West & The World: Super Awesome Final Exam Review

Compiled by Julian Where and what is the west%

What is the West and how is it different from the rest of the world? Though we often encounter the term the West, its meaning is sometimes elusive, because as an idea, or as a civilization, or as a geographical entity, it has changed, and continues to change, over time. The west denotes an area distinct from areas located in the north, east, and south. Even then, it s location is unclear. There is an absolute north fi!ed by the polestar, but there is no such fi!ed point that divides the Earth along an east"west a!is. The distinction of #orth and $outh is real and intelligible but the difference of East and West is arbitrary and shifts around the globe. The West also con%ures up a variety of ideas and images, ranging from the cities of &ondon, 'aris, and #ew (or), to houses of parliament, to *ollywood movies, to factories and s)yscrapers, to cowboys and %eans, to a political attitude. There has been no agreement on the places that ma)e up the West. $ome consider the core of the West to be the area )nown as &atin +hristendom, yet others define its limits even more narrowly, including only ,ritain, -rance, ,elgium, *olland, and $witzerland. $ee .#T/012+T.0# in your te!tboo) for maps on the idea of west boundary. The definition of the West and how it is considered different from the rest of the world ta)es into account its changing nature over the past five hundred years. 1uring the last five hundred years, the West has developed systems of beliefs based on3 .ndividual rights and constitutional government 4'olitical and 1iplomatic *istory5 Trade, industry and technology 4Economic and $ocial *istory5 6rtists, writers, builders have helped to shape Western attitudes towards human nature, social %ustice, truth, and beauty, while fre7uently drawing on models and inspiration from elsewhere. 4.ntellectual and +ultural *istory5

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istory

The West is always in a process of becoming. .t is fluid and evolving. The West changes with historical developments and its central principles are interpreted differently at a distinct time, which generates e!citement in the study of *istory8 *istoriography3 The study of how history is written.

The world in &'((s: The Six Cities

Constantinople 6 ma%or trading +entre, strategically located on the ,osporus $traight, which mar)s the division between Europe and 6sia. -ounded by the /oman emperor +onstantine called The $econd /ome. $ince 9:;:, Eastern 0rthodo! +hurch founded the ,yzantine Empire in +onstantinople. .n 9<;=, >ehmet the ?nd of the 0ttoman Empire con7uered the city. The city of +onstantinople grew and became a centre of trade, power, and culture. >uslims converted churches to mos7ues, built schools, hospitals, public )itchens, baths, graveyards, and large mar)ets. +onstantinople developed into the most multicultural city in the world with #0 religious boundaries. &anguages that could be heard were3 Tur)ish, 'ersian, 6rabic, .talian, 6lbanian, ,ulgarian, $erbian, @ree), and 6rmenian. Timbu)tu Timbu)tu was the ma%or stopping point of the +aravan trade. &ocated on the #iger /iver and leading city of the #ew $onghay Empire. .t was the +entre of .slamic study and learning where there were 9;: schools, ranging from elementary to universities. These were e7ually available to male and female civilians. Trade in Timbu)tu was conducted in salt, livestoc), te!tiles, and grain. Seville $eville was located on the @uadal7uivir /iver. -ounded by the .berians 4the original inhabitants of $outhern $pain5, then settled by the /omans, as a western outpost of the empire. Then. >uslims captured $eville. +hristopher +olumbus, claimed the new lands for his patron who declared that all trade would have to pass through $eville. This produced a monopoly on trade, which greatly increased wealth and population. 6t first, +hristian con7uest allowed >uslims their own area. ,y 9;::, however, religious tolerance became a thing of the past and >uslims were forced to convert to +hristianity. The /oman +atholic +hurch was dominant. $pain s Aews were given the choice to conversion or e!pulsion. The 9st slaves were sent from $pain to $pain s empire in the 6mericas. $panish writer, >iguel de +ervantes, described $eville as the asylum of the poor and the refuge of the outcasts because there was casual labour, beggars, prostitutes, and criminals who inhabited $eville. Teno*htitlan 1uring the 9;::s, Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world. .t held a population of =::,:::. >e!ico +ity is presently situated there. Tenochtitlan was a political and religious centre. .t was the capital of the 6ztec Empire in 9<?B. 6rtistic and architectural styles were used from earlier empires. The great pyramid shaped temple was used for human sacrifices. TenochtitlanCs location was built on salt marshes and most transportation was done by boat and canoe and needs had to be imported. Then the $paniards arrived to the city in 9;?9, they were amazed at the size of the city. They then too) it over and claimed it for $pain.

