Aws WJ 201401

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
January 2014
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3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
38 Spot Welding Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges
Ways to improve the cross-tension strength of spot welds in
high-strength steel are examined
E. Biro et al.
44 FABTECH 2013
Experience the highlights of this largest-ever exhibition
A. Cullison et al.
52 What Is the Best Method for Preheating 4130?
Three different methods of preheating are compared and
evaluated
J. Walker et al.
58 In-Line Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Assembly
A real-time ultrasonic monitoring system is used to track
expulsion events, electrode life, and quality problems
R. Gr. Maev et al.
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
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Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
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authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
International Update ..............8
News of the Industry ............10
Business Briefs ..................14
Stainless Q&A ....................20
RWMA Q&A ......................22
Product & Print Spotlight ......28
Coming Events....................64
Certification Schedule ..........68
Conferences ......................70
Welding Workbook ..............72
Society News ....................75
Tech Topics ......................77
Guide to AWS Services ........95
Personnel ........................96
Classifieds ......................102
Advertiser Index ................104
1-s Visualization of Gas Flows in Welding Arcs by the
Schlieren Measuring Technique
Optical analysis of gas flow is simplified with the Schlieren
method
E. Siewert et al.
6-s Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization, and Brazing
of Barium Titanate Ceramics
A detailed investigation is conducted on the wettability, adhesion,
and interaction of perovskite-type ceramics
T. V. Sydorenko et al.
15-s Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal
Containing Mg-Bearing Inclusions
A novel flux cored electrode formulation produces a tensile
strength of 825 MPa without the addition of titanium or the
formation of acicular ferrite
A. P. Gerlich et al.
23-s Weldability of Niobium-Containing High-Strength Steel
for Pipelines
The investigation of high-strength Nb-containing steels reveals an
absence of HAZ cold cracking
I. I. Frantov et al.
Features
Welding Research Supplement
52
44
38
January 2014 Volume 93 Number 1
AWS website www.aws.org
EDITORIAL
The focus of my presidency is continuous improvement through innovation.
Innovation comes in many forms and can be experienced through inventive, revolution-
ary, trial-and-error, borrowed, and even subtle changes that are difficult to notice but
result in continuous improvement.
Look to the birth of the American aircraft industry for a good example of trial-and-
error innovation. During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson promised to produce
8000 American fighter planes, but there wasnt a single American-made engine that had
enough power.
This challenge was on par with the Manhattan Project and the race to the Moon. It
would be called the Liberty aircraft engine, and most of the young Detroit auto facto-
ries cooperated to build it. In doing so, their innovations would establish Americas place
as a world leader in manufacturing.
Many welding puzzles had to be solved for the Liberty aircraft engine to be produced in
large numbers. The joining of intake and exhaust elbow fittings to piston cylinders was an
immense challenge. Early welding engineers struggled with dangerous backfiring from the
welding torches through the gas lines. The oxyfuel process was unsuccessful and a process
of manual arc welding, rigged to a servo-controlled motor to feed the electrode also proved
unsuccessful. Finally, they tried the resistance welding process, building a complex fixture
for flash welding the elbows to the cylinder. The result was a resounding success.
By wars end, 18 months later, more than 20,000 Liberty engines were produced at
half the cost of European aircraft engines. American ingenuity and the future of welding
were both validated, and the aircraft helped bring the war to a quick end.
At my company, Wilson Industries, we borrowed technology that led to an inventive
innovation: the see-through welding curtain.
In 1968, a welder working behind a canvas welding screen had a heart attack and
remained there, unnoticed, for hours. This tragedy led to a movement to bring visibility
into the welding booth.
At the time we were developing the Wilson Spectra curtain, NASA was developing
new chemical coatings used to filter light for satellite camera lenses, based on their stud-
ies of the sharp eyes of eagles. A major breakthrough was achieved by incorporating the
NASA lens coating technology into sheet vinyl, allowing us to develop the Spectra cur-
tain, which has been honored as a NASA spin-off product.
Today, every part of our lives is influenced by welding, and AWS influences every part
of welding. AWS is currently developing online training, mobile apps, a skills certifica-
tion system featuring stackable credentials and digital badges, recognition of a Master
Welder status, and an extensive video library.
AWS has opened the door to lifelong professional development of all welding per-
sonnel via American Welding Online (AWO). AWO focuses on the science, economics,
and higher knowledge skills from which welders and others can benefit. We are on the
verge of creating the most empowered welding workforce in history through our devo-
tion to innovation.
Our Society is a partner in the Manufacturing Institutes Skill Certification System.
Soon, AWS will document, archive, and validate the career achievements of welding pro-
fessionals on all levels with secure online transcripts, a national certification registry, new
ID cards, and a certified welder passport.
We are on a mission to approve community colleges nationwide as Accredited Test
Facilities. This accreditation will enable schools to train and certify welders for the needs
of their local industries, with transferable, stackable, nationally recognized AWS
credentials.
The American Welding Society is devoted to
advancing the science, technology, and people of weld-
ing, by providing for the lifelong professional develop-
ment of welders, educators, welding engineers, and
inspectors around the world. In doing so, AWS aims to
improve everyones safety, productivity, and career
satisfaction, by dedicating ourselves to continuous
improvement through innovation.
JANUARY 2014 4
Officers
President Dean R. Wilson
Welldean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), University of Tennessee
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
N. Samanich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Wright Welding Technologies
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Improving through Innovation
Dean R. Wilson
AWS President
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Praxair to Fund Welding Scholarships through
AWS Program and SkillsUSA Competition
Praxair, Inc., Danbury, Conn., a leading industrial gases company, recently an-
nounced the companys global giving program will fund more than $200,000 in schol-
arships over the next five years for the American Welding Society (AWS) and Skill-
sUSA. They will support education and hands-on training for student welders in the
United States.
An applicant must be a minimum of 18 years old, at least a high school senior who
will be applying (or has applied) to a certificate welding program or to a college/uni-
versity for a two- or four-year degree focused on welding. Information on additional
qualifications is available at www.aws.org/foundation.
Twenty-six awards will be made to students who reside/attend school in the areas
in which the following AWS Sections are located: Chicago, Ill. (Section 002); Cleve-
land, Ohio (Section 006); Dallas, Tex. (North Texas Section 053); Detroit, Mich. (Sec-
tion 011); Fox Valley, Wis. (Section 074); Houston, Tex. (Section 022); Kansas City,
Mo. (Section 016); Los Angeles, Calif. (Section 008); North Dakota (Northern Plains
Section 117); Portland, Ore. (Section 052); Salt Lake City, Utah (Utah Section 059);
Tulsa, Okla. (Section 034); and North Carolina (Charlotte #140 and Triangle #151).
BMT to Support Welding Research Project for
Shipbuilding
BMT Fleet Technology Ltd.s latest research project with the National Shipbuild-
ing Research Program will evaluate recent advancements in Integrated Cold Elec-
trode (ICE) welding technology. Jointly funded by industry and the U.S. Navy through
the program, it will look at how this technology can improve productivity rates and
reduce construction costs of both commercial and naval vessels.
As project lead, BMT will work with Huntington-Ingalls Industries; Newport News
Shipbuilding; Marinette Marine Corp.; ESAB; American Bureau of Shipping; Naval
Surface Warfare Centre Carderock Division; and Defence R&D Canada.
Our main objectives for this project are to assess ICEs ability to enhance the
welding production rates, decrease distortion and costly rework, improve the proper-
ties of welds in high-strength steels and therefore reduce costs, whilst increasing the
integrity of the ships structure, said Darren Begg, project manager at BMT Fleet
Technology.
Northwest Florida State College Starts Welding Program
Northwest Florida State College, Niceville, Fla., has launched a new vocational
certificate program in welding technologies. It is funded by a federal Department of
Labor grant to meet the demand for high-skill, high-wage jobs in Northwest Florida.
Welding classes started in September. The program runs 12 months, divided into
three semesters, and consists of six courses covering shielded metal arc, gas metal
arc, flux cored arc, and gas tungsten arc welding on plate/pipe. Welding instructor
Scottie Smith, an AWS Certified Welding Inspector and Certified Welding Educator,
stated the program follows the National Center for Construction Education and
Research curriculum.
Currently, the colleges welding lab is 2000 sq ft and features 15 welding booths
containing Miller Electric multiprocess power sources and wire feeders, but the col-
lege has plans to double the welding labs size. The program will receive a mobile
welding lab this month to facilitate industry training for local businesses as well.
Koike Aronson, Miller Electric Enter Strategic Agreement
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Arcade, N.Y., and Miller Electric Manufacturing
Co., Appleton, Wis., have entered into a strategic partnership agreement. Koike will
act as a distributor of certain Miller welding products throughout North and South
America, including Mexico and Central America. Also, Miller will act as a distributor
of the Koike Aronson welding positioning equipment and portable welding and cut-
ting equipment in the same areas. The Miller products covered by the agreement are
equipment used in submerged arc and electroslag, automated gas metal arc, and au-
tomated flux cored arc welding. The companies distributorships are nonexclusive.
JANUARY 2014 6
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2014 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Lincoln Electric Opens Automation
Facility in Brazil
Lincoln Electric Co. recently opened its new Automation Cen-
ter of Excellence in Brazil, a 5000-sq-m facility that includes
demonstration, integration, training, and office space. The newly
built facility, located in the city of Indaiatuba, features a training
lab with six robot systems, a station for orbital welding process
development and system instruction, and eight additional demon-
stration systems for robotic and mechanized applications. Two
classrooms can accommodate up to 40 students.
Lincoln held a grand opening event, where a welcome was ex-
tended by Indaiatuba Mayor Reinaldo Nogueira, who stressed
the importance of creating an environment for business to grow
and in which their employees could feel comfortable making their
home. George Blankenship, president of Lincoln Electrics North
American operations, delivered the keynote presentation. He
said, Our responsibility to our customer must be more than just
a provider of product. Their expectations of us are greater today
because they have escalated demands from their customer. When
we can improve their welding and fabrication procees, we be-
come a partner rather than a vendor.
Leonardo Sabedot, business manager for the ASG-Brazil
group, closed out the presentation. We are excited by the op-
portunity that this facility represents, and look forward to forg-
ing strong partnerships with the many customers in the region,
he said.
Lincoln Electric has grown its automation offerings over the
last few years to include preengineered robotic systems, CNC
plasma cutting equipment, fixturing and tooling, engineered line
builds, robotic integration, laser systems, weld fume control, and
fire prevention.
Stork Technical Invests in New
Daughter Craft
Stork Technical Services, a global provider of management
services for the oil and gas, chemical, and power sectors, recently
announced an investment of more than $3.2 million in its new
daughter craft, The Edradour. The craft, which will provide addi-
tional operational support to meet the expanding needs of Storks
diving operations, has additional lifting capability for four-point
lifting, providing vessel crane launch and recovery capabilities,
and increased generator capacity.
The Edradour complements the companys existing fleet, which
includes daughter craft, The Aberlour, a mother vessel, The SIEM
Stork, and three dive intervention craft. The vessel has the same
design specification as The Aberlour, which will allow both to be
interchangeable with the existing twin davit system.
We are very pleased to welcome The Edradour to our fleet.
The shared design specification allows compatibility with our ex-
isting launch and recovery system and will bring familiarization
to all our crews, resulting in a greater safety recovery and effi-
ciency in our diving operations, said Roddy James, senior vice
president of Stork Technical Subsea.
Kemppi and ABB Announce Robotic
Welding Systems Collaboration
Kemppi Oy, a manufacturer of industrial arc welding equip-
ment, and ABB Robotics, a supplier of industrial robots and mod-
ular manufacturing systems, have established a collaboration to
develop fully equipped robotic welding packages. ABB indicated
the technologically innovative welding packages would be de-
signed as modular, cost-effective projects for companies to eas-
ily install or upgrade into a robotic system. The joint business
covers Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
Kemppi equipment will be featured at all certified ABB Ro-
botics welding lab locations, where customers will be able to con-
duct robotic welding trials on the latest equipment.
Pema to Supply Two Robotic Profile
Processing Lines
Pemamek, a manufacturer of automated welding and produc-
tion systems, has received another contract to supplement
Through an agreement between the two companies, Kemppi Oy
welding equipment will be paired with ABB robots such as in this
FlexArc robotic welding cell.
JANUARY 2014 8
The Edradour, which represents a more than $3.2 million invest-
ment, will provide additional operational support of Storks diving
operations.
continued on page 100
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
GE Researchers Experiment with 3D
Painting to Build Up and Repair Parts
GE researchers recently announced they are using a process
called cold spray where metal powders are sprayed at high ve-
locities to build a part or add material to repair an existing part.
Also known as 3D painting, cold spray demonstrates a blend
of materials, process, and product function that can in the im-
mediate future transform repair processes for industrial and
aircraft components such as rotors, blades, shafts, propellers, and
gear boxes. Future benefits include extended product lifespan and
reduced manufacturing time along with material costs.
To view a demonstration, visit the following link:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=NXGOZ5ns3Zo&feature=youtu.be.
Northwest Pipe Co.s Tubular Products
Group Earns Largest Project in Its History
Northwest Pipe Co., Vancouver, Wash., will provide about 400
miles of 12
3
4-in. line pipe for the Double H Pipeline project to
transport crude oil from Dore, N.Dak., to Guernsey, Wyo.
The ability for Northwest Pipe Co. to participate on projects
like Double H is the result of $35 million of investments that have
been made in our Atchison [Kansas] facility over the last several
years. These investments have allowed us to continue to expand
our product offering both in wall thickness and strength level
on line pipe up to 16 in. in diameter, said Scott Montross,
company CEO.
Apple Secures Patent for New FSW Method
The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office has published a series
of 41 newly granted patents for Apple, Inc., Cupertino, Calif.
Included is an invention relating to friction stir welding (FSW).
U.S. Patent 8,556,156 dynamic adjustment of FSW process
parameters based on weld temperature lists the inventor as
Shravan Bharadwaj, San Jose, Calif., with the assignee as Apple,
Inc. The abstract states that a method for FSW is provided, and
it may include beginning an operation by directing a rotating
FSW tool along a joint between two parts; a temperature of the
resulting weld may be measured; a controller may adjust process
parameters associated with this process to decrease a difference
between weld desired and measured temperatures; desired tem-
perature may correspond to a temperature at which parts are
plasticized; and process parameters may include rotational speed
of the FSW tool, feed rate, axial force along the FSW tool length,
and tilt angle of the FSW tool.
Sheet Metal Work Gets Efficiency Boost
Through New Technology
After receiving feedback from members, the International
Training Institute (ITI), Fairfax, Va., put a new web-based
Greater Waco Advanced Manufacturing Academy Awarded $2.2 Million Grant
The Waco Independent School District, Waco, Tex., has been awarded a $2.2
million grant from the U.S. Department of Education to further enhance the
Greater Waco Advanced Manufacturing Academy. The school opened its doors
in August and is now teaching welding skills to students from Waco and the sur-
rounding area.
The grant is part of the federal governments $89.8 million in Magnet School
Assistance Program grants featuring a goal to promote courses within magnet
schools that will strengthen knowledge of academic subjects and attainment of
tangible vocational skills.
Our vision for the Greater Waco Advanced Manufacturing Academy is to pre-
pare Waco area students for productive employment, success in postsecondary
education, or both, said Waco Independent School District Superintendent Dr.
Bonny Cain. Right now, we know that many of our local manufacturing busi-
nesses need welders, so were trying to meet that demand.
The school district plans to use the grant awarded to the academy for purchas-
ing additional equipment and consumables, provide professional development
staff and students, plus expand the schools curriculum.
JANUARY 2014 10
Welding is taught at the Greater Waco Advanced
Manufacturing Academy, and this substantial
grant will be used in many ways, including to
purchase extra equipment and consumables.
GE researchers are developing new ways to repair and build up
parts using a process called cold spray. Here, GE Materials Engi-
neer Leo Ajdelsztajn prepares a test in one of the companys spray
booths.
11 WELDING JOURNAL
e-reader into development. With the launch of this method of
viewing texts and class assignments, apprentices and journey per-
sons in courses can see their books from any device with an In-
ternet browser. The option is also useful for individuals on the
go or those who dont have a home computer or an iPad.
On the Windows-based e-reader, students can print pages
from texts; with the iPad application, they can store books on the
device from the application; on the web-based e-reader, saving
and printing functionality is limited to specific versions; and a
mobile version of the web-based e-reader is available as well.
According to David Collins, software development manager
for ITI, the general look and feel of the website will allow for
easier navigation. About a year ago, we started traveling around
the county taking original photos to update nearly all the im-
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
The International Training Institute has launched a web-based
e-reader and new website (shown above) at www.sheetmetal-
iti.org.
JANUARY 2014 12
agery on the site, so the members will be able to really see them-
selves in the new design, Collins added.
ASM International Celebrates 100 Years
ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, commemorated its
100th anniversary with a gala on Oct. 27 in Montreal, Quebec,
Canada. Nearly 400 guests, including members, past presidents,
dignitaries, and partners from around the world, came together.
For more than 100 years, in large part because of volunteer
commitment and involvement, ASM has remained relevant and
focused in materials science. The gala was a wonderful way to
express our gratitude for a century of greatness, said Thom
Passek, ASM managing director.
Founded in 1913, ASM began as the Steel Treaters Club in
Detroit, Mich., with fewer than 20 members. Today, it has more
than 30,000 members and 80 worldwide chapters.
Along with historical tributes of the organizations past and a
look to the future, the event featured a keynote speech by Dr.
Peter Diamandis, chair and CEO of the X Prize Foundation.
Industry Notes
The Bhler Welding Group, Vienna, will become an integrated
part of the voestalpine Group, a steel-based technology and
capital goods group with about 500 group companies and lo-
cations in more than 50 countries and on five continents. Its
name now also changes to voestalpine Bhler Welding.
Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., has consolidated the
gas tungsten arc torch and accessory lines from Weldcraft under
its brand. The only change will be the addition of the Miller
name on products, labels, and packaging. Torch bodies have
also transitioned from red to black (excluding Redhead
series).
A $95,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Energy will allow
Aiken Technical College, Graniteville, S.C., to purchase an or-
bital welding machine and Bevelmaster beveling machine for
use in both advanced manufacturing and nuclear training.
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BUSINESS
BRIEFS
Recent Acquisitions
At FABTECH 2013, Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleve-
land, Ohio, announced the company acquired an ownership in-
terest in Burlington Automation Corp., Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, a designer and manufacturer of 3D robotic plasma cut-
ting systems. Rob Tyler serves as its president. In addition, the
company has entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Robo-
lution GmbH, based outside of Frankfurt, Germany, a European
provider of robotic arc welding systems. Wolfgang Koenig is its
managing director.
Victor Technologies, St. Louis, Mo., has acquired Gas-Arc
Group Ltd., a privately held manufacturer of gas control equip-
ment in the United Kingdom, for approximately $40 million in
cash, subject to post-closing adjustments. Its portfolio includes
branded gas control products that meet specialty gas application
requirements as well as cutting and welding equipment for the
industrial, laboratory, and medical gas control markets. In addi-
tion, Gas-Arc will continue to operate under its own name.
Reliance Steel & Aluminum Co., Los Angeles, Calif., recently
announced that, through its wholly owned subsidiary American
Metals Corp., the company has acquired all of the capital stock
of Haskins Steel Co., Inc., Spokane, Wash. Founded in 1955,
Haskins processes and distributes carbon steel and aluminum
products of various shapes/sizes. In-house processing capabili-
ties include shearing, sawing, burning, and forming. Haskins will
operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of American Metals Corp.,
and current management will also remain in place.
Antelope Oil Tool & Manufacturing Co., LLC, Mineral Wells,
Tex., has acquired WearSox, L.P., Houston, Tex. Founded in 2004,
WearSox is a developer of thermal spray-on casing centralizers
and stop collars, as well as stabilizers for the deep water/offshore
segment of the oil and gas industry. WearSoxs patent-protected
process allows for shapes to be built directly onto casing without
affecting the casings metallurgical properties. George Ribble,
Antelopes CEO, will oversee the combined business.
Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has completed acquiring the assets
and operations of The Encompass Gas Group, Rockford, Ill.,
one of the largest privately owned suppliers of industrial, med-
ical, and specialty gases/related hardgoods in the United States,
with eleven locations and more than 130 associates in Illinois,
Wisconsin, and Iowa.
Automation International, Inc., Danville, Ill., has acquired
Hess Industries Rim and Wheel Intellectual Property. Hess In-
dustries was located in Niles, Mich., and ceased operations in
June 2012. The purchase aligns with the companys role as a
provider in the design and manufacture of automated wheel pro-
duction equipment, including welding, metal forming, assembly,
and spinning.
Keen Compressed Gas Co., Wilmington, Del., has acquired
the assets of Urie & Blanton Welding Supply Co., including all
assets associated with the industrial gas and welding supply busi-
ness. Urie covered New Castle County, Del.; southeastern Penn-
sylvania; the Philadelphia area; some of South Jersey; and had
two retail locations that Keen will take over.
Mistras Group, Inc., Princeton Junction, N.J., has acquired
Carmagen Engineering, Inc., a professional engineering consult-
ing and technical training services provider serving the hydrocar-
bon processing and other energy-related industries. Since 1986,
Carmagen has provided services focused on the oil and gas in-
dustry that includes plant operations support; turnaround plan-
ning/execution programs; and technical training.
JANUARY 2014 14
Ford Adds Jobs, Invests Millions
in Buffalo Stamping Plant
Ford Motor Co. will invest $150 million and add approxi-
mately 350 new jobs at its Buffalo Stamping Plant in New
York.
The venture is for more than 25 new subassemblies, in-
cluding hoods, doors, and fenders; more than 500 new dies
and a new blanking line; as well as equipment upgrades and
refurbishing to support future product programs. The plant
will also add a third shift to its press room.
These additional jobs are the direct result of the dedi-
cated effort our United Automobile Workers (UAW) mem-
bers display every day at facilities all across the country, and
serve as another reminder of the resilience of American
workers and our nations manufacturing sector, said Jimmy
Settles, UAW vice president and director of the National
Ford Department.
Ford Motor Co. will invest $150 million and add approximately 350
new jobs at its Buffalo Stamping Plant. (Photo courtesy of Ford.)
Friends and Colleagues:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2014. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2015
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2014
5
Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and chapter contributions
Professional recognition
RULES
1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS
2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
5. Nominations will remain valid for three years
6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year
NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.
AWS Fellow Application Guidelines
Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-
ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-
tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-
tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).
1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
3. Inventions and patents.
4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.
7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
8. Consultancy particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
11. Advocacy support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.
Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.
Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.
Return completed Fellow nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201
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STAINLESS
Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
A: There is some logic in the welders sug-
gestion. Locally heating the fitting and
tank shell will reduce the yield strength of
these materials, making them easier to
bend. But things are not so simple. As-
suming that the fitting and tank are really
304, not 304L, sensitization needs to be
taken into account. Welding the fitting to
the tank shell will already have somewhat
sensitized the fitting and tank shell. So
both could be damaged by intergranular
corrosion, depending upon the severity of
the corrosive environment inside and out-
side the tank. See the November 2007
Stainless Q&A column for details of sen-
sitization and intergranular corrosion.
Local heating, improperly applied, can
severely sensitize the tank shell and fit-
ting. The sensitization temperature range
for welding is generally considered to be
900 to 1600F (480 to 870C). But local-
ized heating is a much slower process so
that the minimum sensitization tempera-
ture can be reduced to 840F (400C). If
that temperature is exceeded anywhere
during local heating, there must be a tran-
sition in temperature to the cold tank
shell so there will be a considerable region
of the tank shell that will be sensitized.
Water quenching cannot prevent that and
may cause distortion, which could make
the pipe alignment problem worse, not
better. I have to assume that the extent of
sensitization you already have is accept-
able, but local heating above 840F is
likely to make it much worse.
If the extent of sensitization already
present due to welding is acceptable and
you dont want to make matters worse,
then local heating needs to be limited to a
peak temperature anywhere in the tank
shell and fitting to about 750F (400C) to
provide some margin of safety. Some sig-
nificant reduction of yield strength occurs
when 304 is heated, which would be help-
ful in your proposed bending operation. I
AT FABTECH 2014
Atlanta Nov. 11-13, 2014
Submission deadline: Mar. 29, 2014
The AWS Professional Program is an annual three-day program of sessions
on technical topics featuring the most recent welding research and best practices
in manufacturing and construction from around the world.
Submit your Professional Program abstract online by March 28 at
http://awo.aws.org/professional-program-abstract-form
or contact Martica Ventura at (800) 443-9353 ext 224 (mventura@aws.org)
JANUARY 2014 20
Q: We welded the flange of a 304 stainless steel pipe fitting
(female threads), after hammering the flange to approximately
fit the tank curvature, to the cylindrical surface of a 304 tank.
Unfortunately, the fitting was not aligned correctly, so the pipe
inserted into the fitting does not take off from the tank in the
correct direction. The welder suggested that we could locally
heat the fitting and the tank, then thread a pipe into the fitting
and bend the fitting and tank shell slightly to get the correct
direction for the pipe. Is this a good idea?
expect that the stainless steel shell is
quite a bit thicker than the fitting, and the
shells cylindrical shape will give it con-
siderable stiffness, so most or all of the
yielding will have to be in the flange of
the fitting. The AK Steel online Data Bul-
letin provides typical yield strength of 304
as a function of temperature, as shown in
Table 1. Also included in Table 1 are the
reduction factors (ratio of elevated-tem-
perature yield strength to room-temper-
ature yield strength), from the AISC De-
sign Guide 30: Structural Stainless Steel, to
be applied to the design of stainless steel
construction. The two sources provide
similar information.
Local heating with a torch would be
very risky in this case because of the
temptation to direct the heat on the sur-
face for a while, then withdraw the torch
and test the surface temperature with a
temperature-indicating crayon. You can
easily exceed the suggested temperature
limit before you realize it. I suggest you
use electric strip heaters for the heating,
and use thermocouples or an optical py-
rometer to measure temperature contin-
uously to be sure that 750F is not ex-
ceeded.
Table 1 indicates that the yield
strength of 304 stainless steel at 750F is
likely to be about one-half of that at room
temperature. So there will be some help
in your attempt to realign the fitting. But,
because the flange diameter is greater
than the pipe diameter, there will also be
a tendency for the pipe to bend more eas-
ily than the flange, even if the pipe is kept
cold. I suggest you put a sleeve (a larger-
diameter pipe that just fits over the neck
of the fitting) to stiffen your lever arm
when trying to bend the flange of the
fitting.
In summary, your welders idea is not
a bad idea, but its execution is not with-
out risk. If you follow the guidelines
herein, I think you can be successful,
though I would not guarantee it.
21 WELDING JOURNAL
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc.
He is treasurer of the IIW and a member of
the A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stain-
less Steel Structural Welding; and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair
of the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and
Allied Materials, and served as AWS presi-
dent (20052006). Send questions to
damian@ damiankotecki.com, or mail to
Damian Kotecki, c/o Welding Journal
Dept., 8669 NW 36th St. # 130, Miami, FL
33166-6672.
Table 1 Effect of Temperature on 304 Stainless Steel Yield Strength
Temperature, F (C) 68 (20) 200 (93) 400 (204) 600 (316) 750 (399) 800 (427)
AK Steel Typical YS, ksi (MPa) 36 (241) 23 (159) 20 (134) 17 (114)
AISC Reduction Factor 1.00 0.80 0.65 0.59 0.55 0.54
RWMA
Q&A
BY TOM SNOW
Q: One of our resistance welding ma-
chine operators recently lost part of his
finger when it was crushed between the
electrodes of the machine. How can we
protect our operators from similar in-
juries in the future?
A: Forging forces ranging from several
hundred to several thousand pounds are
required to properly resistance weld metal
together, so resistance spot and projec-
tion welding machines can be dangerous
if care is not taken to protect the
operator.
For example, a welding machine oper-
ating at 600 lb of forging force with an
electrode contact area of in. will pro-
duce more than 12,000 lb of force per
square inch on a finger or anything else
caught between them.
Having witnessed an operator crush his
finger while on a factory tour years ago, I
certainly share your desire to avoid this
unfortunate situation in the future.
While not necessarily simple, the safest
way to ensure operator safety on a resist-
ance welding machine is to tool the ma-
chine to hold and clamp the part, which
avoids the need for an operator to posi-
tion and hold the part during the process
Fig. 1.
In a welding machine with proper tool-
ing and guards, the operator manually
loads the parts and then completely clears
out of the welding/pinch point area before
the machine closes the tips.
That being said, it is not always possi-
ble to accomplish. Following are outlined
some other ideas that can help ensure op-
erator safety.
You did not specify whether the ma-
chine involved in the accident was a rocker
arm-type spot welding machine or a ver-
tical action press-type machine, so en-
hancing the safety of both is addressed.
Rocker Arm Spot
Welding Machine
These machines are typically used to
weld sheet metal parts that are held with
both hands while the operator manipu-
lates the part in the throat of the machine
to access all the weld locations.
Initiation of the machine should be
with a shrouded foot switch, and a pinch
point warning sign should be prominently
displayed Fig. 2. In addition, the oper-
ator should be instructed verbally and in
writing to keep his hands away from
the tips.
Although using both hands to hold the
part usually ensures that the operators
fingers are not in the pinch point area,
management can augment safety by se-
lecting the right machine for the job and
setting it up properly.
A simple way to reduce the potential
for a spot welding machine pinch point in-
jury is to position the machines electrode
tips so close together (typically about a -
in. gap) that a finger cannot get between
the tips prior to the weld stroke.
To overcome clearance problems
caused by such a short working stroke, an
optional feature for the welding machine
called an adjustable and retractable stroke
air cylinder can make it much easier to
load bulkier parts, such as those with
flanges or lips, into the welding machines
throat prior to welding.
When using retraction, the operator
typically steps on a separate shrouded foot
switch to activate the adjustable retrac-
tion stroke, also called high lift, which
gives the operator extra clearance to load
the part in the throat prior to reverting to
a minimal stroke for welding.
JANUARY 2014 22
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However, if an operator is not prop-
erly trained in the operation of a retrac-
tion feature, or if its not properly ad-
justed, additional pinch point dangers can
result when the machine comes out of
retraction.
OSHA requires guarding against pinch
point injury to be passive. This means that
there can be no way to defeat the protec-
tion system and that safety of the welding
machine cannot be dependent upon op-
erator adjustments. Since the gap between
electrodes can vary depending on the
setup, at present the only way to meet this
OSHA requirement is by use of a system
called Soft Touch.
Press-Type Resistance Welding
Machines
A vertical-action press-type spot weld-
ing machine can be operated much like a
rocker arm and initiation with a shrouded
foot switch is generally acceptable if both
hands are used to hold the part being
welded Fig. 3.
Again, using the Soft Touch system
and/or reducing the gap between the tips
to in. are recommended, as are ad-
justable and retractable stroke welding
machine cylinders to make loading and
unloading easier.
Hand-loading projection welded nuts
or weld studs exposes the operator to
Fig. 1 A growing trend is to completely
guard the pinch point of a resistance weld-
ing machine. In addition to a physical en-
closure, this vertical-action pedestal-type
spot welding machine includes a light cur-
tain to ensure that the operators hands are
outside the pinch point area after loading
the assembly to be welded into a tooling
nest. When the operator initiates the ma-
chine with a foot switch, a door automati-
cally closes the opening in the enclosure and
shields the operator from weld flash.
Fig. 2 A A rocker-arm spot welding machine with a prominently displayed pinch
point warning sign; B a close-up view of a warning sign.
continued from page 22
A
B
pinch point injury every time a part is
welded, since the gap between electrodes
must be greater than in. to clear the
part. One solution is to place the nuts or
studs on the part prior to placing the part
between the electrodes. The part can then
be supported by a table and the welding
machine initiated by use of dual hand but-
tons installed with an anti-tie-down safety
circuit. If this method is not practical, use
of the Soft Touch system will provide the
required protection.
Another highly recommended solution
is to use an automated bowl feeder and
placement mechanism to load the nuts or
studs being welded.
Projection welding machines with tool-
ing mounted to T-slotted platens in the
throat of the machine are considered to
be much like a sheet metal stamping press
when it comes to ensuring safety, since the
parts being welded are typically loaded by
hand into a locating fixture directly under
the ram in the pinch point.
Dual palm buttons connected to an
anti-tie-down and anti-repeat circuit have
long been the standard initiation means
for projection welding machines, and op-
tical-touch devices are rapidly replacing
the old-style palm buttons that require
physical force to depress.
Guarding of the welders pinch point
with wire mesh or Plexiglas is also more
prevalent than ever, and light curtains in-
stalled on the opening
ensure that the operator
is completely outside the
work area when the ma-
chine is initiated (see
Fig. 1).
Zone scanners are
also now available that
sense if someone is in-
side the guarded area.
Using a robot to re-
place the operator and
manipulate a fixtured
part inside the throat of
a rocker arm or press-
type resistance welding
machine is also a good
way to enhance safety.
We applaud your de-
sire to learn from this ac-
cident and to help pro-
tect your operators from
similar injuries in the fu-
ture. It is also encourag-
ing to see that a growing number of com-
panies are becoming proactive by adding
protection systems to their spot welding
machines before accidents occur.
As weve explained, there are numer-
ous ways to enhance the safety of resist-
ance welding machines, but proper oper-
ator training, especially of new hires
or temporary workers, should be top
priority.
JANUARY 2014 26
The RWMAAnnual Meeting is a three-day event filled with unparalleled networking opportunities and enlightening
presentations. Renowned economist Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for Trend Research (ITR) continues to be the
keynote speaker for the meeting. Additional speakers will be announced. Non-members are welcome to attend!
Registration opens mid-December.
For more information please contact:
Keila DeMoraes at kdemoraes@aws.org or 800-443-9353, ext. 444
A STANDING COMMITTEE OF ANDING COMMITTEE OF STTA AA
inoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla. Vinoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla.
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The R
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Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for presentations. Renowned economist
WMAAnnual Meeting is a thre RRW
oadening its use, b
ommitted to advan
bro d i it
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
WMAAnnual Meeting is a three-day event filled with unparalleled networking opportunities and enlightening
omoting its eco
esistance we ncing r
, pr
g
ti it
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the T Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
onomic benefits.
elding technology, g g
i b fit
y,
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the
Registration opens mid-December
keynote speaker for the meeting.
presentations. Renowned economist
. Registration opens mid-December
Additional speakers will be announced. Non-members are welcome to attend! keynote speaker for the meeting.
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for presentations. Renowned economist
Additional speakers will be announced. Non-members are welcome to attend!
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the T Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the
Fig. 3 Standard spot welding machines, both vertical action
and rocker arm types, can be operated safely if an operator
holds the parts with both hands outside the pinch point area.
Safety can be enhanced by minimizing the opening between the
tips and by a control feature called Soft Touch.
TOM SNOW is CEO of T. J. Snow Co.,
Chattanooga, Tenn., a resistance welding
machine manufacturer and a member of
the Resistance Welding Manufacturing Al-
liance (RWMA). Send your comments/
questions to Tom at TomSnow@
tjsnow.com, or to Tom Snow, c/o Welding
Journal, 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami,
FL 33166.
CAD/CAM Software Boosts
Sheet Metal Cutting
Radan 2014 incorporates 3D workflow
improvements and safety measures to pre-
vent tipping on flat-bed lasers, along with
advances in common cutting on punches
and support for cluster/asymmetric wheel
tools. Simulation and time calculation
have also been improved. In addition, the
software adopts the same common cutting
strategy for punch presses as that used for
profiling machines; allows common cut
nests to be created automatically; and tag-
ging for common cut parts has been en-
hanced. The nest project workflow pro-
vides graphical/interactive help when nec-
essary, informing a user when a part is not
closed, tooling is out of date, or what im-
provements are needed.
Vero Software Limited
www.verosoftware.com
(440) 552-9743
Cutting Tip Guide Includes
Gas Fuel Comparison Chart
The companys new Cutting Tip Guide
is a quick-reference guide for its gas ap-
paratus equipment. The pocket guide pro-
vides comprehensive operating data, in-
cluding gas pressure, gas consumption,
and other key parameters required to
quickly and easily identify the proper cut-
ting tip for any manual or machine cut-
ting application. Also included is a fuel-
gas comparison chart as well as cutting tip
and welding head/tip cross-reference
charts. It is available in print or digital
format.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
www.esabna.com
(800) 372-2123
Mobile Work Table Handles
Many Applications
The Mobile Work Table XL has a 5000-
lb distributed weight capacity and can ac-
commodate a variety of plant operations,
including moving supplies and equipment
throughout a facility, moving parts and as-
semblies between workstations, use as a
workstation for a shipping department,
use as a mobile work table for wrapping
boxed parts on pallets for shipping, as a
maintenance department mobile work
table, and as an automotive parts table for
rebuilding parts and assemblies. It fea-
tures all-welded steel construction, a large
top work surface, a fixed bottom shelf for
storage with a raised lip-edge design on
three sides to retain parts, and a formed-
down bottom lip for easy cleaning.
Ohio Laser
www.ohiolaser.com
(614) 873-7030
Diamond Wheels Enable
Fast Cutting Speeds
Pearl Xtreme diamond wheels are de-
signed to cut metal, stainless steel, and a
variety of ferrous metals with less odor
and debris. Engineered with a high con-
centration of diamonds and a strong bond,
the wheels feature fast cutting speeds and
the need to change wheels frequently is
reduced. The shape of the wheel does not
change over time, keeping the size of the
wheel consistent from the first to last cut.
Sizes available are 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, and
14 in.
Pearl Abrasive Co.
www.pearlabrasive.com
(800) 969-5561
Brochure Features Dust
Collector Specifications
The companys full-color brochure
showcases its line of dust collectors. Pho-
tos and illustrations show how the dust
collectors protect workers from smoke,
fumes, and other pollutants in metalwork-
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
Mounted Points Designed for
Safer Sheet Metal Fabrication
The companys mounted points for stain-
less steel edge-breaking include a nonwoven
cotton fiber type that leaves a smooth finish
and a rubber version that produces a finer fin-
ish. Both are self dressing to the workpiece
and help make it safer for workers who han-
dle stainless steel sheet metal. They also in-
clude the A54GFX cotton fiber type. Avail-
able in a 1 2 in. size for this application, they
are also offered in several other sizes.
Rex-Cut Abrasives
www.rexcut.com
(800) 225-8182
JANUARY 2014 28
29 WELDING JOURNAL
ing, plastics, painting, powders, and other
manufacturing industries. The brochure
also contains detailed specifications to de-
termine the correct configuration for ap-
plications, including welding, grinding,
painting, sanding, cutting, finishing, and
more. This brochure may be downloaded
at the website shown.
Micro Air Clean Air Systems
www.microaironline.com
(866) 566-4276
Magnetic Travel Carriage
Offers 25-lb Pull Capacity
The K-BUG 4000, a digital, magnetic
travel carriage, produces continuous or
intermittent fillet welds while traveling on
a vertical wall. The constant travel speed
produces high-quality, uniform welds.
Programming of travel pattern and weld
control eliminates excessive deposition
and reduces defects. The guide wheels
track the workpiece to provide precise
weld placement and have a pull capacity
of 25 lb.
Bug-O Systems
www.bugo.com
(800) 245-3186
Fixturing Devices Suited
for Tack Welding
The companys Radiusmagnetic fix-
turing tools can be used to position steel
for tack welding or other pre- or postweld
operations. They also are suited for cut-
ting and grinding applications. Three dif-
ferent models, all compact and light-
weight, intended for various material
thicknesses or applications, are available.
The company is also offering a manual
hand lifter designed for small steel part
lifting and sheet dragging. The hand lifter
does not require batteries or electricity.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
Corporate Video Highlights
Waterjet Technology
The manufacturer of waterjet systems
has produced a new corporate video fea-
turing a behind-the-scenes look inside its
manufacturing facility in St. Michael,
Minn. The video includes an overview of
the companys capabilities and products as
well as testimonials from customers. The
video explains how water is pressurized up
to 90,000 lb/in.
2
to create a stream that can
cut precise parts from virtually any mate-
rial, from huge steel parts to intricate stone
inlays. Also highlighted is how customers
are using waterjet technology to solve man-
ufacturing challenges. The video is now
showing on the companys YouTube chan-
nel at www.youtube.com/jetedgewaterjets.
Jet Edge, Inc.
www.jetedge.com
(800) 538-3343
Collection Arm Provides
Source-Point Dust Removal
The E-Z Arm High Flow series of
contaminant extractor arms provides
source-point collection as well as removal
of dusts, powders, fumes, smoke, odors,
and other contaminants. Capable of han-
dling air flow rates up to 1500 ft
3
/min, its
design delivers an energy consumption
level of 0.35 kW/h at 800 ft
3
/min. The high-
capacity air flow volume with the low en-
ergy consumption level is made possible
by the companys patented pawl-and-
sprocket, friction-release, external arm
support system. The extractor arm has a
6.75-in. diameter and is available in 7-,
10-, and 14-ft lengths.
Airflow Systems, Inc.
www.airflowsystems.com
(800) 818-6185
Refractometer Determines
Coolant Concentration
The companys automatic temperature
compensating refractometer allows plant
operators to quickly determine the con-
centration of metalworking coolants and
cleaners, heat-treating fluids, water-based
hydraulic fluids, and plating baths. The
device is portable and requires no batter-
ies. Its large scale is available in two
ranges, 010 and 032 Brix. These fluid
recycling instruments are designed for
most metalworking operations, including
cutting, grinding, and synthetic machin-
ing fluids; plating, acid, and cleaner baths;
water-based hydraulic fluids; die lubri-
cants; and chromating systems.
Eriez HydroFlow
www.eriez.com
(888) 300-3743
Mobile App Allows Users
to Share Auto Restoration
Photos
The company has introduced its new,
free mobile app for iPhone and Android
smartphones. The app provides instant ac-
cess to the companys video library, tech
library, blog, live chat, social media, and
in-app coupons. The Car Cam feature al-
lows users to submit pictures of their proj-
ect, cars that were spotted at a car show,
JANUARY 2014 30
or shots of products in action. The app
provides a convenient way to get informa-
tion to solve problems that are encoun-
tered while working in the garage. The
iPhone version of this mobile app is avail-
able at the Apple iTunes store, and the
Android version is available on Google
Play.
Eastwood Co.
www.eastwood.com
(800) 343-9353
Laser System Quickly
Cuts Aluminum, Brass
The Sigma XY fiber laser cutting sys-
tem enables high-speed cutting of thin
metals using a rigid linear drive, gantry-
based motion system. The fiber laser tech-
nology offers high-resolution cutting, with
optical spot sizes down to 10 microns, and
high linear-speed cutting made possible
through high pulse repetition rates. Fea-
tures include up to 500 W of available
laser power for a range of materials, in-
cluding aluminum, steels, and brass. The
laser system is available with many op-
tions, including class 1 or 4 operation, sev-
eral cutting box styles, fume exhaust, part
hold-down tooling, focus control sensing,
programmable gas pressure, high-pres-
sure cutting heads, 4- or 8-in. travel
Z-stage axes of motion, and a control
pendant.
Miyachi Unitek
www.miyachiunitek.com
(626) 303-5676
Document Guides Installing
Gas Transfer Connectors
A new version of the companys Instal-
lation Procedures Document LP-105 has
been recently issued. The comprehensive
installation guide complements the Dis-
31 WELDING JOURNAL
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is an essential tool for using the companys
products. The guide covers carbon steel,
stainless steel, and CuNi pipe fittings. It
also includes tube (OD) fitting installa-
tions for stainless steel and copper nickel
range. The LP-105 is a necessary resource
for learning the procedures needed to be-
come a trained installer for the company,
and a reference tool for installers want-
ing to stay up-to-date on the latest instal-
lation procedures. To order a copy, visit
the website listed.
Lokring Technology LLC
www.lokring.com
(800) 876-2323
JANUARY 2014 32
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Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2014. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2015 consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2014
5
Nomination of AWS Counselor
I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-
vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individuals career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individuals organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.
B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED
Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.
Return completed Counselor nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
4
Miami, FL 33166
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2014
5
JANUARY 2014 38
I
n order to design lighter automotive structures, to improve
fuel economies and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions, the use
of new advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) is expanding,
allowing weight savings through thinner sheet gauges.
Spot welding remains the main joining process for body-in-
white construction. Most spot welds in automotive structures
are dissimilar configurations (i.e., different sheet thicknesses
and grades are welded together), but AHSS-to-AHSS configu-
rations have become more common.
Shear Load Testing
The design of automotive body-in-white structures is usu-
ally based on simulated crash behavior. In this case, the frac-
ture behavior of the welds has a major influence on the whole
structures performance. Spot weld loading is usually divided
into several individual loading scenarios, among which shear
and opening modes are usually considered the most important
(Ref. 1).
Practically, shear and opening maximum loads are obtained
through simple laboratory tests, i.e., cross-tension (Ref. 2) and
tension-shear (Ref. 3). These tests are usually carried out dur-
ing steel grade qualification for spot weldability. When upgrad-
ing the steel from soft drawing quality to high-strength and to
AHSSs, the trend for tensile shear maximum loads is known
and is consistent with the increase of base metal strength (Refs.
4, 5). However, in cross-tension tests there is not a clear trend
between base material and cross-tension strength (CTS) (Ref.
6), but it is well known that AHSSs may show rather low CTS.
These periodic poor strengths are usually attributed to the
high alloying content of AHSS, leading to martensitic mi-
crostructure in the spot weld, which is sensitive to the notch ef-
fect when testing is performed in opening mode. However, most
of these observations and conclusions are based on standard
steel qualification results, i.e., tests on homogeneous welding
configurations. When these data are then applied to dissimilar
configurations, the most common approach in the automotive
industry is to consider that the fracture behavior of a dissimilar
configuration can be deduced from the corresponding two ho-
mogeneous configurations through a minimum rule, i.e., the
load-bearing capacity of the heterogeneous configuration is
supposed to be equal to the minimum strength of both homo-
geneous assemblies. This assumption is verified experimentally
on material combinations using thin mild steels, as illustrated
in Fig. 1. The mild steel sheet is the weakest point of the assem-
bly and fails during the mechanical test, leading to the forma-
tion of a plug around the weld.
Dissimilar Welds
Studies on heterogeneous or dissimilar configurations are
much fewer, although several studies have been published re-
cently (Refs. 812). However most of these studies consider
only tensile-shear testing of dissimilar welds. Only the work
from Khan et al. (Ref. 9) considers cross-tension testing of a
DP600-HSLA similar-thickness configuration, obtaining a load-
bearing capacity almost equal to that of the maximum level
among the similar configurations results, i.e., almost equal to
that of DP600. This result does not agree with the minimum
rule described above, which is attributed by the authors to the
difference in microstructure and hardness of the spot weld
nugget due to the dilution effect. This article focuses on AHSS
Spot Welding
Different Sheet Metal
Grades and Gauges
E. BIRO (elliot.biro@arcelormittal.com), L. CRETTEUR, and T. DUPUY are with ArcelorMittal Global R&D, based in Hamilton, Ont., Canada;
Montataire, France; and Maizires-ls-Metz, France, respectively. This article is based on a paper presented at the Sheet Metal Welding
Conference XV, Livonia, Mich., Oct. 25, 2012.
A study looks at improving the welding of automobile body parts involving joints of
mild and high-strength steels of varying thicknesses
BY E. BIRO, L. CRETTEUR, AND T. DUPUY
39 WELDING JOURNAL
dissimilar configuration spot welds tested in cross-tension. It
shows that the CTS for such configurations are greater than
predicted by the minimum rule, largely due to changes in the
solid mechanics governing joint failure.
Materials and Procedure Used
for the Investigation
The materials chosen for this study are a low-carbon equiv-
alent 980-MPa dual-phase (DP980 LCE) cold-rolled steel with
a hot-dip galvanized coating, and a 800-MPa transformation-
induced plasticity (TRIP800) steel.
Each steel grade was obtained in different thicknesses. Ma-
terial details are given in Table 1. It can be seen that although
there are slight differences in chemistry or mechanical proper-
ties from sample to sample, due to slightly different processing
parameters, the metallurgical concept remains the same for
each grade. Experiments were carried out on two- and three-
sheet stackups. Both the DP980 and TRIP800 were used for the
two-sheet stackups and only the DP980 was used for the three-
sheet stackups. All of the joints were made using similar grade
material of both similar and dissimilar material thickness to
focus on geometrical effects. The material thickness combina-
tions for all of the two-sheet joints are shown in Table 2.
All three-sheet stackups were made using the 1-mm DP980
LCE. These configurations were designed to study what hap-
pens in such cases, knowing that three-sheet welding is very
common in car body manufacturing. The four configurations
tested, shown in Fig. 2, are as follows: A a square DP980
coupon (patch) is inserted between the two classical cross-ten-
sion coupons for welding (1+patch+1 mm); B two coupons
oriented the same way welded with one coupon oriented
in the transverse direction to form a cross-tension sample
(1+[1+1] mm); C same configuration as A but the external
coupon is removed by manual torsion before cross-tension
testing (1+1+0 mm); D same configuration as A, but the
two coupons oriented the same way are first spot welded to-
gether strongly (with several spots) in the extremities, before
the actual three-sheet spot weld is done ([1++++1]+1 mm).
Spot welding was carried out based on using the procedure
and parameters described in ISO 18278-2 (Ref. 13). For each
welded configuration, a welding current range test was carried
out using a pedestal spot single-phase 50-Hz welding machine,
with the welding parameters chosen to correspond to the
thinnest sheet in the assembly (Table 3).
Each three-specimen cross-tension test was welded at the
multiple current levels using 38- 125-mm coupons as speci-
fied by ISO 18278-2. Cross-tension testing was then carried out
with a tensile machine equipped with a special hydraulic clamp-
ing system, allowing the cross-tension specimens to be held with-
out sliding. After testing, the maximum load was recorded, and
the weld diameter was measured according ISO 14329 (Ref.
14), using a caliper gauge for button diameters and a magnify-
ing glass for weld diameters in case of partial or full interfacial
failures. Only welds without expulsion are considered in the fol-
lowing analysis.
Information Obtained from Testing
Cross-tension strength is strongly dependent on weld diame-
ter Fig. 3. In spite of the scatter, the CTS for the dissimilar con-
figuration is clearly above that of the similar 1-mm configuration,
rather in the trend of the thicker similar 2-mm configuration.
Fig. 1 Example of dissimilar configuration with CTS matching
the minimum rule (Ref. 7).
Fig. 2 Three-sheet configurations based on 1-mm DP980 LCE
sample.
Fig. 3 Cross-tension strength for TRIP800 configurations.
Fig. 4 Cross-tension strength for DP980 1+1, 1+2, and 2+2
configurations.
JANUARY 2014 40
The CTS for the main DP980 configurations are shown as a
function of the weld diameter in Figs. 4 and 5. Other DP980 re-
sults (i.e, 1+1.25-mm configuration) have been left out of
the figures for the sake of clarity, but are considered in the
discussion.
As in the case of the TRIP800 steel welds, these results show
the CTS is mainly dependent on weld diameter. Again, the dis-
similar configurations performances appear obviously above the
minimum rule assumption. Three-sheet configurations based on
1-mm DP980 LCE results are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, and again
show that the CTS obtained for these configurations are higher
than expected from the minimum rule.
Figure 6 shows that compared to the standard similar 1-mm,
two-sheet configuration, both the patch and the 1+1+0-mm con-
figurations bring an improvement in CTS. Figure 7 shows that
the [1+++1]+1-mm configuration shows a performance very
close to the 1+2-mm two-sheet configuration, whereas the
1+[1+1] configuration shows a more limited improvement, high-
lighting the importance of restraint in the case of three-sheet
assemblies.
The observation that the CTS is greater than predicted by
the minimum rule has been called a positive deviation from
the expected strengths. This positive deviation turns out to be
almost systematic when AHSSs are welded together. In the fol-
lowing discussion, a detailed analysis of this phenomenon is de-
scribed, and a tentative explanation for it is proposed.
Analysis of Results
Several hypotheses can be proposed to explain the positive
deviation:
1. Dilution Effect: when spot welding an AHSS sheet to a low-
carbon sheet, the dilution (mixing of both chemistries) reduces
the carbon content of the molten nugget, which may improve its
mechanical behavior. Although this explanation is probably true,
it cannot explain the results of the present study, since they were
obtained with similar grades joined together (Ref. 9).
2. Thermal Effect: when comparing 1+2-mm to 1+1-mm con-
figuration, the overall assembly thickness is increased, leading
logically to increased thermal mass slowing the cooling rate. Re-
ducing the cooling rate can, in turn, reduce the brittleness of the
microstructures formed during welding (bainite may be tougher
than autotempered martensite, which may be tougher than
quenched martensite).
3. Notch Effect: in the case of dissimilar thickness spot welds,
the solidification plane, where the columnar grains in the weld
nugget meet, is assumed to be roughly at the midthickness of
the whole assembly, which is away from the notch end at the fay-
ing surface. As the solidification plane may be weaker than the
bulk of the molten nugget, a dissimilar thickness joint may be
stronger in opening mode than a similar thickness joint.
4. Mechanical Effect: in the case of dissimilar thickness spot
welds, the stress concentration at the notch will be different than
in a similar thickness joint due to uneven loading. This will in
turn influence the cross-tension strength. As this effect is not
obvious it will be shown further in the discussion. The analysis
of three-sheet configurations results helps in understanding the
relative importance of these effects Fig. 8.
The 1+1+0-mm configuration is especially interesting as the
loading conditions during cross-tension are strictly identical to
the reference 1-mm similar configuration, but its CTS perform-
ance is greater than the strength of the similar gauge joint
Fig. 6. This positive deviation can only be attributed to the ther-
mal (since overall thickness during welding was 3 mm instead of
2) and notch effects. However, the positive deviation for this
1+1+0-mm configuration is limited compared to the 1+2,
Table 1 Steel Sheet Samples
Grade Coating Sample # Thickness YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) C (%) Mn (%) Si (%) Cr (%) Al (%)
(mm)
DP980 Hot Dip
LCE Galvanized AR1084 1 650 995 0.08 2.49 0.27 0.28 0.14
AS160 1.25 833 1076 0.08 2.44 0.26 0.29 0.15
AN2157 2 704 1037 0.07 2.54 0.25 0.31 0.14
TRIP Electrogalvanized AL761 1 520 828 0.19 1.67 1.63 0.02 0.03
800
Bare AL351 2 546 832 0.19 1.71 1.68 0.03 0.04
Table 2 Welded 2-Sheet Congurations
Grade Thickness DP980 LCE TRIP800
(mm) 1 1.25 2 1 2
1 AR1084/ AR1084/ AR1084/
AR1084 AS160 AN2157
DP980 1.25 AS160/ AS160/
LCE AS160 AN2157
2 AN2157/
AN2157
1 AL761/ AL761/
TRIP800 AL761 AT351
2 AT351/
AT351
41 WELDING JOURNAL
1+patch+1, and [1+++1]+1-mm configurations, which have
the same thermal and notch effects, highlighting that a mechan-
ical effect is also present.
To better analyze this mechanical effect, the CTSs were nor-
malized with respect to their weld and sheet dimensions. A pa-
rameter was developed equaling the CTS divided by the prod-
uct of the weld diameter and the thickness of the thinnest sheet
used in the stackup. Although the parameter is not perfect, this
normalization turns out to be the most robust for a wide vari-
ety of cases, and has already been used in a study by Dancette
et al. (Ref. 6). After the parameter was calculated for each
weld, the values for each configuration were averaged resulting
in a value for each stackup. It should be noted that the units
N/mm
2
are used for and not MPa. This choice was made as
in most cases is not a stress; however, is close to the shear
stress in case of full button pullout. Instead, this parameter is
meant as only an equivalent stress to be used to compare the
various joint configurations. The average obtained for each
configuration is given in Table 4.
First, thesevalues confirm the qualitative analysis for
three-sheet configurations. From Table 4, thevalues of the
1+1+0 joint are slightly higher than the 1+1 configuration. As
well, both values for these joints are lower than those for the
1+2, 1+patch+1, and the [1+++1]+1 joints. This is all in
agreement with Figs. 6 and 7. This again confirms the strength
of the mechanical effect when compared to when only the ther-
mal and notch effects are present. The values of the two-sheet
stackups were plotted in Fig. 9 as a function of the sheet thick-
ness ratio. Even if some scatter can be seen for the similar con-
figurations (thickness ratio of 1), there is a clear increase (pos-
itive deviation) in value for dissimilar configuration, which
is correlated to thickness ratio.
To better understand the influence of thickness ratio, a de-
tailed mechanical analysis was found in literature (Ref. 15). In
this work, the authors developed an analytical theory of elastic
loading of spot welds. The stress intensity factors at the notch
around the spot weld are derived as a function of the material
elastic properties, the sheet thicknesses and the nominal stress
(i.e., global loading) applied to the spot weld. Of course, in the
present study the loading during cross-tension testing was not
fully elastic. As this assumption may be reached locally around
the notch, the elastic analysis from Ref. 15 was considered here
as a means of understanding the mechanical effect on positive
deviation.
For the cross-tension case (opening mode), the nominal
stress, proportional to the cross-tension global load, is called
bu
++
, and the relevant stress intensity factors able to explain
the spot weld failure are K
I
(stress intensity factor in opening
mode I) or K
res
(a resulting stress intensity factor taking into
account the mode I and mode II stress intensity factors), which
turn out to be close to each other since the contribution of mode
Table 3 Welding Parameters
Minimum Sheet Thickness Electrode acc. ISO 5821 Welding Force (kN) Welding Time (ms) Holding Time (ms)
in the Assembly (mm) (type-shank diameter-tip
curvature radius-tip diameter)
1 G0 - 16 - 40 - 6 3.5 260 260
1.25 G0 - 16 - 40 - 6 4 320 320
2 G0 - 20 - 50 - 8 5 720 (four 180 ms 400
pulses separated by
40 ms cold times)
Fig. 5 Cross-tension strength for DP980 1.25+1.25, 1.25+2, and
2+2 configurations.
Fig. 6 Cross-tension strength for DP980 1+1, 1+1+0, and
1+patch+1 configurations.
Fig. 7 Cross-tension strength for DP980 1+1, 1+2, 1+[1+1], and
[1+++1]+1 configurations.
II is limited in this case. Therefore, Equations 52 and 54 from
Ref. 15 are considered,being the sheet thickness ratio (thin-
ner/thicker) and t
u
being the thinnest sheet thickness.
The following analysis relies on three main assumptions:
1. Spot weld fracture occurs when the maximum load (CTS,
proportional to the maximum nominal stress
bu
++
) is reached,
this assumption being supported by observations by Dancette
et al. (Ref. 6).
2. Spot weld fracture occurs when a critical K
I
or K
res
is
reached, corresponding to the toughness of the spot weld
nugget.
3. The critical K
I
or K
res
is constant throughout the nugget
independent of the welded configuration. Although, it is ac-
knowledged that to consider the notch and thermal effects would
imply distinguishing different critical K
I
or K
res
depending on
cooling rate or location inside the nugget.
Based on these assumptions, the equations above can be
written at the failure onset, both for similar and dissimilar con-
figurations with the same minimum sheet thickness t
u
. Divid-
ing one by the other yields the following expressions for the
ratio between CTS for dissimilar and similar configurations,
based on K
I
and K
res
, respectively.
These computed ratios can be directly compared with the
average experimental ratios obtained from Table 4; all the data
being plotted in the same graph Fig. 10.
Clearly, the order of magnitude of the mechanical effect, as
computed through the elastic analysis from Ref. 15, appears
very consistent with the experimental data. Further work by
Dancette et al. (Ref. 16) also supports the evidence of a strong
mechanical effect explaining the positive deviation. This study
used finite element modeling to predict the failure of the
TRIP800 spot welds presented here. In that study, two differ-
ent numerical approaches are considered for failure prediction
1. Similar to the above analysis from Radaj and Zhang (Ref.
15), the onset of fracture is predicted through a critical frac-
ture mechanics parameter, but in this case the J-integral, com-
puted through finite element analysis. A critical J-integral level
of 22.5 kJ/m is found to be appropriate for the TRIP800 spot
weld molten zone. This critical level is reached for a cross-ten-
sile load of 3.3 kN in the case of a 5-mm-diameter weld in 1+1-
mm configuration, and for a cross-tensile load of 5.1 kN in the
case of a 5-mm-diameter weld in 1+2-mm configuration. These
results in predicted CTS are fully consistent with the experi-
mental results displayed in Fig. 3 (Ref. 16).
2. In a second part of their study, a cohesive zone model was
used to predict the spot weld failure during cross-tension test-
ing. Although the predicted CTS for the same configurations
(5-mm-diameter weld, 3.86 kN in 1+1-mm similar configura-
tion and 5.39 kN in dissimilar 1+2-mm configuration) are
slightly high compared to the experimental results in Fig. 3, they
are still in the range and their ratio is clearly consistent with
the positive deviation effect.
CTS
CTS
dis s imilar
s imilar
=
0.1668 0.0097 +0.0302 +0.1461
0.1668 0.0097 +0.0302
22 3
+0.1461
fromEquation 54
CTS
CTS
dis s imilar
s imilar
=
0.1012 +0.0233 +0.1615 +0.0473
0.1012 +0.0233 +0.1615
22 3
+0.0473
fromEquation 52
K
re s
= 0.1668 0.0097 +0.0302 +0.1461
2 3

