated instructions, makes subjective judgements, reliance on image sin thinking, prefers drawing and manipulating objects Ambiguity tolerance open minded, close minded, SL learner needs tolerance of ambiguities such as words that differ from the natice language, inconsistent rules, whole diferent cultural systems Reflective vs. impulsive learners Impulsive quickly and impulsively, come to a decision quickly or provide a response spontaneously and intuitively may seem to be better learners.the impulsive learner will take more risks and guess at answers more readilylearners with impulsive learning styles pass through various semigrammatical stages of interlanguage Reflective - slowly after considerable reflection,arrive at decisions after careful deliberation,wrongly labeled as insecure and slow. will answer a question only after careful thought,teacher needs to give reflective students enough time,feel insecure and raise the affective filter,reflective learners remain longer at a particular stage and take larger leaps from one stage to another. Personality types: introverted vs. extroverted, intuitive vs. sensing, thinking vs feeling, judging vs. open, Global/ Holistic students like socially interactive, communicative events in which they can emphasize the main idea, avoid grammar, Analytic students tend to concentrate on grammar. Biological differences (Biorhytms, sustenance(food), location

Learnes must extend themselves beyond their preferences, By providing a wide range of classroom activities, teachers can help L2 students develop beyond the comfort zone dictated by their nature style preferences. Teachers can actively help their students stretch their learning styles by trying some strategies that are outside of their primary style preferences. Intentionally used, controlled strategies can improve movement toward a language goal. Nunan: language classrooms should have a dual focus:a) teach language content but also b) develop learning processes Course book evaluation A course book can help the teacher by providing: Clearly thought out program,Sequenced and structured revisio, Wide range of materials and activities,Security,Economy of preparation time, Source of practical teaching ideas, Work that the learners can do on their own, A basis for homework, A basis for comparison with other teachers Reasons for and against using a course book 3: A course book can help the learner by providing : 1.A secure teacher because of all the above 2. A sense of purpose and progress 3.Scope for independent study and autonomous learning 4. A reference for checking and revising The things a teacher can do better than the course book: 1.Provide comprehensible input of spoken language 2. Adjust work in reaction to the learners 3.Use communication other than words and pictures 4. Set up learner activities which encourage learners to talk and profit from each other, 5. Cater to different learning styles and learner levels Against using a coursebook Inadequacy - different learning needs, different levels

Irrelevance - lack of interest - not relevant topics Limitations- confining structure and sequence Homogeneity -course books have their own rationale and approach Over easiness -teachers follow course books uncritically In favor of using a course book Framework teachers and learners know where they are going Syllabus course book serves as a syllabus Ready-made texts and tasks are likely to be of an appropriate level, Saves time Economy cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner Convenience Guidance Autonomy Course book coverage Pronunciation practice Introduction to new vocabulary Grammar explanation and practice Recordings for listening practice Listening and speaking communicative tasks Reading and writing communicative tasks Mixed-skills communicative tasks Short and long reading texts Dictionary work Review of previously learned material Some entertaining fun activities Criteria for assessing coursebooks 1 Define which criteria are important for assessing course books Rank each of the criteria Criteria for assessing coursebooks 2 Penny Ur Objectives laid out in the introduction Approach educationally and socially acceptable to the community Clear attractive layout, print easy to read Appropriate visual material Interesting topics and tasks Varied topics and tasks

Caters to different learning styles Clear instructions Systematic coverage of syllabus Content clearly organized and graded Periodic review Plenty of authentic language Good pronunciation explanation and practice Good vocabulary explanation and practice Good grammar presentation and practice Practices all 4 skills Encourages the development of learning strategies Adequate guidance for the teacher Price and availability The global textbook ELT enterprise boosts commerce and disseminates ideas and language. Global course books resemble each other. Similar design, content, texts, exercises, approaches. Topics recur. Publishers provide guidelines about inclusivity and inappropriacy. Inclusivity - representation of men and women. Inappropriate - gender biased language and culturally offensive material . Some countries (e.g. Italy, Spain) have courses written specifically for them. Second approach - agglomerating countries (SE Europe) a core text is written for a lead country and supplementary material for satellite countries. Supplements are written by local authors. PARSNIP The global textbook Politics,Alcohol,Religion,Seks,Narcotics,Isms,P ork Lesson planning A look at course design

Context,Teacher, Students,Number of students,Hours,Level,Needs,Institutional constraints, Requirements, Learning outcomes, Assessment Modes of curriculum design The content model: Classical humanism The objectives model: Reconstructionism The process model: Progressivism New pragmatism a mixed focus curriculum Curriculum policy: needs of learners, institution, needs of society, needs of teachers, needs of implementers of curriculum. Needs analysis: Syllabus design: course content and procedures will be expressed in the form of goals of learning objectives within language teaching Syllabus design influence: How languages are learned structure based syllabus View of how language is acquired process based syllabus View of how language is used function based syllabus Methodology: syllabus depends on interaction: teacher- learner - classroom

Evaluation: must take place at all stages of curriculum planning and implementation and involve all participants. To determine whether curriculum goals have been met. Course design -Defining the context,Articulating beliefs, Conceptualizing content, Formulating goals and objectives, Assessing needs, Organizing the course, Developing materials, Adapting a textbook, Designing an assessment plan Course in which everything is pre-planned is doomed to fail Courses are work in progress which will change once the course is under way Never complete, never perfect,Students are not machines, If everything is so defined then we are creating a teacher-centered environment in which the learners are just pawns to be moved on the game-board Plan the course-teach it-evaluate it- re-plan it based on the evaluation- teach it again in the replanned version It must be emphasized that course design is not a linear process, but a flow chart, in which there is no hierarchy in the process, and no sequence in their accomplishment (Graves, 2000, p.3).