+ei,in.n 9<?:, ,ei%ing was the capital of +hina. +hina was considered to be the most developed and powerful nation. +hina thought of itself as the >iddle Dingdom. The -orbidden +ity, concentrated within the capital, was the political capital of ,ei%ing, where only the )ing and his ministers 4Eunuchs5 could enter. .t was :.E )m s7uared. +hina s maritime power ceased after 9<== due to closed trade policies. *owever, art, literature, and scholarship flourished. .elhi / A-ra / Fatehpur Si)ri 6)bar founded 6gra as a symbol of a new regime. .t too) three to four thousand labourers to build 6)bar s fortress. 6)bar welcomed 'ersians, Tur)s, *indus, and Europeans to his capital. /eligious tolerance was a cornerstone of this city and society. Wonderful monuments were built, includin the famous Ta% >ahal, which was built in the 9Fth century and is still regarded as one of .ndia s most famous monuments.

Renaissan*e 0Exer*ise sheets & 1 23 with additional textboo) re!eren*es4

The /enaissance means rebirth. 0ccurred from 9=;: to 9E:: in Western Europe. 1uring the >odern 6ge, ancient te!ts of classical @reece and /ome were recovered and applied. >any re%ected the medieval period 4<EF +E to 9=;: +E5 Thin)ers of the >odern 6ge valued3 The worldly life, e!panded )nowledge, human beings develop their best potential .taly as the prototype of the modern world.

The culture of the /enaissance transformed the West. 6rt3 &eonardo da Ginci and >ichaelangelo 'olitical thought3 #iccolo >achiavelli /eligious humanism3 Erasmus Dnown as the Enlightenment, this period also saw the e!pansion of slavery and the introduction of the .n7uisition. 6 uni7ue period in world history, as people tried to analyze the past and adapt it to the future.

The 5rowth o! the 6talian City States .taly was the commercial bridge between the West and the wealthier world of 6sia. +ities such as Genice, @enoa, 'isa, >ilan, and -lorence flourished. These cities used advanced ship building and navigation techni7ues and the people developed the s)ills for modern business. -lorence became a leading ban)ing centre, as its economy began to be transformed from one based on land to one based on trade, credit, and opening mar)ets. The new states started as republics. ,y the 9<th century, the e!periments in republican government evolved into regimes ruled by despots 4rules who govern on the basis of their own authority plus power.5 or oligarchy 4@overnments of the few, usually a group of powerful wealthy people andHor aristocrats 4noblemen5 5 #ew social and economic life and organization began in the /enaissance, so did the framewor) of modern diplomacy. What was practised by the new .talian city"states was balance of power politics, which means no entity to become overwhelming. .n 9<=<, the >edici, a rich ban)ing family became the dominant family. -at people were guilds and organisations. &ittle people were small shop)eepers and wor)ers. 4This distinction was made because the fatter you were, the wealthier you were5 umanism The writers and artists of the /enaissance used the term humanism to distinguish their period from the past and to identify their cultural program based on the revival of @ree) and &atin classics, often preserved by .slamic culture. *umanists viewed the classics, literature, philosophy, and art, as their inspiration, unli)e medieval scholars who fit them into a christian worldview. *umanism stressed living in this world, human dignity, and being a responsible citizen. -rancesco 'etrarch claimed that the period from the fall of /ome to his own time was a barbaric era, a dar) age. 6 /einaissance >an was an individual who e!celled in all matters, who strove beyond the ordinary in learning craftsmanship, and civic life. &eonardo da Ginci and #iccolo >achiavelli were considered /enaissance men. &eonardo, printed, wrote, invented, and was adept in mathematics. #iccolo, wrote history, political, and philosophical wor)s. 1esiderius Erasmus believed that children were born without moral 7ualities and that civilized values needed to be taught to both genders. >achiavelli s #ew .dea of $tate >achiavelli s best )nown wor) is The 'rince. .t was written as a manual for the rulers of -lorence, its impact has resonated throughout the ages. >achiavelli is )nown as the first modern political philosopher because he realized the new /enaissance state e!isted as thing"in"itself, sovereign and powerful, not beholden to any other entity, secular or spiritual. >achiavelli valued the lessons of history. *istory provided e!amples, but a ruler also needed to be grounded in present reality. *e insisted on a rutheless, realistic, view of how the state evolved, and insisted that human nature re7uired a strong rule, a prince. >achiavelli appealed to an authority to save .taly from what he called this barbarian occupation from the north.