bu u
t
++
Equation 54 fromRef. 15
K
I
b
= 0.1012 +0.0233 +0.1615 +0.0473
2 3

uu u
t
++
Equation 52 fromRef. 15
JANUARY 2014 42
Fig. 8 Schematic view of the thermal, notch and mechani-
cal effects for the main configurations.
Fig. 9 as a function of the thickness ratio for two-sheet
configurations.
Fig. 10 Comparison between CTS dissimilar and similar joint
strengths as function of the thickness ratio for two-sheet con-
figurations.
Conclusions
While material qualification tests are frequently based on
similar welding configurations, real car body applications are
quite systematically dissimilar configurations. For spot welds
failing in plug mode, the strength of the assembly only depends
on the weakest material strength. In the case of AHSS+AHSS
welded combinations, however, things turn out differently. Sim-
ilar-grade but dissimilar-thickness high-strength-steel configu-
rations have been spot welded and tested in cross-tension.
The following main conclusions can be highlighted:
1. For dissimilar-thickness configurations, the cross-tensile
strength is above the standard minimum rule assumptions,
this phenomenon being called a positive deviation.
2. Limited thermal and notch location effects can explain
part of this positive deviation, but the main reason is
mechanical.
3. As evidenced through several analytical and numerical
studies, this mechanical effect is due to the less severe local
stresses at the notch in case of uneven thickness, and improves
the positive deviation when the thickness ratio increases.
Although widely used for material qualification and scien-
tific purposes, similar configurations appear as the worst case
in terms of cross-tension performance for high-strength steels.
Actual vehicle design should consider positive deviation in dis-
similar configurations to maximize the potential strength of
spot welds in high-strength steels.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Savine Henrion, Sylvain
Dancette and Florent Krajcarz for their help in this study and
ArcelorMittal for granting us permission to publish this work.
References
1. Seeger, F., Feucht, M., Frank, Th., Keding, B., and Haufe,
A. 2005. An investigation on spot weld modeling for crash sim-
ulation with LS-DYNA. LS-DYNA Anwenderforum, Bamberg.
2. ISO 14272:2000, Specimen dimensions and procedure for
cross tension testing resistance spot and embossed projection welds.
3. ISO 14273:2000, Specimen dimensions and procedure for
shear testing resistance spot, seam and embossed projection welds.
4. Pouranvari, M., and Marashi, S. P. H. 2010. Key factors
influencing mechanical performance of dual phase steel resist-
ance spot welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
15(2): 149155.
5. Dancette, S., Fabrgue, D., Massardier, V., Merlin, J.,
Dupuy, T., and Bouzekri, M. 2012. Investigation of the tensile
shear fracture of advanced high strength steel spot welds. Engi-
neering Failure Analysis 25(10): 112122.
6. Dancette, S., Fabrgue, D., Massardier, V., Merlin, J.,
Dupuy, T., and Bouzekri, M. 2011. Experimental and modeling
investigation of the failure resistance of advanced high strength
steel spot welds. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 78(10):
22592272.
7. Internal ArcelorMittal data.
8. Baltazar Hernandez, V. H., Kuntz, M. L., Khan, M. I., and
Zhou, Y. 2008. Influence of microstructure and weld size on
the mechanical behavior of dissimilar AHSS resistance spot
welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 13(8):
769776.
9. Khan, M. S., Bhole, S. D., Chen, D. L., Biro, E., Boudreau,
G., and van Deventer, J. 2009. Welding behavior, microstruc-
ture and mechanical properties of dissimilar resistance spot
welds between galvannealed HSLA350 and DP600 steels. Sci-
ence and Technology of Welding and Joining 14(7): 616625.
10. Pouranvari, M., Marashi, S. P. H., and Mousavizadeh, S.
M. 2010. Failure mode transition and mechanical properties of
similar and dissimilar resistance spot welds of DP600 and low
carbon steels. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
15(7): 625631.
11. Marashi, S. P. H., Pouranvari, M., Salehi, M., Abedi, A.,
and Kaviani, S. 2010. Overload failure behavior of dissimilar
thickness resistance spot welds during tensile shear test. Mate-
rials Science and Technology 26(10): 12201225.
12. Safanama, D. S., Marashi, S. P. H., and Pouranvari, M.
2012. Similar and dissimilar resistance spot welding of marten-
sitic advanced high strength steel and low carbon steel: Metal-
lurgical characteristics and failure mode transition. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining 17(4): 288294.
13. ISO 18278-2:2004, Resistance welding Weldability
Part 2: Alternative procedures for the assessment of sheet steels for
spot welding.
14. ISO 14329:2003, Resistance welding Destructive tests of
welds Failure types and geometric measurements for resistance
spot, seam and projection welds.
15. Radaj, D., and Zhang, S. 1991. Stress intensity factors
for spot welds between plates of unequal thickness. Engineering
Fracture Mechanics 39(2): 391413.
16. Dancette, S., Fabregue, D., Estevez,R., Massardier, V.,
Dupuy, T., and Bouzekri, M. 2012. A finite element model for
the prediction of advanced high strength steel spot welds frac-
ture. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 87(6): 4861.
43 WELDING JOURNAL
Table 4 Average Levels
Conguration Average (N/mm
2
)
TRIP800 1+1 mm 747
TRIP800 2+2 mm 639
TRIP800 1+2 mm 1146
DP980 LCE 1+1 mm 929
DP980 LCE 1.25+1.25 mm 823
DP980 LCE 2+2 mm 913
DP980 LCE 1+1.25 mm 1014
DP980 LCE 1+2 mm 1220
DP980 LCE 1.25+2 mm 1180
DP980 LCE 1+patch+1 mm 1179
DP980 LCE 1+[1+1] mm 1004
DP980 LCE 1+1+0 mm 1039
DP980 LCE [1+++1]+1 mm 1277
Dear Readers:
The Welding Journal encourages an exchange of ideas
through letters to the editor. Please send your letters to
the Welding Journal Dept., 8669 NW 36th St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166. You can also reach us by FAX at (305)
443-7404 or by sending an e-mail to Kristin Campbell
at kcampbell@aws.org.
FABTECH 2013 will take a place
in history as the most successful
metal forming, fabricating, finish-
ing, and welding exhibition ever in
North America. A record 650,000
sq ft total of exhibition space was
utilized by a total 1573 exhibitors.
Also, a record 40,667 visitors
streamed onto the exhibition floor
see the latest technology that in-
dustry has to offer. The exhibition
space was 191,565 sq ft for 505
welding companies. This year, the
exhibition was a four-day event
that filled both the North and South
Halls of McCormick Place in
Chicago, Ill. This impressive event
is cosponsored by the Society of
Manufacturing Engineers; Ameri-
can Welding Society; Fabricators
& Manufacturers Association, In-
ternational; Precision Metalform-
ing Association; and Chemical
Coaters Association International.
JANUARY 2014 44
FABTECH 2013
ANDREW CULLISON (cullison@aws.org) is publisher, KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org) is associate editor, and MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
(mjohnsen@aws.org) is editor of the Welding Journal.
This years show set marks as the biggest ever, both in terms of
square footage of exhibit space and in the number of attendees
BY ANDREW CULLISON, KRISTIN CAMPBELL, AND MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
Beginning with AWS
Business
The American Welding Society Presi-
dent Nancy Cole called to order the 94th
annual business meeting on Nov. 18.
Dawn Young, director of Association
Sales for McCormick Place, greeted the
gathering. We are so appreciative of
AWS and FABTECH, she said. Every
other year you have a $62-million impact
on the economy of Chicago.
President Cole went on to give a brief
synopsis of the state of the Society dur-
ing her tenure in 2013. Some of the ac-
complishments included translations of
technical standards to expand the AWS
reach around the world; the Women in
Welding initiative that has encouraged
women to get into the field of welding
with career-promoting programs, videos,
and scholarships; the expansion of online
courses through American Welding On-
line; the AWS use of social media to
reach the digitally connected audience;
the opening of business opportunities
around the world; and record revenues
and membership.
Throughout her travels both domes-
tically and internationally, she was en-
couraged to see how many people believe
in welding. She also saw much enthusi-
asm in schools for the profession.
Dean Wilson (Fig. 1), the incoming
2014 president, offered the theme of his
presidential year as continuous im-
provement through innovation. He
noted how improvement can be subtle
and one might not even know it is hap-
pening. As an example, he recounted how
during World War I the United States had
no reliable manufacturing process for
airplane engines and production was
zero. Through a series of experiments
with welding and other processes, man-
ufacturing was producing 20,000 engines
by 1919.
Wilson also related how his company,
Wilson Industries, introduced the first
see-through welding screen in 1968. Its
introduction was the culmination of trial
and error improvements and the utiliza-
tion of technology from NASA of a
lens coating that filtered out harmful
radiation.
He is looking forward to all the proj-
ects for AWS that are in the works for
2014. Some of those include stackable,
transferable certification credentials; se-
cure online transcripts and a national cer-
tification registry for all levels of weld-
ing professionals; producing a video li-
brary for welding; development of a mas-
ter welder program; a certified welder
passport; expanding American Welding
Online; continued collaboration with
Weld-Ed; and individual support through
scholarships. I am overwhelmed and ex-
cited about what is going to happen in
2014, he said.
Adams Lecture
Dr. John DuPont (Fig. 2) delivered
the 2013 Adams Lecture titled Welding
of Nickel Alloys in Energy Applications.
DuPont is a professor at Lehigh Univer-
sity, an AWS Fellow, has authored more
than 140 technical papers, and is
presently the R. D. Stout Distinguished
Professor.
In less than 30 years there will be a
50% increase in demand for energy,
noted DuPont, and 80% of that demand
worldwide will be met by fossil fuels. A
way to increase the efficiency of coal-
burning operations is to improve the
thermal efficiencies of materials used in
the process. One way to do that is to use
alloys that retain their properties in high-
temperature environments. Nickel al-
loys, especially superalloys, are of great
interest for these applications. DuPont
has done extensive research in the weld-
ing of these alloys and observed precipi-
tate-free zones, which actually are detri-
mental soft zones in the weld. Creep
voids that contribute to weld failure have
been observed in these areas. Preheat
and controlled weld temperature dont
seem to help, but postweld heat treat-
ment that stays below 1100C does. Fur-
ther research has shown that the addi-
tion of gadolinium (Gd) to the Ni alloy
within a certain range improves cracking
resistance. It appears to promote back-
filling of the crack.
DuPont feels one of the biggest chal-
lenges with these alloys is long-term
creep characteristics, and solutions are
going to be found only through a coop-
erative effort among the user, producer,
and researcher of the alloys.
The full Adams Lecture will be pub-
lished in the February issue of the Weld-
ing Journal.
Plummer Lecture
Dr. Rick Polanin, professor and pro-
gram chair of the manufacturing engi-
neering technology and welding technol-
ogy programs at Illinois Central College,
presented this years Plummer Memorial
Education Lecture Fig. 3.
Polanins topic, The Future of Weld-
ing Education, focused on looking to
the past for guidance and inspiration for
the future; understanding what welding
education is about; describing the devel-
opment of effective welding courses; con-
sidering the role of technology both in
equipment and teaching; why manufac-
turing is vitally important to the United
States; and attempting to predict the fu-
ture of welding education.
With welding, you can individualize
instruction and achieve life-long learn-
ing, Polanin said.
Also included during his talk was the
complexity of issues affecting American
education for which there are no easy
45 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 1 Dean Wilson, 2014 AWS presi-
dent, talks of the exciting future of the
Society.
Fig. 2 Professor DuPont details his re-
search into welding high-alloy Ni steels.
Fig. 3 Dr. Rick Polanin gave the Plum-
mer Memorial Education Lecture.
answers but in welding education, the
diversity, size, culture, economic con-
straints/cycles, and technology advance-
ments require the diligence of continu-
ous improvement.
To provide for a bright future, weld-
ing education must combine sound cur-
riculum development utilizing advance-
ments in learning theory and modern
content delivery; incorporate welding
technology advancements; listen to input
from local and national industry; and en-
sure accountability through evaluating
competency, including nationally recog-
nized qualification testing (AWS).
Polanin concluded by explaining the
application of HEAT Honesty (pro-
viding students with an honest assess-
ment of job availability, earning poten-
tial, working conditions), Enthusiasm
(teachers need to impart an enthusiasm
for learning to students at all levels), At-
titude (the general publics attitude
about manufacturing jobs and specifi-
cally welding jobs has to change), and
Teaching (teachers remain the key to suc-
cess of the American education system
and welding education).
Product News
Following are just a few of the prod-
ucts that drew the attention of the Weld-
ing Journal editors at this years show.
Ensitech demonstrated its TIG Brush
(Fig. 4) for removing heat tint stains on
stainless steel. The system combines elec-
tricity, chemistry, and heat to clean the
weld surface. A conductive brush at-
tached to a 40-A electrical motor applies
a cleaning fluid that is heated up to
200C. The electrochemical reaction that
occurs cleans and passivates the stainless
steel. The company offers a choice of flu-
ids depending on whether a satin or mir-
ror finish is desired as well as whether a
heavy or medium stain must be removed.
The company exports to 12 different
countries, but this is the first introduc-
tion of this product in the United States.
Ensitech, www.tigbrush.com
The Norzon Plus grinding wheel by
Norton was reformulated to reduce
grinding time. The ceramic and zirconia
grit works well on stainless and high-alloy
steels (Fig. 5) and, in fact, is more suited
for tougher-to-grind steels. The wheel is
claimed to be durable in difficult grind-
ing applications and can be used with
high-horsepower grinders. This particu-
lar product is new, having been intro-
duced to the market this past October.
Norton, www.nortonabrasives.com
ITW Muller demonstrated its Yellow
Jacket Orbital Stretch Wrap Machine
Fig. 6. The machine accepts a standard
pallet of heavy parts or fabrications
placed inside its cylinder. The machine
is then activated and a roll of polyethyl-
ene wrap is rotated around the palette
tightly securing the parts. The whole op-
eration takes one person about 90 sec-
onds to complete. The wrapped pallet re-
quires no other means of securing its load
for shipping. This unit costs approxi-
mately $25,000, accepts objects 118 in. in
diameter, and operates on 110 AC power.
Muller, www.yellowjacket110.com
TRUMPF used FABTECH to intro-
duce its TruLaser 5030 fiber laser for cut-
ting operations Fig. 7. This 5-kW solid-
state laser is touted to produce cut qual-
ity very similar to a CO
2
laser with the
speed of a fiber laser. It reaches maxi-
mum efficiency when cutting thin mate-
rial, but can cut mild steel up to 25 mm
thick. The unit can handle nonferrous
metals such as copper and brass, as well
as stainless steel and aluminum. It has a
working range of 3000 mm, X axis; 1500
mm, Y axis; and 115 mm, Z axis.
TRUMPF, www.us.trumpf.com
The Trans Process Solution (TPS/i)
welding platform provides a more accu-
rate and stable arc, better penetration,
and less spatter Fig. 8. Available mod-
els include 300, 400, and 500 A. The prod-
uct offers a 7-in., plain-text, touch-sensi-
tive display and a user interface that al-
lows welders/maintenance technicians to
organize system settings. Internal com-
munications include job memory and
wire regulation with penetration stabi-
lization to automatically change wire
feed speed. The process control system
routes arc feedback and control at 100
Mb/s. Additional benefits are the dip-
transfer arc process low spatter control
and pulse multi control. Fronius USA,
LLC, www.fronius-usa.com
JANUARY 2014 46
Fig. 4 Heat tint is removed from a weld
through an electrochemical reaction.
Fig. 6 This orbital wrap machine
secures loose parts in seconds.
Fig. 8 The touch-screen interface on
the TPS/i, as simple to use as operating
a smart phone, can be used even while
wearing gloves.
Fig. 5 A reformulated grinding wheel
takes on hard-to-finish steels.
Fig. 7 A fiber laser cuts steel up to 25-
mm thick.
The Elite Series of manual, straight
cutting torches offer the ability to cut up
to 10 in. when using acetylene and up to
12 in. with alternate fuel gases Fig. 9.
The patented Elite Swirl Head Injector
design mixes high-pressure preheat oxy-
gen and lower pressure fuel gas to create
a vacuum-producing entrainment zone
that pulls gas through the torch. The se-
ries also moves from a positive pressure
universal mixer to a universal injector by
changing the cutting tip from acetylene to
any alternate fuel gas. In addition, the
torches feature a three-tube, in-line
design; internal tip nut that keeps the cut-
ting tip seated; and color-coded pressure
adjustment knobs for identifying gases.
The series includes the Oxweld SCT-1500
and Purox SCT-4200 families. ESAB Weld-
ing & Cutting Products, www.esabna.com
The womens Arc Armor apparel,
engineered with feedback from women
welders, features the Indura cloth
jacket as well as GMA and GTA gloves
Fig. 10. The jacket, made from Indura
flame-resistant cotton, provides less re-
striction for better movement and in-
creases safety with a tailored fit. The
GMA and GTA gloves are available in X-
small and small. In particular, the GMA
glove (lined) has a dual-padded palm;
fleece-insulated palm, foam-insulated
back; and original wraparound keystone
thumb design. The GTA glove is unlined
for heightened feel and dexterity; has a
triple-padded palm; and contains goat
grain leather. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.,
millerwelds.com/arcarmor
Design enhancements have been
made to Versagraph Extreme, the most
advanced integrated thermal cutting ma-
chine in the companys line of cutting sys-
tems Fig. 11. It features improved
gearbox resolution, increased torque and
low backlash, plus a larger and stiffer
main beam for less z deflection and
greater load-carrying capabilities. The
machine has heavy-duty rails and a rack.
The module design allows the operator
to add a bevel or other equipment with-
out making major changes. It is available
in a range of cutting widths from 72 to
288 in. Up to ten oxyfuel stations and four
plasma stations, including dual full-con-
tour plasma bevel stations, can be con-
figured. Maximum rapid traverse speed
is 1400 in./min. Koike Aronson, Inc./Ran-
some, www.koike.com
The impetus for the Stoody 155FC
and 160FC hardfacing wires (Fig. 12)
came from a Nebraska oilfield customer
who was experiencing spalling with the
product he had been using. The two al-
loys were specifically developed to pro-
vide excellent weldability and abrasion
resistance with weld deposits comprised
of special blends of tungsten carbides in
a nickel-silicon-boron matrix. While both
gas metal arc welding wires could be use-
47 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 9 The Elite Series of manual,
straight cutting torches have an inter-
nal tip nut.
Fig. 10 The line of womens Arc
Armor welding protection includes a
tailored welding jacket and GMA and GTA
glove styles.
Fig. 11 The Versagraph Extreme ther-
mal cutting machine is offered in a range
of cutting widths from 72 to 288 in.
Fig. 12 The Stoody 155FC and 160FC
hardfacing products were designed to
handle such applications as building up
the stabilizer shown in the center of the
bottom row of parts.
R. D. Thomas Jr. International Lecture
Professor Xiao-Ling Zhao (center) of
Monash University, Clayton, Australia,
this years R. D. Thomas Jr. Award re-
cipient, is pictured with Warren Migli-
etti of Power Systems Mfg., LLC,
Jupiter, Fla., and AWS President Nancy
Cole. Zhao has chaired the Interna-
tional Institute of Weldings Subcom-
mission XV-E on Tubular Structures
since 2002. Under his leadership, the
XV-E Subcommission wrote two ISO
standards 14346:2013, Static design
procedure for welded hollow-section
joints Recommendations; and
14347:2008, Fatigue Design proce-
dure for welded hollow-section joints
Recommendations. Zhaos recent Thomas lecture, ISO Standards for Welded Hol-
low Section Joints, highlighted the histories, scopes, tables of contents, and major
sections in these ISO 14346 and 14347 standards.
ful for any type of metal-to-earth engage-
ment tool, the 155FC wire was designed
for multipass operations where cross
checking is undesirable and to offer
greater resistance to spalling. It exhibits
a matrix hardness range of 3545 HRC.
Applications include process screw flight
edges, drill bit and stabilizer buildup, and
hardbanding. The 160FC was designed
for use as an overlay, and its matrix hard-
ness range is 4050 HRC. It is well suited
for upstream oil and gas production ap-
plications such as drill bit holders, kicker
pads, stabilizers, and mud motors. Vic-
tor Technologies, www.victortechnolo-
gies.com
The Lincoln Electric Weld Sequencer
software shows a picture of a workpiece
and then explains to the welder step by
step where to place each weld Fig. 13.
It is especially useful for applications
where there is a large number of parts,
but not necessarily high volume. It elim-
inates the need for the welding operator
to rely on his/her memory of where each
weld is needed and the parameters for
each weld. The system on display at the
show was set up for 140 different welds.
The software automatically sets welding
power source parameters such as voltage
and wire feed speed. It also can be set to
automatically make changes to weld pa-
rameters and to track the operators ac-
tions to confirm each weld was per-
formed. The software can also be tied
into other equipment such as position-
ers. The Lincoln Electric Co., www.lin-
colnelectric.com
With this seventh generation of ABBs
largest robot, the IRB 6700 (Fig. 14),
total cost of ownership has been reduced
by 20%, much of that through reduced
power consumption. The robot family is
available in payloads from 150 to 300 kg
and reaches from 2.6 to 3.2 m. The ro-
bots were designed with lighter compo-
nents throughout and a smaller base.
Since the robots move less weight, they
use less power. The smaller base and
longer reach allow the robots to work in
tighter spaces. They were designed for
spot welding, material handling, and ma-
chine tending. Maintenance has been op-
timized, doubling the time between
service intervals. They are available with
LeanID, an integrated dressing package
designed for easier programming
and more efficient movement. ABB Ro-
botics North America, www.abb.com/
robotics
The Exact pipe-cutting system, which
features patented technology from Fin-
land, only recently has entered the North
American market. The machines pro-
duce straight, clean cut ends on steel,
plastic, copper, cast iron, stainless steel,
and multilayer pipes. Demonstrated dur-
ing the show were models Pipecut 220E
and Pipecut 280E Fig. 15. The 220E
can handle pipe diameters from to 8
in., while the 280E cuts pipe from 1 to
11 in. in diameter. The machines can cut
6-in. Schedule 40 pipe in 40 s. The cold
cutting process produces no sparks, de-
bris, or fumes. The systems include a
JANUARY 2014 48
Women in Welding
Girls dont take off their tiaras for a welding helmet, but they do want a re-
warding career, said AWS President Nancy Cole during the Women in Welding
reception held Nov. 19 at the FABTECH Theatre.
She discussed how she had been traveling across the United States throughout
her presidential year talking about welding and brazing, and had seen the excite-
ment women she spoke to had regarding manufacturing and the opportunities
available in the welding field. We need to encourage those women to be the man-
ufacturing workforce of tomorrow, she said.
Speaking first was Brenda Ryan, owner and president of Ryan Industries,
Wixom, Mich., and a partner of SME, who noted that the number of women in
manufacturing has declined in recent years. We need to offer recommendations
for change to bring more women into manufacturing, she said. It is important
that we speak with one voice. Women represent 48% of the working population,
but only 24% of manufacturing jobs.
It is expected that there will be an additional 5 million manufacturing jobs
available by 2020, Ryan said. Women offer the biggest opportunity to fill these
jobs.
The statistics (Ryan) talked about should be a loud call to industry, Cole
said.
Gretchen Zierick of Zierick Manufacturing and a past president of the Preci-
sion Metalforming Association said the only areas at her company where the num-
ber of women have not declined is customer service and general office. She
lamented the elimination of classes such as high school shop that gave students
an introduction to manufacturing and the trades.
She noted that hers is a third-generation family business. My company could
go out of business just because the workers wont exist.
Fig. 13 The companys Weld Sequencer
software informs the operator where to
place each weld.
Fig. 14 The IRB 6700 robot family was
designed to use less power, have a longer
reach, and reduced maintenance
requirements.
shoulder bag, pipe saw, four pipe sup-
ports, saw blade, Allen wrenches for
changing the blade and adjusting the saw,
operating instructions, and a DVD with
demonstrations and instructions. Model
220E retails for approximately $1500 and
the 280E for $2500. Exact Tools Oy,
www.exacttools.com
AWS Names 2013 Image
of Welding Award
Winners
AWS and its Standing Committee
WEMCO, An Association of Welding
Manufacturers, honored the recipients
of the 11th Annual Image of Welding
Awards (Fig. 16) at a ceremony Nov. 20.
Details about the winners are highlighted
below.
Individual Category, Dennis A.
Wright, Olathe, Kans. Wright is a plant
manager at Zephyr Products, Inc.; runs
his own business, Wright Welding Tech-
nologies; and is a Certified Welding In-
spector as well as Certified Welding Ed-
ucator who trains his employees at
Zephyr how to weld. His employees are
minimum security inmates from a local
correctional institute. Also, Wrights par-
ticipation in community services is shown
by his involvement on many welding ad-
visory committees and as AWS District
16 director.
Educator Category, Nanette
Samanich, Las Vegas, Nev. Since learn-
ing to weld in 1994, Samanich has be-
come certified in various welding
processes and is an AWS CWI and CWE.
Three years ago, she left her welding in-
spection career to be a full-time high
school welding instructor at Desert Rose
Adult High School. Additionally, she sits
on several educational advisory boards
and was the lead advisor for her school
at the Nevada State Skills-USA Compe-
tition 20112013; volunteered at Boy
Scout Welding Merit Badge clinics; and
is currently the AWS District 21 director.
Educational Facility, Canadian
Centre for Welding and Joining, Univer-
sity of Alberta, Alb., Canada. This facil-
ity opened in 2010 at the University of
Alberta and currently operates under the
supervision of Dr. Patricio Mendez. A
graduate-level research center, the
school also offers undergraduate and
graduate students a fundamental to weld-
ing course. Graduate students also work
with high school students to educate
them on robotic welding. The facility is
home of an AWS Student Chapter, too.
Small Business, Bay State Indus-
trial Welding & Fabrication, Inc., Hud-
son, N.H. This company was founded in
1992 by Rick McCartney after years of
working as a welder. With 23 employees,
Bay State has donated time and materi-
als to construct the Benson Park 9/11 Me-
morial, plus teamed up with Building
Dreams for Marines to renovate homes
for local Marines who need improved ac-
commodations after war-related injuries.
In the near future, it is looking to wel-
come apprentice and internship oppor-
tunities for individuals in local welding
classes.
Large Business, SME Steel, West
Valley City, Utah. Since 1992, this com-
pany has provided comprehensive struc-
tural steel fabrication and erection in a
variety of industries. With a core belief
in giving back to the community, it has
provided the West Jordan Rotary Club
with funding to complete a baseball field
for disabled youth named SME Steel
Field of Dreams. The company has also
provided material and labor support to
maintain the Veterans Cemetery in Salt
Lake City.
Distributor, Cee Kay Supply, Inc.,
St. Louis, Mo. Cee Kay Supply is the
largest independent supplier of gases,
welding, and cutting equipment supplies
in Missouri. It has hosted and helped
sponsor the AWS St. Louis Sections
Mini Weld Show for the past 11 years. In
addition, it partners with local colleges
and technical schools, and was a major
contributor in helping fund the AWS St.
Louis Sections Hil Bax Memorial Schol-
arship. Recently, the company held a Boy
Scouts of America Welding Merit Badge
clinic where eight local scouts earned
their badges.
AWS Section, Ivy Tech Community
College Student Chapter, Anderson, Ind.
This Student Chapter has only been in
existence for a little more than a year and
a half, but its first major project involved
making a steel sculpture representing a
graduating student that now stands in
front of Anderson Ivy Tech. Other proj-
ects include rebuilding a pontoon trailer,
repairing a cast iron farm tractor wheel
49 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 15 The Exact pipe-cutting system
uses a cold process to produce clean,
ready-to-weld cut ends on steel, plastic,
copper, cast iron, stainless steel, and
multilayer pipes.
Fig. 16 The 2013 Image of Welding Award winners (from left) are Ned Lane (Dis-
tributor, Cee Kay Supply); Nanette Samanich (Educator); Levi Crusmire and Bob Rich-
wine (AWS Section, Ivy Tech Community College Student Chapter); Dennis A. Wright
(Individual); Woody Cook (Large Business, SME Steel); and Rick McCartney (Small
Business, Bay State Industrial Welding & Fabrication, Inc.). Not pictured: Dr. Patricio
Mendez (Educational Facility, Canadian Centre for Welding and Joining, University of
Alberta).
for the Frankton, Indiana, Heritage
Days, fund-raising to buy Christmas pres-
ents for needy children, and building ta-
bles for the Ivy Tech Engineering De-
partment. It has also raised enough to
present $1000 to the AWS Indiana Sec-
tion scholarship fund.
Welding Wars
Groups battled it out during the first
Welding Wars Competition (Fig. 17) held
at FABTECH Nov. 19 and 20.
First place went to Jeff Anderson,
Garrett Harris, and Austin Raetz with
Kankakee Community College, Kanka-
kee, Ill Fig. 18. They prepared for this
competition before coming to the show
and were excited to win. It was tough,
Anderson said. It looks easy but was
hard, Harris added.
Second place was awarded to Anthony
Godinez, Ryan Crandal, and Brad
Williamson with Ferris State University,
Big Rapids, Mich.
Third place was earned by Jeffrey
Kubic, Matthew Zohfeld, and Robert
Stephens with Moraine Valley Commu-
nity College, Palos Hills, Ill.
Prizes included welder backpacks with
supplies from BSX; gas metal arc, gas
tungsten arc/shielded metal arc, and
plasma cutting machines from Lincoln
Electric; and three-in-one gas metal arc,
shielded metal arc, and gas tungsten arc
machines from Tweco.
Given a 2-h time limit in which to
work, the three-member teams were
given a project drawing to interpret and
materials for creating it. Gas metal arc
and gas tungsten arc welding with plasma
arc cutting were used. Among the addi-
tional sponsors were NI Steel for donat-
ing steel and Bessey Tools for providing
clamps.
A panel of AWS Certified Welding In-
spectors evaluated all weldments to the
requirements of the current AWS D1.1,
Structural Welding Code Steel, based
on project accuracy to print specifica-
tions, weld size and overall weldment ap-
pearance, craftsmanship, professional-
ism, and safety.
Professional Welders
Contest
A record number of welders, 206 to
be exact, put their skills to the test to see
who would earn the bragging rights as
Americas best welder by winning the
Professional Welders Contest at
FABTECH. The two-day event attracted
contestants from all over the United
States including California from one end
of the country and Massachusetts from
the other.
The competitors were required to
weld a -in. square tube at a 60-deg skew
onto a -in. plate all around with
1
8-in.
7018 electrode Fig. 19. A time limit of
five minutes was given, which included
cleaning the weld. All the welds were ex-
amined by AWS Certified Welding In-
spectors according to D1.1 criteria. To
eliminate any question in determining
the winners, in addition to the visual in-
spection, the weld profiles of the final-
ists were examined with Wiki-Scan, a
laser scanning inspection system (Fig. 20)
that accurately measures the weld bead
within the set limits.
The winner of the $2500 first-place
JANUARY 2014 50
Fig. 17 Students from Moraine Valley Community College display teamwork while
competing at the Welding Wars event.
Fig. 18 The Welding Wars winners present at the awards gala were (from left)
Matthew Zohfeld, Jeffrey Kubic, and Robert Stephens (third place, Moraine Valley
Community College); Anthony Godinez (second place, Ferris State University); and
Jeff Anderson, Austin Raetz, and Garrett Harris (first place, Kankakee Community
College).
prize was Brian LaRou, a pipefitter from
Morris, Ill. The $1000 prize for second
place was taken by William DeBold, and
the $500 third-place winner was Robert
Hacker from Hurricane, Utah. In addi-
tion to the three money winners, there
were nine others who received prizes of
welding-related items. Those winners
were Larry Clark, George Rolla, Keith
Cusey, Thomas Fassier, Nick Lerma, Tim
Kinnaman, Mark Mitchell, Greg Larson,
and Tanner Thompson.
The competition was organized and
run by the Indiana Section with Tony Bro-
sio acting as the chairman of the Profes-
sional Welders Competition Committee.
He was assisted by fellow Section mem-
bers, wives, and volunteers from a local
educational facility. Personnel from
Servo-Robot assisted in laser scanning
the welds.
Robotic Arc Welding
Contest
Nineteen contestants entered the
first-ever AWS Robotic Arc Welding
Contest held Nov. 19 and 20. Entrants
had to take a 20-min multiple-choice test
on welding fundamentals and robotic arc
welding systems, then undergo a timed
performance test in which they had to
demonstrate familiarity with the compo-
nents of a robotic arc welding cell, pro-
gram the machine to weld a test coupon,
weld the coupon, and visually verify the
coupons quality. A team of AWS CWIs
judged the competition according to the
criteria of AWS D16.4, Specification for
the Qualification of Robotic Arc Welding
Personnel.
The top three finishers were
Jennifer Hildebrandt (gold) (Fig.
21), a welding technology student
at Milwaukee Area Technical Col-
lege; Jeff Steiner (silver), a weld-
ing engineering technology student
at Ferris State University who also
works for Polaris Industries; and
Mike Kimball (bronze), an AWS
CWI and robot programmer for
Jay Mfg., Oshkosh, Wis. In an-
nouncing the winners, Vern Man-
gold, D16 Committee vice chair,
commented that sometimes a per-
son gets a chance at redemption,
noting that Hildebrandt had placed
second in June during a similar
contest held during the AWS Mil-
waukee Sections National Robotic
Arc Welding Conference.
Miller Welding Automation and
Wolf Robotics provided the robotic
welding cells for the competition.
In addition, ServoRobot provided
personnel and equipment used for
scoring the coupons. The purpose
of the event was to draw attention
to the AWS Certified Robotic Arc
Welding (CRAW) program.
Hildebrandt said she initially
wasnt going to participate because she
hadnt touched a robot since June, but
her instructor and classmates urged her
to compete. I entered for the possibil-
ity of training, she said. It was chal-
lenging. There was pressure with the time
limits with the practical exam.
Kimball said he found the written por-
tion the most challenging. As a relatively
experienced programmer, he was more
comfortable with the practical exam.
Hildebrandt will receive AWS CRAW
training and the complimentary oppor-
tunity to sit for an actual CRAW certifi-
cation exam. The three top finishers also
received AWS duffle bags.
Plan Ahead for Next Year
FABTECH 2014 will be held Nov.
1113 at the Georgia World Congress
Center in Atlanta. It will once again be
North Americas largest welding, metal-
forming, and fabricating event. For more
information, visit www.aws.org/expo.
51 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 19 Contestants were required to weld all around a
1
4-in. tube set at a 60-deg skew.
Fig. 20 In addition to visual inspection, a laser scanning device
was used to determine the final winners.
Fig. 21 Jennifer Hildebrandt and Mike Kimball
placed first and third, respectively, in the first-
ever AWS Robotic Arc Welding Contest.
JANUARY 2014 52
I
n the oil and gas industry, AISI 4130
steel is a widely used material. This
material is quenched and tempered for
strength and other specific properties.
Once the material has been welded, the
properties of the heat-affected zone are
adversely affected. In order to lessen the
effects of welding on 4130, preheating is
an essential requirement of the welding
procedure. While the use of direct flame
is the most prevalent, other commonly
used methods include induction and
resistance heating, with resistance being
the next most commonly employed
technique.
The purpose of this study is to com-
pare induction, resistance, and direct
flame preheating methods on multiple
levels. This comparison is based on ac-