Renaissan*e Art >edieval art was inspired by +hristianity. The renaissance revived the ideas of classicism in art and architecture, by seeing divine in the ordinary. E!ample3 &eonardo da Ginci s &ast $upper was the first human embodiment of +hrist. This allowed other artists to be able to receive recognition for their wor). The stature of artists drastically changed since the medieval period, from religion to self belief. E!pression on individuality, adding meaning to the world. The classicism of the /enaissance revived interest in the nude human form. +lassical myths became a legitimate source of inspiration. The /enaissance began the modern notion of art as representative of the world e!ternal to us, depicting the human condition. .id Women ave a Renaissan*e%

.t is thought that women did not have a rebirth during the /enaissance period. .t is believed they became more constrained because of this infliction of newly founded values. Women in the /enaissance actually lost some authority. /enaissance ideas on love and manners e!pressed this new subordination of women to the interests of husbands and male dominated family groups and served to %ustify the removal of women from an unladyli)e position of power and independence. 6ll the advances of /enaissance .taly wor)ed to mold the noblewoman into an aesthetic ob%ect 1ecorous, chaste, and doubly dependent on her husband as well as the prince. 7a*hiavelli8s The 9rin*e >achiavelli was realistic with his wor)s. 6ny man who tries to be good all the time is bound to come to ruin among the great number that are not good. 6pplicable for the time. Toe be loved or to be feared, importance was emphasized on political power. Iualities of leadership. $trong, stern, and have a presence of fear and love. 5irolamo Savonarola @irolamo $avonarola was a 1ominican mon) who preached in -lorence from 9<J9 to 9<J<, often focused on the apocalypse and a new world to come. *e attac)ed the despotism of the ruling >edici, proclaiming that the tradition of -lorence was that of a republic. .n a sermon in late 1ecember 9<J< he proclaimed . have already told you that a single head ruling alone is not best for every place or country, and $t. Thomas says that in .taly princes become tyrants. $avonarola, in becoming the religious leader of -lorence, often attac)ed the pope 6le!ander G., as being corrupt and worldly. *e predicted an invasion of .taly and -lorence, and this seemed to come true in 9<J< when the -rench attac)ed. $avonarola led -lorence for four years from 9<J< to 9<JB, when the >edici leader was in e!ile. *e was e!communicated by the 'ope for heresy, and his popular appeal and zealotry were viewed as a threat by the -lorentine upper class. With the consent of the pope, $avonarola was hanged and burned in 9<JB. $avonarola was burned in the main s7uare of -lorence. *is popularity was due to his desire for a reform. 6fter predicting the invasion of -rance in 9<J<, he was seen as a heavenly figure and received much support. *is downfall, was the attac) on the church. *e was e!communicated and sentenced to death.

Renaissan*e So*iety -amily life began to change, each man had his own household and private property. 4e!tendable to the nuclear family5 nuclear family3 the part of a family that includes only the father, mother, and children >arriage changed during the /enaissance, started to become personal and not only for family ties. .t was a praise of marital love. Education was deemed important by the *umanists, because it trained individuals to prepare for the responsibilities of civil life. The courtly idea of the gentleman differed from the late medieval tradition of the )night and the lady. To be considered a gentleman. ,road intellectual bac)ground was e!pected, to be refined in manners and taste, be familiar and )nowledgeable in the arts. The positions changed, the )night was now the damsel, and the damsel the )night. The social standing of women remained sub%ect to male authority. #othing much changed. $ociety and class3 Eastern Europe did not participate in the /enaissance. $erfdom remained entrenched in the economy and society. .t is estimated that peasants, free and serf, made up over B: K of the European population around 9;::. Within the /enaissance, humanism and individualism was e!panding, yet there was an upsurge in slavery. This was due to a shortage of wor)ers because of the inflicted ,lac) 1eath of the mid fourteenth century. /enaissance in the #orth, +hristian *umanism #orthern version of *umanism differed from the /enaissance in italy, because it was less secular and more interested in religion. +hristian *umanism was a combination of +hristian and classical elements. They wished to as) how best to understand traditional biblical te!ts and how one could use reason rather than dogma. 1ogma3 6 set of beliefs authorized by a church. $et of doctrines proclaimed to be true by religious faiths.

Thomas >ore 49<FB L 9;=;5 was a ma%or figure in bringing the /enaissance to the north. 6n Englishman, >ore was a public servant li)e >achiavelli. *e was trained as a lawyer, and he was devoted both to classical learning and to living a family life modeled on what he believed, e!isted in the days of early +hristianity. *is career had much emotional drama in it, especially at its end. *e was beheaded by *enry the Bth for treason, having refused to ac)nowledge that the )ing was the head of the English church. Thus he became a martyr and was later made a saint in the +atholic +hurch. >ore s 2topia 4a boo) published in 9;9E5 was his most important wor), is a protest against the polics and society of his time, its first part being a challenge to the laws and structure of poltiics. >ore claimed that )ings were not interested in governing well, merely in e!panding their power, and that they were more concerned with authority than in being good rulers. *e attac)ed bad laws and e!cessive punishment, such as hanging people for theft. *e challenged practises that were hurting ordinary people, including the enclosure of common lands for private use. 2topia means no place., the perfect city. >ore s 2topia is a discussion of a society that does not e!ist, an imaginary perfect place. .ts purpose was not to institute utopia, but to reform the e!isting society. >ore combined he classical and +hristian traditions. *e borrowed the idea of utopian thin)ing from the ma%or utopian wor) in the West, 'lato s /epublic. >ore believed in a co"operative society ad in the notion that reform must not merely be political but social, and that the structure of the state and the moral life have an intimate relationship. >ore thus attac)ed the institution of private property, challenging an economic and social system where property is limited to a few .n >ore s society people wor) and eat communally, share everything, have abundance, and lead ordered, regulated lives. *e wished to change the institutional structure of society as a way of reforming both politics and human nature. >ore was concerned with nourishing the soul as well as the body. *e believed that people must live by the e!ample of early +hristianity, not in conformity to the needs of power. The most famous intellectual of the time was the dutch humanist, 1esiderius Erasmus, called by some the 'rince of *umanists Erasmus was educated in a monastery and combined the traditions of e!cellence in classical studies with deep +hristian piety. Though a mon) and a priest,he disli)ed the monastic life and travelled throughout Europe as a scholar, relating to other scholars everywhere. *is great classical learning was brought into the service of biblical learning was brought into the service of biblical scholarship and the reform of the +hurch and society. .n his 'raise of -olly 49;:J5 Erasmus used satire to e!pose the follies in +hurch and society as he saw them. 'hilosophers who announce that they are rise, and that the rest of men are only passing shadows are attac)ed, especially those who do not try to use their )nowledge to better society. Theologians concerned only with obscure religious dogma and mar)s who abandon the world ware made into ob%ects of fun. 6nd the /enaissance papacy, which has avidly imitated the courtly way, is harshly criticized. Education was at the centre of Erasmus program of reform. Education was a moral act, in which individuals learned the classics and the ,ible as a means to living the good life, a life useful to society and to others. The virtues were similar to those >ore wanted in his utopia3 moderation, toleration, a love of learning, a belief in community, responsibility for one s acts, personal respect, civic virtue. The .evelopment o! the State in the Renaissan*e new )ind of state developing in the north, modern state, more centralized, national monarchies, legal structure to gain power, and nobilities grew wea)er.

The Renaissan*e and 7odernity The /enaissance period saw the introduction of five main features that distinguish modern life and thought in the West. 9. $ecularism ?. +entrality of civic life =. *umanism <. .mportance of middle class ;. 'ursuit of )nowledge in all areas 4/enaissance men5 E. 4e!tra5 +entralization of state power. /enaissance humanists saw themselves as bringing about a new age. They believed that it was necessary to value the classics and place less importance on the medieval ages. /enaissance thin)ers realized that understanding one s past helped shape identity and that the past was an essential guide for actions in the present and the future. This understanding is relevant in today s world i.e., don t ma)e history repeat iself.

:ostradamus
>ichel de #ostredame was a 9Eth"century -rench seer. studied astrology and various occult sciences and used those to predict the future. *e s best )nown for The Prophecies, a collection of -rench 7uatrains published in 9;;;.

Re!ormation
/oman +atholic +hurch was the one organization common to most people in Western Europe in the >iddle 6ges. 1issent in the /oman +atholic +hurch was hardly a new thing. Through its history, there were many internal divisions, ranging from theological interpretations to 7uestions about how the church should be governed. There developed a formal distinctions between the /oman +atholic +hurch in the west of Europe centered in /ome and headed by the pope, and the Eastern 0rthodo! +hurch, centered in +onstantinople, and led by the patriarch. 'rior to 9Eth century, there were a number of movements for reform. The Fran*is*an ;rder, founded by St< Fran*is o! Assisi 499B9 or 99B? " 9??E5 in the early 9=th century, practised a disciplined life of poverty and service. John Wy*li!!e 49=?: L 9=B<5 in England challenged the notion that salvation was dependent on obedience to the papacy and on the performance of ritual prescribed by +hurch authorities. *e maintained that individuals might receive salvation directly from @od, on the basis of the authenticity of their faith. .n ,ohemia, John us 49=EJ " 9<9;5 led movement that adopted many of Wycliffe s ideas. *us supported the introduction of lay people in the ceremony of the sacrament of communion, reserved by the +hurch e!clusively for the clergy. ,oth *us and Wycliffe preached ideas that contradicted religious dogma, and were condemned as heretics by +hurch authorities and *us was burned at the sta)e. The reformation began as a crisis of faith within the +hurch, which in turn led to a challenge to the institutions of the +hurch, particularly the power of the papacy. The main points that *ontributed to the 9rotestant Re!ormation $ecular 6uthority, 7uestions, responsibilities, and authority. Iuestions regarding personal responsibility and authority The 'rinting 'ress

7artin =uther 0&#2> ? &'#@4 >artin &uther s personal 7uest were to answer his three 7uestions3 *ow do . attain salvation? What assurances do . have that . am proceeding properly in life? What is my relationship to my community and to my @od?