tual test data derived from preheating
the same part with each method. No sales
nomenclature or assumed data are used.
The final result determined the most ef-
fective and efficient preheating method.
Methodology
A single valve body was chosen for the
study because of its mass and its similar
configuration to valves typically used in
the oil and gas industry. The valve was
preheated to an industry minimum of
500F using typical industry practices for
all three methods. Throughout each test,
the temperatures on the inside and out-
side of the valve were monitored and
recorded on a data recorder. The ther-
mocouples used with the data recorder
remained in the same place for all three
tests. Elapsed time was recorded in rela-
tion to power used and temperature
readings. For each trial, once a tempera-
ture of 500F was attained, the tempera-
ture was maintained for one hour and the
energy used was recorded. Then, the tem-
perature drop was recorded for one hour
with no additional heat input. A Fluke
power meter was installed onto the pri-
mary input line just after the fuses at the
wall disconnect to measure and record
the active energy (in kilowatt-hours) used
by the induction and resistance power
sources. For the direct flame tests,
propane fuel gas was used. The amount
of propane consumed was determined
using a scale to measure the before and
after weight of the propane cylinder.
Test Procedures
Induction
The induction heater uses water-
cooled cables to conduct high-frequency
electric current to electromagnetically
induce eddy currents within the material.
The electromagnetic currents in the ma-
terial cause the molecules to excite which
generates the heat. As such, the heat is
generated within the material compared
to the other two methods where the heat-
ing sources are applied to the external
surface and the heat must then be con-
ducted through the part. This results in
more uniform heating through the part
thickness and less radiated heat from the
preheated component.
First, all valve surfaces were covered
by wrapping the valve with an insulating
ceramic fiber blanket. Next, an induction
heating cable was wrapped around the
valve over the blanket Fig. 1. The cable
was not in contact with the block at any
point. Since the cables are water cooled
they remain approximately at room tem-
perature when properly insulated from
the part. The induction heating machine
uses thermocouples to monitor the tem-
perature and control the machines out-
put. Two control thermocouples were
placed on the valve, one on the inside and
one on the outside, each within
1
4 in. (6
mm) of the thermocouples used with the
data recorder.
The induction heater controller was
programmed to preheat the part to 500F
as quickly as possible, and then maintain
that temperature for one hour. The data
recorder was turned on, the power meter
was set to record, and the induction ma-
chine was set to preheat. Both the data
recorder and the power meter record
time along with the other measurements.
Once both thermocouples reached 500F,
the machine was set to maintain for one
hour and the time on the data recorder
and power meter were noted. After one
hour, the machine was turned off and the
temperature was recorded for another
hour after making note of the time on the
data recorder. Throughout the test, the
What Is the Best Method
for Preheating 4130?
J. WALKER, D. HEBBLE, and
R. HOLDREN are with Arc Specialties
Engineering & Consulting,
Houston, Tex.
A study compares three preheat
methods based on time required,
efficiency, safety, and cost
BY J. WALKER, D. HEBBLE,
AND R. HOLDREN
53 WELDING JOURNAL
amount of time required to set up and tear
down was also recorded.
Resistance
The resistance heater uses resistance pads
made up of a resistant element woven through
ceramic tiles. This construction results in a
heating pad with enough flexibility to allow
for contouring the pad around or inside com-
ponents with varying profiles. The element
consists of a conductor having high resistance,
so when electrically energized, the element
heats up. The ceramic tiles both conduct this
heat to the component as well as electrically
insulate the heating element from the com-
ponent. The heated tiles only transfer heat to
the valve through radiant heat and conduc-
tive heat where the pads are in contact with
the valve.
The resistance heating pads were first fas-
tened to each other with wire and to the valve
to keep them in place Fig. 2. Next, the
whole assembly was covered with an insulat-
ing ceramic fiber blanket. Two preheating
zones (with separate control) were used with
each zone using two resistance heating pads.
The pads were arranged such that each of the
two zones was on opposite sides of the valve.
The resistance heating controller uses one
thermocouple per zone to monitor the tem-
perature and control the output to that zone.
Each zone had a thermocouple resistance
spot welded onto the outside of the valve. The
control thermocouple was connected to the
valve within in. (6 mm) of the location for
the measurement thermocouple. The second
thermocouple was on the other side, on the
outside of the valve. A thermocouple placed
on the inside of the valve in. (6 mm) away
from the one used for the data recorder was
plugged into the machine for reference only.
The resistance machine was programmed
to preheat the valve to 550F as quickly as
possible, and then maintain the temperature
for one hour. A previous test showed that
when setting the machine to preheat to 500F,
it required more than six hours for the inside
to reach 500F after the outside had attained
this temperature, so programming the con-
troller to reach the higher temperature on the
outside was used as a means to through-heat
the part more rapidly. This is believed to have
happened because there was not a large
enough temperature differential between the
inside surface and the outside surface. Be-
cause the pads were touching the valve so
close to the thermocouple, the temperature
did not rise high enough above 500F to cre-
ate that differential. The data recorder was
then turned on, the power meter was set to
record, and the resistance heating power
source was set to preheat. Both the data
recorder and the power meter record time
Fig. 3 Direct flame preheating setup.
Fig. 2 Placement of resistance heating pads and thermocouple cables.
Fig. 1 Position of induction heating coil, and measurement and control
thermocouple cables.
along with the other measurements.
Once both the internal and external
measurement thermocouples reached
500F, the machine was set to maintain
the temperature for one hour and the
time on the data recorder and power
meter were noted. After one hour, the
machine was turned off and the temper-
ature was recorded for another hour after
making note of the time on the data
recorder. Throughout the test, the
amount of time required to set up and
tear down was recorded.
Direct Flame
A 100-lb cylinder of propane was used
with a Belchfire fuel gas and com-
pressed air torch. The valve was rotated
on a turntable while the flame impinged
on the exterior surface of the valve
Fig. 3.
The valve was not insulated at all,
which is in accordance with typical indus-
try practices. The data recorder was
placed on top of a piece of pipe tacked
to the valve so as to not tangle the ther-
mocouple leads. Only the two data
recorder thermocouple leads were used
for this test.
The data recorder was turned on and
the flame and rotation were started.
Once both thermocouples reached 500F,
the time was noted and the maintenance
time started. Preheat maintenance was
determined by monitoring the tempera-
ture and cycling the torch on and off man-
ually. This human element can add some
degree of inconsistency. After one hour
of preheat maintenance, no additional
heat was applied and the temperatures
were recorded for one hour after mak-
ing note of the time on the data recorder.
Throughout the test, the amount of time
required to set up and tear down was
recorded.
Experimental Results
Time
Time was evaluated based on time to
preheat to 500F, time difference be-
tween inside and outside reaching 500F,
time to set up, and time to tear down.
Preheat Time
When analyzing preheat time, induc-
tion produced the best results with both
the inside and outside of the valve reach-
ing the minimum 500F in 0.6 h. The out-
side of the valve reached the minimum
500F in only 0.5 h. There was minimal
difference in the results from flame and
resistance preheating. Achieving 500F
on the outside with the propane required
1.02 h, while the inside required 1.1 h.
The outside with the resistance required
0.78 h, while the inside required 1.75 h.
Therefore, resistance heating required
the greatest amount of time to achieve
through-thickness preheating. Overall,
the method that brought the inside and
outside to the target temperature the
fastest was induction.
Setup and TearDown Time
The flame method required the least
amount of setup and tear-down time,
JANUARY 2014 54
Fig. 4 Comparison between the temperature rise on the inside and outside vs. the en
ergy used. A Propane heating; B resistance heating; C induction heating.
A
B
C
only taking 0.25 h for each. The induc-
tion method was next with 0.58 h to set
up and 0.6 h to tear down. Resistance re-
quired the longest time with 1.5 h to set
up and 0.37 h to tear down. Ease of setup
and tear-down was also considered, and
direct flame was the easiest. The direct
flame method only required the valve to
be rotated with a torch pointed at it, while
the other methods required more com-
plicated preparation. The only constraint
with the propane method is if the part is
too heavy for a turntable. The most dif-
ficult method was the resistance; with the
reality that the operator must wire tie the
pads to each other and in the desired po-
sition, as well as deal with hot pads once
the part is preheated. Induction was sig-
nificantly easier than resistance to set up,
with the self-supporting coils and the ad-
ditional advantage that the coil does not
get hot. The quickest method of the three
was propane, with induction a close sec-
ond, and resistance a lagging third.
Energy Efficiency
Each methods efficiency was ana-
lyzed based on energy (generated and
consumed) as well as total energy used.
For resistance and induction, the kilo-
watt-hours (kWh) were recorded. For the
flame test, the pounds of propane used
were recorded for the preheat and pre-
heat maintenance stages. In order to
compare all three methods, the pounds
of propane were converted to BTU1 and
then to kWh2. The amounts of electric-
ity used in the other tests were converted
to BTU2 so that all three tests have kWh
and BTU as values in relation to the tem-
perature increase.
Flame preheating was the least effi-
cient, using 171 kWh and 585,000 BTU.
Flame also had the quickest temperature
drop once heat was removed, with a 12F
difference between the inside and the
outside. The quick temperature drop was
easily predicted because there was no in-
sulation used for the propane test. The
induction method was the most efficient,
using 21.5 kWh and 73,000 BTU and had
the smallest temperature drop once heat
was removed, with only a 4F difference.
The resistance used 24.5 kWh and 84,000
BTU. The outside temperature dropped
34F more than the inside. The differ-
ence can be linked to the requirement
that the outside needed to be heated to
550F in order for the inside to reach
500F. Once the heat was removed, the
outside and inside temperatures were
still equalizing, and once the tempera-
tures were the same they both started
dropping. One of the most significant dif-
ferences was the observation that the
propane used 585,000 BTU compared to
73,000 BTU for induction. Therefore,
512,000 BTU (87.5%) of energy was
wasted. Also, theoretically all 512,000
BTU went into heating the environment,
meaning that in production situations,
the wasted energy resulted in greater
heat exposure to welders and other work-
ers in the area. Induction proved to be
the most efficient, using the least energy
and having the slowest temperature drop
Fig. 4AC.
Safety
Each method was analyzed to deter-
mine its level of safety based on the
amount of handling and potential haz-
ards. Safety was evaluated because it is
one of the primary concerns in shop en-
vironments. Induction is the safest
method out of the three. The part does
not need to be on a turntable, which elim-
inated one part-handling operation.
Also, the induction coils remain at room
temperature at all times and with the part
wrapped in an insulating blanket, the
user has a very small chance of getting
burned by the 500 F part.
Resistance and propane are haz-
ardous for multiple reasons, but propane
is slightly more dangerous. With resist-
ance and propane, the heating elements
and torch are extremely hot during and
immediately after preheating, and are
only cooled by the air. With resistance,
the pads are covered with an insulating
blanket, but once the part is preheated
it is difficult to move the hot pads. With
55 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 5 Cost per part while paying off the preheat equipment (1.5 years).
Fig 6. Cost per part after the preheat equipment is paid off.
direct flame, the part is not covered at
all so there is a large part that will be at
the preheated temperature that the op-
erator has no protection from. Also, with
direct flame, there is an open flame as
well as hoses filled with combustible gas
leading to a cylinder of gas or a manifold
system. The torch can be knocked over
or inadvertently pointed at something or
someone that could be burned. Also, the
propane torch heats the room creating a
less desirable work environment. Induc-
tion is the safest method, having a heat-
ing element that does not get hot, heat-
ing the valve while it is wrapped in insu-
lating blanket, and requiring no part han-
dling. Furthermore, since the part is
heated from the inside, induction heat-
ing results in less radiant heat exposure.
Cost
The cost of each method was analyzed
based on cost of labor, electricity,
propane, and personnel usage. An analy-
sis using $65/h for labor, $0.064/kWh for
electricity, and $0.652/lb of propane re-
vealed that resistance preheating costs
the most to preheat a valve, costing
$287.57. That breaks down to $164.67 in
labor to preheat the valve, $121.33 in
labor to set up and tear down, and $1.57
in electricity. Direct flame preheating
was the next most expensive, costing
$187.68; $137.58 in labor to preheat the
valve, $32.50 in labor to set up and tear
down, and $17.60 in propane. Finally, in-
duction preheating was the cheapest,
costing $150.34. That breaks down to
$72.04 in labor to preheat the valve,
$76.92 in labor to set up and tear down,
and $1.38 in electricity.
If the shop is air conditioned, there
will be extra electricity used to dissipate
the 512,000 BTU put in the room by the
propane, $4.29 of electricity if the unit is
specifically sized for this amount of heat.
Also, if preheat labor is not taken into
account when the shop preheats offline,
preheating one part while at the same
time welding another, direct flame be-
comes the cheapest method, followed by
induction.
The induction method proved to be
the most efficient. With induction mak-
ing the best use of the operators time,
using the least electricity, and having a
very fast uniform heating pattern.
Cost of the unit is another factor in
calculating the cost to preheat each valve.
The induction unit costs $39,000 while
the resistance unit costs $15,000, and the
flame torch costs $1,200; but with the
time savings with induction, the cost is
offset. Preheating with induction will
save the user $37 per part over direct
flame and $137 per part over resistance,
once the equipment has been paid for.
Conclusions and
Recommendations
Based on this study, the induction
method was the best in most categories
(Table 1). Induction heating required the
least amount of time to preheat, was the
most energy efficient, safest, and most
cost-effective. It used less energy than
the resistance and the electricity cost less
than the propane used. Induction heated
the valve the fastest and was quicker to
set up than the resistance. The induction
method also was the safest for the user,
with the whole valve being insulated and
heating coils that do not get hot.
If offline heating is employed,
propane is the cheapest, but with an open
flame this adds heat to the room that
adds extra cost, more safety concerns,
and creates a less-desirable work envi-
ronment. With preheat labor not in-
cluded, induction was the second cheap-
est. Resistance was the slowest and most
expensive in every scenario, due to setup
time and the amount of time it took to
preheat.
Perhaps the most important result
from this study is the fact that many vari-
ables need to be evaluated. While the
cost of induction heating equipment is
greater than that for either the resistance
or direct flame method, the efficiencies
offered will offset the added cost. Per-
haps more importantly, the fact that the
induction method creates a safer envi-
ronment for the worker will help to op-
timize both productivity and quality.
References
1. www.flameengineering.com
2. Google calculator
JANUARY 2014 56
Table 1 Summary of Test Results
Method Inducton Resistance Flame
Equipment Miller Pro Heat 35 PDS Bartech Belchre torch
Total propane used, lb N/A N/A 27
Total electricity used, kWh 21.6 24.6 N/A
Total energy used, BTU 73,000 84,000 585,000
Avg. temperature drop in 1 h/outside diameter vs. 36/4 56/34 76/12
inside diameter temperature dierental, F
Time to preheat inside to 500F, h 0.60 1.75 1.10
Set up tme, h 0.58 1.50 0.25
Teardown tme, h 0.60 0.37 0.25
Total tme, h 1.78 3.62 1.60
Total cost* $150.34 $287.57 $187.69
*Costs based on the following values: labor @ $65/h; electricity @ $0.064/kWh; propane @ $0.652/lb.
Change of Address?
Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding
Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address in-
formation (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.
JANUARY 2014 58
U
sing a built-in ultrasonic sensor
provides a new approach in qual-
ity inspection of resistance spot
welds. With real-time quality monitor-
ing, every weld can be instantaneously in-
spected as it is made. By knowing the
quality of each weld joint, the welding
control system user has the advantage of
correcting problems before producing
unacceptable products. It also becomes
possible to collect data and infer infor-
mation regarding the process stability
that has been unavailable before. As a
stand-alone unit or in tandem with adap-
tive control welding systems, the real-
time ultrasonic inspection technology
permits quality measurements, instead
of just quality forecasting. The dynamics
of spot weld size, instantaneous quality
changes, electrode cap degradation, and
other otherwise difficult-to-determine
parameters become readily available to
weld control engineers. This article pres-
ents a case study of an installation at
Chryslers Windsor Assembly Plant
where real-time monitoring is used to
track weld quality, expulsion events, elec-
trode life, and detect problems. With
ever-increasing production volumes and
new metals being introduced every year,
the use of a nondestructive automatic in-
spection system is necessary for the sheet
assembly industry to stay competitive and
provide quality products at a low cost.
Real-Time Inspection
Technology
Resistance spot welding is currently a
dominant joining technology in the sheet
metal assembly industry, especially in au-
tomotive manufacturing. A recent auto-
motive roadmap suggests that this trend
is not likely to change any time soon (Ref.
1). The average car contains 3 to 4 thou-
sand spot welds, which ensure its struc-
tural integrity. For decades, the main
quality assurance method in
production was destructive
testing: peel test, chisel test,
and metallographic analy-
sis. These methods are
quite costly and time con-
suming. Beside, destructive
testing is only a periodic
procedure that selectively
inspects a small random
portion of the sample pool.
Different nondestruc-
tive inspection techniques
have been introduced to speed up the
process and increase the percentage of
validated welds. Today, nondestructive
inspection of resistance spot weld qual-
ity is a subject of high interest in auto-
motive and other sheet metal assembly
industries. Still, with new inspection tech-
nologies, only a small fraction of resist-
ance spot welds get tested. The proce-
dure remains quite time consuming as
parts must be removed from the produc-
tion line, or production needs to be sus-
pended for inspection.
For this reason, many efforts have
been made to develop a real-time spot
weld quality assurance system. Most of
the existing systems employ some kind of
In-Line Inspection of
Resistance Spot Welds
for Sheet Metal Assembly
R. Gr. MAEV, A. M. CHERTOV, W. PEREZ REGALADO, and A. KARLOFF are with Institute for Diagnostic Imaging Research, University of Windsor, Wind-
sor, Ont., Canada. A. TCHIPILKO is with Tessonics, Inc., Windsor, Ont., Canada. P. LICHAA, D. CLEMENT, and T. PHAN are with Chrysler Windsor As-
sembly Plant, Windsor, Ont., Canada.
This article is based on a paper presented at the Sheet Metal Welding Conference XV, Livonia, Mich., Oct. 25, 2012.
Chryslers Windsor Assembly Plant tries
out an ultrasonic real-time monitoring
system to track expulsion, electrode life,
and weld problems
BY R. Gr. MAEV, A. M. CHERTOV,
W. PEREZ REGALADO, A. KARLOFF,
A. TCHIPILKO, P. LICHAA,
D. CLEMENT, AND T. PHAN
Fig. 1 Schematic setup of ultrasonic in-process spot
weld analyzer.
59 WELDING JOURNAL
indirect quality assurance by measuring
some related parameters. Some measure
electrode force dynamics and electrode
displacement, others study welding cur-
rent and voltage changes to predict weld
quality based on models of the welding
process. Such methods allow one to only
predict the weld quality, not measure
it, due to the indirect nature of these
methods.
Ultrasound methods use ultrasonic
waves that easily penetrate the metal
sheets and bring back information about
the internal structure of the spot weld.
For this reason, ultrasonic testing was
traditionally used for offline weld inspec-
tion. From the 1960s, different research
groups attempted to develop real-time
ultrasonic testing technology (Refs. 27).
With the relatively recent use of robots
for spot welding, along with the introduc-
tion of servo motors and tip dressers, spot
welding has become a much more stable
process to implement real-time ultra-
sonic inspection inline with production.
Today, our research group advanced to
the level of installation of half a dozen
prototype inline ultrasound units at sev-
eral assembly plants around the world.
The biggest progress has been achieved
with our long-term partner Chrysler
Corp. at one of its plants in Windsor,
Ont., Canada.
This aricle describes the current level
of technology along with the particular
problems and advancements of the sys-
tem installed at an industrial facility.
Inline Ultrasonic Inspection
of Spot Welding
In resistance spot welding, the metal
sheets are joined by means of melting the
base metal with high electric current. The
current is delivered by two electrodes,
which squeeze the sheets together thus
developing Joule heat. As the welding
gun makes hundreds of welds, the elec-
trodes experience deformation and for-
eign material pick up. This leads to grad-
ual degradation of the original welding
conditions and eventually to the produc-
tion of unacceptable welds. Periodic cur-
rent stepping, tip dressing, and electrode
cap replacements are routinely used in
production. Still, with the introduction
of new materials, it becomes harder to
predict the tip conditions and to imple-
ment timely adjustments. Some means of
real-time control become a necessity.
In the current inline ultrasound setup,
the piezoelectric transducer is installed
in the cooling water stream inside the
welding electrode Fig. 1. Sound waves
propagate through the cooling water and
copper electrode to reach the welded
plates. Cooling water is used as a cou-
plant to deliver sound from the trans-
ducer to the copper electrode cap. The
dry contact between the electrode and
metal sheets allows ultrasonic waves to
penetrate further due to the high pres-
sure exerted by the electrodes. The sound
experiences partial reflections at every
boundary, including the solid-liquid
boundary of the molten nugget. In mild
steel around the melting temperature,
the solid metal has an acoustic imped-
ance of 32.7 MRayl, while its liquid state
shows 26.5 MRayl. Calculations and ex-
periments show that this impedance mis-
match at the liquid nuggets boundary re-
flects enough sound energy to be reliably
detected.
The transducer, which works as both
emitter and receiver, collects informa-
tion from every reflecting boundary on
the wave path and forms an A-scan.
Proper time gating of the A-scan allows
software to analyze the information from
the area of interest; the metal sheets and
spot weld itself Figs. 2, 3.
Figure 4 shows a schematic view of the
ultrasonic signature of the spot welding
process, represented as an M-scan. Such
an M-scan is composed of multiple A-
scans of the same point on the weld cap-
tured successively in time. Every A-scan
is simply a time-voltage graph acquired
by the receiving transducer. The first A-
scans begin to shoot before welding
starts. In this case, the system works as a
simple ultrasonic thickness gauge, receiv-
ing reflections from every sheet. One can
see interfaces 1, 2, and 3 appearing hori-
zontally and parallel to each other since
these are stationary in time. These are
reflections off of the copper-steel, steel-
steel, and steel-copper boundaries. Scan-
ning continues throughout the welding
process (Fig. 4) and some time after it
with a time interval of 3 ms between
A-scans.
When current is turned on, the metal
sheets temperature increases, which
leads to sound velocity reduction. Thus,
the back wall reflections from both sheets
begin to arrive later in time as tempera-
ture increases. When the base metal be-
gins to melt, the steel-steel boundary dis-
appears and so does sound reflection off
of it. The liquid metal nugget then grows
from the steel-steel boundary into both
sheets. Impedance mismatch between
solid and liquid steel allows the sound
waves to reflect off the top and the bot-
tom of the nugget and thus make them
visible on the A-scan and correspond-
ingly on the M-scan (lines 4 and 5 in Fig.
4). The two reflections continue to move
apart as the nugget grows. When weld-
ing current is shut off, the system begins
to cool and the process reverses.
Figure 5 presents real ultrasonic scans
of underwelded and properly welded spot
Fig. 2 Two electrodes squeeze steel plates before
welding (left). Gated A-scan (right).
Fig. 3 Two electrodes squeeze steel plates during
welding (left). Gated A-scan (right).
Fig. 4 Schematic M-scan of the resist-
ance spot welding process.
JANUARY 2014 60
welds. In case A, welding current was too
low, and the intermediate interface did
not fully disappear (melting did not hap-
pen) during welding. In B, welding cur-
rent was high enough and the intermedi-
ate interface disappeared (melting began
approximately halfway through welding
time).
Several parameters are used to make
a decision about the weld quality, includ-
ing the presence of a liquid nugget and
its penetration into the sheets to deter-
mine the weld height Fig. 6. Ultrasonic
time of flight (TOF) through the
welded sheets is directly propor-
tional to the amount of heat devel-
oped in the stackup. It has been
shown that there is a strong corre-
lation between TOF and nugget di-
ameter (Refs. 8, 9). Special software
analyzes the M-scan and extracts
these parameters automatically.
The decision whether the weld is ac-
ceptable or not is made right after
the weld is made and before the
robot moves to the next weld posi-
tion. This allows the implementa-
tion of feedback to the robot to ei-
ther stop the line or perform
rewelding of the unacceptable weld.
Expulsion Detection
Expulsion detection in welding
is a strong area of interest, particu-
larly for the inline system where the
effects of a physical expulsion can
make the ultrasound scans of a good
weld appear to be undersized. In
some cases, expulsion can have a
significant effect on the quality of
the weld and is undesired.
The main problem with expul-
sion in the ultrasound M-scans in
applications where thick sheets and
3T stacks are welded is that the heat
loss during expulsion may appear as
if insufficient heat was generated to
produce a significant nugget, when
in fact more than enough heat was
produced. For this reason, expul-
sion events must be detected so that
the future decision of the welds quality
can consider this effect.
Currently, there are a number of
methods used to detect expulsion, pre-
dominately using feedback from servo
motors to record the displacement of the
electrodes. However, setups not using
servo motor feedback (e.g., pneumatic
guns) require additional hardware to de-
tect expulsion events. For systems al-
ready using the inline ultrasound device,
expulsion detection is possible without
additional hardware or communication
with servo motor controllers.
The simplest form of expulsion detec-
tion is performed by monitoring sudden
changes in TOF from the front wall and
back wall reflections (lines 1 and 2 in Fig.
7). The back wall, or lower interface,
shows the greatest change when an ex-
pulsion occurs, since the position of this
reflection in the M-scan depends on both
the total heat in the weld zone, as well as
the total thickness of the workpiece. Dur-
ing an expulsion, both the total temper-
ature and thickness of the workpiece de-
crease as heated material is ejected from
the weld zone. As a result, there is a sud-
den decrease in the TOF of the lower
interface.
The front wall, or upper interface, also
exhibits a small perturbation during an
expulsion. The TOF of this surface gen-
erally increases as a result of localized
heating at the contact point between the
electrode and plates. This arises when
substantial indentation results from a
large expulsion. At this moment, reduced
contact between the electrode and plate
surface increases the current density at
this interface, which generates a great
deal of heat at the surface. This momen-
tary increase in temperature increases
the TOF at the front wall reflection;
this is a strong indicator of a substantial
expulsion.
Figure 7 shows an example of both the
front wall and back wall shifts in time of
flight that make expulsions detectable in
real-time M-scans. When an expulsion is
detected, the quality decision can com-
pensate for the reduced time of flight to
ensure that good welds are not consid-
ered bad.
Real-Time Integrated Weld
Analyzer
A real-time integrated weld analyzer
(RIWA) was developed to use this tech-
nology in an industrial environment. This
device is a small unit installed on each
welding robot where the quality control
Fig. 5 Real M-scans of the resistance spot
welding process. A Low welding current; B
high welding current.
Fig. 6 Relating ultrasonic M-scan to real spot weld
geometry.
Fig. 7 Interface changes at a moment of
expulsion.
A
B
61 WELDING JOURNAL
of welding spots is desired. An ultrasonic
sensor built into one of the weld gun elec-
trodes is connected with the RIWA by
coaxial cable. The RIWA unit has the
fieldbus connection to the weld and robot
controller. Once installed, the RIWA
unit works as an unsupervised device au-
tomatically testing weld quality and send-
ing feedback to the robot.
A state-of-the-art algorithm has been
developed for automated analysis of M-
scans. It processes the weld image and
recognizes the features of the nugget for-
mation. Morphological analysis of ex-
tracted features allows the geometrical
parameters of the liquid nugget to be de-
termined and makes a decision about the
weld quality. Figure 8 shows a user inter-
face with multiple registered parts and
one of the selected M-scans with auto-
matically recognized features. Date/time
stamps on the left mark every welded
part. Each part has nine welds. As weld-
ing through the part progresses, welds
are scanned and automatically character-
ized. At a certain part, the purpose fail-
ures were made by dropping the welding
current. The system has successfully rec-
ognized undersized welds and stopped
the robot.
At its current state, the system per-
forms unsupervised testing of weld qual-
ity and qualifies the results using a three-
level grading: acceptable, marginal, and
unacceptable. Processing time of a sin-
gle M-scan is about 150250 ms for a 3
GHz Pentium D processor. It depends
on the stack thickness and welding time,
which determine the width and height of
the M-scan. Special algorithms for effi-
cient M-scan processing have been ap-
plied (Refs. 12, 13). The processing time
requirements are strict since average
cycle time is around 1.52.5 s/weld. The
robot needs to receive feedback before
it advances to the next weld. If needed,
the operator can have access to the sta-
tistics of the production equipment per-
formance Fig. 9.
Besides determining weld quality, the
system proved to be useful in detecting
nonstandard conditions such as cooling
water tube failure shown in Fig. 10. The
plot shows ultrasonic TOF through the
stack at different production times. In
Ref. 8, we have shown a strong correla-
tion of this parameter with nugget diam-
eter. At around 22 h, the cooling water
tube was damaged (notice the sudden dip
in average diameter) and production
continued for a few hours with some
welds being made undersized. The sys-
tem was currently working in a passive
mode, but it was able to track back every
single weld and identify problematic
products for fixing.
As a robot makes hundreds of welds,
the electrode tip surface experiences de-
formation and continuous contamina-
tion. This leads to excessive heat devel-
oped at the copper tip and could possi-
bly lead to cooling water overheat and
boiling. The ultrasonic system is capable
of monitoring the cooling condition. Fig-
ure 11 shows abrupt improvement of the
cooling after a tip dressing (cleaning)
event. Usually, with bad tip conditions,
the last three welds in every row are
shown as grey. Grey stands for the welds
that for some reason were not inter-
preted by the software. Additional analy-
ses have shown that those last three greys
are due to the water overheat. After tip
dressing, those welds become recogniza-
ble and turn green. This information can
be used to issue recommendations on the
tip dressing frequency to optimize pro-
duction process quality.
The ultrasonic testing system commu-
nicates with the PLC using discrete I/O,
DeviceNet, or other means of communi-
cation. The robot tells which part is being
loaded, which weld on the part is welded,
and when exactly to start ultrasonic scan-
ning. In its turn, the ultrasonic system
Fig. 8 User interface.
Fig. 9 Statistics over the last 24 h.
Fig. 10 Weld quality dynamics over 24 h with cool-
ing water tube failure at around 22 h.
JANUARY 2014 62
tells the robot if the weld is acceptable
or not.
Conclusions
Ultrasonic in-process characteriza-
tion of resistance spot welds has many
advantages over off-line methods, par-
ticularly adding the ability to inspect
more than 99% of the parts that would
otherwise go unchecked. In addition,
real-time monitoring of the process can
identify problems that occur and allow
control engineers to correct these prob-
lems before additional bad parts are pro-
duced. An example of a damaged water-
cooling pipe is illustrated in this article.
Use of the RIWA system provides an
opportunity to automatically correct bad
welds and prevent them in the future
product.
The inline ultrasound inspection sys-
tem installed in the Windsor Assembly
Plant provides the capability to observe
the process of weld formation as well as
identify expulsion. Parameters such as
the moment of melting, liquid metal pen-
etration depth, solidification, and cool-
ing rates are used for quality characteri-
zation of every weld done at the installed
unit. In addition, statistics of weld qual-
ity over time are monitored from which
data regarding electrode wear and
process degradation can be inferred.
Such a tool is proving to be effective in
the harsh industrial environments of the
automotive assembly plant, and the ben-
efits of such thorough quality inspection
are immediately clear.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search Council of Canada (NSERC) for
support of this research together with
Chrysler Canada, through the
NSERC/Chrysler Canada, Inc./ Univer-
sity of Windsor Industrial Research Chair
IRCPJ 260901-07 in Applied Physics and
Material Characterization.
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model of acoustic wave propagation in a
multilayered structure of a resistance
spot weld. IEEE Trans. on Ultrasonics,
Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
52(10).
2003. Inverse problem solution to find
real-time temperature distribution inside
the spot weld medium using ultrasound
time of flight methods. Rev. Prog. Quant.
Nondestr. Eval. (7).
10. Karloff, A. C., Chertov, A. M., and
Gr. Maev, R. 2009. Real-time ultrasonic
expulsion detection and indentation
measurement in resistance spot welds.
Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval. 29(7):
16091614.
11. Regalado, W. P., Chertov, A. M.,
and Gr. Maev, R. 2009. Real-time ultra-
sonic aluminum spot weld monitoring
system. Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval.
29(7).
2005. Extraction of straight line segments
from noisy images as a part of pattern
recognition procedure. Advances in Sig-
nal Processing for NDE of Materials.
2011. New algorithm for pattern recog-
nition in noisy ultrasonic B-scans. 12th
International Symposium on Nondestruc-
tive Characterization of Materials
(NDCM-XII).
Fig. 11 Improvement in cap cooling after tip dressing, more greens.
By Placing Your Product Video
on the AWS Website
Bring
Brand Awareness
to Your Company
For more information visit our website at
http://videos.aws.org or please contact:
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Sandra Jorgensen
sjorgensen@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 254
Lea Paneca
lea@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 220
uct Vid our Prod Y By Placing
Bring
our Company to Y
Awareness Brand

eo uct Vid
our Company
Awareness

site WS Web on the AAW
uct Vid our Prod Y By Placing

eo uct Vid

lea@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 220
Lea Paneca
Sandra Jorgensen
salty@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Rob Saltzstein
or please contact: videos.aws.org http:// /v

lea@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 220
salty@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 243
or please contact:
COMING
EVENTS
Assoc. for Manufacturing Excellence Values Veterans (AMEV2)
Conf. Jan. 14. Virginia Beach, Va. AME, www.ame.org.
United States-European Welding Standards Conference. Jan.
2628. AWS World Headquarters and Staybridge Suites, Miami,
Fla. Cosponsored by AWS and GSI (Gesellschaft fr Schwis-
stechnik, Intl.). Topics to include welding standards covering
structural fabrication, pressure vessels, railway vehicles, and com-
pany certification. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-
9353, ext. 215.
Energy Conference. Feb. 5, 6. Hotel Monteleone, New Orleans,
La. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include superior hybrid welding
processes, filler metals, and cladding procedures for use in nu-
clear and coal-fired utilities and oil and natural gas pipelines.
Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
AERODEF Manufacturing. Feb. 2527. Long Beach Convention
Center, Long Beach, Calif. Society of Manufacturing Engineers;
(800) 733-4763; www.aerodefevent.com.
Pipelines Conference. March 4, 5. Sheraton Houston Brookhol-
low, Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
Topics to include current and future pipeline welding trends. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
ABB Robotics Technology Days and Open House. March 13, 14.
1250 Brown Rd., Auburn Hills, Mich. Offering workshops, train-
ing, and demonstrations. To register, visit www.abb.com/robotics;
call (800) 435-7365.
FABTECH Canada. March 1820. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. Cosponsored by the American Welding
Society. www.fabtechcanada.com.
Stainless Steel Conference. March 25, 26. Loews Philadelphia
Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include
welding of austenitic, duplex, and other grades of stainless steel
including dissimilar metals, and repair welding, cladding, clean-
ing, and coping with stress corrosion cracking. Contact P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Metal & Steel Saudi Arabia 2014. April 710. Riyadh, Saudi Ara-
bia. Visit www.metalsteelsaudi.com.
Weld Cracking Conference. April 15, 16. Hilton Garden Inn
Denver Downtown, Denver, Colo. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to
include impact tests, control of moisture in welding consumables,
and information for welding engineers to ensure higher-quality
welded products. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-
9353, ext. 215.
ITSA International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.
April 2426. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Stand-
ing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
JOM, 18th Intl Conf. on Joining Materials. April 2629. Kon-
ventum LO-Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark. In association with the
Intl Institute of Welding, cosponsored by American Welding So-
ciety, Japan Welding Society, Welding Technology Institute of
Australia, Brazilian Welding Society, and others. E-mail
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
JANUARY 2014 64
65 WELDING JOURNAL
jom_aws@post10.tele.dk; download brochure at www.aws.org/wj/
JOM-18-CallForPapers.pdf.
Aluminum Conference. April 2830. Hotel Monteleone, New
Orleans, La.. Sponsored by AWS. Aluminum industry experts will
survey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and
practice. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353,
ext. 215.
First Intl Symposium on Advances in Resistance Welding.
April 2830. Atlanta, Ga. Sponsored by AWS and the Resistance
Welding Manufacturing Alliance (RWMA), an AWS Standing
Committee. Topics will include research results, projects, and in-
dustrial experiences that describe significant advances in resist-
ance welding technology. Visit www.aws.org/rwma, or contact
Patrick Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 215.
AWS Weldmex, FABTECH Mexico, METALFORM Mexico.
May 68. Centro Banamex, Mexico City, Mexico. www.fabtech-
mexico.com.
JOIN-TRANS
3
Third European Conf., Joining and Construc-
tion of Railway Vehicles. May 6, 7. An IIW associated event.
Welding Training and Research Centre, SLV Halle GmbH, Halle
(Saale), Germany. www.jointrans.eu.
mfg4 colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.
May 68. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.
Intl Laser Technology Congress AKL 14 and Expo. May 79.
Aachen, Germany. Visit www.lasercongress.org/en/home/.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
JANUARY 2014 66
MMTS Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 1214. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.
Composites Manufacturing. May 1315. Northern Kentucky
Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers. www.sme.org/composites.
Metal & Steel Middle East 2014. May 1517. Cairo, Egypt. Visit
www.metalsteeleg.com.
THE BIG M including SME Annual Meeting, RAPID Conf. and
Expo, and North American Research Conf. June 912. Cobo Cen-
ter, Detroit, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.the-
bigmevent.com.
Welding Education, Skills, and Certifications Conference. July
2325. Indianapolis, Ind. Sponsored by AWS. This program an-
swers questions on the requirements to become an AWS Accred-
ited Testing Facility (ATF), including skills training and curricu-
lum. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Heat Treatment Conference. Aug. 12, 13. Sheraton Arlington
Hotel, Dallas, Tex. Sponsored by AWS. Attendees will get a bet-
ter understanding of the impact of welding and heat treatment
practices to optimize weld quality and reliability. Contact P.
Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Additive Manufacturing Conference. Sept. 9, 10. Renaissance
Orlando Airport Hotel, Orlando, Fla. Sponsored by AWS. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
7th Offshore Energy Expo and Conf. Oct. 28, 29. Amsterdam RAI,
The Netherlands. Visit www.offshore-energy.biz.
Weld Smarter With
Total Welding Management
Implementing the principles and
concepts in this book could save
you $15,000 to $25,000 annually
per welder.
Drawing on more than 50 years
of welding experience, author Jack
R. Barckhoff, P.E., gives you a solid
step-by-step plan to manage your
welding operations for maximum
productivity and cost efficiency.
Specific recommendations and
real-life production examples
illustrate how your welding team
can realize productivity gains of 20 percent to 50 percent.
Total Welding Management explains the management
principles, structure, and details you need to transform your
welding operations from a cost center into a profit center. A
must-read for supervisors, managers, and executives who
seek to make their welding operations more efficient and
more productive. 185 pages, 35 figure, 20 tables, hardbound.
Order yours today: 888-WELDING (935-3464).
Outside North America: 305-824-1177.
Online: www.aws.org/standards
Order code: AWS TWM, $49.50
American Welding Society 2006 WJS1235
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
New Orleans, LA Feb. 914 Feb. 15
Waco, TX Feb. 914 Feb. 15
Seattle, WA Feb. 914 Feb. 15
San Diego, CA Feb. 2328 Mar. 1
Atlanta, GA Feb. 2328 Mar. 1
Mobile, AL Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Kansas City, MO Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Houston, TX Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Norfolk, VA Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Milwaukee, WI Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Birmingham, AL Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Indianapolis, IN Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Boston, MA Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Portland, OR Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Rochester, NY Exam only Mar. 22
York, PA Exam only Mar. 22
Miami, FL Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Chicago, IL Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Springfield, MO Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Dallas, TX Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Minneapolis, MN Mar. 30Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Las Vegas, NV Mar. 30Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Syracuse, NY Mar. 30Apr. 4 Apr. 5
San Francisco, CA Apr. 611 Apr. 12
New Orleans, LA Apr. 611 Apr. 12
Nashville, TN Apr. 611 Apr. 12
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Apr. 12
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 17
St. Louis, MO Exam only Apr. 19
Annapolis, MD Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Detroit, MI Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Corpus Christi, TX Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Knoxville, TN Exam only May 3
Fresno, CA May 49 May 10
Miami, FL May 49 May 10
Albuquerque, NM May 49 May 10
Oklahoma City, OK May 49 May 10
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only May 31
Birmingham, AL June 16 June 7
Hutchinson, KS June 16 June 7
Spokane, WA June 16 June 7
Bakersfield, CA June 813 June 14
Pittsburgh, PA June 813 June 14
Beaumont, TX June 813 June 14
Miami, FL Exam only June 19
Hartford, CT June 2227 June 28
Orlando, FL June 2227 June 28
Memphis, TN June 2227 June 28
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
New Orleans, LA Mar. 31Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Minneapolis, MN July 1418 July 19
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
(No exams given.)
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education require-
ments without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Denver, CO Feb. 914
Dallas, TX Mar. 914
Miami, FL Mar. 2328
Sacramento, CA Apr. 27May 2
Boston, MA Apr. 27May 2
Charlotte, NC May 49
Pittsburgh, PA June 16
San Diego, CA July 1318
Miami, FL July 27Aug. 1
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Seattle, WA Feb. 2428 Mar. 1
Houston, TX Mar. 31Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Las Vegas, NV May 59 May 10
Miami, FL June 26 June 7
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The seminar dates (S:) are followed by the exam dates (E:)
S: Feb. 1013, E: Feb. 14; S: July 2831, E: Aug. 1; at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
S: Feb. 2426, E: Feb. 27, 28; S: Apr. 2123, E: Apr. 24, 25;
S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23, 24; at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
S: Mar. 35, E: Mar. 6; S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23; at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
S: Feb. 1720, E: Feb. 21; S: Apr. 710, E: Apr. 11;
S: Aug. 1114, E: Aug. 15; S: Oct. 1316, E: Oct. 17; at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
S: Mar. 1719, E: Mar. 20, 21; S: May 1921, E: May 22, 23;
S: July 2123, E: July 24, 25; S: Sept. 2224, E: Sept. 25, 26;
S: Nov. 1719, E: Nov. 20, 21; at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the sem-
inar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline
dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to
confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register
online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to
avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
JANUARY 2014 68
www.aws.org
The AWS Foundation
is pleased to announce
for the 2013-2014 school year
Donald J. Beneteau Scholarship
"With hard work and dedication, all
goals, no matter where they are along
the horizon, will be obtained."
Zachary Courtright
The Ohio State University
Welding Engineering
AWS International Scholarship
"Thank you selecting me as a
2013-2014 recipient of a AWS
International Scholarship. This
scholarship not only provides financial
support, it is also a source of
encouragement because of the
irreplaceable role AWS plays in my
field of study, Welding Engineering Technology. I
will use this scholarship to continue my education as
every semester I am one step closer to making my
career aspirations a reality. Thank you for your
generosity."
Isira U. Abeyagunawardana
Ferris State University
Welding Engineering Technology
James A. Turner
Jr. Memorial Scholarship
It is truly an honor to be chosen as
the 2013-2014 recipient for the James
A. Turner, Jr. Memorial Scholarship.
Catrina Fox
University of South Alabama
Business Administration
Hil Bax Scholarships
Joe Grinston III
Southwestern Illinois College
Brandi Phelps
Vatterott College
Colorado Section Scholarships
Thank you to the Colorado section
of the AWS for selecting me as the
recipient for the 2013-2014
scholarship. Your generosity helps me
to achieve a lifelong goal of mine.
That being having a degree in welding
technology. It also shows my daughter
that having a sense of commitment to your goals,
your dreams can come true. Having great instructors
like Christy Dvorsky and Herb Beaven and the rest
of the staff at Front Range Community College has
made it possible for me to sharpen my skills as a
welder. Thank you again for your support in my
continuing education.
Joel Hinze
Front Range Community College
Welding Technology

My name is Amber Metheny. I
received two awards from the
American Welding Society (AWS) and
I can not express how greatful I am for
this generosity and honor. I am feel so
blessed to be acknowledged for this
honor as a welding degree student. I
am a full time student, full time mother of three
boys, and I find such joy in my academic
accomplishments. I love what I do and enjoy the
great people I have met along this journey. It's years
from where I want to be but I am so proud of myself,
my talent. Thank you so very much to all those in
The American Welding Society for helping me
accomplish more of my goals. Respectfully Yours
Amber Metheny
Aims Community College
Welding Technology
I am extremely honored to be one of
the first ever recipients of the AWS
Colorado Section Named Scholarship.
This scholarship not only helps to
make my education more affordable it
also shows the support of the
professional community towards the
upcoming generation of welders. For what is
considered an alternative educational path it is
comforting to have the support and backing of the
community of my peers who see the value of
learning welding as a lifelong skill. I am extremely
proud to say I am welding for the strength of
America and to be honored with such a show of
confidence by my section. This scholarship goes
beyond myself, it goes to show there is support for
those who wish to carry on our trade in as skilled and
educated a manner as possible.
Diego Ulibarri
Red Rocks Community College
Welding
Leo D. Veal
Memorial Scholarship (Mobile)
I am honored and very grateful to be
selected to receive the Leo D. Veal
Memorial Scholarship. I know this
award will help me further my
education. I thank the Mobile Section
of the American Welding Society for
their generosity and support.
Mark Murphy
Reid State Technical College
Welding Technology
William H. Harrison
Jr., Memorial Scholarship (Mobile)
Zackery Brown
Welding Engineering Technology
James W. Gardner
Ozark Section Scholarship
"Being selected as a recipient for the
James W. Gardner - Ozark Scholarship
is an honor. I really appreciate this
award and will continue to work hard
in my pursuit of the Associate of
Applied Science Welding Technology
degree and the Associate of Applied
Science Drafting and Design degree, from Ozarks
Technical Community College, to prove my
appreciation. This will all help me someday achieve
my long term goal of a career in the industry of
engineering."
Brie H. Jenkins
Ozark Technical Community College
Welding Technology

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CONFERENCES
U.S./European Welding Standards
January 2628
Miami, Fla.
The American Welding Society (AWS) and Germanys
Gesellschaft fr Schweitechnik International (GSI) have part-
nered to deliver a unique conference at which U.S. and European
welding standards will be presented, compared, and discussed.
This conference will benefit engineers, inspectors, supervisors,
and quality control personnel who are familiar with only one set
of standards. Topics include welding standards covering structural
fabrication, pressure vessels, railway vehicles, and company certi-
fication. The format of the conference will be one expert presen-
tation on the U.S. standards followed by an expert presentation
on the comparable European standards for each topic. There will
be open discussion allotted for each topic period.
Energy Conference
February 5, 6
New Orleans, La.
The demand for new and improved welding technology from
the expanding energy markets is starting to pay off in the devel-
opment of superior hybrid welding processes, new filler metals,
and hosts of cladding procedures. The technologies are showing
up in nuclear power plants, coal-fired utilities, and especially in
the new 1700-mile-long pipelines designed to bring oil and natu-
ral gas to American markets.
Pipelines Conference
March 4, 5
Houston, Tex.
Welding has always been an integral part of pipeline construc-
tion, going all the way back to the days when hand-held oxyacety-
lene torches were used to connect pipes in the field. Current and
future pipeline welding trends will be discussed.
Stainless Steel Conference
March 25, 26
Philadelphia, Pa.
This conference will bring together some of industrys most
outstanding experts to discuss the welding of austenitic, duplex,
and other grades of stainless steel. Topics will include dissimilar
metal welds between stainless and steel, repair welding, cladding,
cleaning, and the pitfalls involved in stress corrosion cracking.
Weld Cracking Conference
April 15, 16
Denver, Colo.
This conference will help welding engineers and others avoid
mistakes and turn out high-quality products. Topics range from
impact tests and how they relate to potential weld cracking as
well as the control of moisture in welding consumables.
International Symposium on Advances
in Resistance Welding
April 2830
Atlanta, Ga.
This is a technical conference on resistance welding topics
presented by AWS and the Resistance Welding Manufacturing
Alliance (RWMA).
Aluminum Conference
May 28, 29
New Orleans, La.
The 17th Aluminum Welding Conference will feature a dis-
tinguished panel of aluminum-industry experts who will survey
the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and prac-
tice. This conference also provides several opportunities for you
to network informally with speakers and other participants, as
well as to visit an exhibition showcasing products and services
available to the aluminum welding industry.
Welding Education, Skills, and
Certifications Conference
July 2325
Indianapolis, Ind.
The American Welding Society has created a conference pro-
gram that answers questions on the essential requirements to be-
come an Accredited Testing Facility. Conference topics include
skill training, curriculum strategies, advanced e-learning strate-
gies, and many others. Educational institutions, corporate train-
ers, and educators are all encouraged to attend.
Heat Treatment Conference
August 12, 13
Dallas, Tex.
The thermal effects from welding and heat treatment influ-
ence the microstructure and mechanical properties of welds. Var-
ious materials, such as carbon steels and other alloy grades, are
affected by heat treatment, which changes the weld metallurgy
and influences the final welded product. Better understanding
of the impact of welding and heat treatment practices can allow
for optimization of weld quality and reliability.
Additive Manufacturing Conference
September 9, 10
Orlando, Fla.
Come and learn about additive manufacturing processes such
as powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directed energy depo-
sition, and material jetting. These are just a few of the topics that
will be discussed.
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 223, or e-mail
ablanco@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department website at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences
and registration information.
JANUARY 2014 70
www.aws.org
January 26-28 / AWS Headquarters Miami, Florida
What do you and your company need to
know about European welding standards
and how they compare with U.S. standards?
The American Welding Society (AWS) and
Germany's Gesellschaft fr Schweitechnik
nternational (GS) have partnered to deliver a
unique conference where U.S. and European
welding standards on numerous topics will be
presented, compared, and discussed. This
conference will benefit engineers, inspectors,
supervisors, and quality control personnel who are
familiar with one set of standards.
Among the topics to be discussed are welding
standards covering structural fabrication, pressure
vessels, railway vehicles, and heavy machinery.
The format of the conference will be one expert
presentation on the U.S. standards followed by an
expert presentation on the comparable European
standards for each topic. There will be open
discussion allotted for each topic period. The SO
3834 welding standard, which is the first standard
to address the importance of the qualification of
personnel involved in making human decisions that
affect how welding is done, will also be covered in
depth.
Register at www.aws.org/conferences
THIS CONFERENCE IS A MUST FOR ANYONE INVOLVED IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE
WELDING
WORKBOOK
When selecting equipment for eye and face protection, keep
in mind that all such equipment shall comply with ANSI/ISEA
Z87.1, Occupational and Educational Personal Eye and Face Pro-
tection Devices.
Arc Welding and Cutting with Open Arcs
When arc welding and/or cutting with an open arc, operators
and any nearby personnel shall use helmets or hand shields with
filter lenses and cover lenses when viewing the arc. They also
need to wear protective spectacles with side shields, arc goggles,
or other approved eye protection.
Welding helmets with filter lenses are intended to protect
users from arc rays and from weld sparks and spatter that im-
pinge directly against the helmet. To protect the user from im-
pact hazards when the welding helmet may be raised during use,
spectacles with lateral protection or goggles should also be worn.
The spectacles or goggles may have either clear or filtered lenses,
depending upon the amount of exposure to adjacent welding or
cutting radiation. Others in the immediate welding area should
wear similar eye protection. Welding helmets will not protect against
the severe impact of fragmenting grinding wheels, abrasive discs,
or explosive devices.
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting and
Submerged Arc Welding
Welding goggles, or welding helmet or welding faceshield over
spectacles or goggles shall be worn during all oxyfuel gas weld-
ing and cutting, and submerged arc welding operations.
It is recommended that such eye protection offer lateral (side)
coverage.
Resistance Welding and Brazing
Operators of resistance welding or brazing equipment and
their helpers are to wear welding goggles, or welding helmet or
welding faceshield over spectacles or goggles for eye and face
protection.
Large Area Viewing
If theres a large area viewing, such as for training, demonstra-
tions, shows, and certain automatic welding operations, it is per-
missible to use a large filter window or curtain in lieu of eye and
face protection. The radiation transmission of the window or cur-
tain material shall be equivalent to that in ANSI/ISEA Z87.1 for
shade number appropriate to the welding or cutting operation.
Additionally, suitable arrangements shall be provided to
prevent direct viewing of the arc without filter protection and
to protect viewers from sparks and chipped slag.
Requirements for Eye and Face Protection
Filter Lenses. Filter lenses shall be in accordance with
ANSI/ISEA Z87.1, and the shade shall be selected in accordance
with AWS F2.2, Lens Shade Selector.
Filter lenses should be free from any flaws that may distract,
block, or otherwise impair vision. People with special eye con-
ditions should consult their physician for specific information
on protective equipment.
Material Properties. Helmet and hand shield bodies are to
be made of material that is thermally and electrically insulat-
ing, noncombustible or self-extinguishing, and opaque to visi-
ble, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation. They also must comply
with the requirements of ANSI/ISEA Z87.1.
Welding helmets, hand shields, and goggles that comply with
ANSI/ISEA Z87.1 are limited in combustibility.
Area of Protection. When there is a possibility of hazardous ex-
posure, helmets and hand shields shall protect the face, forehead,
neck, and ears to a vertical line in back of the ears, from direct ra-
diant energy fromthe arc, and from direct weld spatter.
Some low-current processes, such as with micro plasma arcs,
may not present a hazardous radiation exposure, but may have
a spatter exposure. Therefore, operators should be provided
with safety glasses even if there is no radiation hazard.
Effect of Materials on Skin. Materials in contact with the
body shall not readily irritate or discolor the skin.
Goggle Ventilation. Goggles are to be vented to deter fog-
ging of the lenses in accordance with ANSI Z87.1.
Outer Cover Lenses. Outer lenses are to be provided to pro-
tect the filter lens in goggles, helmets, or hand shields from
welding spatter, pitting, or scratching. Outer cover lenses should
be made of clear glass or self-extinguishing plastic, but need
not be impact resistant.
Inner Lenses or Plates. If you are using a lift front type of
welders helmet, there should be a fixed impact-resistant safety
lens or plate on the inside of the frame nearest to the eyes to pro-
tect the welder against flying particles when the front is lifted.
Marking. Filter lenses shall bear some permanent distinc-
tive marking by which the manufacturer may be readily identi-
fied. In addition, all filter lenses shall be marked with their
shade number and in accordance with the requirements of ANSI
Z87.1.
Radiation Transmittance Properties. All filter lenses are to
meet the Ultraviolet, Luminous and Infrared Transmittance
requirements of ANSI Z87.1.
Maintenance. Helmets, handshields, and goggles shall be well
maintained, and should not be transferred from one employee
to another without being cleaned. Refer to the manufacturers
instructions to learn the methods of cleaning these items.
Selecting a Lens Shade
As a rule of thumb, start with a shade that is too dark to see
the weld zone. Then go to a lighter shade that gives sufficient
view of the weld zone without going below the minimum.
In oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, or brazing where the torch
and/or the flux produces a high yellow light, it is desirable to use
a filter lens that absorbs the yellow or sodium line of the visible
light spectrum.
JANUARY 2014 72
Datasheet 345
Excerpted from ANSI Z49.1: 2012, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
Protecting the Eyes and Face
Pipelines Conference