&uther slowly began to brea) with the formal teachings of +atholicism. *e stressed reading the ,ible, inner peace, and a personal relationship with @od.

6ndul-en*es /oman +atholic +hurch The remission of temporal punishment still due for a sin that has been sacramentally absolved. The issues of indulgences transformed &uther s personal 7uest to a political and institutional struggle, as it 7uestioned the authority of the church, and disagreed with the corruption of the clergy and its papacy. .t 7uestioned secular power and the relation to the church, relationship between individual conscience and authority. Aohann Tetzel 49<E; L 99 6ugust 9;9J5 was a +atholic @erman 1ominican preacher )nown for selling indulgences, which allow a remission of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven, by the payment of money to the church. >artin &uther hated him. The printing press revolutionized the spread of new ideas. .llustrations were made, to appeal to the ma%ority, the illiterate demographic. .iet o! Worms 6n assembly was called to discuss the new &utheran ideas in 9;?9, Ding +harles G. 'residing. &uther was as)ed to recant his views, and when he refused, he was e!communicated. $ince then your >a%esty and your lordships desire a simple reply, . will answer without horns and without teeth. 2nless . am convicted by $cripture and plain reason" . do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other L my conscience is captive to the word of @od. . cannot and . will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. *ere . stand, . cannot do otherwise. @od help me. 6men. >artin &uther s famous speech at the 1iet of Worms.

>artin &uther, condemned peasants and did not believe in political freedom. *e also had anti"$emitic remar)s, due to the Aewish being against his religious reform and was recognized for his beliefs on a woman s duties as well. *e was strong for his theological and philosophical viewpoints. -rederic) ... had intercepted >artin &uther on his way home in the forest near Wittenberg by mas)ed horsemen who were made to appear as armed highwaymen. They escorted &uther to the security of the Wartburg +astle at Eisenach, which protected him from the church authorities. 1uring his stay there, he translated the bible into the vernacular, @erman. $ocietal changes due to &utheran ideas3 +lergy allowed to marry. $ecular power became more important. >onasteries closed. $chools made, for male and female.

$lri*h Awin-li .n $witzerland, 2lrich Mwingli 49<B< L 9;=95 led a movement very similar to that of &uther. *e too, loo)ed to scripture as the guide to the religious life. .n 9;?=, the city government of Murich gave its support to Mwingli, and Murich became the centre of the $wiss /eformation. 6ttempts were made to unify $wiss and @erman 'rotestants, but this proved to be impossible because of theological differences. 1isagreed on the Eucharist. #ew perspectives of the christian religion emerged as different people interpreted the scriptures differently. The city of Murich passed rigid laws regarding public behaviorN similar codes were established in other 'rotestant areas, where public morality was e!pected to conform to religious belief. 'eace of 6usburg in 9;;; formally gave each state and princedom the right to be either &utheran or +atholic. +atholicism held in the south, &utheranism in @erman states. &utheranism was officially adopted in 1enmar), $weden, #orway, and -inland. John Calvin Aohn +alvin 49;:J L 9;E<5 was the ma%or figure of the second generation of the /eformation, *is impact was even greater than &uther s in spreading the new ideas. +alvin too, had a personal religious crisis. +alvin was guided by the conviction that @od had called him to lead the reform of +hristianity. *e left -rance, where 'rotestants were persecuted, and made his way to the $wiss city of @eneva, which following a debate on religion in the summer of 9;=;, had decided to adopt 'rotestantism. .n 9;=E, Aohn +alvin published his .nstitutes of the +hristian /eligion, originally in &atin, translated into -rench in 9;<9, Was a coherent statement of the new 'rotestant faith and considered by many to be the most important document of the 'rotestant /eformation. &i)e &uther, believed in salvation by faith alone. Re!ormation As a +road 7ovement The 'rotestant /eformation changed Europe. 6long with +atholics, there were now &utherans, +alvinists, 6nabaptists, and 6nglicans. An-li*anism *enry The Eight, abolished church power so that he could divorce his wife. *e retained the power of both church and state. The theory of 6bsolutism. enry B666 0C2 June &#D& 1 C2 January &'#E4 Established the 6nglican church, father of Elizabeth the 9st, and >ary the 9st.