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 223.
Highlights
- Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments
in pipeline welding.
-
business growth.
- AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional
Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance.
and renewals.
March 4-5, 2014 - Hcu:Icn
We|cing hc: c|wcy: Leen cn inIegrc| pcrI cf pipe|ine ccn:IrucIicn. lI c|| gce:
back to the days when hand-held oxyacetylene torches were u:ec Ic ccnnecI
pipe: IcgeIher in Ihe fie|c. CurrenI cnc fuIure pipeline welding trends will be
ci:cu::ec curing Ihi: AWS-sponsored conference cn pipe|ine we|cing.
SOCIETYNEWS SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
75 WELDING JOURNAL
AWS Elects National and District Officers for 2014
David J. Landon
vice president
David L. McQuaid
vice president
W. Richard Polanin
director-at-large
John Bray
vice president
Dean R. Wilson
president
The American Welding Soci-
ety has elected its incoming slate
of national and District officers,
effective Jan. 1, 2014.
Dean R. Wilson was elected
president. He is president of
Welldean Enterprises, a provider
of health, safety, and welding
products and industry consulting.
Earlier, he was director of weld-
ing business development at
Jackson Safety Products and
president of Wilson Industries
from 1987 to 2007. He has
worked on numerous AWS
standing committees, including
WEMCO, An Association of
Welding Equipment Manufac-
turers, where he served as chair
in 2005.
David J. Landon was elected
to a third term as a vice president.
Since 1992, he has worked as
manager of welding engineering
and missions support at Vermeer
Mfg. Co. and is an AWS Senior
Certified Welding Inspector.
Previously, he operated Lan-
dons Welding Services perform-
ing failure analyses, inspections,
and welder training and worked
as a welding engineer for
Chicago Bridge and Iron Co. He
has served on many AWS techni-
cal committees and as a Delegate
to the IIW Commission XIV,
Welding Education and Training.
David L. McQuaid was
elected to his second term as a
vice president. He heads D. L.
McQuaid and Associates, Inc.,
which he founded in 1999. He has
chaired the D1 Structural Weld-
ing and the Technical Activities
Committees. At American
Bridge Div. of U.S. Steel Corp.,
he served as senior welding en-
gineer and corporate engineer.
In 2009, he received the Ameri-
can National Standards Institute
Finegan Standards Medal for his
many contributions to industrial
standards.
John Bray was elected to
serve his first term as a vice pres-
ident. A past chair of the Hous-
ton Section, he most recently
served as Dist. 18 director. Bray
is with Affiliated Machinery,
Inc., in Pearland, Tex., where he
has served as president for the
past 18 years.
W. Richard Polanin, a recent
Dist. 13 director, was elected to
serve as a director-at-large.
Polanin is a professor and pro-
gram chair of Manufacturing En-
gineering Technology at Illinois
Central College and president of
WRP Associates. He is an AWS
Certified Welding Inspector,
Welder, and Welding Educator,
and is a SME Certified Manufac-
turing Engineer. He has served
as chair of the Peoria Section,
and a member of the AWS D16
Committee on Automated and
Robotic Welding, and AWS Ro-
botic Technician Certification
Committee.
Robert Roth, president and
CEO of RoMan Mfg., Inc., was
elected to serve as a director-at-
large. Roth serves on the Finance
Committee, is a past chair of
WEMCO (An Association of
Welding Equipment Manufac-
turers), and serves on a number
of RWMA (Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance) sub-
committees.
Harland Thompson was
elected to serve a second term as
Dist. 2 director. Thompson is
senior project engineer and
welding supervisor for Under-
writers Laboratories (UL), Inc.,
in Melville, N.Y. Prior to joining
UL in 2006, he worked in engi-
neering and quality assurance
positions at Belle Transit Div.,
the Long Island Railroad,
Thompson Transit Services,
Ronkonkoma, N.Y.; and LTK
Engineering Services.
Carl Matricardi was elected
to continue serving as Dist. 5 di-
rector. He is founder and presi-
dent of Welding Solutions, Inc.,
in Lawrenceville, Ga. In the
welding industry for 38 years, he
is an AWS Certified Welding In-
spector and Welding Educator,
and vice chair of the Atlanta Sec-
tion. Matricardi worked as a
shipyard welder before earning
his masters degree in education.
He has taught welding and man-
ufacturing processes in colleges
and state universities, and served
as an expert witness.
D. Joshua Burgess was
elected Dist. 8 director. He has
Robert Roth
director-at-large
Harland Thompson
Dist. 2 director
Carl Matricardi
Dist. 5 director
JANUARY 2014 76
D. Joshua Burgess
Dist. 8 director
Robert Richwine
Dist. 14 director
Robert Wilcox
Dist. 11 director
John Stoll
Dist. 18 director
Jerry Knapp
Dist. 17 director
served as Dist. 8 deputy director since 2009.
Burgess holds a Masters in welding metallurgy
and expects to defend his PhD dissertation this
year. An AWS certified Level III Expert welder,
he competed in the VICA welding contests where
he was a two-time Tennessee State Champion and
ranked third in the nation at the SkillsUSA com-
petition. Currently a consultant engineer for Ma-
terials Applications, Inc., he will begin work as a
welding engineer at Alstom in Chattanooga, Tenn.,
in March.
Robert Wilcox, an AWS member since 1974,
was elected to a second term as Dist. 11 director.
He has served in many Detroit Section officer po-
sitions, including chair. He has worked in the au-
tomobile industry as a cost estimator, buyer, and
quality manager. Currently, he owns and operates
Warriors of Faith Martial Arts Academy.
Robert Richwine, an AWS Distinguished Mem-
ber with the Indiana Section, was elected to a sec-
ond term as Dist. 14 director. With Ivy Tech Com-
munity College since 1994, he serves as director
of its new Welding Institute. He has received the
District CWI of the Year, Meritorious, Private Sec-
tor Educator, and the District Educator and Dis-
trict Director Awards, the National Meritorious
and the National Image of Welding Awards.
Jerry Knapp, an AWS member for more than
35 years, was elected Dist. 17 director. Knapp has
served as Tulsa Section chair for two years and is
presently a board advisor. He has extensive expe-
rience as a salesman in the gas and welding sup-
ply industry. He has worked for Alloy Welding Sup-
ply, Arkansas Specialty Co., Jimmie Jones, Na-
tional Welding Supply, Bell Helicopter, Adair
Sheet Metal, Hobbs Trailers, and American Mfg.
of Texas.
John Stoll, an AWS Life Member, was elected
Dist. 18 director to fill the last year of John Brays
second term. Active with the Houston Section, he
served as chair 20092010 and assisted with its
CWI exams and welding contests. He currently
serves on API technical committees. Recently, he
joined The Bohler Welding Group North Amer-
ica as industry segment manager, Power and Petro-
chemical, Technical Services.
Pierrette Gorman was elected Dist. 20 direc-
tor. She has chaired the New Mexico Section twice
and received the Section and District Meritorious
Awards. She served ten years at Sandia National
Laboratories as a lead process engineer involved
with lean manufacturing and laser processing. Ear-
Pierrette Gorman
Dist. 20 director
The American Welding Societys
World Headquarters campus was voted to
receive the 2013 Keep Doral Beautiful
Award during a meeting of the Doral City
Council Nov. 13. The Society was nomi-
nated for the recognition by Adam Tem-
ple, interim director of code compliance.
The citation noted the American Welding
Society campus, which houses the offices
of Sen. Marco Rubio and Congressman
Mario Diaz-Balart, has undergone major
construction, renovations, and a beautifi-
cation facelift. Receiving the award from
Mayor Luigi Boria were Jim Lankford,
managing director, and Hidail Nuez, di-
rector, of AWS Administrative Services.
The Doral City Council members in at-
tendance included Vice Mayor Christi
Fraga and Councilwomen Bettina Ro-
driguez Aguilera, Ana Maria Rodriguez,
and Sandra Ruiz.
Shown at the Doral City Council meeting Nov. 13 are (from left) Adam Temple, Sandra Ruiz, Hidail Nuez, Jim Lankford, Mayor Luigi
Boria, Bettina Rodriguez Aguilera, Ana Maria Rodriguez, and Vice Mayor Christi Fraga.
AWS Headquarters Campus Lauded by the City of Doral
lier, she worked as a re-
search and applications
engineer at Optomec,
Inc.; welding engineer at
Wilson Greatbatch, Ltd.;
and a research technician
at EWI where she ex-
plored resistance welding
of dissimilar materials.
She holds two patents on
forming structures from
CAD solid models.
77 WELDING JOURNAL
Standard for Public Review
D10.17M/D10.17:201X, Guide for
Welding Tubular Steel Vehicle Structures.
$35. Review expired 12/16/2013. E-mail B.
McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org, to order a
copy. AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute in
1979. AWS rules require that all standards
be open to public review for comment dur-
ing the approval process.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun to revise
the following standards. Affected individ-
uals are invited to contribute to this work.
F4.2:201X, Safety Guidelines for Proper
Selection and Safe Use of Welding Cables.
This document provides guidance on the
safe and proper selection of welding ca-
bles. This includes identifying specific cri-
teria including minimum copper content,
gauge sizing, electrical performance, and
resistance for welding cable sizes. Stake-
holders: Personnel involved in welding.
Contact Steve Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
E-mail Chelsea Lewis, clewis@aws.org,
for information on the following projects.
C4.1:201X, Criteria for Describing Oxy-
gen-Cut Surfaces. This set consists of a
plastic gauge with samples of oxygen-cut
surfaces, and a document including de-
scriptive terms and illustrations of surface
cuts. Stakeholders: Oxyfuel gas cutters and
inspectors as an aid to identify acceptance
levels of oxygen-cut surfaces. C4.1 is ref-
erenced in several AWS D.1 structural
welding documents.
C4.2/C4.2M:201X, Recommended
Practices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Torch
Operation. This document includes the
procedures to be used in conjunction with
oxyfuel gas cutting equipment and the lat-
est safety requirements. Complete lists of
equipment are available from individual
manufacturers. Stakeholders: Oxyfuel gas
operators involved with cutting steel plate
and tooling fabrication, equipment man-
ufacturers, and building construction.
C4.3/C4.3:201X, Recommended Prac-
tices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torch
Operation. The document includes the lat-
est safety requirements and procedures
to be used in conjunction with oxyfuel gas
heating equipment. Stakeholders: Oxy-
fuel gas heating and welding operators,
and steel mill, fabrication, and tool shop
personnel.
C4.4/C4M:201X, Recommended Prac-
tices for Heat Shaping and Straightening
with Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torches. This edi-
tion covers the shaping of metal products
by prudent use of heat to obtain a desired
configuration. The text reviews the theory
and analytical calculations that explain
how heat shaping and straightening occur.
Sample calculations and tables are pre-
sented for typical materials. General heat-
ing patterns and heat shaping and straight-
ening techniques are discussed. Specific
heating applications are illustrated for var-
ious sections. Stakeholders: Oxyfuel gas
heating torch operators and users of oxy-
fuel gas welding systems.
C4.5M:201X, Uniform Designation Sys-
tem for Oxyfuel Nozzles. This document
recommends identification markings to be
permanently applied to the torch nozzle
to identify its intended application and to
improve the safe operation and applica-
tion of nozzles by torch operators. Stake-
holders: Members of the oxyfuel gas weld-
ing and cutting community.
C7.2M:201X, Recommended Practices
for Laser Beam Welding, Cutting and Allied
Processes. This document can be used for
welding, cutting, drilling, and transforma-
tion hardening of various materials. These
recommended practices stress the process
basics, parameters, and applications.
Stakeholders: Members of the laser beam
welding industry.
David Trees (left) receives his Silver Mem-
ber Certificate from Lee Kvidahl, a past
AWS president, during the Membership
Committee meeting Oct. 23 at AWS World
Headquarters in Miami, Fla. The Silver
Member Certificate is presented for 25
years of service to the Society.
Tech Topics
Shown during the Oct. 29, 30 A2 Committee meeting at EWI in Columbus, Ohio, are (from left) Richard Holdren, Secretary Stephen Bor-
rero, Chris Lander, Chuck Ford, Dave Beneteau, Bob Anderson, Mike Ludwig, Chris Thurow, Pat Newhouse, Ben Finney, Bryan Worley, J.
P. Christein, and Brian Galliers. The Committee members met to discuss the revisions for AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Defini-
tions, and A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination.
A2 Committee Meets at EWI in Columbus
JANUARY 2014 78
Methods of Weld Inspection, The B1
Committee seeks educators, general interest,
and end users. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Safety and Health Committee seeks edu-
cators, users, general interest, and consult-
ants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4 Com-
mittee seeks educators, general interest, and
end users. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L Sub-
committee seeks professionals. R. Gupta,
gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and educa-
tional members. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@
aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Sub-
committee seeks professionals. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Commit-
tee seeks professionals. B. McGrath, bmc-
grath@aws.org.
Reactive Alloys, G2D Subcommittee seeks
volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcommit-
tee seeks members. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum alloys
for aerospace applications, D17J Subcom-
mittee seeks members. A. Diaz, adiaz@
aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1 Com-
mittee seeks educators, general interest, and
users. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying and automotive weld-
ing, The D8 and C2 Committees seek educa-
tors, general interest, and end users. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and surfacing
and reconditioning of industrial mill rolls,
D14 Committee and D14H Subcommittee
seek professionals. E. Abrams, eabrams@
aws.org.
C7.3M/C7.3:201X, Process Specification
for Electron Beam Welding. This publica-
tion discusses applicable specifications,
safety, requirements, fabrication, quality
examination, equipment calibration and
maintenance, approval of work, and deliv-
ery of work. It addresses processing and
quality control requirements for electron
beam welding with both high- and low-volt-
age welding equipment in high- and
medium-vacuum variations. Stakeholders:
Manufacturers, welding engineers, and ma-
chine operators.
D18.3/D18.3M:201X, Specification for
Welding of Tanks, Vessels, and Other Equip-
ment in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications.
This specification provides the require-
ments for welding tanks, vessels, and other
equipment used in food-processing and
other areas where hygienic applications are
required. Addressed are qualification, fab-
rication, extent of visual examination, ac-
ceptance criteria, and documentation.
Stakeholders: Suppliers of medical and
food-service equipment.
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meetings
are open to the public. To attend a meet-
ing, e-mail the program manager listed.
Jan. 29, 30, Technical Activities Com-
mittee. Miami, Fla. Contact A. Alonso,
aalonso@aws.org.
Jan. 29, International Standards Activi-
ties Committee. Miami, Fla. Contact A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org.
Nominations Sought for
Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is presented
to one person, 40 years old or younger,
who has made significant contributions
to the advancement of materials joining
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidates expe-
rience, publications, honors, awards, and
at least three letters of recommendation
from fellow researchers to Todd Palmer,
tap103@psu.edu, associate professor,
The Pennsylvania State University. The
award is sponsored by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Dept. of Ocean
Engineering.
Opportunities to Serve on Technical Committees
Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
The U.S. TAG (Technical Advisory
Group) that serves as the United States
National Committee to ISO/TC 44/SC 10,
Unification of Requirements in the Field
of Metal Welding, seeks United States ex-
perts to serve on a newly created subgroup
dealing with micro melting diffusion
bonding.
The group is curently working on a new
ISO standard concerning micro joining
of second-generation high-temperature
superconductors.
For complete information, contact An-
drew Davis, managing director, technical
services, adavis@aws.org.
U.S. Experts Sought to Develop ISO Standard on Micro Melting Diffusion Bonding
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
20+ Points
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley 85
J. Morris, Mobile 75
M. Anderson, Indiana 57
D. Ebenhoe, Kern 50
G. Fudala, Philadelphia 45
M. Box, Mobile 42
B. Scherer, Cincinnati 40
K. Rawlins, Columbia 31
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 30
S. Siviski, Maine 29
B. Trankler, West Tennessee 27
D. Wheeler, Oklahoma City 25
R. Richwine, Indiana 25
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 24
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 22
F. Babish, Lehigh Valley 20
C. Daon, Israel 20
R. Jones, Atlanta 20
1119 Points
M. Kress, Chattanooga 19
J. Vincent, Kansas City 18
D. Bastian, NW Pa. 16
P. Kreitman, Chicago 15
S. Lathrop, Puget Sound 15
S. Lindsey, San Diego 15
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh 15
S. Schulte, Kansas City 15
J. Terry, Greater Huntsville 15
R. Riggs, Tulsa 14
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 13
J. Goodson, New Orleans 12
R. Poirier, Tidewater 11
J. Carney, West Michigan 11
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 11
Listed are the members participating in the June 1Dec. 31, 2013, campaign. Members receive 5 points for each Individual and 1 point for
each Student Member recruited. Standings as of Nov. 20. See page 85 of this Welding Journal for campaign rules and prize list or visit
www.aws.org/mgm. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 480, for more information.
79 WELDING JOURNAL
SECTIONNEWS SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Shown during the Boston Sections tour are (from left) Dist. 1 Director Tom Ferri, Fitz Acheson, John Hamel, Kevin Noel, Dave Aubin, and
Jeff Mannette, Section chair.
Students participating in the Philadelphia Section program are (from left) Trace Say, Nick
Parrish, Malik Downing, Jacob Doll, and Daniel Fillipelli.
Biazzio Giordano, Student Chapter advisor,
is shown at the Philadelphia Section event.
BOSTON
NOVEMBER 4
Activity: The Section visited Climax
Portable Machine and Welding Systems in
Amherst, N.H. Conducting the tour were
Fitz Acheson, John Hamel, Kevin Noel,
and Dave Aubin.
PHILADELPHIA/Parkside
CTE Student Chapter
OCTOBER 9
Activity: The Section members met at
Parkside High School Career and Techni-
cal Education Center in Salisbury, Md., to
see members of the Student Chapter
demonstrate their welding skills and learn
about the schools welder education pro-
gram. Leading the event was welding in-
structor and Student Chapter Advisor Bi-
azzio Bill Giordano.
AWS Member Counts
December 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................601
Supporting.....................................344
Educational ...................................664
Affiliate..........................................545
Welding Distributor........................50
Total Corporate ..........................2,204
Individual .................................59,225
Student + Transitional .................9,670
Total Members.........................68,895
On Nov. 17, 2013, after due consider-
ation, Districts Council approved the
Monterrey Section charter (Dist. 18).
Approved: Transferring Jackson, Lee,
Pulaski, and Rockcastle Counties from
the NE Tennessee Section (Dist. 8) to the
Lexington Section (Dist. 14).
Approved: Student Chapter charters
for York Tech Welding (Dist. 4), Bradley
Central High School (Dist. 8), NE Wis-
consin Technical College (Dist. 12), and
West Seattle (Dist. 19).
Approved: Disbanding the following
Student Chapters: North Montco Tech-
nical Career Center (Dist. 2); Central
Westmoreland Career and Technical
Center (Dist. 7); and Kent Meridian High
School, Lake Washington Technical Col-
lege, Olympic College, South Sound,
Spokane Community College, and Tri-
Tech Skills Center (Dist. 19); and the
Wilmington Skills Center (Dist. 21).
Actions of Districts Council
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
JANUARY 2014 80
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
The York-Central Pennsylvania Section members are shown at Legacy Innovations in November.
Shown at the SW Virginia Section tour are (from left) David Owens, Greg McQuaid, Chair
Bill Rhodes, speaker David McQuaid, Dist. 4 Director Stewart Harris, and David Cash.
Southwest Virginia Section members are shown during their tour of Altec Industries.
Shown at the York-Central Pennsylvania
Section Oct. 17 event, speaker Dave Watson
(left) presents Jay Covert with a welders hel-
met for winning a competition using virtual
reality arc welding training equipment.
YORK-CENTRAL PA.
OCTOBER 17
Activity: The members visited York
County School of Technology in York, Pa.,
to compete using the VRTEX virtual re-
ality arc welding trainer. Dave Watson,
Lincoln Electric sales engineer, conducted
the contest. Jay Covert won the event.
NOVEMBER 14
Activity: The York-Central Pa. Section
members visited Legacy Innovations, Inc.,
in York, Pa., to study the manufacture of
custom-made automobiles.
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
OCTOBER 17
Speaker: David McQuaid, AWS VP
Affiliation: D. L. McQuaid & Associates
Topic: Welding repairs and heat straightening
Activity: Following the talk, the Section
members toured the Altec Industries, Inc.,
facility in Daleville, Va. Stewart Harris,
Dist. 4 director, attended the event.
ATLANTA
NOVEMBER 7
Activity: The Section members toured the
Applied Technical Services facility in Ma-
rietta, Ga., to study its weld testing and
training operations. Jason Loy led the tour
assisted by Jeff George and David Mock.
FLORIDA WEST COAST
OCTOBER 16
Activity: The Section members joined
members of the Society of Naval Archi-
tects and Marine Engineers, headed by
Chair Alexandra Anagnostis, to tour the
Tampa Yacht Mfg. LLC facilities in Pinel-
las Park, Fla. The tour was conducted by
CEO Bob Stevens and Timothy Chalfant,
chief naval architect.
NOVEMBER 13
Speakers: Jessica McRory, Arehna Engi-
neering, Inc.; and John Watson, L.R.E
Ground Services, Inc.
Topic: Detection and repair of sinkholes
Activity: Al Sedory received his Life Mem-
ber Certificate for 35 years of service to
the Society. This Florida West Coast Sec-
tion program was held at Spaghetti Ware-
house in Tampa, Fla.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
81 WELDING JOURNAL
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
NIAGARA FRONTIER
OCTOBER 24
Speaker: Michael Tracy
Affiliation: Hypertherm
Activity: The Section members met at Erie
1 BOCES Workforce Development Cen-
ter in Cheektowaga, N.Y., for a talk and
demonstration of plasma cutting. Twenty-
seven members and students attended the
program.
NORTHERN NEW YORK
NOVEMBER 5
Activity: Chuck Furman, terminal man-
ager, gave a talk then conducted the Sec-
tion members on a tour of Global Termi-
nal, Port of Albany, N.Y. The facility is a
distribution center for ethanol, gasoline,
and crude oil.
Shown at the Atlanta Section tour are (from left) Jeff George, Dist. 5 Director Carl Matri-
cardi, David Mock, Jason Loy, and Chair David Ennis.
Shown Oct. 16 during the Florida West Coast Section tour are (from left) Bill Machnovitz,
Ray Monson, Chair Charles Crumpton III, Bob Stevens, Alexandra Anagnostis, and Timo-
thy Chalfant.
Lawson State Community College Student Chapter members are shown at the November meeting.
Life Member Al Sedory (left) is shown with
Charles Crumpton III, Florida West Coast
Section chair, at the Nov. 13 meeting.
John Watson (center) and Jessica McRory
are shown Nov. 13 with Charles Crumpton
III, Florida West Coast Section chair.
Presenter Chuck Furman (right) is shown
Nov. 5 with Doug Tanner, Northern New
York Section vice chair.
JANUARY 2014 82
The Birmingham Section and Lawson State C.C. Student Chapter members are shown at the November students night program.
New Orleans Section meeting participants are (from left) Vernon Delaune, Al Theriot, Chair Aldo Duron, John Marcade, host Rickey Fabra,
Mike Eilers, Ed Dixon, and Neal Keller.
The incoming Lawson State C. C. Student Chapter officers are (from left) Edward Lovell,
P. J. Phillips, Chair Caroline Cotton, Ryan Duke, Roderick Jemison, and Greg Anderson.
Shown at the New Orleans Section program are (from left) Chair Aldo Duron and presen-
ters Eddie Harper, District 17 Director J. Jones, and Todd Taranto.
Mobile Section Chair Michael Zoghby (left)
is shown with speaker Chip Fonde.
Shown at the Nov. 14 Mobile Section pro-
gram are (from left) Ryan Harrison, Johnny
Dedeaux, and Chair Michael Zoghby.
83 WELDING JOURNAL
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
joshburgess1984@gmail.com
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
COLUMBUS
OCTOBER 9
Speaker: David Cook, team leader
Affiliation: Venturi Buckeye Bullet, The
Ohio State University Center for Automo-
tive Research
Topic: Developing high-speed electric cars
Activity: The program was held at La Scala
Restaurant in Columbus, Ohio.
BIRMINGHAM/Lawson State
C. C. Student Chapter
NOVEMBER 12
Activity: The Section held its students
night program at Lawson State C. C.,
Bessemer Campus, for 55 attendees. Re-
cruiters David Cobb, Carlos Lett, and
Erica Fleming discussed job openings and
worker benefits at Ingalls Shipbuilding in
Pascagoula, Miss.
Lawson State C. C.
Student Chapter
OCTOBER 29
Activity: The Chapter held its election of
officers. Elected were Chair Caroline Cot-
ton, Vice Chair P. J. Phillips, Secretary Ed-
ward Lovell, Treasurer Ryan Duke, Pub-
licity Chair Roderick Jemison, and Pro-
gram Chair Greg Anderson.
MOBILE
OCTOBER 10
Speaker: Chip Fonde, safety director
Affiliation: Taylor-Wharton Cryogenics
Topic: Welding and cutting safety
Activity: The Section, in recognition of
breast cancer awareness, presented a pair
of pink safety glasses to each attendee. The
program was held at The Original Oyster
House in Spanish Fort, Ala.
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: Johnny Dedeaux, senior fixed
equipment engineer
Affiliation: Hargrove Engineers + Con-
structors, Mobile, Ala.
Topic: Engineering before the Arc
Activity: Dedeaux was assisted by
coworker Ryan Harrison in his presenta-
tion detailing a new high-pressure separa-
tor used in an oil refinery. The Mobile Sec-
tion has a new presence at www.face-
book.com/awsmobilesection.
NEW ORLEANS
OCTOBER 15
Speakers: Eddie Harper, district manager;
Todd Taranto, local representative; and J.
Jones, district director and AWS District
17 director
Affiliation: Harris Products Group
Topic: Brazing and soldering filler metals
Activity: The program was held at
Plumbers & Steamfitters UA Local 60 in
Metairie, La., hosted by Business Manager
Rickey Fabra.
DISTRICT 10
NOVEMBER 9
Activity: The District held its third Certi-
fied Welding Inspector (CWI) roundtable
for CWIs to share their experiences and
opinions. The 17 attendees discussed weld-
ing procedure specifications, simplified
forms, CWIs value to production, and
quality and interpretation issues. Partici-
pating were former Dist. 10 Director
Richard Harris, Bob Gardner, Travis
Crate, Mike Owens, Dan Donaldson, Don-
ald Baize, Phillip Schmidt, Tom Kostreba,
Adam Webb, Mike Barrett, Jason Neff,
Lance Besse, Donna Bastian, Don Adams,
Jim Meyers, John Gorski, and Bob Dis-
sauer. The event was held at The Lincoln
Electric Co. in Euclid, Ohio.
DRAKE WELL
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: Ron Stahura, sales manager
Affiliation: ESAB
Topic: Plasma arc cutting
Activity: The program was held at The
Commons at Franklin, Pa.
MAHONING VALLEY
OCTOBER 17
Activity: The Section held an executive
committee meeting at Rachels Restaurant
in Austintown, Ohio.
Some of the participants are shown at the District 10 CWI Roundtable event.
Shown are Drake Well Section members (from left) front row: Robert Fugate, Ronald Lang,
Jim Shore, Erick Speer, and speaker Ron Stahura; back row: Rolf Laemmer, Ward Kiser,
Mike Owens, and Delayne Jacobs.
JANUARY 2014 84
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com
NOVEMBER 7
Speaker: Galen White, welding engineer
Affiliation: Hobart Brothers
Topic: Trends in welding aluminum
Activity: This Mahoning Valley Section
program was held at Columbiana County
Career Center in Columbiana, Ohio.
DETROIT
NOVEMBER 5
Speaker: David Havrilla, manager, prod-
ucts and applications
Affiliation: TRUMPF, Inc.
Topic: Fundamentals of automotive laser
welding
Activity: Havrilla led this 2-h class as part
of the Sections welding education series.
Forty attendees participated in the lecture
and demonstrations held at TRUMPF,
Inc., in Plymouth, Mich.
NOVEMBER 7
Speaker: Will Brick, manager
Affiliation: TechShop Detroit
Topic: Introduction to TechShop
Activity: The program was held at
TechShop Detroit in Allen Park, Mich.
MADISON-BELOIT
OCTOBER 16
Activity: The Section members attended
the Madison Area Technical College open
house in Madison, Wis. They toured its re-
cently expanded welding facilities and saw
its new waterjet cutting machine demon-
strated by Instructor Jon Christian. Man-
ufacturing representatives included Rob
Stinson (Lincoln), James Maynard and
Chris Wierschke (Miller), Dave Gilbert-
son (Encompass Gas of Madison), Ben
Newcomb (Badger Welding Supplies), and
Jim Chapman (Airgas).
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rwilcox1@ford.com
Speaker Galen White (left) is shown with
Chuck Moore, Mahoning Valley Section
chair.
David Havrilla conducts an automotive laser
welding class for the Detroit Section mem-
bers in November.
Speaker Will Brick (right) is shown with Wes
Doneth, Detroit Section chair, at TechShop
Detroit.
Shown at the Madison-Beloit event are (from left) Chair Tony Stute, Dave Gilbertson, Rob
Stinson, James Chapman, Ben Newcomb, Chris Wierschke, and Jim Maynard.
Madison-Beloit Section members and students are shown at the October event.
4 Easy Ways to Join or Renew:
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Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647 Online: www.aws.org/membership
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87 WELDING JOURNAL
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 606-7970
rlrichwine2@aol.com
RACINE-KENOSHA
OCTOBER 23
Activity: The Section met at Wisconsin
Oven Corp in East Troy, Wis., to study its
operations. James Stewart, shop manager,
and Diana Dalgren, head of human re-
sources, conducted a tour. Members of
Gateway Technical College Welding,
Elkhorn Campus, participated in the
event.
Attendees are shown at the Racine-Kenosha Section tour of Wisconsin Oven Corp.
Indiana Section awardees are (from left) Jack Laudig, Martina Miller, Erin Fromson, Gary
Dugger, and Steve Gillig.
St. Louis Section members are shown during their tour of AmerenUE.
Gary Dugger is shown with Bennie Flynn,
Indiana Section chair.
INDIANA
NOVEMBER 7
Activity: The Section held its annual
awards night hosted by Chair Bennie Flynn
of Flynn Welding Inspection in Solsberry,
Ind. Erin Fromson and Steve Gillig re-
NORTHWEST
JULY 13
Activity: The Section visited the 3M facil-
ity in St. Paul, Minn., for a presentation on
new metal-removal products. Guiding the
tour were Brad Johnson, Scott Barnett,
Marv Schifsky, Nick Manor, Nate Herbst,
Jim Olson, and John Barry.
ceived the District Director Certificate
Award, Gary Dugger the District Private
Sector Educator Award, Jack Laudig the
Section CWI of the Year Award, and Mar-
tina Miller the Section Appreciation
Award.
ST. LOUIS
NOVEMBER 7
AmerenUE training facilities in St. Louis,
Mo. The guides were John Baima, Laurie
Kutz, and Steve Zaitz.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
OCTOBER 14
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: In the afternoon, Cole and the
Northwest Section members toured
Wyoming Machine in Stacy, Minn., a
company owned by two sisters, Co-Pres-
idents Lori and Traci Tapani. CWI Anna
Wald serves as the companys QC man-
ager. Afterward, Cole presented her talk
to more than 30 members and guests at
a dinner program held in Shoreview,
Minn.
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
IOWA
OCTOBER 24
Activity: The program was held at Ver-
meer Mfg. Corp. in Pella, Iowa.
NOVEMBER 7
Activity: The Iowa Section members and
guests toured Kinze Mfg., Inc., in
Williamsburg, Iowa, for a presentation
on its planter assembly area.
KANSAS
OCTOBER 5
Activity: The Section and Hutchinson C.
C. personnel coached six Boy Scouts from
Troop 301 to earn their welding merit
badges. The event was held at the college
in Hutchinson, Kan.
OCTOBER 10
Activity: The Kansas Section members
toured the Caterpillar Work Tools facil-
ity in Wamego, Kan., led by Mike Jones,
plant manager.
OCTOBER 19
Activity: The Section members coached
eight Boy Scouts from Arkansas City,
Kan., to earn their welding merit badges.
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: David Landon, AWS vice presi-
dent and manager of welding engineering
Affiliation: Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Topic: Virtual reality welding
Activity: Following the talk, Jamie Kap-
pler (Lincoln Electric) demonstrated the
VRTEX360 virtual arc welding train-
ing system. Dennis Wright, Dist. 16 di-
rector, presented Diane Steadham the
District Meritorious Award. Chair Greg
Siepert presented Bob Simon his Silver
Member Certificate for 25 years of serv-
ice to the Society. The meeting was held
at WATC National Center for Aviation
Training in Wichita, Kan.
KANSAS CITY
OCTOBER 22
Activity: Cole and the Section members
toured the new welding facilities at
Kansas City Kansas C. C. Cole presented
Dist. 16 Director Dennis Wright the 2013
Image of Welding Award.
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 622-8600
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
JANUARY 2014 88
Ric Eckstein (left), Northwest Section chair,
is shown with Brad Johnson at 3M in July.
Shown during the Northwest Section tour are (from left) Anna Wald, Traci Tapani, AWS
President Nancy Cole, and Lori Tapani.
The Iowa Section members are shown during their tour of Kinze Mfg. in Williamsburg, Iowa.
AWS President Nancy Cole (center) is surrounded by the ladies attending the Northwest
Section dinner meeting.
89 WELDING JOURNAL
Kansas Section program helped six Boy Scouts earn their welding merit badges Oct. 5.
The Kansas Section members are shown during their tour of Caterpillar Work Tools.
Shown Oct. 19, the Kansas Section members and Boy Scouts celebrate the young welders earning their merit badges.
Diane Steadham receives the District Meri-
torious Award from Dennis Wright, Dist. 16
director.
Bob Simon (left) receives the Silver Mem-
ber Certificate Award from Greg Siepert,
Kansas Section chair.
AWS President Nancy Cole is shown with
Dennis Wright, Dist. 16 director, at the
Kansas City program.
Grant Von Lunen, chair, Kansas City Sec-
tion, presents a speaker plaque to Nancy
Cole, AWS president.
AWS President Nancy Cole poses with the Kansas City Section members.
DISTRICT 17 Conference
Activity: Dist. 17 Director J. Jones pre-
sented Donnie Williams, North Texas Sec-
tion chair, the District CWI of the Year
Award, and District Director Awards to
Caterpillar Work Tools & Services, Lumi-
nant Academy, Red Ball Oxygen, and Lin-
coln College of Technology for their sup-
JANUARY 2014 90
District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com
EAST TEXAS
OCTOBER 24
Activity: The Section members toured
Southwest Fabrication and Coatings in
White Oak, Tex. Jerry Newman, executive
VP and general manager, conducted the
program.
TULSA
OCTOBER 12
Activity: The Section sponsored a week-
long Certified Welding Inspector seminar
and weekend exams for 36 attendees. Abio-
dun Akinnibosun from Niger Delta Petro-
leum Resources, Ltd., traveled from Nige-
ria to take the exam. Test supervisors in-
cluded Melissa Howard, Ethan Howard,
Barry Lawrence, Jim Otte, Tim Smith, and
Rich Howard. The activity was held at
DoubleTree Hotel in Tulsa, Okla.
Shown at the Dist. 17 conference are (from left) Bill Hall, Donnie Williams, Candace Or-
tega, Dist. 17 Director J. Jones, AWS Director of Member Services Rhenda Kenny, and Ernest
Levert, a past AWS president.
Attendees are shown at the District 17 conference in Waco, Tex.
Shown during the Tulsa Section tour are
(from left) Jerry Knapp, presenter Don Bunn,
and Charles Griffin.
Joe Melendez (left) receives the Central Texas
Section Educator Award from J. Jones, Dist.
17 director.
CWI Ryan Rummel (left) is shown with J.
Jones, Dist. 17 director.
port of AWS activities. Ryan Rummel, a
CWI and CWE, received the Section Mer-
itorious Award for his support of the Cen-
tral Texas Section and serving as advisor
to the Texas State Technical College Stu-
dent Chapter. Joe Melendez received the
Central Texas Section Educator Award.
OCTOBER 23
Activity: The Tulsa Section members vis-
ited Sherry Laboratories in Broken Arrow,
Okla., to tour the facility and learn about
its metallurgical and mechanical testing of
materials. Don Bunn, special projects en-
gineer, conducted the program.
CORPUS CHRISTI
OCTOBER 17
Speaker: Jason Czajkowski, CWI, CWE
Affiliation: Applus RTD
Topic: Infrared thermographics
Activity: Czajkowski discussed and demon-
strated infrared thermographic camera
technology and took room-light and ther-
mal photos of the attendees. The meeting
was held at Craft Training Center of the
Coastal Bend in Corpus Christi, Tex.
HOUSTON
OCTOBER 26
Activity: The Section held a seminar for
49 attendees at NCI Training Center. The
topics were welding procedure specifica-
tions and procedure qualification records.
The presenters were George Baldree, Ron
Theiss, Charles W. Patrick, and Scott
Witkowski. The class was arranged by
James Hansford, education chair.
OCTOBER 31
Activity: The Houston Section toured
Forged Components, Inc., in Humble,
Tex., to study the fabrication of ASME
pressure vessels and numerous other prod-
ucts. Chris Heitman and David Allen ex-
plained how forgings are made and con-
ducted the tour.
LAKE CHARLES
AUGUST 21
Activity: Drew Fontenot shared his expe-
riences as the Sections representative at
the Dist. 18 conference. The meeting was
held at Logans Roadhouse Restaurant in
Lake Charles, La., for 24 attendees.
Fontenot noted John Stoll was elected to
fulfill John Brays last year as Dist. 18 di-
rector effective Jan. 1 when Bray is in-
stalled as an AWS vice president.
SAN ANTONIO
OCTOBER 15
Speaker: Brian Parrish, strike construc-
tion foreman
Affiliation: Eagle Ford Shale Area
Topic: Automatic pipe welding in the field
Activity: John Bray, Dist. 18 director, pre-
sented several awards.
91 WELDING JOURNAL
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorindustrial.com
Abiodun Akinnibosun (left) is shown with
Rich Howard at the Tulsa CWI seminar.
Shown are the Houston Section members who braved the elements Oct. 31 to tour the Forged Components plant.
Shown at the Houston Section seminar are George Baldree, Charles Patrick, Ron Theiss,
Scott Witkowski, and James Hansford.
Lake Charles Section members are shown at the August meeting.
Corpus Christi Section members pictured by
room-light (top) and infrared cameras.
Shown at the Lake Charles Section meeting
are (from left) Kermit Babaz, Gary Wag-
goner, Chair Tac Edwards, and presenter
Drew Fontenot.
Brad Moe (left) is shown with speaker Scott
Stanley at the British Columbia Section
event.
BRITISH COLUMBIA
SEPTEMBER 25
Speaker: Scott Stanley, technical sales rep-
resentative
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Virtual reality arc welding training
Activity: The meeting was held in Delta,
B.C., Canada.
OCTOBER 22
Speaker: Colin Stewart, senior welding in-
spector
Affiliation: SKC Engineering
Topic: Removing the Port Mann Bridge
Activity: At this British Columbia Section
program, the Bruce Third Memorial Weld-
ing Scholarship was awarded to Lorenzo
Webb, a welding student and a new Sec-
tion member. Attending were Bruce
Thirds widow Violet, son Rob Third, and
Adriana Webb.
OLYMPIC/PUGET SOUND
NOVEMBER 5
Activity: The Sections hosted a 9-year CWI
recertification class at CK Worldwide in
Auburn, Wash. Ron Theiss taught the sem-
inar, assisted by Sjon Delmore, Olympic
Section chair.
Colin Stewart (left) is shown with Scott Stan-
ley at the British Columbia Section program.
JANUARY 2014 92
Shown at the Olympic/Puget Sound-sponsored seminar at CK Worldwide are (from left) Braidy Fernandez, Leonard Olson, John Jaques,
Eric Murray, Joseph Gallagher, Zeki Gokle, Jeffrey Rice, presenter Ron Theiss, Coby Bounds, William Gentry, Patricia Yates, Stephen Schef-
fle, Olympic Section Chair Sjon Delmore, David A. Vallejo, and Jeff Tuttle.
Shown at the British Columbia Section are (from left) Violet Third, Rob Third, Lorenzo
Webb, Adriana Webb, and Brad Moe, Scholarship Committee chair.
Robert Hollingsworth receives his Silver
Member Certificate from Nancy Cole, AWS
president, at the Puget Sound Section event.
Attendees observed Jared Satterlund (green
shirt) bending welder qualification coupons
at the Spokane Section Oct. 24 event.
New Mexico Section members are shown during their tour of Horizon Trikes.
Nancy Cole, AWS president, receives a
speaker gift from Ken Johnson, Dist. 19 di-
rector, at the Puget Sound Section program.
Jeff Bailey (left) described applications for
one of the furnaces used at Wear-Tek
Foundry during the Spokane Section tour.
PUGET SOUND
APRIL 4
Activity: Robert J. Hollingsworth received
his Silver Member Certificate for 25 years
of service to the Society.
93 WELDING JOURNAL
Shown during the Arizona Section tour are (from left) Daniel Hurst, presenter Ivan Insua, Robert James, Richard Pell, Jerry Siko, Paul
Moreno, Karl Kammerzell, Richard Moreno, Alan Gaiser, Nick Martinez, Keith Winchester, James Benjamin, Jordan Potterfield, and Fran
Johnston.
The Sacramento Valley Section members are shown during the Praxair tour.
SPOKANE
OCTOBER 24
Speakers: Phil Zammit, Brooklyn Iron
Works; and Jared Satterlund, Oxarc
Topics: Welding to AWS codes and non-
destructive evaluation techniques
Activity: The program was held at Pullman
High School welding facility for more than
90 attendees including local industry mem-
bers and students from North Idaho Col-
lege. Equipment demonstrations were
conducted by Karl Susz (Lincoln Electric)
and Paul Stone (ESAB). Attendees par-
ticipated in bending welder qualification
coupons and NDE techniques.
NOVEMBER 13
Activity: The Section members toured
Wear-Tek Foundry in Spokane, Wash. Jeff
Bailey and Bob Underhill conducted the
tour of the facility that specializes in man-
ufacturing and heat treating parts for the
mining, power, and agriculture industries.
NEW MEXICO
OCTOBER 17
Speaker: Adolph Romero, CEO
Affiliation: Horizon Trikes
Topic: Fabrication and DOT requirements
for road-worthy vehicles
Activity: The meeting was held in Albu-
querque, N.Mex.
ARIZONA
OCTOBER 11
Activity: The Section members toured Salt
River Project Kyrene Generating Station
in Tempe, Ariz. Ivan Insua, engineer, led
the tour and discussed where welding is
used in the plant.
SACRAMENTO VALLEY
OCTOBER 16
Praxair Gas Production Facility in Pitts-
burg, Calif. Bill Bright, general manager,
conducted the program.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
JANUARY 2014 94
New AWS Supporters
SUSTAINING
Babcock & Wilcox Euclid Facility
24703 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44117
Representative: Brett Bercaw
www.babcock.com
DIS-TRAN Steel, LLC.
529 Cenla Dr.
Pineville, LA 71360
Representative: Thomas S. Malo
www.distran.com
Since 1965, DIS-TRAN Steel has pro-
vided transmission and substation steel
structures, tapered tubular poles, wide
flange, square tube, and lattice structures
to the utilities industry. It provides in-house
engineering and detailing capabilities with
Lean manufacturing to provide flexible
scheduling to handle quick-turn projects.
Durum USA
11133 I-45 S., Bldg. I
Conroe, TX 77302
Representative: Daniel Brotsch
www.durumusa.com
Skyline Steel, LLC
9 International Way
Longview, WA 98632
Representative: Juan Rodriguez
www.skylinesteel.com
WEMCO, Inc.
2823 S. Craig Rd.
Airway Heights, WA 99001
Representative: Jared Satterland
www.wemcoinc.com
SUPPORTING
Dearing Compressor & Pump Co.
3974 Simon Rd.
Youngstown, OH 44512
Derby Trailer Technologies, LLC
449 N. Water, Derby, KS 67037
Rode Welding Service, LLC
1211 Louis Ave.
Elk Grove Village, IL 60007
AFFILIATE
A1 Fence & Welding
PO Box 279
Marble Falls, TX 78654
Axenics Corp.
4 Townsend W., Ste. 5
Nashua, NH 03063
Diversified Metalworking, Inc.
106 E. Grant, Republic, MO 65738
Jogler, LLC.
6646 Complex Dr.
Baton Rouge, LA 70809
Kimball Midwest
4800 Roberts Rd.
Columbus, OH 43228
May Tool and Die, Inc.
9 Hackett Dr.
Tonawanda, NY 14150
MT Rigmat LLC
PO Box 190, Charlo, MT 59824
MWD Steel Fabrication
6140 McCormick Dr.
Lincoln, NE 68507
Patersonlabs, Inc.
8714 S. 222nd St.
Kent, WA 98031
Precise Welding Services
3561 Delta Height Rd.
Wallace, SC 29596
Semic S.A. De C.V.
Andre Marie Ampere # 3
Parque Industrial Cuamatla
Cuautitln Izcalli 54730, Mexico
Steelpipe, Ltd.
224 Neilson St., PO Box 13514
Onehunga 1643, New Zealand
Superior Joining Technologies, Inc.
11047 Raleigh Ct.
Machesney Park, IL 61115
TA Process Systems, LLC
3650 Kennesaw 75 Pkwy., Ste. #100
Kennesaw, GA 30144
Technology Development Group, Inc.
41901 Wolverine Rd., Shawnee, OK 74804
Upright Steel, LLC
1335 E. 171st St., Cleveland, OH 44110
Wartsila Defense, Inc.
26264 Twelve Trees Ln.
Poulsbo, WA 98370
Welder Testing, Inc.
502 W. 13th St., Deer Park, TX 77536
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Ballinger High School
802 Conda Ave., Ballinger, TX 76821
Central Arizona College
8470 N. Overfield Rd.
Coolidge, AZ 85128
Cypress Creek High School
9815 Grant Rd., Houston, TX 77070
Cypress Ranch High School
10700 Fry Rd., Cypress, TX 77433
Cypress Ridge High School
7900 N. Eldridge Pkwy.
Houston, TX 77041
Cypress Woods High School
13550 Woods Spillane Blvd.
Cypress, TX 77429
Cy-Fair High School
22602 Hempstead Hwy.
Cypress, TX 77429
Hico ISD
PO Box 218, Hico, TX 76457
Jersey Village High School
7600 Solomon St., Houston, TX 77040
Joint Professionals & Support Intl, Ltd.
2 Tokunbo Alli St., Ikeja, Lagos
Nigeria
Langham Creek High School
17610 FM 529, Houston, TX 77095
Mobridge-Pollock High School
1107 1st Ave. E., Mobridge, SD 57601
New Mexico State University Alamogordo
2400 N. Scenic Dr.
Alamogordo, NM 88310
Pulaski County High School
5414 Cougar Trail Rd., Dublin, VA 24084
Poth High School
506 N. Dickson
Poth, TX 78147
Salinas Valley Welding School
1520-A Meridian Rd.
Salina, CA 93907
Stanly Community College
141 College Dr.
Albemarle, NC 28001
Terrell Independent School District
400 Poetry Rd.
Terrell, TX 75160
Venus Independent School District
100 Student Dr., Venus, TX 76084
Warren County Career Center
3525 N. State Route 48
Lebanon, OH 45036
Waubonsee Community College
Rte. 47 at Waubonsee Dr.
Sugar Grove, IL 60554
Welding Greek Institute
Training Excellence Center
Panepistimiou 44, 6th Fl.
Athens, Attiki 10679, Greece
95 WELDING JOURNAL
Guide to AWS Services
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Dean R. Wilson
deanwilsonaws@gmail.com
Welldean Enterprises
151 Oak Tree Circle
Glendora, CA 91741
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers Committee
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS head-
quarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Accreditation Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and Coun-
selor nominations.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee
Associate Director, Operations
Alex L. Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qual-
ification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Rein-
forcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construc-
tion, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation
established to provide support for the educational
and scientific endeavors of the American Welding
Society. Promote the Foundations work with your fi-
nancial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
PERSONNEL
Intelligrated Hires VP
Intelligrated, Cincinnati, Ohio, an
automated material-handling solutions
provider, has named
David Erickson vice
president, software
development, for its
New York-based sub-
sidiary company,
Knighted. Erickson
previously held prod-
uct development and
performance engi-
neering positions for
RedPrairie.
Aluminum Association
Makes Board Changes
The Aluminum Association, Arling-
ton, Va., has announced the following
changes to its board. Former Vice Chair
Layle Kip Smith was elevated to chair-
man, replacing Pat Franc. Garney B. Scott
was named vice chair and chair of the Ex-
ecutive Committee. Smith is president of
Noranda Aluminum, Franc is president of
Tri-Arrows Aluminum, and Scott is presi-
dent of Scepter, Inc. The new board mem-
bers include Marco Palmieri, president,
Novelis North America; Kevin Person,
CEO, Wagstaff, Inc.; and David Hazelett,
president, Hazelett Strip-Casting.
Eriez Appoints Two
Managers
Eriez, Erie, Pa., a supplier of mag-
netic lift and separation equipment, and
metal-detection and materials conveying
technologies, has promoted Bill Duden-
hoefer to market manager-heavy indus-
try, and promoted Eric J. Confer to prod-
uct manager sepa-
ration. With the com-
pany since 2006, Con-
fer has served as a
technical sales repre-
sentative and a team
leader and project
manager for the
Eriez Orange Uni-
versity mobile
training and educa-
tion center. Since
2006, Dudenhoefer has served as separa-
tion product manager.
EB Industries Hires
Business Director
EB Industries, Farmingdale, N.Y., a
provider of electron beam and laser beam
welding services, has appointed John De-
Lalio director of new business develop-
ment. DeLalio, with 23 years of experi-
ence in mechanical engineering and in-
formation technology positions, most re-
cently served as senior director of enter-
prise architecture for NYC Health and
Hospitals.
Selective Soldering
Academy Names Director
The Selective Soldering Academy, Elk
Grove Village, Ill., has appointed Eddie
Groves director. In the soldering and se-
lective soldering field for 25 years, Groves
worked with AT&T/Lucent Technologies
as a soldering process engineer and later
as a sales engineer for a soldering equip-
ment manufacturer and soldering materi-
als suppliers.
Weldcote Metals Names
Midwest Sales Rep
Weldcote Metals,
a supplier of welding
alloys, electrodes,
helmets, and acces-
sories, has named
Dave Colwell mid-
west regional sales
representative. Col-
well, with 30 years ex-
perience in the weld-
ing, brazing, and sol-
dering industries, is
an AWS Certified Welding Inspector who
has judged SkillsUSA contests for 15
years.
David Erickson
Dave Colwell
Bill Dudenhoefer
JANUARY 2014 96
Caterpillar Names
Project Manager
Caterpillar, Inc.,
has assigned Jacob
Shorey to Sosnowiec,
Poland, to serve as
project manager for
the expansion of a
heavy fabrications
and welding factory.
Shorey, an AWS
member, was hired
into Caterpillars
Manufacturing Professional Develop-
ment program in 2006 as its first welding
engineering technology graduate. Prior
to this assignment, he has held several
roles and assignments in welding engi-
neering and manufacturing.
ABB Appoints Executive
Committee Member
ABB, Zurich, Switzerland, a power
and automation technology group, has
appointed Greg Scheu as an executive
committee member responsible for the
groups acquisition integration efforts
and to take over responsibility for the
North American business portfolio. En-
rique Santacana, currently country man-
ager in the United States and regional
manager in both the North and South
America regions, will focus on growth in
South America.
Obituary
James H. Walker
James H. Walker, 86, AWS president
19861987, died Nov. 21 in the San An-
tonio, Tex., area. He served in both the
U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force with active
duty in Iwo Jima.
Following dis-
charge from serv-
ice, he received
his degree in met-
allurgy from
Oklahoma State
University. He
worked at Brown
and Root, Liv-
ingston Shipyard,
Ingalls Shipyard,
and J. Ray Mc-
Dermott where he
traveled many
times to Russia to consult on pipeline
welding projects. He also served as an ac-
count executive with Miller Electric Mfg.
Co., in Houston, Tex.
JANUARY 2014 98
PERSONNEL
WeiJie Zhang
WeiJie Zhang has received the prestigeous IIW Henry Granjon Prize in Category D,
Human-Related Topics, in recognition for his paper, Modeling of Human Welder Behav-
ior. Zhang received his masters degree in electrical engineering/control from Harbin In-
stitute of Technology, China, in 2007, then joined the University of Kentucky at Lexing-
ton in 2008 as a research assistant and PhD candidate in the Welding Research Labora-
tory. His research interests include sensors, arc welding processes, and system identifica-
tion and control. He has published more than 20 papers in peer-reviewed publications
including the Welding Journal, Measurement Science and Technology, and Manufacturing
Science and Engineering Transactions of ASME. Five of his papers studying human behav-
ior during welding operations have been published in the Welding Journal Research Sup-
plement. The paper he submitted at 2012 IEEE Symposium on Industrial Electronics
was ranked in the top ten of more than 300 papers submitted. His biography as a promis-
ing welding researcher was featured in the May 2012 Welding Journal.
James Walker
Damian J. Kotecki
Damian J. Kotecki, AWS president 20052006, has received the International Insti-
tute of Welding Yoshiaki Arata Award. This lifetime achievement award is presented to
a person who has made extraordinary achievements in fundamental research in welding
science and technology and its allied processes, which have been recognized as signifi-
cant contributions to the progress of welding engineering and related fields. The award,
sponsored by the Japanese Delegation to the IIW, has been presented annually since
1994 to pay tribute to the career of Prof. Dr. Yoshiaki Arata who devoted years to the
development of ultrahigh energy density heat sources and their applications to welding,
cutting, and other thermal materials processing.
WeiJie Zhang
Member Milestones
Damian Kotecki
Jacob Shorey
Keppel FELS Singapore yard upgrading. Keppel FELS, which
designs, constructs, and repairs mobile offshore rigs, has fre-
quently invested in increasing productivity and capabilities of its
rig production process. This contract is the third between
Keppel and Pemamek in a year.
The new contract consists of two PEMA high-capacity robotic
profile processing lines. The lines include cutting and marking
features and automatic palletizing systems. The new profile pro-
cessing system supports the modern panel line, but also provides
profile processing capacity to various other needs of the yard.
JANUARY 2014 100
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
An example of a Pema profile cutting line. The company has
recently received a contract to deliver two of its robotic profile
processing lines to Keppel FELS.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products, Florence, S.C., has added
an enhanced distributor locator to www.esabna.com and
www.esab.ca. It will also be the exclusive welding sponsor of
LetzRoll Offroad Racing and a racing team in Europe.
To highlight the introduction of a plasma cutting line for man-
ual and mechanized plasma processes, and its evolvement into
a full line thermal cutting original equipment manufacturer,
Thermacut, Inc., Claremont, N.H., has changed its corporate
logo and the slogan to The Cutting Company.
The new welding program at Chipola College, Marianna, Fla.,
begins Jan. 7. It is 1170 clock hours, which can be completed
in about one year. The welding instructor is Patrick Kennedy.
Eastern Ship Builders in Panama City hires numerous welders
and is also expected to expand its operation in the near future.
An endowed welding scholarship has been established at North
Georgia Technical College in memory and honor of Chris Mc-
Curry who earned his welding certification there and started
his own business. Preference will be given to residents of Banks
County, followed by Habersham County. As an employee of
Johnson & Johnson subsidiary Noramco in Athens, his wife
Tracy applied for the companys matching grant program.
Local nexAir professional, Patrick Galphin, recently gave a
L.A.B.S. (Living And Breathing Science) presentation at White
Station Middle School, Memphis, Tenn. The program uses
real-life examples to reinforce science principles students learn
in class, including elements such as dry ice, argon, and
nitrogen.
The Association for Manufacturing Excellence, Rolling Mead-
ows, Ill., is honoring Bombardier Aerospace with a 2013 Man-
ufacturing Excellence Award. When evaluating its Toronto
site, the assessment team was impressed by the use of tools
that drive continuous improvement.
ThomasNet.com, New York, N.Y., has launched its new job
board. The employment and career-building website focuses
on engineering, procurement, manufacturing/production op-
erations, and sales/marketing. Visit thomasnetjobs.com.
CHRG Metals, Hamilton, Ohio, a supplier of corrosion and
heat-resistant stainless with nickel alloy sheet and plate, has
officially become a division of United Performance Metals.
The company previously operated as a division of ONeal Steel.
Joining Technologies, East Granby, Conn., now offers capa-
bilities in both laser beam and electron beam welding. The
company is using its expanded capabilities to take on
more welding projects in the medical device and aerospace
industries.
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
Educational Opportunities
LAM Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop. March 12, 13.
Houston, Tex. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737;
www.lia.org/lam.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials,
interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, and blogs. Visit
www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of Welds.
Online video courses taken at ones own pace offer certificates of
completion and continuing education units. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology; hiwt@welding.org; www.welding.org.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian
Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial
Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI Z136.1,
Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customers site. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
COMING EVENTS
Feb. 5-6, 2014 New OrIeans
Energy
The demand for new and improved welding technology from expanding and established
energy marketsis starting to pay off in the development of superior hybrid welding processes,
new filler metals, and cladding procedures. The technologies are showing up in nuclear power
plants, in coal-fired utilities, renewable sources, and especially in the new 1,700-mile-long
pipelines designed to bring oil and natural gas to world markets.
Earn PDHs toward your AWS recertification when you attend the conference.
For the latest conference information and registration, visit our web site
at www.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353, ext. 223.
AWS Conference on

new filler metals, and cladding procedures.
energy marketsis starting to pay of

new filler metals, and cladding procedures.
f in tsis starting to pay offf

The technologies are showing up in nuclear power new filler metals, and cladding procedures.
f in the development of superior hybrid welding processes,

The technologies are showing up in nuclear power

The technologies are showing up in nuclear power

Earn PDHs toward your

WS recertification when you attend the conference A Earn PDHs toward your

WS recertification when you attend the conference

WS recertification when you attend the conference

. WS recertification when you attend the conference


.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353, ext. 223. at www

.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353, ext. 223.

.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353, ext. 223.


CLASSIFIEDS
JANUARY 2014 102
JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
Tank Turning Rolls
Used Equipment for Sale
www.mitrowskiwelding.com
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
Professionals Sought for
IIW Training Courses
The American Welding Society, the
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JANUARY 2014 104
Introduction
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
the arc and the weld pool are protected
against the influence of atmospheric gases
by a shielding gas. Contamination of the
shielding gas leads, among other things, to
arc instability, oxidation, porosity, and
spatter. Furthermore, atmospheric gases
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, or nitro-
gen affect the characteristics of the plasma
and influence the arc spots at the cathode
and anode. Therefore, one important goal
of welding torch development is to gener-
ate an optimal gas flow through the weld-
ing torch in order to guarantee a stable
and protective shielding gas coverage. To
achieve this, it is most important to avoid
flow separation and turbulence in the
shielding gas nozzle.
In order to minimize the experimental
effort by performing numerous welding
experiments, computational fluid dynam-
ics and gas flow diagnostics can be used.
In prior work, attempts were made to
follow this route. As described in Refs. 5
and 13, the computational fluid dynamics
were used to optimize the welding fume
exhaustion. However, in these simulations,
the arc was either neglected or signifi-
cantly simplified by being modeled as a
source of thermal energy with a preset mo-
mentum. In Refs. 1 and 8, the commercial
software ANSYS CFX was used with a
contained arc module to calculate the
shielding gas flow and the diffusion. How-
ever, the models used were based on as-
sumptions and many simplifications.
Moreover, the torch geometry was often
simplified in order to reduce the numeri-
cal mesh size. Thus, verified experimental
findings are needed for proofing and cali-
brating of these models.
To analyze gas flow fields, particle-
based methods such as the laser doppler
anemometry (LDA) and the particle
image velocimetry (PIV) can be used. By
Zschetzsche (Ref. 2) the applicability of
both methods for the measurement of gas
flow in arc welding was tested and the PIV
method was adapted to measure different
welding processes. The method enabled a
nonintrusive and temporally resolved de-
tection of a two-dimensional gas flow field
in GTAW and gas metal arc welding
(GMAW). However, LDA and PIV meas-
urements are extremely cost-intensive and
require a high measuring technique effort.
An easier way to visualize gas flows is the
Schlieren technique, which has been
known since the 17th century (Refs. 3, 7,
1416). Typical applications where the
Schlieren measuring method was previ-
ously used are airplane aerodynamics, bal-
listics, and ventilation technology (Ref. 6).
Schlieren studies of electrical dis-
charges (arcs) were first carried out by
Toepler (Ref. 3). In the field of cutting
technology, oxygen cutting analyses were
carried out by the Schlieren technique in
the 1930s (Ref. 9). Gas flow studies of arcs
by the Schlieren technique are especially
used in plasma cutting processes and ther-
mal spraying (Ref. 6). Gas flow visualiza-
tion of plasma cutting arcs and the
interaction of the arc with the workpiece
are known from investigations by Settles
(Ref. 10). These investigations can be ex-
tended to image the gas flow and turbu-
lences below the workpiece as well. In
order to detect instabilities in the plasma-
cutting process, Heberlein (Ref. 11) used
the Schlieren technique in combination
with current and potential measurements
as well as acoustic recordings. An expla-
nation of the relationship between nozzle
design and cutting quality was derived
based on Schlieren images.
In contrast, Schlieren measurements of
welding processes are not so common. For
plasma arc welding with alternating cur-
rent, McClure and Garcia (Ref. 4) de-
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JANUARY 2014
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Visualization of Gas Flows in Welding Arcs
by the Schlieren Measuring Technique
The influence of typical welding parameters on the gas flow for the GTAW, GMAW,
and PAW processes is demonstrated using the high-speed Schlieren technique
BY E. SIEWERT, G. WILHELM, M. HSSLER, J. SCHEIN, T. HANSON,
M. SCHNICK, AND U. FSSEL
KEYWORDS
Shielding Gas
Gas Contamination
Gas Flow Dynamics
Gas Tungsten Arc
Gas Metal Arc
Plasma Arc
Dipl.-Ing. E. SIEWERT, Dr.-Ing. G. WILHELM,
M. HSSLER, Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. SCHEIN, and Dr.
T. HANSON are with Center of Excellence AAP
(advanced arc processes), a coop of Linde AG Co.
and the Lab of Plasma Technology, University of the
German Federal Armed Forces, Munich, Germany.
Dipl.-Ing. M. SCHNICK and Prof. Dr.-Ing. U.
FSSEL are with the Department of Joining Engi-
neering and Assembly Technology, University of
Technology, Dresden, Germany.
ABSTRACT
Gas flows in and around welding arcs have a strong influence on the welding process.
Atmospheric gases reach the arc due to turbulences and diffusion mechanisms and this af-
fects the arc and the weld pool. Using optical analysis of the gas flow during welding with
and without the arc present reveals possible mixing and thus the causes of contamination
can be determined. The Schlieren method offers a simple way to do this. In this paper, the
setup of a Schlieren measuring system and the influence of the most relevant setting pa-
rameters are described as well as their influence on the Schlieren images.
1-s WELDING JOURNAL
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scribed the necessity for a gas flow analy-
sis. However, their work contained no cor-
responding results or Schlieren images.
Allemand and Schroeder (Ref. 12) used
the Shadowgraph method (Ref. 6) in order
to visualize the drop transfer during gas
metal arc welding. For illumination, a He-
Ne laser was used. The photographs are,
however, overexposed due to the presence
of the arc and the drop transfer was diffi-
cult to observe.
This paper describes an attempt to use
the Schlieren technique to visualize the
shielding gas flow in different arc welding
processes. The principle of operation and
the experimental setup of the Schlieren
technique are described. The most impor-
tant settings and their influence on the
quality of the Schlieren images of GTA are
described so that the range of application
and the limit of the Schlieren technique
can be specified. The results of the gas
flow analysis for GTA, GMA, and plasma
arc welding (PAW) are presented, where
the influences of typical welding parame-
ters on the gas flow are displayed.
Experimental Procedure
Physical Principle and Measuring System
By the Schlieren technique, differences
in density that cause changes in the re-
fraction index n, in the propagation veloc-
ity c and in the direction of light propaga-
tion direction, can be visualized in trans-
parent media. The angle of refrac-tion
relates itself to the incident angle
(1)
Thus each change in density of the
medium causes a change in the direction
of light propagation Fig. 1.
The differences in density that are ob-
served during the welding process are
caused, according to the ideal gas equa-
tion, by differences in pressure, tempera-
ture, and concentration.
In order to make differences in density
in transparent media visible, the interfer-
ence and the shadowgraph methods can
also be used alongside the Schlieren
technique.
In the interference method, two light
waves are superimposed so that an inter-
ference pattern is generated. The interfer-
ence image allows the reconstruction of
the location and the intensity of the light
refraction as well as the speed of the gas
flow, the density, and the temperature.
However, this measurement method re-
quires high precision in the adjustment of
the measuring equipment.
By the shadowgraph method, deflec-
tion of the light can be made visible by
means of the generated intensity of illu-
mination dispersion E, which is propor-
tional to the second derivation of the
density along path y (Equation 2).
(2)
This method enables conclusions to be
drawn about the density gradient, but not
about the direction. Compared to the in-
terference method, a lower resolution and
sensitivity can be reached (Ref. 6).
Due to a marginal overhead (the inte-
gration of a knife edge), it is possible to
separate the deflected from the uninflu-
enced light, in order to increase the reso-
lution and sensitivity. Furthermore, with
the so-called Schlieren technique, it is pos-
sible to determine the direction of the
measured density gradient. The change in
intensity of illumination caused by the
light deflection is proportional to the first
derivation of density according to the po-
sition (Equation 3).
(3)
In contrast to the interference method, the
Schlieren technique is a simple and robust
measuring system. However, an exact
identification of gas flow characteristics is
not possible.
The experimental setup is carried out
as a Toeplers Z-Schlieren assembly with
two concave mirrors Fig. 2. This as-
sembly is compact and avoids errors due
to chromatic aberration caused by the op-
tical lenses.
The concave mirrors are axially para-
bolic mirrors with a diameter of 150 mm
and a focal length of 1200 mm. The diam-
eter lies in the recommended area from D
= f/6 to f/12 (Ref. 6). In the region be-
tween both mirrors, parallel light is gener-
ated. In this optical path, different welding
arcs (Schliere) are inserted, influencing
the propagation of the parallel light. In the
focus of the first mirror, an aperture is
placed to produce a point light source en-
abling the production of parallel light by
mirror 1.
The knife edge is placed in the focus of
mirror 2. The knife edge is used to im-
prove the contrast by blocking the deflect-
ed light. Images of the Schlieren are
generated by a high-speed camera with a
200-mm objective with a macrolens.
The exact position in which the
Schliere is arranged between the two mir-
rors has no influence on the measurement
outcome. The deflection level of the light
a in the Schlieren aperture depends only
upon the angle of deflection and the focal
length f of the mirror.
a = f (4)
= =
sin
sin
c
c
n
n
2
1
2
1
E
y
2
2
E
y
JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93 2-s