Saint Teresa o! Avila 0&'&' ? &'2C4 $pain was one of the countries least touched by the /eformation. $he would have direct visions from Aesus, and allegedly said to be levitating while praying. +oncerned that these e!periences were demonic. Women easily susceptible to the devil. $aw women incapable of ma)ing reliable %udgments and, thus, easily deceived by the devil. $hoeless +armelite 4practiced the act of good in poverty, very similar to that of a mon).5

Exploration & En*ounter

9<J? +hristopher +olumbus discovered 6merica. Earlier e!amples3 9=th +entury, >arco 'olo, traveled the $il) /oad to +hina. >id 9;th +entury, the 'ortuguese had reached the tropical coast of West 6frica, encountering large )ingdoms with wealth and vibrant cultures. ,y 9;::, the 6tlantic 0cean was no longer seen as the border at the end of the )nown world. Europeans, in search of spices and gold, systematically began their voyages, which would lead to a range of encounters between societies un)nown to each other. E!plorers saw the 6boriginal peoples as barbarians, as they saw them with no culture. #o laws, no religious beliefs, and no clothes. Europeans viewed the world through the prism of their image of themselves to compare. The ship used by the 'ortuguese in their e!plorations was the +aravel. $hip travel was poor, and would last months to years. >any on board suffered scurvy, due to the lac) of fruits on ship 4Gitamin + deficiency5 >any supplies had contamination of shipworms and overall hygiene was in a bad state. The 9roblem o! Columbus 'roof of +olonial *istory. Was not the first to discover 6merica *is e!pedition lead to the enslavement and e!ploitation of the first peoples. Wasn t even loo)ing for #orth 6merica, he was loo)ing for a router to 6sia. $pread of diseases $preading Western 1omination

9ositive & :e-ative e!!e*ts o! Columbus8s voya-es: 'ositive #ew trade routes #ew thought O idealism +laimed #orth 6merica for Iueen .sabella 9st #atural resources P >erchantilism 'roof of round world 6dded wor)force #egative -orced conversion E!pansion of Western 1ominance $lavery $laughter of the land and people 1ependencies of trade .ntroduction to disease

+olumbus s trip was sponsored by the )ing and 7ueen of $pain. 4Ding -erdinand .. of 6ragon, and Iueen .sabella . of +astile5 5roup o! peoples sailed to Canada &st3 Cnd3 >rd3 and #th< vi)ings sailing from #orway 9::9, #ewfoundland, l anse au! meadows. Aohn +abot 9<JF, #ewfoundland. $ebastian +abot 9;:B, followed father s footsteps to find a #orth"West passage. Aac7ues +artier 9;=<, #ewfoundland and moved to the @ulf of $t. &awrence Trade and discovery lead to the introduction of indigenous agricultural foods not familiar to the land.

The +e-innin- o! the Spanish Empire

Columbus +olumbus set out to find a new router to 6sia, which he was funded by the )ing and 7ueen of $pain 4Ding -erdinand .. of 6ragon, and Iueen .sabella ., of +astile5, the world was believed to be spherical, but the circumference of the Earth was thought to be smaller. &anded in $an $alvador, thin)ing he was on one of the outer Aapanese islands. Goyage was called the Enterprise of the .ndies for he e!pected to find a shorter router to .ndia and trade with the East. The .ndies remained the official name of the 6mericas in $pain. 0ther voyages in 9<J=, 9<JB, and ended his e!plorations in 9;:?. 0ctober 9?th, 9<J? +olumbus encountered what Europeans came to call the #ew World. #ame reflects western perspective, for there were peoples there, living in sophisticated, old civilizations. $eeing them na)ed physically, +olumbus also viewed these people, who had their own religions, laws, and customs, as na)ed culturally, and thus open to conversion. 'eople were enslaved to establish a government that could benefit $pain economically, by establishing the ensured labour service from the enslaved people. 49<JE *ispaniola, and other islands that had gold5 >ichel de >ontaigne 49;== L 9;J?5 saw a ,razilian brought to the city of /ouen, and did not believe that these people were savages, %ust because they are contrary to his and his people s habits.

:ew Spain
ernan Cortes 0&#2' 1 &'#E4 >e!ico in 9;:: was mainly controlled by the 6ztec Empire. The $panish con7uistador, *ernan +ortes arrived in >e!ico in 9;9J with roughly si! hundred men. .t too) only three years to con7uer this powerful empire. .nitially, the 6ztecs viewed the Europeans as @ods, and as the fulfilment of prophecies contained in their beliefs. +ortes marched into the capital of the 6ztec empire, Tenochtitlan, captured it, and imprisoned the 6ztec emperor >ontezuma ?nd 49;:? L 9;?:5. The 6ztec capital was destroyed and a new $panish city, >e!ico +ity, built on its ruins. ,etween 9;=9 and 9;;:; the $panish gained control of northern >e!ico with its rich rilver mines. Women accompanied Europeans as traders, guides, or translators. Fran*is*o 9iFarro 0&#E( 1 &'#&4 arrived in the .nca civilization of 'eru. The $panish con7uistador -rancisco 'izarro came with a small force, about two hundred men with guns and horses. ,etween 9;=9 and 9;=E, 'izarro s soldiers defeated the .ncas, e!ecuting their emperor 6tahaulpa, and many others. 6 $panish government, with its capital at &ima, was established, as the newcomers e!ploited the rich 'eruvian silver mines. The con7uests in $outh 6merica were came to be )nown as The ,lac) &egend for its brutal, gratuitous )illings. 6 labeling of $pain as a cruel and bloodthirsty con7ueror. 6s early as 9;;:, Ding +harles G 4Ding +harles . of $pain5 brought together a group of theologians, lawyers, and officials to debate the issue of colonial e!ploitation. +artolome de =as Casas 0&#E# 1 &'@@4 appealed on behalf of the indigenous people in the 6mericas. 0riginally discovered 6merican empire as a soldier and colonist. 6lthough he became a priest in 9;9:, he continued to hold an ecomienda, a parcel of land that gave him the right to the labour of the people. .n the following year he renounced his encomienda and returned to $pain to fight for the rights of the people in the 6mericas. *e managed to convince Ding +harles G to issue the #ew &aws, and the gradual elimination of encomienda. &as +asas was named ,ishop of +hiapas and sent bac) to 6merica to enforce the laws, but his actions provo)ed the settlers, and he soon returned to $pain. *e spent the rest of his life in this cause and earned the title of 1efender of and 6postle to the .ndians. &as +asas twice tries to establish model settlements where the $paniards and the people of the 6mericas could live together, but both failed. Estimated ?: >illion indigenous people dead from the ,lac) &egend. &as +asas was the first European to protest the way people in the 6mericas were being treated. *e never 7uestioned $pain s right to rule and convert them.

Ferdinand 7a-ellan 0&#2( 1 &'C&4 -erdinand >agellan led the first e!pedition to circle the globe, opening up the 'acific 0cean to Europeans. -rom 9;:; to 9;9?, >agellan had participated in 'ortuguese e!peditions to .ndia and 6frica. 2nder the sponsorship of the Ding of $pain, he too sought a western route to the .ndies. >agellan s voyage opened up a new route to the East. Went under $outh 6merica, passed +ape *orn through >agellan $traight. 1iscovered and named the 'acific 0cean.

Reli-ious Wars and State?+uildin-rench protestants were called *uguenots. $pread of new religious ideology in -rance 4+alvinism5 +onflict between protestants and +atholics. /eligion intensified with the death of *enry .. of -rance. The *uguenots were a political problem for the monarchy due to their powerful and well organized groups. <: L ;: K of nobility were *uguenots, which made up less than 9: K of -rance. $imilar to the concept of ,arons overthrowing the )ing in -eudalism. *uguenots stood in the way of unity and supported local authority. Iueen +atherine de >edici arranges *enry of #avarre 4*uguenot5 to marry >argaret of Galois 4daughter of *enry .. O +atherine de >edici, +atholic5

St +artholomew8s 7assa*re 6ugust ?<th 9;F?, Wedding between *enry of #avarre and >argaret of Galois, was a trap, that )illed three thousands *uguenots in 'aris. -ollowed by similar attac)s on 'rotestants in other cities, including &yons and 0rleans, that )illed an estimated twenty thousand others. The massacre failed and civil wars continued. The central state was greatly wea)ened. -ifteen years of rioting and violence followed as -rance suffered economically and politically. *uguenot *enry .G 4*enry of #avarre5 was a popular )ing and publicly converted to +atholicism with a policy of toleration towards the *uguenots. The wars of religion in -rance soon ended. $ee Edi*t o! :antes for more info

Spanish Armada
The $panish 6rmada 4$panish3 @rande y -elicQsima 6rmada or 6rmada .nvencible, literally R@reat and >ost -ortunate #avyR or R.nvincible -leetR5 was the $panish fleet that sailed against England in 9;BB. The 6rmada suffered a decisive defeat and accomplished nothing.S 6s >artin and 'ar)er e!plain, R'hilip .. attempted to invade England, but his plans miscarried, partly because of his own mismanagement, and partly because the defensive efforts of the English and their 1utch allies prevailed.R >uch of the blame has been borne by its commander the 1u)e of >edina $idonia. The goal had been to overthrow Iueen Elizabeth . of England and end her involvement in the $panish #etherlands and her privateering in the 6tlantic and 'acific.