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Fig. 1 The law of refraction as foundation of the
Schlieren optic.
Fig. 2 Toeplersche Z-Schlieren assembly.
Fig. 3 Schlieren images, used filter pairs: blue/yellow (left) and red/green (right) with a shielding gas
flow of 30 L/min of argon.
Requirements of the Schlieren Method to
Analyze Welding Arcs
Alongside the already described basic
requirements such as the positioning of
the mirrors, the quality of the Schlieren
images of arc processes is above all deter-
mined by the light source and the slit
(knife-edge) or alternatively colored filter
pairs, which induce colored shadows and
interferences Fig. 3.
The knife-edge or the filter affects the
sensitivity of the Schlieren apparatus,
whereas the magnitude of the deflected
light can be assigned to different dye by
using color filters. The applicability of aper-
tures with horizontal or vertical slits, or an
iris as well as two- and four-color filters was
investigated. In all experiments, the open
area of the slits was equal and the orienta-
tion of the illumination and the Schlieren
slit was always identical.
The two-color filters (blue/yellow and
red/green) as well as a four-color filter,
utilizing all four colors, were used. The
best results were obtained using the two-
color filters, by which the turbulences
could be visualized with very strong con-
trast Fig. 3. In comparison, using the
four-color filter, only marginal color nu-
ances could be recognized. However, the
light intensity was reduced when colored
filters were used. Thus, the exposure time
had to be extended whereby a strong
cross-fading due to arc radiation resulted.
Analyses of the influence of the geom-
etry and the orientation of slits clarify
that good results can be achieved with
slits oriented perpendicular to the work-
piece Fig. 4.
The hot gas above the workpiece was vi-
sualized using apertures with a slit, which
were oriented parallel to the workpiece.
The iris can be used to visualize gas flow in
all directions, but the images are character-
ized by a lower brightness of the image.
By reducing the slit width of the knife
edge, less diffracted light, and conse-
quently smaller differences in density,
can be visualized (Ref. 6). At the same
time the influence of the radiation of the
arc decreases. However, less light from
the light source passes the knife edge es-
pecially if the width of the knife edge is
less than the focal diameter. The goal of
the slit variation was to be able to visual-
ize the turbulence and the density gradi-
ent of the shielding gas flow in the free jet
of the process gas in close proximity to
the arc individually. It was ascertained
that in spite of a small slit width, the den-
sity variation produced by the arc domi-
nated Fig. 5.
When using identical concave mirrors
in the geometry described above, it is rec-
ommended that the shape of the light
sources used be equivalent to that of the
slit opening. Therefore, elongated rectan-
gular light sources were used.
Initially, the applicability of simple
light bulbs was tested. Only by the use of
high-luminosity light sources could the slit
opening as well as the exposure time of the
camera be reduced, so that:
1) The complete area of the gas flow
was illuminated,
2) overexposure of the images due to
the arc radiation could be avoided, and
3) minor differences in density could be
visualized in the gas-free jet.
Beside the power, the light source must
generate a high light intensity on the knife
edge. The gas flow in the boundary region
of the process gas-free jet can be visual-
ized well using halogen lamps.
However, with the light sources used as
described in Fig. 6, the area of the arc can-
not be investigated in detail due to its
strong brightness. Thus, further analyses
employed alternative light sources such as
a plasma arc and laser beam.
The radiation energy of a plasma arc is
approximately 10 to 20% of the total power.
Thus, the radiation emission of a 250-A
plasma arc with a voltage of 30 V is about
1000 W. Using this kind of arc is further-
more advantageous since the projection of
the light source is rectangular, as the knife
edge is. Considering the solid angle of emis-
sion, only 1% of the radiation reaches the
mirror. Nevertheless, even this amount of
light is sufficient to obtain a detailed flow
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Fig. 4 Schlieren image of a 100-A gas tungsten arc with vertical (top)
and horizontal (middle) apertures, and an iris (bottom).
Fig. 5 Images of Schlieren setups with a 3 6 mm focus slit and a Schlieren aper-
ture slit of 2 6 mm (left), 3 6 mm (middle), and 5 6 mm (right).
Fig. 6 Schlieren images made by using 50-W automobile headlight (top, left), 150-
W tungsten coiled filament lamp (top, right), 250-W tungsten coiled filament lamp
(bottom, left), and 150-W halogen lamp (bottom, right).
image in an area that was not recognizable
before Fig. 7.
Using a 20-mW continuous wave laser
of wavelength 532 nm in combination with
a neutral gray filter with a transmittance
of 1%, the radiation of the arc could be
completely faded out Fig. 7. However,
by using a laser (point light source), a dig-
ital Schlieren image without intensity gra-
dations results.
Results and Discussion
In order to analyze the gas flow even at
the boundary region of the process gas-
free jet, despite the intensive arc radiation,
a GTAW arc is used as a light source. The
orientation of the light source, as well as
that of the Schlieren slit, is vertically
aligned to the surface of the workpiece.
The Schlieren technique was used to
make high-speed images of the GTAW,
PAW, and GMAW processes.
GTAW
GTAW with differing shielding gases,
flow rates, and currents was analyzed
Fig. 8.
The transition of the process gas-free
jet to the atmosphere is especially good to
visualize using argon with an appreciable
helium percentage (50%) as shielding gas.
However, it has to be assumed that helium
has an essential influence on the arc geom-
etry and, above all, on the gas flow.
The arc current influences the temper-
ature of the arc and the temperature of the
effluent gas. From the Schlieren images, it
can be clearly seen that the arc moves up
farther on the tungsten cathode, that the
core of the arc is brighter, and that there is
a stronger flux of hot gas above the work-
piece. Despite the brightness, the edges of
the arc can be clearly detected.
The Schlieren measurement method can
be used to detect the turnover from a lami-
nar to a turbulent gas flow of the process
gas-free jet in GTAW. Turbulences sur-
rounding the arc and turbulences in the ef-
fluent hot gas can be clearly distinguished at
shielding gas flow rates of 30 L/min and
more.
PAW
Investigating plasma arc keyhole weld-
ing was carried out by bead-on-plate welds
(6-mm-thick, mild-steel plates). To ignite
the main arc between the tungsten cath-
ode and the workpiece, a pilot arc between
the cathode and the copper nozzle
(anode) must be initialized. The pilot arc
serves as preionization of the arc gap be-
tween the electrode and the workpiece
Fig. 9. The Schlieren method is excellently
suited to image the gas flow of the pilot
arc. An advantage is the low radiation
emission of this plasma jet.
The Schlieren images of real keyhole
welding trials were correlated with the re-
spective welding results Fig. 10.
Clearly visible at low shielding gas flow
rates is that the fluid flow above the hot
weld joint (left of the torch) is dominated
by thermal buoyancy. In contrast, above
the cold steel sheet (right of the torch) an
equal and laminar outflow can be seen.
With higher shielding gas flow rates, the
differences between the gas flows over the
hot and the cold steel sheet are less pro-
nounced. It is assumed that the high
shielding gas flow counteracts the thermal
buoyancy as well as causing the outflowing
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Fig. 7 Schlieren images made by using 250-A plasma arc (left) and 20-mW continuous wave laser (=
532 nm) (right).
Fig. 8 Schlieren images of GTAW as a function of current, shielding gas, and flow rate.
Fig. 9 Schlieren image of a pilot arc (3 L/min plasma gas flow) where the hot plasma jet is clearly observ-
able. The impinging hot gas on the workpiece and the effluent hot gas on the surface of the workpiece are vis-
ible by a dark plateau. Stalls in the periphery are detected by means of eddies.
gas to deviate from laminar flow. Using
low shielding gas flows, a considerable for-
mation of oxides can be determined, which
is due to contamination of the protective
cover. It must be concluded that the for-
mation of a turbulent gas flow (15 L/min
shielding gas) does not always lead to bad
gas protection cover of the weld pool. A
sufficient gas flow is necessary in order to
counteract the thermal buoyancy above
the hot workpiece.
GMAW
Gas metal arc welding is characterized
by a high radiation emission of the metal
vapor plasma. Schlieren images of gas
metal arc welding processes are therefore
especially difficult to create at high cur-
rents. As part of the investigations,
Schlieren images were taken of a short arc
Fig. 11. In the images, gas flow separa-
tions at the shielding gas nozzle and the
contact tip are, in contrast to GTAW,
clearly visible. A reason for that is the
high, very hot contact tip located inside
the shielding gas nozzle caused heating of
the shielding gas.
For the analysis of a pulsed arc or a
spray arc, it is necessary to use powerful
light sources or to mitigate wavelengths
with special intensive radiation emission
of the arc by filters.
Conclusions
The Schlieren method was used to vi-
sualize gas flows in welding processes. The
main conclusions are as follows:
1) The Topler Z-Schlieren configura-
tion enables
cost-efficient
and time-re-
solved gas flow
analysis.
2) It was as-
certained that a
powerful tung-
sten filament
lamp and arcs were especially appropriate
as light sources. In contrast, inferior im-
ages were obtained with widened laser
beams.
3) It is possible to detect the transition
from a laminar to a turbulent gas flow in a
process gas-free jet in GTAW by increas-
ing the shielding gas flow from 10 to 30 L/
min.
4) Through the Schlieren method, the
gas flow of a nontransfer pilot arc can be
excellently visualized. During studies on a
plasma arc keyhole welding process, it was
shown that high shielding flow rates, de-
spite intensive turbulences, provide a bet-
ter protection of the process and
counteract diffusions effects.
5) First investigation on GMAW
processes showed that high torch temper-
ature principally abets the Schlieren analy-
sis of the process gas-free jets. Due to the
high radiation emission of the arc, power-
ful illuminants in combination with optical
filters are necessary, especially in the
analysis of spray and pulsed arcs.
References
1. Schnick, M., Fssel, U., and Zschetzsche,
J. 2006. Simulation and measurement of plasma
and gas flows in plasma arc welding and cutting.
8th International Seminar Numerical Analysis
of Weldability, Graz, Austria.
2. Zschetzsche, J. 2007. Diagnostics of gas
shielded arc welding processes. Dresdner
Fugetechnische Berichte. Band 14.
3. Toepler, A. 1906. Observations according
to a new optical method. Ostwalds Klassiker der
Exakten Wissenschaften Nr. 158. Leipzig, Ger-
many.
4. Garcia, G., McClure, J. C., Hou, H. and
Nunes, A. C. Gas flow observation during
VPPA welding using a shadowgraph technique.
NASA-CR-204347.
5. Cooper, P., Godbole, A., and Norrish, J.
2007. Modelling and simulation of gas flows in
arc welding. Implications for shielding effi-
ciency and fume extraction. Proc. on the 60th
Annual Assembly of the International Institute of
Welding, Dubrovnik, Croatia.
6. Settles, G. S. 2001. Schlieren and Shadow-
graph Techniques. Springer; Berlin, Germany,
ISBN 3-540-66155-7.
7. Schardin, H. 1934. Toeplers Schlieren
method: Basic principles for its use and quanti-
tative evaluation. Forschungsheft 367 Beilage
zu Forschung auf dem Gebiet des Ingenieurwe-
sens Ausgabe B Band. July/August.
8. Speiseder, M., and Lang, A. 2006. Opti-
mization of the MIG-welding process by the use
of numerical simulation and PIV measurement.
The electric arc A technology with a non-ex-
hausted potential. Dresdner Fugetechnisches
Kolloquium, TU Dresden, Germany.
9. Zobel, T. W. 1936. Increase of the cutting
speed while flame cutting by the use of a new
nozzle geometry. VDI-Verlag GmbH, Berlin,
Germany
10. Settles, G. S. 1998. Visualization of liq-
uid metal, arc, and jet interactions in plasma
cutting of steel sheet. 8th International Sympo-
sium on Flow Visualization.
11. Kim, S. J. 2009. Fluid dynamic instabili-
ties in plasma arc cutting. PhD dissertation.
Minnesota, Faculty of the graduate school, Uni-
versity of Minnesota.
12. Allemand, C. D., Schoeder, R., Ries, D.
E., and Eagar, T. W. 1985. A method of filming
metal transfer in welding arcs. Welding Journal
64(1): 4547
13. Ebert, L. 2007. Optimization of fume ex-
traction of torch integrated fume extraction de-
vices. TU Chemnitz. Abschlussbericht
AiF-Vorhaben 14:436 BR.
14. Foucault, J. B. 1859. Annales de lObser-
vatoire Imprial de Paris.
15. Mach, E. 1889. Further ballistic-photo-
graphic experiments. Sitzungsband Akad. Wiss.
Wien. 98: 13031309.
16. Rheinberg, J. H. 1896. On an addition to
the methods of microscopical research, by a
new way of optically producing coulour-contrast
between an object and its background, or be-
tween definite parts of the object itself. J. Roy.
Microsc. Soc., Ser. 2, 16(8):373388.
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Fig. 11 Schlieren adaptor of a short arc (3 m/min wire feed).
Fig. 10 Schlieren images of plasma arc welding (S235, 6 mm; welding speed, 20
cm/min; PG-flow, 3 L/min; plasma gas three-hole-nozzle, 3 mm; torch distance, 5
mm; shielding gas flow 5 L/min (top); 15 L/min (bottom).
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Introduction
The perovskite-type structure ceramic
materials, such as barium titanate, play a
major role in modern electronics and elec-
trical engineering. Barium titanate (BTO)
is widely used for creating multilayer ce-
ramic capacitors (MLCCs), embedded de-
coupling capacitors (EDC), electrical ce-
ramic filters, and other piezoelectric and
ferroelectric components (Refs. 13). Fer-
roelectric ceramics are ideal for use in su-
personic equipment.
On the base of these materials, a ferro-
electric memory device was created (Refs.
4, 5). Barium titanate is also an excellent
photorefractive material (Ref. 6).
Oxygen release that occurs during the
annealing of BaTiO
3
in high vacuum and
at sufficiently high temperatures leads to
the transformation of dielectric ferroelec-
tric BaTiO
3
into semiconducting ceramics
(Ref. 7). As a semiconductor, BaTiO
3
par-
ticularly exhibits a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity (PTCR). It means
that at a certain temperature (Curie tem-
perature), this material exhibits strong re-
sistivity increase (typically by several or-
ders of magnitude) (Ref. 6); due to its
PTCR properties, barium titanate is often
used as thermistors material in the ther-
mal switches. The great importance for all
such ceramics is creation of strong con-
tacts (including electric ones) in combina-
tions BaTiO
3
/metals and BaTiO
3
/
BaTiO
3
.
Strength of metal-oxide contact and
uniformity of metal coating are deter-
mined essentially by a wettability degree
of ceramic materials (BTO) surface by liq-
uid metals. High adhesion of liquid metals
to ceramics surface is a crucial factor for
creating mechanically strong contact.
According to Ref. 8, the degree of per-
ovskite-type ceramics wettability by liquid
metal, and intensity of interaction be-
tween liquid metal and solid phase, can
also determine some electric properties of
the contact, e.g., ohmic or nonohmic one,
p-n-transition (in the case of semicon-
ducting ceramics), and Schottky barrier
height.
Thus, creating a strong adherent metal
coating on the BaTiO
3
surface for its join-
ing to metals and metalization of per-
ovskite-type ceramics is a perspective di-
rection of investigation. Recently,
scientific and technical interest in this
problem was increased considerably.
Up to now, there are only a few pub-
lished works concerning research of con-
tact properties of some metals in relation
to perovskite-type ceramics, in particular
to barium titanate (Refs. 911). The ex-
perimental data on wetting of perovskite
ceramics by some pure metals in these
works contradict each other sometimes. In
addition, in Ref. 10 the conditions of ex-
periments are described only qualitatively,
e.g., as atmosphere with high and low
oxygen pressure, so these data need verifi-
cation. Regularities of strong adherent
contact formations are studied little; sci-
entific bases of these processes are practi-
cally absent.
The present work aims to systemati-
cally investigate the details of phenomena
for wettability, adhesion, and interaction
intensity of BaTiO
3
perovskite-type ce-
ramics in different forms ferroelectric
Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization,
and Brazing of Barium Titanate Ceramics
A study investigates the contact interaction and wetting of
BaTiO
3
perovskite ceramics by liquid metals
BY T. V. SYDORENKO AND YU. V. NAIDICH
KEYWORDS
Wetting
Metalization
Brazing
Barium Titanate Ceramics
T. V. SYDORENKO and YU. V. NAIDICH
(tvsid@ukr.net) are with the I.M. Frantsevich In-
stitute of Problems of Materials Science NAS of
Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.
ABSTRACT
Detailed investigations, including wetting studies by liquid metals and metal coat-
ings deposition onto ceramic surfaces and brazing processes, were carried out for
semiconducting and ferroelectric perovskite ceramic states of barium titanate
(BaTiO
3
). Pure metals (Cu, Ag, Au, Ge, Sn, Pb, Ga, In, Al, Si, Ni, Co, Fe, Pd) and
Ti-containing alloys based on In and binary Cu-Sn, Cu-Ga, and Cu-Ag systems were
investigated under high vacuum for the semiconducting BaTiO
3
-x surface. The de-
gree of wettability correlates approximately with the chemical affinity of the liquid
metal phase to oxygen (wetting increases when the liquid metal affinity to oxygen in-
creases). Addition of Ti to the liquid metal phase increases capillary properties and
adhesion in the system under investigation. Investigations of the wettability of ferro-
electric BaTiO
3
ceramics were performed in air gaseous media by alloys Ag-Cu-O.
Oxygen in the gaseous media preserves stoichiometric composition of barium ti-
tanate and being dissolved in Ag-Cu alloys promotes BaTiO
3
wetting. For the first
time, wettability experiments in liquid metal/ceramic material systems (BaTiO
3
in
this case) were carried out when the gaseous phase was pure oxygen. At greater oxy-
gen partial pressure (1 atm for O
2
comparing to 1/5 atm for air), wettability further
increases significantly. Vacuum brazing technology for semiconducting materials and
joining processes in air or pure oxygen atmosphere for ferroelectric ceramic materi-
als based on BaTiO
3
have been developed. Various detailed brazing models of
BaTiO
3
and BaTiO
3
-x were created.
JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
and semiconducting with molten met-
als that will allow doing further steps in
understanding metal-perovskite ceramics
interaction and elaboration of some braz-
ing alloys and technological processes for
joining (brazing) of BaTiO
3
materials.
Semiconducting BaTiO
3-x
Nonstoichiometric semiconducting
BaTiO
3-x
can be obtained by means of an-
nealing in high vacuum, as is mentioned
above. It is believed that BaTiO
3-x
nonsto-
ichiometry is insignificant and will not ex-
ceed such parameters for pure titanium
oxide TiO
2-x
. For this oxide, the x value is
between 0.04 and 0.07 (Ref. 12). Such de-
viation only has a minor effect on me-
chanical and thermodynamic properties of
the compound, except for the electrophys-
ical characteristics.
Such nonstoichiometry variation can
be attributed to oxygen vacancies com-
pensated mostly by background and/or in-
trinsic acceptors within higher oxygen par-
tial pressure (p(O
2
)) regions and by
electrons within lower p(O
2
) regions (Ref.
13). Semiconducting BTO has specific re-
sistivity value near 300 cm (compared to
about 10
610
cm for ferroelectric
BaTiO
3
).
The technology of vacuum metaliza-
tion and brazing by melts containing tita-
nium as a chemically active element was
tested for preliminary an-
nealed semiconducting
barium titanate ceramics.
Experimental and
Discussion
The main experiments consist of the
wettability measurements of BTO by liq-
uid metals. Wettability studies were car-
ried out by a sessile drop method in vac-
uum (~ 10
4
Pa) at temperature 8701870
K. This method allows determining the
values of the wetting contact angle and in-
terphasic surface energy at the liquid-gas
interface. The sessile drop method
essence was discussed in detail earlier
(Refs. 1416). The main requirement for
measuring wetting contact angle by the
sessile drop method is in the placement of
a symmetrical drop of the melt on the solid
surface. The sample should be in con-
trolled gaseous atmosphere or in at the
temperature specified. Standard equip-
ment for the wettability of solid ceramic
specimens by a liquid metals study using
the sessile drop method is shown in Fig. 1.
A wide variety of metals and alloys hav-
ing a broad application range in electroce-
ramic devices was used. Fourteen pure
metals (Cu, Ag, Au, Ge, Sn, Pb, Ga, In, Al,
Si, Ni, Co, Fe, Pd) and several titanium-
containing alloys (Cu-Sn-Ti, Ag-Cu-Ti,
Cu-Ga-Ti, In-Ti) were tested.
Metal samples for wetting experiments
typically have approximately 0.50.9 g.
Metal alloys were formed in-situ by alloy-
ing. Polycrystalline barium titanate has
been specially fabricated by the method of
solid-phase synthesis. In this study, we
used BaTiO
3
ceramic discs 20 mm in di-
ameter and ~ 3 mm thick. The samples
porosity was 3.50.03%. BTO substrates
were ground and polished with sandpaper
and abrasive powder. The average surface
roughness value (R
a
) was equal to 0.02
m. Before experiments, BTO samples
were annealed in vacuum at ~ 1740 K dur-
ing 60 min.
The wetting of BTO by molten alloys
Cu 8.6% (at.) Sn, Ag 39.9% (at.) Cu, and
Cu 17.6% (at.) Ga (which was used to cre-
ate the many braze alloys) with active tita-
nium additive (from 3 up to 25% (at.)) was
studied as well. Results of the wetting
studies of BTO by pure metals melts and
some alloys are presented in Table 1.
Most of the investigated pure metals
did not wet the barium titanate ceramics
surface (contact angles exceeded 90 deg).
Silicon and aluminum wet BTO (alu-
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Fig. 1 Scheme of the apparatus for determining surface tension
and wetting angles of metallic liquids. The labeled numbers repre-
sent the following: vacuum chamber (1); stream-oil pump (2); vac-
uum valve (3); furnace (4); metal sample on the ceramic substrate
studied (5); next samples (6); horizontal rod (7); quartz prism (8);
vertical rod (9); and digital camera (10).
Fig. 2 Dependence of contact angle of BaTiO
3
for the pure metals
melts on free energy of their oxides formation.
Fig. 3 Contact angle/titanium concentration dependence for melted
Ti-containing systems on BaTiO
3
at 1270 K.
minum has a minimum value contact
angle of 78 deg). As a whole, the results
agree with Ref. 9. For example, wetting
contact angle values for Ag and Au in Ref.
9 confirm our data, though we consider
value of contact angle for Cu as obviously
underestimated.
Overall, a high degree of solids wetting
by liquid metals is caused by an intensive
interfacial chemical interaction (Figs. 2,
3). For oxides like Al
2
O
3
, SiO
2
, and MgO,
liquid metal interaction with oxygen is the
main factor (Refs. 17, 18). Comparatively,
due to the more anion O
2
dimension to
metal cation one and the more latter dis-
placement in the bulk of crystal (effect of
relaxation of surface ions and according to
Weyls scheme for structure of surface of
oxides), the oxide surface is formed mainly
by oxygen anions.
The BTO surface structure containing
two cations of different sizes and valence
numbers required special consideration.
Titanium ions (with a 0.068-nm radius) are
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JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93
A B
C-1
C-3
C-2
C-4
Fig. 4 Microstructure of (Cu-8.6 Sn) 25 Ti-BaTiO
3
interface. A 1000; B distribution of elements at interface, % (at.); and C characteristic emis-
sion of elements at BaTiO
3
molten metal interface (top part ceramics, bottom part alloy) with barium (1), titanium (2), tin (3), and copper (4).
Cu-Sn-Ti
transition zone
BaTiO
3
located in octahedral cavities formed by
oxygen ions and have enough room for
displacement within the BTO elementary
cell (a = 4.011 for cubic lattice). It is an ex-
planation of essential mobility for tita-
nium ions oscillating freely within the oc-
tahedral environment of oxygen ions. It
determines high polarizability of barium
titanate under electric field action (Ref.
19). Such increased mobility of titanium
ions (according to Weyls scheme (Ref.
20)) leads to some more of their displace-
ment into crystal bulk after surface forma-
tion. So, for BTO, we can neglect the in-
teraction of liquid metal phase with
titanium cations. However, beside oxygen,
BTO surface also contains large-sized bar-
ium ions (Ba
2+
). It makes this situation
more complex.
On the base of ions size data (r(Ba
2+
)
= 0.135 nm, r(O
2
) = 0.140 nm) and struc-
ture of BTO crystal lattice, we can see that
only a quarter of the ceramics surface is
occupied by Ba
2+
ions, and the rest by oxy-
gen ions. Overall, we can guess that main
regularities of interactions in BaTiO
3
liq-
uid metal systems have to be similar to reg-
ularity for classical oxide (Al
2
O
3
) metal
systems. Nevertheless, the interaction of
certain liquid metal phases with barium
ions at a BaTiO
3
surface should be
considered.
Free formation energies of chemical
compounds for the metals under investi-
gation with barium are within 167250
kJ/mol (for comparison, heat of formation
for the oxides is H(Al
2
O
3
) = 1675
kJ/mol, H(SiO
2
) = 911 kJ/mol) (Ref.
21). Only a silicon compound with barium
(BaSi
3
) is formed with significant heat re-
lease (H(BaSi
3
) = 544 kJ/mol). But
pure silicon can only moderately wet the
BaTiO
3
surface, and its adhesion is lower
than the same value for aluminum, though
Al-Ba compounds are considerably less
stable thermodynamically according to
phase diagrams data (Ref. 22). Thus, wet-
ting and adhesion in BTO metal systems is
evidently not determined by Ba-Me inter-
action to a significant degree.
An inactive matrix of Cu-Ga, Ag-Cu,
and Cu-Sn alloys (Fig. 3) does not wet the
BTO surface ( 120 130 deg). A tita-
nium addition reduces contact angles
down to 2070 deg for titanium concen-
tration up to 1025% (at.). It has been as-
sumed that wetting the BTO surface is,
first of all, a result of interaction between
liquid metal (titanium) and oxygen of solid
phase, as in the case of classical oxide
materials (Al
2
O
3
and MgO). Formation of
titanium oxide (TiO) having metal-like
properties in a BaTiO
3
/Ti-containing alloy
system is the reason of high adhesion in
this case. Titanium, as a transition metal,
is characterized by its ability to participate
simultaneously in several chemical bond-
ing interactions of different types ionic
one with BaTiO
3
surface and metallic with
liquid metal phase. In other words, tita-
nium from a liquid phase can become a
bridge connecting the solid BaTiO
3
phase
with molten metal.
Our SEM research of contact bound-
ary BaTiO
3
/titanium-containing alloy has
shown the presence of a transitive zone
57 m wide, which obviously is a product
of interphase reaction. Figure 4 shows the
structure of cooled drop (Cu-8.6 Sn)-20Ti
on the BaTiO
3
substrate.
Analysis of the BaTiO
3
/liquid metal in-
terface shows the character of elements
distribution in the direction perpendicular
to the interface Fig. 4B. Chemical com-
position for the BaTiO
3
phase in volume
is reproduced precisely as ~20% (at.) of
barium and titanium, and ~60% (at.) of
oxygen. This ratio remains unchanged to
the BaTiO
3
/metal interface. Barium con-
centration is insignificant at the interface.
That is why metal interaction with barium
is possible only as a monolayer adsorption
at the BaTiO
3
surface. Titanium concen-
tration increases from 20% (at.) in the
transition zone up to ~5060% (at.) in the
contact zone. Oxygen concentration in
this zone is about 18% (at.).
In Fig. 4C, the layer (new phase) with
high titanium concentration is clearly visi-
ble. Titanium segregation from the melt at
interface is the main reason for high wet-
tability of BaTiO
3
by Ti-containing alloys.
The metal chemistry studies by M. V.
Nevitt (Ref. 23) show that oxygen stabi-
lizes intermetallic compounds like Ti
2
Cu;
the Cu
2-3
Ti
3-4
Ophase has been identified.
A special investigation of the processes
occurred at different temperatures in the
contact zone by a high-temperature, X-ray
diffraction method of pressed mixture
with barium titanate, copper, and titanium
powders carried out as well (Fig. 5).
Two new phases with TiO and Cu
3
Ti
3
O
structures were identified in this system.
Both substances can be responsible for
wetting. However, the Cu
3
Ti
3
O pattern
disappears at 1370 K (Fig. 5B); probably,
this compound is not stable. Just TiO can
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Table 1 The Results of Wetting of Semiconducting Barium Titanate by Some Pure Metals
Metal Temperature, Contact Angle , deg Work of Adhesion,
Our Data Literature MJ/M
2
Cu 1373 1223 102 [9] 610
Ag 1253 1363 90 [10] 260
1273 1321 139 [9] 310
1373 1292 134 [9] 345
Au 1353 1271 114 [10]; 445
124 [9]
1423 1242 119 [9] 490
Ge 1273 1133 375
Sn 873 1201 138 [9] 285
973 1152 330
In 673 1521 70
773 1322 195
873 1172 325
Pb 673 1452 143 [9] 80
773 1344 140
873 1183 250
973 1094 138 [9] 320
Pd 1860 1163 845
Ni 1743 1131 1030
Fe 1823 962 1350
Si 1733 841 830
Al 1073 1401 210
1173 1362 250
1273 1293 340
1373 931 880
1423 852 1015
1473 782 1140
Co 1793 1082 1245
be accounted for the explanation of a wet-
ting-in system studied at high tempera-
tures. The same data were published, for
example, in Ref. 24 for Al
2
O
3
systems.
Varying wetting effects of titanium in dif-
ferent systems studied Cu-Ag, Cu-Ga,
Cu-Sn (Fig. 3) can be explained by sev-
eral reasons, in particular by various ther-
modynamic activity of titanium in alloys.
Ag-Cu-Ti alloys demonstrate some pe-
culiarity. A eutectic system with about
60% (at.) of silver can dissolve in about
2% (at.) of titanium at 1270 K. A titanium
content increase leads to arising the sec-
ond equilibrium liquid phase that contains
64% (at.) of Cu, 28% (at.) of Ti, and 8%
(at.) of Ag (Ref. 14). The mechanism de-
tails of such interface processes in a com-
plex BaTiO
3
(AgCuTi)
phase I
(Ag
CuTi)
phase II
system requires special
consideration. It is possible now to note
only that this process can be useful for im-
proving adhesive bonding of BaTiO
3
to
metal (arising of second liquid phase with
a high Ti concentration).
The temperature dependence of con-
tact angle for indium-titanium alloys on
the BaTiO
3
surface has been investigated
as well.
The contact angle of a In-Ti melt drops
significantly at a low temperature (in in-
terval, 770870 K). Almost full spreading
of the In-Ti melt on a BTO surface occurs
at 830870 K. It can be used for brazing
not only semiconducting barium titanate
(BaTiO
3x
) but the ferroelectric one
(BaTiO
3
) as well.
Brazing Alloys and Technological
Conditions for Semiconducting
BTO Joining
Metalization of materials using liquid
metal film is a perspective method. How-
ever, a high degree of wetting for solid sur-
faces by such metal is required. Theoreti-
cally (Ref. 14), for producing continuous
film of liquid metal, spreading factor (K)
has to be positive (Equation 1).
K = W
A
W
C
(1)
where W
A
is work of adhesion and W
C
is
work of cohesion.
For brazing and metalization of per-
ovskite, compounds were chosen for
brazed compositions that are well wetted
for the surface of such materials.
Braze alloys based on titanium-
containing systems (Cu-Sn-Ti, Ag-Cu-Ti,
In-Ti) for joining and metalization of per-
ovskite BaTiO
3
ceramic were used for
creating uniform coatings and strong
brazed samples Fig. 6A. The shear
strength of brazed ceramic/ceramic butt
joints was measured (Table 2, Figs. 7, 8).
It is shown that the strength of brazed
perovskite samples obtained using Cu-
Sn-Ti alloys equaled 42 MPa. It is about
80% of the average strength of mono-
lithic samples.
Beside basic requirements (particu-
larly sufficiently high wetting) for materi-
als to be joined, compliance of their coef-
ficients for thermal expansion is
important, because stresses caused by
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A
A
B
B
Fig. 5 X-ray diffraction patterns of the BaTiO
3
(Cu-28 Ti) system. A 1280 K; B 1370 K.
Fig. 6 The samples of the semiconducting BaTiO
3
ceramics metalized and brazed in vacuum using the following: A In-Ti alloys; B Ag-Cu-Ti paste.
Table 2 The Result of Measurements of the Shear Strength of Brazing Barium Titanate
Ceramic Samples
Shear Strength of Brazing Ceramic Samples, MPa
AgCuO AgCuPtO InTi CuSnTi AgCuPbTi
464 283 202 423 412
thermal expansion mismatch can consid-
erably lower the strength of the joint. Ap-
plying indium-based alloys having high
plasticity is especially expedient for metal-
ization and joining BaTiO
3
ceramics.
Additionally, the technology of braz-
ing and metalization BTO was realized
using capillary impregnation of low-melt-
ing braze alloys through titanium pow-
der. For such alloy cleanliness, titanium
powder was obtained from TiH dissociat-
ing into titanium and hydrogen during
heating. The indium was deposition on
the titanic powder layer onto a BaTiO
3
ceramics surface. During heating up to
970 K, indium spread well over the whole
BaTiO
3
surface and filling brazing gap.
The thin film of In-Ti is easily formed on
the surface of perovskite ceramic in such
conditions Fig. 6B.
Ferroelectric BaTiO
3
Barium titanate with a stoichiometric
structure having high ferro- and piezo-
electric characteristics can be heated up
without any changes only within a oxygen-
containing environment (in air). For such
materials joining, special braze alloys and
technological processes are required.
Oxygen being dissolved in some metals
leads to a substantial increase of wetting
degree and adhesion of these metals to ce-
ramics. The oxygen effect on wetting and
also on interface and surface tension of
metal melts was investigated earlier in our
works (Refs. 14, 2528). It has been shown
that oxygen effectively increases the adhe-
sion of Cu, Ag, Ni, and some other metals
to ionic compounds,
for example, to ox-
ides. Several systems
(Cu-O-Al
2
O
3
, Cu-O-
MgO, Ni-O-Al
2
O
3
,
Ag-O-Al
2
O
3
, Ag-Cu-
O-Al
2
O
3
) were stud-
ied in detail. The Ag-
Cu-O system is
especially interest-
ing. We have made
the assumption that
the oxygen tech-
nology will work for
ferroelectric barium
titanate as well. Ac-
cording to Refs. 14,
15, oxygen that has
sufficient affinity to an electron, being dis-
solved in liquid metal, will increase the
wettability of a surface for ionic or ion-
covalent substances.
Up to now, there are only solitary works
concerning the possibility of a perovskite
compound (Pb (Mg
0.33
Nb
0.67
) O
3
) for wet-
ting and joining by Ag-CuO alloys (Ref. 29).
Scientific background of this process is not
developed; the reasons for oxygen influence
on wetting are not explained in this work.
Thus, the investigation of wetting ce-
ramic ferroelectric materials based on
BTO, elaboration of braze compositions
and technological conditions for brazed
BTO ceramic joints, and creation of
strongly adherent metal coatings on the fer-
roelectric perovskite ceramic surfaces were
the main purpose of the present work. The
Ag-Cu-O system alloys were used as a braze
alloys base.
Experimental Data and
Discussion
For ferroelectric BTO ceramic, experi-
ments and technological processes were
carried out per method in air media and, for
the first time, under pure oxygen atmos-
phere using the sessile drop method as well.
For this purpose, a special device was cre-
ated Fig. 9. Experiments were carried out
in oxygen flow with the partial pressure of
oxygen about 1 atm at 1250, 1320, and 1370
K. Technical pure oxygen was used. But the
oxygen is reactive. Pure oxygen at high pres-
sure, such as from a cylinder, can react vio-
lently with common materials such as oil
and grease. Take all reasonably practicable
precautions to ensure safety to prevent oxy-
gen enrichment by keeping oxygen equip-
ment in good condition and taking care
when using it. Good ventilation will also re-
11-s WELDING JOURNAL
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Fig. 7 Scheme of the shear strength test for the brazed ceramic samples.
Fig. 8 The Weibulls graph of brazed strength in vacuum semiconducting
BaTiO
3
ceramic samples.
Fig. 10 Dependence of contact angle for the ferroelectric BaTiO
3
ceramic
by Ag-Cu-O melt in air environment and oxygen on concentration of copper
at 1250 K.
Fig. 9 Scheme of the apparatus for determining the contact angle of metal
melts in the air (oxygen) atmosphere. The labeled numbers represent the fol-
lowing: silica tube (1); furnace (2); heat transparent screen (3); digital cam-
era (4); metal refractory wire (5); and metal sample on the BaTiO
3
ceramic
substrate (6).
duce the risk of oxygen enrichment (Refs.
15, 30).
In Fig. 10, data on BaTiO
3
wetting by
silver and silver-copper alloy are
presented.
Oxygen dissolved in Ag-Cu alloy works
as a strong adhesive element. Contact
angle for pure silver in vacuum at 1250 K
was equal to 129 deg, the same value in air
was 96 deg, and in pure oxygen 75 deg.
Copper addition to silver melt (~10%
(at.)) leads to considerable contact angle
decrease to 4547 deg (in air) and to al-
most complete spread-
ing of alloy ( 510
deg) in the pure oxy-
gen atmosphere.
According to Ref. 14,
oxygen is an adhesion
active and surface ac-
tive element. In the liq-
uid metal, oxygen exists
in the form of O
2
ions
and can form complex
metal-oxygen particles
with metal ions in melt
(Me
2+
O
-2
). Such
complex particles have
a positive pole at metal ion and negative
pole at oxygen ion. Positive metallic ion of
the complex is adsorbed on negatively
charged oxygen ions, forming the surface
of BaTiO
3
. Localization of external elec-
trons for metal ion at oxygen ion must
weaken the metallic bond intensity with
other metal ions. The bond between the
metallic ion of metal-oxygen complex and
another metal atom must be weaker than
metallic bond atoms with each other.
When the bond energy complex-Me is less
than bond energy Me-Me, it is the condi-
tion for metal-oxygen complex surface ac-
tivity. Adsorption of metal ions on the
negative charged oxide surface results in
high adhesion.
The temperature increase intensifies
the wetting process; contact angle de-
creases to 2530 deg in air (with 10 % (at.)
of Cu in liquid Ag). For pure oxygen, full
spreading can be reached with Cu content
at about 67% (at.).
The high capillary activity of alloys in a
pure oxygen atmosphere is caused by a
high equilibrium concentration of oxygen
in melt under high oxygen partial pressure
(1 atm). Oxygen partial pressure for the
air is 0.21 atm. Concentration of oxygen
that saturates metal melt is described by
Sivertss law (in many cases) (Refs. 31, 32),
where p(O
2
) is oxygen partial pressure and
k is constant.
The concentration of oxygen dissolved
in the silver melt in air is equal:
O k p O
liquid metal
2 2
(2)
= ( )
O k
air
Ag
= 0, 21 (3)
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Fig. 11 Microstructure of Ag-Cu-O, BaTiO
3
interface at characteristic
emission of elements (top part ceramic, low part alloy). A 600;
B barium; C titanium; D silver; E copper. BE 1000).
A
E
D C
B
Under pure oxygen atmosphere,
Oxygen solubility in liquid silver in air at
1250 K equals 10.5 sm
3
/g Ag under pure oxy-
gen atmosphere. It will be 2.2 times higher.
Analysis of the BaTiO
3
/Ag-Cu-O alloy
interface shows the presence of a transi-
tive black zone ~710 m thick, which is
an obvious result of copper diffusion into
the ceramic substrate in air media (Fig.
11). But in oxygen atmosphere such zone
is thin (~ 1 m) or absent (Fig. 12). It is
important for saving whole degree ferro-
electric properties of such ceramics.
Brazing of Ferroelectric Barium
Titanate
Under the air, and especially under
pure oxygen atmosphere, the process of
joining (brazing) of ferroelectric BaTiO
3
ceramics can be performed.
Braze alloy Ag-10 Cu was used for join-
ing BTO ceramics in air and Ag-3 Cu
under pure oxygen atmosphere.
The samples of the perovskite ceramics
brazed with Ag-Cu-O alloy were obtained.
The shear strength of ceramic/ceramic
butt joints was measured (Fig. 13, Table 2).
It was shown that the strength of brazed
samples was 46 MPa. It is 88% of the av-
erage strength of monolithic ceramics,
which is more than two times the strength
given in the literature for perovskite ma-
terials brazing.
The metal that can be joined to ferro-
electric BTO is a noble one platinum
(wire electrodes, plates). The pure Ag can
be used as well with minimal difficulty, ac-
counting that the melt temperature for Ag-
Cu-O alloys were some lower than for pure
Ag. As it was shown practically, platinum
provides a strong homogeneous brazed
joint that can also be used for brazing fer-
roelectric ceramics to construction metal.
The brazed and metalized ferroelectric
barium titanate samples were obtained
using plastic In-Ti filler alloy in vacuum at
720 K. It was possibly because such ceramic
begins to lose oxygen and ferroelectric prop-
erties in vacuum at heating above 900 K.
Conclusion
A combined investigation in-
cluding contact interaction and
wetting of BaTiO
3
perovskite ce-
ramics by liquid metals was car-
ried out. Two states of barium ti-
tanate were studied.
For semiconducting BaTiO
3-x
with an oxygen defect, experi-
ments in vacuum for 13 pure met-
als and Ti-containing alloys (Cu-
Sn-Ti, Cu-Ga-Ti, and Ag-Cu-Ti)
were carried out. Most of the
metals under investigation do not
wet BaTiO
3
. Titanium addition
sharply increases capillary prop-
erties and adhesion. Composi-
tions of capillary active braze al-
loys, plus methods in brazing and
metalization BaTiO
3
for high
contact strength achieving, were
found.
The brazing process for ferro-
electric barium titanate must be carried
out in the oxygen-containing environment
in air or preferably pure oxygen. For
brazing and metalization of ferroelectric,
ceramic BaTiO
3
used Ag-Cu-O alloys.
Based on obtained data, metal-oxygen
technologies of metalization and brazing
BaTiO
3
ceramics in air and pure oxygen
atmosphere were developed, and also a
method of metalization with high adhe-
sion using metal melts containing oxygen.
The plastic In-Ti alloy was tested for
metalization and brazing in a vacuum of
perovskite ceramics. It can be used for
the semiconductor BaTiO
3
ceramics at
970 K and ferroelectric BaTiO
3
ceramics
at 720 K, allowing use of the full range of
unique electrical properties for per-
ovskite materials.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Prof. M. D.
Glinchuk and PhD E. P. Garmash for syn-
thesis of ceramic samples; PhD O. V.
Durov for assistance in the brazing
processes; and Prof. S. A. Firstov and Dr.
M. V. Karpets for microstructure interface
investigations.
References
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2. Uchino, K. 1997. Piezoelectric Actuators
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11. Lee, C. Y., Dupcux, M., and Tuan, W. H.
2006. Adhesion strength of Ag/BaTiO
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O k
pure oxygen
Ag
= 1 (4)
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Fig. 12 Cross section of Ag-Cu-O drop (top part) on surface of the ferroelectric BaTiO
3
. A In air; B in oxygen.
A B
Fig. 13 The Weibulls graph of shear strength for brazed in
air ferroelectric BaTiO
3
ceramics samples.
Transitive zone
12. Tretyakov, YuD. 1974. Chemistry of Non-
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14. Naidich, Yu. V. 1981. Eds. Cadenhead,
D. A., and Danielli, J. F. Progress in Surface
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15. Naidich, Yu. V. 1972. The Contact Phe-
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16. Eustathopoulos, N., Sobczak, N.,
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17. Shimbo, M., Naka, M., and Okamoto, I.
1989. Wettability of silicon carbide by alu-
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18. Fujii, H., and Nakae, H. 1996. Equilib-
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19. West, A. R. 1988. Solid State Chemistry
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and carbon in metals. Metallurgy, M.
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Introduction
This research focuses on the use of a
novel flux-cored arc welding wire formu-
lation, which appears to depart from the
typical mechanisms of microstructural de-
velopment, resulting in outstanding weld
metal strength and toughness. The tradi-
tional strategy for achieving a combination
of high strength along with good low-
temperature toughness in high-strength
weld metals is to promote an acicular fer-
rite microstructure (Refs. 14). This mi-
crostructure consists of fine interlocking
ferrite needles, with high grain boundary
misorientations to promote grain bound-
ary strengthening together with crack de-
viation during cleavage fracture at low
temperatures (Refs. 5, 6). The nucleation
of acicular ferrite occurs intragranularly in
austenite on inclusions, and commercial
weld consumables rely on Ti and Al addi-
tions to form inclusions such as TiOx, TiN,
and MnO. Al
2
O
3
(Refs. 79). The nucle-
ation of acicular ferrite depends on achiev-
ing a large volume fraction of inclusions
with a diameter between 0.2 and 2 m,
where the ideal size is close to 0.4 m
(Refs. 1013). It has been shown that
achieving this structure typically occurs
when the weld metal oxygen content is
close to 200 ppm, where lower oxygen con-
centrations fail to produce the acicular fer-
rite, while higher values form excessive
amounts of large oxide inclusions that are
1 m in diameter and nucleate cracks
(Refs. 14, 15) and deteriorate toughness
(Ref. 16).
Considering the influence of chemistry
and cooling rate on the thermodynamics
and kinetics of inclusion formation (Ref.
17), successful application of welding con-
sumables using Ti additions requires care-
ful control of welding parameters that
influence the chemistry in the weld pool,
particularly Ti, O, and N content. This can
limit the operating window for some con-
sumables to achieve the desired acicular
ferrite microstructure depending on these
chemistry additions in the electrode. How-
ever, recent developments have shown
that excellent toughness and strength may
also be achieved with a complex combina-
tion of ferrite with martensite/austenite is-
lands, martensite, degenerated pearlite,
and upper bainite (Ref. 18). High-tough-
ness weld metals based on large fractions
of ferrite with nonaligned second phase
and little acicular ferrite microconstituents
were produced; however, this was limited
to a tensile strength of 480 to 651 MPa
(Ref.19). Alternative microstructures are
of interest since they may offer reduced
levels of interstitial oxygen and nitrogen,
which will help to improve low-tempera-
ture toughness; however, these elements
are normally required in forming inclu-
sions that nucleate acicular ferrite.
The general consensus is that tough-
ness during impact testing is limited in the
upper shelf region by the volume fraction
of nonmetallic inclusions, and by the type
and morphology of microconstituents dur-
ing brittle fracture in the lower shelf (Refs.
2, 20, 21). Since a ferrite structure with
aligned second phase dominates at low-
oxygen contents, the toughness is limited
by the larger unit crack length path during
brittle fracture (Refs. 2224). Weld metal
deposits that achieve Charpy impact en-
ergy values of 300 J at 50C (Ref. 25) are
possible through optimizing oxygen and Ti
content to control the formation of TiO
2
,
which nucleates acicular ferrite. However,
there are a few techniques discussed that
do not rely on acicular ferrite structures
and do not use Ti additions.
This investigation examines the use of a
flux cored arc welding consumable with a
nominal tensile strength of more than 825
MPa, which does not utilize Ti additions
or promote acicular ferrite formation. The
weld metal can be deposited with 100%
CO
2
shielding gas, while containing low in-
terstitial content with good low-tempera-
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Characterization of High-Strength Weld
Metal Containing Mg-Bearing Inclusions
Microstructural analysis of flux cored welds using a 4% Ni steel consumable
exhibits both high strength and toughness
BY A. P. GERLICH, H. IZADI, J. BUNDY, and P. F. MENDEZ
KEYWORDS
Flux Cored
Microstructure
Phase Formation
Oxide Inclusions
Instrumented Charpy
Magnesium
A. P. GERLICH is with University of Waterloo,
Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Wa-
terloo, Ontario, Canada, H. IZADI and P. F.
MENDEZ are with University of Alberta, Chem-
ical and Materials Engineering, Edmonton, Al-
berta, Canada, J. BUNDY is with Hobart Broth-
ers, Troy, Ohio.
ABSTRACT
Weld metal deposited by flux cored arc welding that exhibited a combination of high
strength and toughness was studied. Microstructural characterization revealed it con-
tained primarily bainitic ferrite with a fine packet size in the as-deposited metal and
mainly nonaligned ferrite in the reheated zones, which were concentrated near the root
of the weld. A new type of spherical inclusion is reported with an average size of 311
nm in diameter that exhibits a shelled structure mainly rich in Al, Mg, and O in the
core, and Mg, O in the outer shell. It is suggested the good properties stem from a
combination of fine inclusion size, low content of interstitials, and small ferrite packet
size. Instrumented impact testing indicates that grain refinement in reheated zones
near the root of the weld improve the Charpy impact energy; however, fracture initia-
tion energy is similar to the top of the weld.
ture toughness, as well as high strength.
The microconstituents and inclusions are
examined using a combination of optical
and SEM microscopy, and the fracture
properties are studied using instrumented
impact testing followed by fractography.
Experimental
The weld metal chemistry is summarized
in Table 1, and has a calculated CE
IIW
car-
bon equivalent of 0.62, and P
cm
value of
0.21 (Ref. 26). The welds were completed
using a flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
consumable that conforms to AWS specifi-
cation A5.29, with CO
2
shielding gas, using
a current of 200 A,
voltage of 24 V in di-
rect current elec-
trode negative
(DCEN) polarity,
and 0.0625-in. (1.6
mm) wire with a
feeding rate of 200
in./min (84 mm/s).
The details of the
consumable design
and flux chemistry
have been reported
elsewhere; however,
it should be noted that the flux contains
MgO, which provides an opportunity to in-
troduce Mg content into the weld metal
(Ref. 27). Welding was conducted in the flat
(1G) position on a 0.75-in.-thick ASTM
A514 steel plate with a 45-deg bevel angle,
a 0.5-in. root opening and a backing plate,
similar to other studies (Ref. 28). The travel
speed was approximately 8 in./min during
each welding pass, and the heat input was
an average of 1.8 kJ/mm. During welding,
the preheat or interpass temperature was
350F (177C), and no postweld heat treat-
ment was applied.
Charpy impact testing was conducted
between 73 to 20C on material ex-
tracted from the middle of the weld re-
gion. Additional welds were produced on a
75-mm-thick plate using the same condi-
tions as above in order to facilitate extrac-
tion of 10 10 mm Charpy coupons along
the transverse direction of the weld. These
were obtained from approximately 2 mm
below the surface of the root, as well as 2
mm below the surface of the crown of the
weld, in order to obtain mainly reheated
or as-deposited weld metal, respectively,
from these two regions. These top and
bottom portions of the weld were also
tested by instrumented impact testing in
which the force and displacement were
recorded during impact. Instrumented im-
pact testing was used in order to provide a
comparison of the relative fracture initia-
tion energy values in these top and bottom
regions of the weld.
The microstructures were analyzed using
a combination of optical and SEM mi-
croscopy after etching with 2% nital. Mi-
crohardness indentation was used to
determine the hardness of the reheated and
as-deposited material. In order to deter-
mine the chemistry of fine inclusions, Auger
electron spectroscopy (AES) was used to
map elemental distributions. Further analy-
sis of the inclusions was also conducted by
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Fig. 1 A Macroscopic section of the joint; B optical micrograph
of the as-deposited weld metal; C optical micrograph of the reheated
weld metal.
A
Table 1 Weld Metal Chemistry (wt-%, balance Fe)
C Mn P S Si Cu Cr V Ni Mo Al Ti
0.059 1.219 0.006 0.003 0.123 0.044 0.264 0.005 3.511 0.212 0.557 0.002
Nb Co B W Sn Pb Zr Ce As O N Mg
0.003 0.005 0.0005 0.005 0.005 0.001 0.028 0.001 0.0034 0.012 0.0064 0.03
C
B
dissolving the weld metal in a 25% HCl and
25% HNO
3
mixture, followed by collection
of the dissolved metal residue on filter
paper. The residue as well as the bulk weld
metal was examined by XRD analysis. The
weld metal solidification was also simulated
by calculating the Scheil diagram using
ThermoCalc version S with the TCFE6
database. The ThermoCalc investigations
examined the chemistry shown in Table 1 for
only elements >0.1 wt-% as well as oxygen
and carbon, and the stability of all phases
within the TCFE6 database. The algorithm
for this is included within ThermoCalc,
where the equilibrium composition of solid
phases are calculated, assuming negligible
diffusion in the solid and perfect mixing in
the liquid.
Results
Optical Microscopy
The macroscopic
section of the joint in
the 0.75-in. plate is
shown in Fig. 1A, and
the typical microstruc-
tures observed in the
as-deposited and re-
heated regions of the
weld are shown in Fig.
1B and C. The root
and fill passes of the
weld metal contain a
significant fraction of
reheated weld metal,
while the upper region capping passes
comprise mainly as-deposited material.
The weld metal mainly consisted of
upper bainite, referred to as FS(A) mi-
crostructures in the as-deposited material,
and bainitic ferrite or an FS(NA) mi-
crostructure in the reheated zones con-
taining fine-grained material. These
microstructures were identified using the
modified IIW classification scheme (Ref.
29) as either ferrite with aligned second
phase (FS(A)), ferrite with nonaligned
second phases (FS(NA)), and polygonal
ferrite (PF). Both the as-deposited and re-
heated weld metals were examined, and
the area fractions of each of the ferrite
morphologies or microconstituents were
quantified by image analysis, summarized
in Table 2. Within the fill passes, the as-
deposited regions had an average hard-
ness of about 285 (6.7) HV
1kgf
, which
was comparable to the reheated material
with a hardness of 281 (6.0) HV
1kgf
. It
should be noted that the capping pass weld
metal had a higher hardness of 332 (2.0)
HV
1kgf
as a result of the higher cooling
rates. Weld metal testing indicated that
the yield point was 763 MPa with an ulti-
mate tensile strength of 866 MPa, and
elongation to failure of 17.8%, which is
consistent with the expected minimum ul-
timate tensile strength (UTS) of 825 MPa.
Electron Microscopy and XRD Results
The as-deposited and reheated regions
of the weld metal are shown in Fig. 2.
There is clearly no basket-weave structure
or acicular ferrite present. Instead,
bainitic ferrite dominates with a fine
packet size in the as-deposited mi-
crostructure. The as-deposited regions
containing predominantly aligned ferrite
were organized into packets that com-
prised ferrite laths, with an average length
of 7.4 2.3 m (n = 35) and width of 0.49
0.18 m (n = 54).
The XRD pattern of the bulk weld
metal is shown in Fig. 3, and the only
peaks that could be indexed consisted of
ferrite and retained austenite. Based on
the relative intensities of the (220) ferrite
peak, I
1
, and the (111) austenite peak, I
2
,
the volume fraction of retained austenite
RA% can be estimated (Ref. 29) using the
following equation:
(1)
which indicated that the weld metal con-
tained approximately 2.9% retained
austenite.
=
+

RA
I
I
%
1
1 0.65
1
2
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Fig. 2 SEM micrographs. A As-deposited; B reheated weld metal.
Fig. 3 XRD spectrum of weld metal indicating presence of ferrite () and
retained austenite ().
Table 2 Quantification of Ferrite Microstructures
Region, % Area Fraction FS(A) FS(NA) PF
As deposited 82.4 17.2 0.4
Reheated 4.6 92.5 2.9
A
B
Thermodyamic Analysis
The formation of inclusions in the weld
pool was examined by considering the
thermodynamic stability of various oxides
using ThermoCalc, considering the actual
weld metal chemistry and the assumptions
for a Scheil solidification plot. The results
indicated that the equilibrium phases dur-
ing solidification of the steel first involves
an ionic phase, labeled as
Halite, along with ferrite
(BCC_A1) and retained
austenite (FCC_A1#1).
The halite phase consists
mainly of MgO, and is in-
cluded in the ThermoCalc
TCFE6 database within
the Fe-Al-Ca-Cr-Mg-Mn-
Ni-Si-Ti-C-O system, with
possible substitution of
Mg for other elements
permitted. In the present
work, halite begins to pre-
cipitate in the melt at just
over 2300C and is initially
aluminum rich, and then
devoid of aluminum at
lower temperatures
<1600C, and this is fol-
lowed by solidification of
ferrite. The calculated
content of magnesium and aluminum in
the halite during solidification is shown in
Fig. 4, with a balance of oxygen, suggesting
it would have (Mg,Al)O chemistry. It
should be noted that when magnesium is
not included in the chemistry, the calcula-
tions suggest that Si
2
O
4
-Al
6
O
9
phase
would solidify first in the melt, followed by
MnO-Al
2
O
3
, and the halite phase is not
formed.
Inclusion Analysis
Spherical oxide inclusions could be ob-
served in the steel, and measurements in-
dicated they have an average size of 311
120 nm (n = 69). These fine inclusions
were found to contain aluminum and mag-
nesium Fig. 5. Auger electron spec-
troscopy (AES) was used to map the
elemental distribution in these oxides, and
a core/shell structure can be observed con-
taining mainly Al oxide in the core, and a
shell with Mg oxide Fig. 6. These ob-
servations support the thermodynamic cal-
culations in Fig. 4, which suggest that the
inclusions are initially nucleated with a
core that is rich in magnesium, aluminum,
and oxygen, and then following growth,
the outer shell only contains magnesium
and oxygen. Some prior research has also
shown that halite particles with a MgO
stoichiometry are predicted by Thermo-
Calc in steels containing low oxygen con-
tent and trace amounts of Mg (Ref. 31)
However, to the authors knowledge, such
Mg-Al-O-rich inclusions have never been
reported in weld metal and no correlation
could be observed between nucleation of
ferrite phases and these inclusions.
The carbides in the steel were also ex-
tracted by dissolving the weld metal in a
mixture of HCl and HNO
3
acid. The dis-
solved solution was screened through fil-
ter paper in order to capture the solid
particles. XRD analysis was used to deter-
mine the solid phases recovered following
dissolution and filtering. The XRD peaks
observed in the residue recovered were
identified as ZrC carbide (Ref. 32), and
the particles were extracted from the filter
paper onto double-sided copper tape for
SEM microscopy. This residue is shown in
Fig. 7, and consisted mainly of cuboidal
particles; however, a small fraction of
spherical particles could also be observed,
which may correspond with the oxide in-
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Fig. 4 Weight fraction of Mg (A) and Al (B) in the halite phase vs. temperature during solidification of the weld metal, calculated using ThermoCalc.
Table 3 Instrumented Charpy Impact Testing Measurements
Weld Test Temperature, Dynamic Fracture Total
Region C Toughness J
1d
, kJ/m2 Energy, J
Top 20 246 94
Top 18 245 87
Top 62 280 67
Bottom 20 303 137
Bottom 18 279 139
Bottom 62 294 118
Fig. 5 SEM micrograph of an Mg- and Al-rich inclusion in weld metal.
A
B
clusions observed in Figs. 5 and 6, along
with iron-chloride residue, which may
have reprecipitated during particle extrac-
tion. EDX analysis revealed mainly the
presence of oxygen, carbon, iron, and
chlorine, with a small fraction of zirco-
nium, magnesium, and aluminum in the
extracted residue. Based on the SEM and
XRD observations, it would be expected
that the cuboidal particles correspond with
ZrC, with an average size of 221 45 nm
(n = 10).
Charpy Toughness Measurements and
Fractography
The impact testing results are shown in
Fig. 8. The upper shelf extends to 40C,
and the ductile to brittle transition tem-
perature, if defined as the temperature at
which toughness is intermediate between
the upper and lower shelves, is at 60C or
below. The upper shelf value is approxi-
mately 130 J, and the lower shelf was never
reached, despite tests being conducted
down to 73C. The fracture surface of
Charpy specimens tested at 18C exhib-
ited mainly a fibrous fracture surface,
while those tested at 62C exhibited a
combination of fibrous failure and quasi-
cleavage fracture, as shown in Fig. 9.
Spherical particles could be observed in
bottoms of many of the dimples observed
in the fibrous fracture surfaces, in addition
to a few randomly distributed cuboidal
particles, as shown in Fig. 10. The quasi-
cleavage fracture surface shown in Fig. 11
had facets with dimensions comparable to
the ferrite packed diameters observed by
SEM in Fig. 2.
Instrumented Charpy Testing of Top and
Bottom Region of Weld
The top (near the cap) and bottom
(near the root) of the welds tested showed
significantly different microstructures. The
bottom of the weld shows a much higher
amount of reheated material, as shown in
Fig. 1A, which results in much different
balances between FS(A) and FS(NA) mi-
croconstituents (higher FS(NA) in re-
heated material).
The differences in the fracture strength
of these two microstructures were investi-
gated using instrumented impact tests. In
these tests, the evolution of force during
the breaking of the sample is recorded.
The resulting curves are illustrated in Fig.
12. These curves provide much richer de-
tail than a report of only total impact en-
ergy values. In particular, the dynamic
fracture toughness or J-integral value (J
1d
)
may also be calculated from the data
based on the methodology proposed by
Moitra et al. (Ref. 33). In this approach,
the standard Charpy sample has a notch
and no precrack is present, which requires
one to estimate when the actual fracture
has initiated based on the force-displace-
ment data collected during impact. For
this type of specimen, the dynamic frac-
ture toughness is given by:
J
1d
= (E
S
)
i
Bb
o
(2)
where is a constant, (E
S
)
i
is the energy
absorbed up to the crack initiation point,
the sample thickness B is 10 mm, and b
o
is
the remaining ligament length of 8 mm. It
has been shown that in the case of Charpy
impact specimens, =1.45 (Refs. 33, 34),
and that the crack initiation point for fer-
ritic steel specimens can be taken as the
point corresponding with (P
MAX
+ P
GY
)/2,
where P
MAX
is the maximum load during
impact, and P
GY
is the general yield load
(Ref. 35). In some cases, resonance in the
impact tester produced large oscillations
in the force output, so the force output
data was averaged to remove these oscil-
lations and allow P
MAX
and P
GY
to be
readily determined. The area directly
under the force-displacement curve up to
the point (P
MAX
+ P
GY
)/2 was then quan-
tified to directly measure (E
S
)
i
.
The measured values for the impact
performance of the top and bottom re-
gions of the weld are summarized in Table
3. The J
1d
and the total impact energy are
similar for both regions of the weld
(slightly higher for the bottom region, with
the difference more marked at lower tem-
peratures). The fracture surfaces are also
comparable, with slightly finer features
(average size of dimples) in the bottom.
The similarity in fracture toughness and
fracture surface between the top and the
bottom of the weld, despite having such
different balances of FS(A) and FS(NA)
is consistent with a fracture mechanism
dominated by inclusions and carbides,
which are stable during reheating and are
expected to have a similar distribution in
the top and bottom of the weld. In a mech-
anism dominated by carbides and inclu-
sions, smaller inclusions result in higher
toughness values, and the small size of the
inclusions and carbides observed here (all
below 0.5 m) are an important factor in
the high-impact values observed.
Discussion
In prior investigations, Koseki and
Thewlis have shown that toughness and
strength degrades when the weld metal
Al/O ratio exceeds 1.0 (Ref. 4), since these
will promote a spinel structure that does
not favor acicular ferrite nucleation (Ref.
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Fig. 6 AES analysis of element distributions of the Mg- and Al-rich oxide in weld metal, with A Fe;
B O; C Mg; D Al maps shown.
A
C D
B
36). However, this ideal Al/O ratio is
based on the fraction of acicular ferrite
being maximized, as long as titanium is
present (Ref. 37). Since the Al/O ratio was
extremely high and there was negligible ti-
tanium content, no acicular ferrite formed
in the weld metal.
Precipitate particles with dimensions
>1 m could not be observed in the inclu-
sions extracted from the weld metal by dis-
solution, or on the fracture surfaces,
suggesting that the presence of submicron
sized (Mg, Al)O particles may have sup-
pressed the coarsening of oxide inclusions.
The oxygen content measured in the weld
metal (120 ppm) is within the range ob-
served for gas metal arc welds; however,
the particularly low nitrogen content (64
ppm) is attributed to the use of CO
2
shielding gas along with the high alu-
minum content (0.557 wt-%). For any
given level of oxygen content, a transition
from a small number of large inclusions to
a large number of fine inclusions will re-
sult in lower room temperature fracture
energy values since the number of initia-
tion points for fibrous fracture will in-
crease (Ref. 38), particularly if decohesion
has already occurred at the particle inter-
face upon cooling of the weld metal. In the
case of cleavage fracture, fracture stress
increases dramatically with decreasing in-
clusion size, particularly those <0.5 m in
diameter (Ref. 39), as in the case of the
weld metal examined here. Further analy-
sis could not directly correlate the size and
spacing of the inclusions to any other mi-
crostructural features.
It is interesting to note a shelled inclu-
sion structure similar to the one observed
in this work (but without Mg) was ob-
served in a prior study of flux cored con-
sumables containing Ti and Zr by Narayan
et al. (Ref. 40). They showed that the for-
mation of a core/shell structure prevents
coarsening and agglomeration of inclu-
sions by capping the aluminum oxide
particles and suppressing their growth. In
that study, a much higher fraction of ni-
trogen (0.018 to 0.020 wt-%) was present
in the weld metal, promoting a shell of
(Zr,Ti)N to cap the inclusions. In the pres-
ent work, it appears that magnesium may
have a similar effect in suppressing the
coarsening or agglomeration of the oxides
in the liquid weld metal, as suggested by
the thermodynamic calculations in Fig. 4.
The amount of retained austenite
measured (2.9%) is comparable to 9.4%
measured using the same technique previ-
ously in steel welds containing 9 wt-% Ni
(Ref. 41), where no peaks corresponding
with martensite could be detected (Ref.
42). However, this does not necessarily in-
dicate that martensite was absent since the
low carbon content of the weld metal
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Fig. 7 SEM micrograph of particles extracted from the weld metal fol-
lowing dissolution in acid.
Fig. 8 Charpy impact energy values for material extracted from the mid-
dle region of the fusion zone.
Fig. 9 Fracture surfaces from central region of the Charpy sample for tests. A 18C; B 62C.
A B
would minimize lattice strains, making it
difficult to detect martensite via XRD. Re-
gardless, the presence of a significant frac-
tion of austenite may be beneficial during
fracture, and the nickel content (3.51%) of
the weld metal likely provides an austenite
stabilization effect (Refs. 41, 43). The ad-
dition of Ni to weld metal has long been
known to improve low-temperature tough-
ness of weld metals, particularly
below 30C (Refs. 4446). For example,
more than a 100C decrease in the ductile
to brittle transition temperature can be
achieved when only 3.5% nickel is added
to steel (Ref. 47).
The Charpy toughness values and im-
pact transition temperature achieved in Fig.
8 are comparable to those observed in a
9%Ni steel, despite using a much lower
nickel content (Ref. 41). Reducing the frac-
tion of interstitials, in addition to the pres-
ence of nickel in solution is also known to
increase the cleavage fracture strength and
lower the brittle transition temperature dra-
matically. The premise is that nickel im-
proves the cohesive strength of the ferrite
lattice itself, which contributes to the en-
hanced fracture properties (Ref. 48). The
present work suggests that an additional en-
hancement may occur due to a change in
the distribution of microconstituents as well,
since nickel is an austenite stabilizer. For ex-
ample, when MA phase does not contain
martensite but rather is dominated by
austenite, this may also enhance toughness
properties (Ref. 49).
The high fracture toughness values ob-
tained at low temperatures are also pro-
moted by the fine-grained ferrite
microstructures produced in the welds in
combination with small-diameter oxide in-
clusions. The fine ferrite sizes with fewer
aligned microstructures in reheated zones
contributed to the higher fracture energy
values. Aligned ferrite grains are typically
separated by boundaries with low-angle
misorientation (Ref. 50), and do not pro-
mote crack deviation during cleavage frac-
ture. When the width of the ferrite laths or
size of the packets are reduced (as shown
in Figs. 1 and 2), and few aligned carbides
are present, the cleavage fracture stress in-
creases dramatically (Ref. 51). Since the
FS(A) microconstituents that dominate
the upper portion of the weld exhibit a fine
packet size, this contributed to the fracture
toughness in the top regions of the weld
(containing mostly the as-deposited mate-
rial), reducing the unit crack path during
fracture (Refs. 23, 52). Both J
1d
and the
total impact energy are slightly higher for
the bottom region of the weld, and this
trend is explained by increased fraction of
reheated material with a microstructure
that contains a lower fraction of aligned
ferrite/carbide phases. The difference in
toughness between top and bottom is
more pronounced at lower temperatures,
where cleavage fracture dominates and
the finer microstructures with fewer
aligned ferrite microconstituents result in
higher fracture energies.
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Fig. 10 Particles observed on fracture surface of Charpy sample tested
at 18C.
Fig. 11 Facets observed on the quasi-cleavage fracture surface of Charpy
sample tested at 62C.
Fig. 12 Instrumented Charpy impact data showing force and displacement during impact from the A Top region of weld; B bottom region.
A B
It is particularly interesting to note that
the fine spherical Mg-Al-O-based inclu-
sions were formed in the presence of 300
ppm of Mg in the weld metal. There has
been limited discussion in the literature on
the application of Mg as an alloying ele-
ment in steels; however, it has been noted
to produce nitride and oxide precipitates,
which may be useful in refining the grain
structure in the heat-affected zone (Ref.
53). The use of MgO in welding flux is
common, due to the strong deoxidizing
role of Mg in the weld metal (Ref. 54), al-
though the concentration of Mg in weld
metal is seldom ever reported due to its
low solubility in steel. To the authors
knowledge, this work represents the first
time that Mg has been observed to play a
significant role in the structure of fine ox-
ides in a weld metal, as indicated by the
AES observations in Fig. 6 and the ther-
modynamic modeling in Fig. 4. Since the
chemistry and microstructural features
contributing to the properties of the weld
metal were heavily influenced by the flux
used here (Ref. 27), it is worth examining
how this can be optimized further in con-
sumables for other processes.
Conclusions
Fine Mg-bearing inclusions with a
core/shell structure have been observed in a
carbon steel weld metal. Flux cored arc
welding was used to produce a weld metal
that contained primarily bainitic ferrite with
a fine packet size in the as-deposited metal
and mainly nonaligned ferrite in the re-
heated zones. Spherical inclusions with an
average diameter of 311 nm were observed
with a shelled structure that was mainly rich
in aluminum, magnesium, and oxygen in the
core, vs. magnesium and oxygen in the outer
shell, which was suggested to be halite based
on thermodynamic calculations for the weld
metal chemistry. The combination of a fine
inclusion size, nickel in solution, a low con-
tent of interstitials (such as [O] and [N]),
along with a fine ferrite packet size, were
suggested to provide an excellent combina-
tion of toughness and strength. Instru-
mented impact testing showed the slight
increase in grain refinement in reheated
zones around the root of the weld improved
impact properties, although fracture initia-
tion energies were comparable to the top of
the weld.
Acknowledgments
Financial support was provided from
Hobart Brothers and Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC). Discussions with Mario Amata
of Hobart Brothers, and Graham Thewlis
are also greatly appreciated.
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Introduction
The high working pressure of modern
gas pipelines up to 100120 MPa require
high-impact toughness [Charpy V-notch
(CVN)] of the material (at least 180250
J/cm
2
) at relatively low temperatures
down to 20 to 40C, depending on the
specifications for the pipelines. Designed
steel grades actually have higher CVN val-
ues; however, the most critical area of
pipelines is the weld heat-affected zone
(HAZ). The HAZ undergoes recrystal-
lization, grain growth, followed by (at
cooling) a large scope of austenite trans-
formation, thus destroying the attractive
thermomechanical-controlled processing
(TMCP) microstructure, and often is the
site of the lowest fracture resistance.
The microstructure of high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) steels depends on the
steel composition and thermomechanical
processing route. With the recent trend to-
ward lower carbon (C) contents, nio-
biums (Nb) effect on transformation be-
havior has been noted with the emergence
of acicular or bainitic steels. Under certain
conditions, such as utilizing low interstitial
contents and high austenitizing tempera-
tures, small Nb additions increase harden-
ability by depressing the A
r3
transforma-
tion temperature.
Microalloying with Nb is an integral part
of the composition of modern high-strength
steels for pipelines because of its significant
and simultaneous effects on retardation of
recrystallizaton, precipitation hardening,
and hardenability of austenite facilitating
the formation of a grain-refined structure of
favorable acicular ferrite/bainitic ferrite and
contributing substantially to the strength of
low-C steels (Ref. 1).
At the same time, there is considerable
disagreement on the effect of Nb on HAZ
toughness. Some controversy exists in the
literature concerning the influence of Nb
on HAZ properties under certain condi-
tions that is discussed by pipeline construc-
tion companies and steel producers.
In the study of the effect of Nb in the
presence of nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr),
vanadium (V), and molybdenum (Mo), it
has been shown that the microalloying Nb
steels with V and Mo leads to embrittle-
ment of the HAZ (Ref. 2). Negative effect
of joint microalloying pipeline steels by V
and Nb was also noted in other studies
(Refs. 3, 4).
In a study performed at heat inputs
ranging from 1.5 to 6 kJ/mm using steel
with various C contents, it was shown that
Nb additions can have a detrimental or
beneficial effect at low heat inputs, de-
pending on the C level (Ref. 5). Investi-
gating HAZ embrittlement in Nb-contain-
ing C-Mn steels, it was shown that 1) C
content dominates in the control of the
toughness properties and is particularly
detrimental to HAZ toughness at higher C
levels (0.19% C) in combination with Nb;
2) Nb does not have a significant effect on
HAZ toughness at low C levels (0.06% C)
at high welding heat inputs up to 6 kJ/mm;
3) good toughness properties can be ob-
tained at intermediate C levels of 0.12%
with intermediate to high Nb additions at
lower heat inputs in the range 1.5 to 3
kJ/mm; 4) high C levels (0.19% C) com-
bined with a low heat input result in the
formation of untempered brittle marten-
site and lower bainite with poor toughness
properties regardless of Nb content.
Numerous publications have discussed
the effect of Nb addition on the properties
and microstructure of the HAZ in low-C
microalloyed steels. Niobium is reported
to be beneficial as it expands the nonre-
crystallization temperature range, which is
useful not only for plate rolling, but be-
cause it increases hardenability, which, in
turn, leads to retardation of the grain
boundary ferrite network, thus enhancing
intragranular ferrite formation in low-
heat-input HAZ (e.g., Ref. 6). The posi-
tive effect of Nb was found in another
study, where it was noted that at higher C
contents Nb facilitates the formation of
carbides, decreasing the martensite-
austenite (MA) fraction (Ref. 7).
Other works reported that the increase
in the hardenability by Nb enhances not
only the Widmansttten ferrite and upper
bainite but also MA formation in the re-
Weldability of Niobium-Containing
High-Strength Steel for Pipelines
The investigated steels showed no tendency to cold cracking in the heat-affected
zone, even with low heat input
BY I. I. FRANTOV, A. A. VELICHKO, A. N. BORTSOV, AND I. Y. UTKIN
ABSTRACT
The presented study contains an assessment of weldability based on careful inves-
tigation of two niobium-containing industrial steel grades X70 and X80, with 0.056
and 0.094% Nb, respectively. Characteristics of their resistance to brittle fracture in
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) were evaluated on simulated samples after rapid heat-
ing to high temperature followed by cooling at various rates corresponding to differ-
ent heat inputs. As shown, the HAZ of both investigated steels ensure performance
down to 30C in submerged arc welded thick-walled pipes welded with high heat
input. Investigations of phase transformations at cooling from 1300C and micro-
hardness measurements have shown that investigated steels with Nb content up to
~0.1% do not have a tendency for cold cracking in the HAZ during welding, even
with very low heat input.
KEYWORDS
Weld Process Simulation
Weldability Testing
High-Strength Steels
Piping/Tubing
C-Mn Steels
Submerged Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
I. I. FRANTOV (ifrantov@mail.ru), A. N.
BORTSOV (alnicbortsov@gmail.com), and I.
Y. UTKIN are with I. P. Bardin Central Research
Center for Ferrous Metallurgy, Moscow, Russia.
A. A. VELICHKO is with Izorsky Pipe Plant,
Kolpino, Russia.
heated region. Some researchers pointed
out a linear increase in MA with an in-
crease in Nb content, but this effect has
been found at rather high C content (Ref.
8). The corresponding hardness increase
was attributed to precipitation of fine
Nb(C, N) formed at cooling after the re-
dissolution of Nb (Ref. 5).
An investigation of the HAZ mi-
crostructures of two steels with 0.04% C and
0.070.10% Nb showed no difference in the
prior austenitic grain size and, conse-
quently, in the local hardenability. On the
other hand, Nb reduced the size of the
bainitic packet in the HAZ leading to an im-
provement in impact toughness (Ref. 9).
Some researchers found that a small
addition of Nb decreases toughness (Ref.
10), while others found either no signifi-
cant effect of Nb addition in the case of
low-C steels (Ref. 11) or increased tough-
ness in very low C (~0.03%) steel (Ref.
12). The importance of very low C to en-
sure high HAZ toughness in two-pass sub-
merged arc welds is emphasized in a few
studies together with confirmation of the
fact that without microalloying by Nb the
strength of X80 cannot be achieved (Ref.
13). An investigation of coarse-grained
HAZ of X80 grade steel with ~0.1% Nb
using simulation of a single welding ther-
mal cycle came to the conclusion that the
heat input should be less than 30 kJ/cm to
ensure good Charpy impact toughness
(Ref. 14).
As is well known, all properties includ-
ing impact toughness are defined by the
microstructure. Therefore, all discussions
and differences of opinion about the role
of Nb, which was often overshadowed or
mixed with the dominating roles of C and
Mn or Mo content, should be related to
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Fig. 1 Microstructure of the X80 base metal (250).
Fig. 3 The temperature dependence of the impact toughness in the HAZ of the following: A X70; B X80 grade steels depending on the cooling rate
(shown on the curves), corresponding to a different heat input at welding.
Fig. 2 The proposed criteria for brittle fracture resistance.
A B
Table 1 Chemical Composition of the Investigated Steels
Grade Chemical Composition (%)
C Si Mn S P Al Ti N
2
Ca
X-70 0.05 0.33 1.73 0.0005 0.006 0.033 0.013 0.0051 0.0002
Nb V Mo Cr Ni Cu B
0.056 0.001 0.002 0.17 0.012 0.014 0.0002
C Si Mn S P Al Ti N
2
Ca
X-80 0.06 0.30 1.56 0.002 0.014 0.037 0.014 0.004 0.0026
Nb V Mo Cr Ni Cu B
0.094 0.002 0.01 0.23 0.13 0.24
Notes: H70 (HSLA) is the steel for offshore application in accordance with Standards Det Norske Veritas
(DNV) Offshore Standard OS-F101, Submarine Pipeline Systems.
X80 (HSLA) is the steel for the Cheyenne Plains Pipeline, U.S.A.
the role of Nb in specific steel composi-
tions on parameters of phase transforma-
tion of overheated austenite at specified
cooling conditions, defined by specific
heat input. In fact, there is a lack of data
correlating the thermal conditions of the
HAZ, in particular for multipass welding,
with Nb effect on phase transformation at
corresponding cooling rate.
Thus, the presented study of two high-
Nb-containing pipeline steels aims to char-
acterize not only the impact toughness of
the simulated HAZ as a function of tem-
perature and a wide range of heat inputs, in-
cluding two-pass and multipass welding, but
also to investigate phase transformations of
coarse-grained austenite at various cooling
rates as well as the type/microhardness of
the obtained structure.
Materials and Methods of
Investigation
Material. Investigation of weldability in
the current study was carried out on sam-
ples of steels with strength of the X70 to X80
classes corresponding to the requirements
of Russian and international standards,
whose compositions and tensile properties
are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Sample thick-
nesses for steel grades X70 and X80 were,
respectively, 25.4 and 16.4 mm.
The low-C steel investigated contained
1.621.75% Mn, no V or Mo, and Nb mi-
croalloyed in the range of 0.06 to 0.10%.
Sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P), aluminum
(Al), and titanium (Ti), as well as calcium
(Ca) and trace elements, are not signifi-
cantly different in those two grades:
0.0007 0.001% S; 0.0060.0013% P;
0.020.04% Al; 0.0120.026% Ti;
0.0040.006% N
2
; 0.00120.0015% Ca;
0.0002% boron (B); 0.0040.005% tin
(Sn); 0.000% arsenic (As); 0.050.10%
copper (Cu); 0.001% cobalt (Co); and
0.003% lead (Pb).
Figure 1 shows an example of the grade
X80 steel base metal microstructure.
Simulation of welding. With all existing
varieties of evaluation of weldability, the
final assessment of the suitability of pipe
steels for use in specific conditions is ac-
complished by testing the impact tough-
ness of the welds. As is well known, the
coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) under-
goes heating to 13001320C and there-
fore has the most reduced, in comparison
with the base metal, impact toughness, but
a direct investigation of its properties with
the necessary localization of fracture in
the site of the HAZ is difficult. Simulation
of various heat inputs in the current study
was implemented by varying the applied
cooling rates to samples heated at high
heating rates up to 13001320C, as is
widely used in modern studies (Refs. 3,
14). In comparison with those studies,
where a Gleeble was used, the authors of
this work applied contactless induction
heating to samples with the same capabil-
ity to simulate a real welding process and
obtain dilatometric data at cooling. This
method allowing the assessment of weld-
ability criteria and investigations of phase
transformation in the HAZ based on sim-
ulation of thermal welding processes
within tubular steels has been developed
by the I. P. Bardin Central Research Insti-
tute of Ferrous Metals and actively used
for more than two decades.The samples
for subsequent mechanical testing were
subjected to heating and cooling, using
thermal cycles that corresponded to typi-
cal welding conditions adopted during the
manufacture of pipes, as well as in the con-
struction of pipelines. For simulation of
the submerged arc welding (SAW)
process, when the cooling rate is less than
10C/s, 10 10-mm samples were used.
For multipass welding with low heat input
and therefore high cooling rates, 5 10-
mm samples were applied to reduce the
temperature gradient over the cross sec-
tion of the blanks. For normalizing Charpy
toughness values, the converting factor of
0.65 was used for smaller samples, which
has been established by comparing the ex-
perimental results of the impact tests of
subsized and traditional full-size Charpy
samples of compared steels.
Thermal simulation facilitates not only
the investigation of impact toughness and
hardness of the HAZ, but also the mor-
phology of microstructures corresponding
to specific welding conditions.
In the process of manufacturing
pipelines, various types of welding are
used including two-pass SAW during pipe
production and multipass shielded metal
arc (SMA) or other welding processes
during the construction of gas pipelines.
These welding processes are fundamen-
tally different in terms of the welding heat
input and the character of the thermal
fields. Calculations of thermal fields are
made using two-dimensional field equa-
tions, applied to the factory mode of weld-
ing pipes with large heat inputs, and three-
dimensional ones for multipass welding of
butt joints in pipes at low heat-input
values.
Calculation of thermal fields and de-
termination of cooling rates for multipass
welding and two-pass SAW. Based on the
theory of thermal processes (Ref. 16), the
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Fig. 4 The impact of toughness of steel in the HAZ of A X70; B X80 at different temperatures of testing vs. the applied cooling rate (W
800/500
): 2
the line of the average brittleness threshold (T50 CVN); 3 the line of specified minimum toughness (here 70 J/cm
2
).
A
B
Table 2 Tensile Properties of Investigated Steels
Grade Tensile Properties
YS
0.5
UTS TE YS
0.5
/UTS
E (MPa) (MPa) (%)
x-70* 551 631 32.2 0.87
x-80* 614 715 33 0.86
equations of two- and three-dimensional
heat-conducting paths are used to esti-
mate the interrelation of modes of weld-
ing (heat input) and time of cooling (cool-
ing rate) of welded connections.
In particular, calculations of a three-
dimensional thermal field was applied to
welding weld roots at low heat input. At a
given mode of welding, there is no influ-
ence from the pipe wall thickness, d, and
the equation reflects only the effect of
heat input, E:
(t
8/5
) = (0.67 5*10
4
*To)**E*
[1:(500 To) 1:(800 To)] *
3
(1)
During welding of pipes using SAW
with a large heat input, a two-dimensional
thermal zone was considered. The equa-
tion demonstrates the influence of both
pipe wall thickness and the level of heat
input:
(t
8/5
) = (0.043 4.3*10
5
*To)
*
2
*E
2
/d
2
*[1:(500 To)]
2
[(1 : (800
To)]
2
*
2
(2)
Table 3 shows the symbols and designa-
tions for Equations 1 and 2. The charts as
presented in Fig. 9, which are based on
corresponding calculations and experi-
ments, allow estimations of the cooling
rates from the peak temperature for every
specific heat input. One of the correspon-
ding charts for multipass welding will be
presented later.
During longitudinal welding with high
heat input, the cooling rate of the HAZ is
affected by the amount of heat input, a
wall thickness, and a temperature prior to
welding, meaning the temperature of the
previous pass during two-pass SAW.
The calculated cooling rate values, de-
pending on the initial temperature of the
weld during two-pass SAW are presented
in Table 4 for pipes with wall thicknesses
of 16.4 and 25.4 mm. During welding of
the external joint, each thickness requires
a specific optimal level of heat input,
which ensures the necessary geometric pa-
rameters of the joints. Appropriate cool-
ing rates of the external weld were defined
both for the condition of full cooling of the
internal joint (20C), and for its incom-
plete cooling to 60 and 100C.
Phase transformations and mi-
crostructure. The study of phase transfor-
mations was performed using a fast oper-
ating, high-temperature dilatometer
(DB-Chermet) capable of induction heat-
ing up to 1350C at a heating rate from 10
to 300C/s and cooling capacity with rates
from 0.3 to 250C/s. Microstuctures of
dilatometric and weld-simulated samples
were investigated using etching in 2%
Nital and optical microscope Axiovert 40
MAT. Twelve to 15 samples were used to
build each CCT diagram. The diagrams
contain microhardness values against
each cooling rate and corresponding prod-
uct of phase transformation so those num-
bers can be used, in particular, for evalua-
tion of hardness of martensite.
Evaluation of resistance to brittle frac-
ture. The investigated steel samples were
subjected to induction heating in accor-
dance with a specific thermal cycle of
welding and subsequent cooling at a wide
range of cooling rates. Specimens with
simulated microstructure of the HAZ
were machined to cut a sharp (Charpy)
notch and subjected to impact testing in
the temperature range 20 to 60C. The
usual determination of the temperature of
ductile to brittle fracture transition, based
on area fraction of shear fracture, is prac-
tically impossible on subsized samples due
to the large plastic deformation of thin
samples. Therefore, the estimations of re-
sistance to brittle fracture were based on
the following set of parameters, schemati-
cally shown in Fig. 2.
The upper limit, corresponding to
the beginning (lowest temperature) of
the shelf toughness (ShCVN) and sig-
nifying the beginning of the transition
from ductile to brittle fracture (projec-
tion T1 in Fig. 2).
The average threshold T50 ShCVN
(here at ~110 J/cm
2
) corresponding to the
decrease in impact toughness by 50% rel-
ative to the maximum (Shelf CVN) values,
which corresponds to a mixed brittle-
ductile fracture and, as shown by compar-
ison with full-size samples, corresponds to
5060% of the tear fracture pattern (pro-
jection T2 in Fig. 2).
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Table 3 Symbols and Designations for Equations 1 and 2
Designation Units of Measure Parameter
t
8/5
seconds Time of cooling from 800 to 500C
Dimensionless factor Parameter of the process effciency
E J/sm Heat-input (E = U*I/V)
U Volt Electric voltage of a welding arc
I Amperage Electric current of a welding arc
V sm/s Speed of welding
To C Temperature of preheating
d sm Thickness of pipe wall
Fig. 5 Microstructure of HAZ of multipass butt-joint welding, hot pass,
preliminary temperature 100C (250).
Fig. 6 Comparison of impact toughness vs. cooling rate dependences for
testing the investigated steels at 30C.
Fig. 7 Microstructure of HAZ depending on simulated thermal conditions (250).
The temperature of minimum tough-
ness required (here 70 J/cm
2
), which is
usually defined by specifications for gas
pipes (projection T3 in Fig. 2).
Results and Discussion
Investigation of HAZ Resistance to Brittle
Fracture
Evaluation of weldability of the steel
containing 0.056% Nb based on T50 CVN
(Fig. 3A) shows that during cooling of the
external weld with a rate of 68C/s cor-
responding to the condition of complete
precooling of the internal weld, the tem-
perature of the average threshold ductile-
brittle transition of the HAZ (here corre-
sponding to CVN ~120 J/cm
2
) is 30C
(determined for 7C/s). For welding over
the hot joint (with its temperature of
100C) and accordingly for the condition
of a reduced cooling rate T50 ShCVN in-
creases only up to 20C (determined for
3.3C /s).
Evaluation of weldability of the steel
containing 0.096% Nb by T50 CVN pre-
sented in Fig. 3B, under the same welding
conditions, demonstrates that the ductile-
brittle transition temperature (here, too,
at CVN ~ 120 J/cm
2
) is also 30C (deter-
mined for cooling rate 7C/s, and for weld-
ing over the hot joint (again at 100C)
rises also to 20C. Thus, the increase of
Nb content does not negatively impact the
brittle fracture resistance of the HAZ dur-
ing welding with high heat input.
The obtained experimental data were
transformed to some diagrams depicted in
Fig. 4. These diagrams present the CVN
values vs. applied cooling rate at various
temperatures of impact toughness meas-
urements and thus allow us to define per-
missible ranges of cooling rates in the tem-
perature region of phase transformations
W
8/5
(cooling rate from 800 to 500C),
which may ensure a prescribed level of
brittle fracture resistance of the steel in
the HAZ. As shown, these curves exhibit
some extremes, pointing out a maximum
possible impact toughness of the HAZ. At
present, this possibility cannot be imple-
mented due to lack of technical means to
control postweld cooling.
In particular, Fig. 5 presents the HAZ
microstructure after simulation of multi-
pass joint welding, the hot pass version.
When very favorable microstructure with
100% lath bainite was obtained, bainite
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A B
C
D
Table 4 Calculated Values of Cooling Rates, Depending on the Preliminary Temperature of
the Joint during Two-Pass, SAW
Temperature of Pipe wall thickness, (mm)
Internal Joint 16.4 25.4
before Welding,
T, C Heat input (E ), kJ/mm
3.44.0 4.85.4
Cooling rate (W
800/500
) (C/s)
20C 57 68
60C 46 57
100C 35 46
lath size is 15 microns, prior austenite
grain size is 40 microns.
As shown for X70 grade (Fig. 4A), the
studied composition shows a wide range of
acceptable cooling rates for welding with
large heat inputs, typical for factory-made
longitudinal SAW, as well as with low heat
inputs applied for field construction joints.
Depending on the test temperature for a
specific pipeline operation, the allowable
range of postweld cooling rates may vary.
For example, to guarantee a CVN value
more than 120 J/cm
2
at 20C, the permis-
sible range of cooling rates is from 2.7 to
70C/s.
It is worth noting that for field SAW
at 7C, all existing working instructions
require preheating to 150C, which means
heat input should be 1.2 kJ/mm or higher
to ensure a cooling rate no higher than
40C/s.
As can be seen for X80 grade (Fig. 4B),
its high Nb content shows a wide range of
acceptable cooling rates for welding with
both high and low heat input. Depending
on the testing temperature for a specific
pipeline operation, the allowable range of
postweld cooling rates may vary. For ex-
ample, for a guaranteed level of toughness
of more than 120 J/cm
2
at 20C, the per-
missible cooling rate range is from 2.7 to
40C/s.
Figure 6 presents the comparison of
those permissible ranges of cooling rates
for both investigated steels for impact
toughness tested at 30C. As shown, the
X70 steel with 0.056% Nb can guarantee
retaining 50% ShCVN (here 115 J/cm
2
) at
cooling rates from 8 to 60C/s, and the
specified minimum value (here 70 J/cm
2
)
at cooling rates from 3.8 to more than
100C/s. Increase in Nb content results in
slight changes of those values. The tough-
ness of 115 J/cm
2
at 30C can be guaran-
teed at cooling rates from 7 to 20C/s,
whereas the level of 70 J/cm
2
can be as-
sured at cooling rates from 3 to 70C/s.
Microstructures obtained at various
cooling rates are presented in Fig. 7. Fig-
ure 7A corresponds to the HAZ at very
slow cooling and contains 50% bainite and
50% polygonal ferrite with the sizes of the
bainite packet and ferrite grain of 30 and
35 microns, respectively. Figure 7B pres-
ents the microstructure of the SAW HAZ
with a hot pass (preliminary tempera-
ture 100C): 5% polygonal ferrite and
95% bainite, average bainite packet size is
15 microns, and prior austenite grain size
(PAGS) is 70 microns. Microstructure of
HAZ at SAW with a cold pass (20C) is
presented in Fig. 7C and contains 100%
bainite of lath and globular morphology,
and the bainite packet size is 10 microns
and the PAGS is 60 microns. The mi-
crostructure that can ensure the highest
low-temperature toughness is presented
in Fig. 7D. It is 100% lath bainite with a
packet size of 10 microns and PAGS of 45
microns.
Effect of Nb on the Kinetics of Austenite
Transformations
The changes in impact toughness
shown above reflect changes in mi-
crostructure resulting from the transfor-
mation of coarse-grained austenite in the
HAZ for a specific thermal cycle. Investi-
gations of phase transformations resulting
in the building of continuous cooling
transformation diagrams (CCT) were per-
formed after the high-speed heating of
dilatometer samples to a temperature of
13001320C.
As shown in Fig. 8A, B, the kinetics of
austenite transformation in both steels
that were investigated is featured by bai-
nite transformations in a wide range of
cooling rates. The fact that Nb promotes
the formation of lower temperature trans-
formation banite-like products at a rela-
tively high cooling rate is noted also at
comparative investigation of effects of Nb
and V (Ref. 15). Martensitic transforma-
tion is observed at high enough cooling
rates, but they do occur in pipeline butt
joints. Niobium slightly increases the sta-
bility of austenite, so that the formation of
martensite in steel containing 0.094% Nb
is observed at a cooling rate of 50C/s,
compared with 70C/s at 0.056% Nb con-
tent. This effect is small and it is necessary
to note that the actual cooling, which ac-
companies the root welding without pre-
heating the weld, even with a cooling rate
of 90C/s, results in the volume fraction of
martensite being not more than 25% and
10%, respectively, for the 0.094% and
0.056% Nb. As can be seen from the CCT,
the formation of a significant amount of
(low-carbon and therefore not very hard)
martensite in these steels is impossible.
Diffusion-controlled ferrite transfor-
mation is shifted, under the influence of
niobium, to the slow cooling rates up to
2.5C/s at 0.094% Nb, and up to 4.2/s at
0.056% Nb, i.e., toward significantly lower
than the usual cooling rates during weld-
ing of thick-walled tubes under a layer of
flux.
Evaluation of Tendency to Cold Cracking
During multipass welding, the HAZ
cooling rate depends on the heat input and
the temperature of the weld before the
welding, beside the effect of the wall thick-
ness. Processing of multipass butt-joint
welding of pipelines varies depending on
type of weld and heat input values as the
following:
Root weld with heat input up to 0.55
kJ/mm;
Hot pass with heat input up to 1.2 kJ/mm;
Facing joint with GMA (CO
2
) welding
with heat input up to 2.0 kJ/mm.
The diagram of cooling rates vs. heat
inputs for these types of butt-joint welding
is shown in Fig. 9.
Measurements of microhardness of
dilatometric samples used at constructing
CCT diagrams to characterize products of
austenite transformations allow the evalu-
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C
H
Fig. 8 CCT diagrams of A X70; B X80 steel grades, built at cooling from 1300C.
A B
ation of the tendency to cold cracking in
the HAZ during welding.
The permissible level of hardness is 315
HV, which reflects a certain amount of
bainitic-martensitic mixture in the HAZ
structure, is established by norms of Det
Norske Veritas (DNV-OS-F101) and is ap-
plicable for welding pipes with a wall
thickness of 20 mm or more. (This crite-
rion applies to the evaluation of field
joints of pipelines welded with high cool-
ing rates, when partial quenching of HAZ
site is possible in the case of increased sta-
bility of the austenite).
As shown in Fig. 10, neither steel ex-
ceeds the 315-HV limit up to cooling rate
of 70C/s. It should be noted that the in-
crease in Nb content up to ~0.10% at
medium level of Mn and small amounts of
Cr did not affect the propensity to quench-
ing of HAZ metal and thus the composi-
tions studied are not at risk of cold crack-
ing during welding, even with very low
heat input.
Conclusions
1. Weldability assessment was per-
formed based on careful investigations of
two Nb-containing industrial steel grades
of X70 and X80, respectively, with 0.056
and 0.094% Nb.
2. The resistance of the two steels to
brittle fracture in the HAZ was evaluated
on samples of the steels after high-tem-
perature heating and cooling to simulate
the weld thermal cycle of welded joints at
different heat inputs.
3. Use of different criteria of resistance
to brittle fracture including the tempera-
ture of 50% shelf impact toughness and
temperature of minimum specified impact
toughness (here 70 J/cm
2
), have shown
that the HAZ of both investigated steels
ensure performance of pipelines down to
30C in SAW of thick-walled pipes using
high heat input.
4. CCT diagrams developed and meas-
urements of microhardness of microstruc-
tures, formed by the transformation of
austenite at different cooling rates from
1300C, have shown that the investigated
steels with Nb content up to ~0.1% do not
have a tendency to cold cracking in the
HAZ, even at very low heat input.
References
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Fig. 9 The cooling rate, depending on the heat input at multipass welding
of butt joints (figures show the temperature before the next weld pass, C), in-
dependent of pipe wall thickness.
Fig. 10 Determination of the critical cooling rate, preventing cold cracking
in the HAZ, based on the maximum permissible hardness of 315 HV.
D. K. Aidun
M. C. Akuner
A. AlShawaf
T. Anderson
J. Antonini
A. Arora
K. D. Ashtekar
R. E. Avery
N. K. Babu
S. Bag
D. Bechetti
M. Bloss
S. Boetcher
J. E. M. Braid
R. Branan
J. Brauser
K. L. Brown
B. Brust
D. W. Bucholz
G. Buffa
D. Burford
P. Burgardt
X. Cao
S. Chakraborty
C. L. Chan
K. R. Chan
B. Y. J. Chao
C. C. Chen
J. Chen
J. Chen
M. J. Cola
K. Colligan
G. E. Cook
B. Craig
M. Cunningham
E. N. C. Dalder
B. K. Damkroger
P. Dawson
L. De Filippis
A. Debiccari
B. DeForce
P. J. Ditzel
H. Dong
H. Doude
W. Drake
D. Dunbar
M. Dutoit
P. Dutta
C. Emmelmann
D. Eno
R. Etien
Z. Fang
J. D. Farren
D. A. Fink
S. R. Fiore
K. Friis
J. Gabbita
P. Gadhe
G. W. Galanes
W. F. Gale
D. L. Galiher
Y. P. Gao
J. A. Gianetto
B. Girvin
S. Gordon
K. Graff
M. Gray
J. Greer
M. Guhel
M. Hackett
P. Hall
M. Hanson
I. D. Harris
D. Hauser
V. B. Hernandez
G. Hinkle
K. Hollis
T. Hong
B. Horn
W. Hou
J. Hu
Y. Huang
J. Hutchins
D. L. Isenhour
J. R. Jachna
D. A. Javernick
N. T. Jenkins
C. Jiang
M. Q. Johnson
J. E. Jones
A. Kar
L. Karlsson
A. Kasapo lu
S. Katayama
D. D. Kautz
F. Kavanara
S. C. Kelley
C. Kelly
S. Kelly
R. K. Kersey
I. Khan
D. S. Kim
J. K. Kim
Y. S. Kim
M. Kimchi
D. Klingman
D. B. Knorr
H. Koike
F. Kong
S. Kore
T. Kostrivas
R. Kovacevic
L. Kramer
A. Kumar
M. Kuntz
J. J. Kwiatkowski
M. Labbe
K. Lachenberg
C. R. LaMorte
A. Landau
B. Leister
L. Li
M. V. Li
T. Li
W. Li
D. Liang
E. Liguo
S. Lillard
C. C. Lu
W. Lu
Y. Lu
D. Ludwig
N. Ma
X. Ma
D. Maatz
D. MacCallum
M. Manohar
I. Maroef
B. Marschke
F. Martinez Diez
R. P. Martukanitz
M. P. Marya
S. Massey
K. Masubuchi
V. Matthews
M. Mayer
A. Maynard
J. Mazumder
M. McAninch
S. McCracken
A. McDonald
A. Mengel
R. Menon
M. P. Miles
J. O. Milewski
D. Miller
R. Mishra
T. Morrissett
P. E. Murray
S. J. Na
X. Na
B. Narayanan
A. M. Nasiri
T. V. Natale
T. C. Nguyen
N. E. Nissley
J. T. Norris
Y. Ogawa
T. Oyama
A. Pandey
J. Peng
J. A. Penso
F. Perez
E. C. Pessoa
W. Peterson
C. Pettersson
A. Peusc
F. Pfefferkorn
S. Pilli
M. Piltch
J. P. Planckaert
A. Polar
N. Porter
M. Prager
P. Prangnell
M. Prime
J. D. Puskar
J. Querin
T. P. Quinn
A. Rabinkin
J. Ram
A. Raraz
S. Ream
C. B. Reed
R. Ress
A. P. Reynolds
D. Richards
B. Ridgway
J. R. Roper
G. Roy
D. Rudland
F. Rumiche
D. J. Rybicki
E. F. Rybicki
S. Sadagopan
M. Santella
S. Santhanakrishnan
D. Schick
J. Scott
K. Scott
O. Semenov
D. Sen
A. Shapiro
A. Shukla
M. Siddens
M. S. Sierdzinski
T. Siewert
M. Sinfield
H. B. Smartt
C. Smith
B. R. Somers
R. Somers
H. Song
W. H. Song
G. Sonnenberg
C. D. Sorensen
V. Soundararajan
W. J. Sperko
J. E. Stallmeyer
R. J. Steele
A. W. Stockdale
T. Stotler
J. Sutliff
E. Taban
H. Tang
M. Teague
K. Tello
D. J. Tillack
W. Tong
D. W. Trees
C. L. Tsai
J. Tucker
G. D. Uttrachi
D. M. Vandergriff
P. T. Vianco
B. Victor
C. A. Walker
G. Wang
H. P. Wang
W. Wang
Y. Y. Wang
B. Warke
D. C. Weckman
P. S. Wei
M. M. Weir
E. M. Westin
T. C. Wheeler
T. Wong
P. Woollin
C. Wu
C. Y. Wu
L. Xiao
J. Xie
R. Xu
S. Xu
Z. Xu
Z. Yang
L. Yepez
G. Young
X. Yu
T. Zacharia
C. Zhang
P. Zhang
R. Zhang
W. Zhang
AWS Peer Review Panel
All papers published in the Welding Journals Welding Research Supplement undergo Peer Review before publication for: 1) originality
of the contribution; 2) technical value to the welding community; 3) prior publication of the material being reviewed; 4) proper credit
to others working in the same area; and 5) justification of the conclusions, based on the work performed. The following individuals serve
on the AWS Peer Review Panel and are experts in specific technical areas. All are volunteers in the program.
Y. Adonyi
B. Alexandrov
S. S. Babu
M. Balmforth
D. Barborak
J. L. Caron
H. R. Castner
B. A. Chin
C. E. Cross
C. B. Dallam
T. DebRoy
X. Deng
J. N. DuPont
T. W. Eagar
J. W. Elmer
D. F. Farson
Z. Feng
R. W. Fonda
P. W. Fuerschbach
A. Gerlich
J. E. Gould
M. Harris
D. Hartman
P. Hochanadel
T. Holverson
F. M. Hosking
Y. Huang
R. Hutchison
J. E. Indacochea
G. A. Knorovsky
P. J. Konkol
D. J. Kotecki
S. Kou
S. H. La Lam
D. Landon
K. Li
L. Li
T. W. Liao
T. J. Lienert
D. Lin
W. Lin
S. Liu
W. Liu
R. B. Madigan
M. C. Maguire
P. F. Mendez
R. Menon
D. W. Meyer
P. Michaleris
W. Mohr
P. B. Nagy
R. Nandan
T. W. Nelson
R. Noecker
D. L. Olson
T. A. Palmer
J. J. Perdomo
M. J. Perricone
R. Polanin
M. Posada
A. J. Ramirez
J. Ramirez
G. W. Ritter
J. Rodelas
J. Schneider
D. R. Sigler
X. Sun
D. Susan
M. Tumuluru
P. C. Wang
Y. P. Yang
H. Zhang
W. Zhang
Y. M. Zhang
Y. N. Zhou
Principal Reviewers
30-s JANUARY 2014
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PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING

2-Gas Adjustable Mixer

JANUARY 2014, VOL. 93 2-s

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