EliFabeth the &st o! En-land 0&'>> 1&@(>4

Elizabeth the 9st was different from other rules in this time period. $he wor)ed with government, and refused to marry. +atholicism was originally a ma%ority and then became a small minority. 4*er sister, >ary was still +atholic.5 'uritans were protestants that wanted to purify the English +atholic +hurch. Elizabeth was very cautious and avoided costly wars, as it was a part of her foreign policy. 'ope 'ius G e!communicated Elizabeth s father *enry the Eight and Elizabeth for heresy. $he also supported the *uguenots. 'hilip the ?nd believed that the $panish 6rmada would e7ual success for $pain because of its superior navy, the amount of soldiers and slaves they had, and the more cannons on their ships. The papacy supported him, thought @od was with him.

9hilip the Cnd o! Spain 0&'CE 1 &'D24

Established state bureaucracy 1esire to have religious conformity, supported the $panish .n7uisition +hampion of the +atholic offense. Ding of $pain, ma%or empire in the West. $iglo 1e 0ro 4$pain s golden age5 $panish 6rt O &iterature flourished Economic dependency on gold O silver from the #ew World. Enforced the forced conversion of the #etherlands, the desire to unify under one crown. *eavy ta!ation in the #etherlands. +alvinist riots occurred, .n7uisition was inducted in the #etherlands 4The council of Troubles H The council of ,lood established to rule the land5

William o! ;ran-e &eader of the resistance towards 'hilip the ?nd. Edi*t o! :antes &'D2 .n 9;JB, *enry .G of #avarre published the Edict of #antes, which granted *uguenots !reedom o! worship3 assembly3 and the ri-ht to maintain !orti!ied towns for their protection. Coun*il o! Troubles Established to rule the land in the #etherlands, thousands were sentenced to death and, Estates of nobles confiscated. This lead to a short remission of the rebellions, but fortified their resolve to overthrow the $panish. $pain continued to try to con7uer the #etherlands but were too preoccupied with the troubles England and -rance. .n 9E:J, peace was finally made with $pain, The 1utch /epublic 2nited 'rovinces recognized in 9E<B by the treaty of Westphalia.

Thirty "ears8 War &@&2 ? &@#2

Europe s World War War continued in Europe at the close of the si!teenth century. The issues that led to conflicts remained outstanding, and Europe, in 9E9B, entered into a thirty year period of devastating warfare in which much of the continent was involved. @ermany was a fragmented area, with over three hundred political units, ranging from small duchies, to independent bishoprics and free towns to large entities L 6ustria and ,randenburg L 'russia. .n 9;;;, the 'eace of 6ugsburg had seemingly settled the religious division L each state would decide whether it was &utheran or +atholic. ,ut +atholics became increasingly concerned with their future. The 'rotestant states in 9E:B formed a union and loo)ed for support from the enemies of $pain L -rance, England, and the 1utch /epublic. 6 +atholic &eague, led by ,avaria, was created in 9E:J, loo)ing for support from $pain. The divisions in @ermany became hardened. +onstitutional matters complicated the religious division. The *oly /oman Emperors, from the *ouse of *apsburg in 6ustria, wished to centralize authority and sought aid from their $panish relatives. ,ut the princes and other sovereigns of small entities resisted this thrust, loo)ing to customary law. -rance was the ally of the princes, for it did not want a strong, more united @ermany on its western border, one that would ally with $pain to the south. *ence, though -rance was a +atholic state, it pursued a policy that challenged the mission of the +atholic /eformation. +ohemian 9hase &@&2 1 &@C' War bro)e out in 9E9B in ,ohemia. The *apsburg 6rchdu)e -erdinand, in line to become the emperor, became Ding of ,ohemia in 9E9F. ,ut ,ohemia was 'rotestant, and -erdinand a devout and determined +atholic, began to process of trying to turn the state bac) to +atholicism by revo)ing the religious freedoms granted earlier in 9;F;. .n >ay 9E9B, 'rotestant nobles in 'rague protested by throwing two emissaries from the *apsburg out of the window. The defenestration of 'rague resulted in war, even though the two men survived the 9;m fall by landing in a pile of manure. The war involved all of continental Europe from north to south, and east to west from 'ortugal to *ungary. >ost of it was fought on @erman soil, and the devastation was great. The trend in the war, which began as a difference of religion, was to see this issue moved aside for considerations of power and the state. Treaty o! Westphalia .t too) four years of negotiations to create the Treaty of Westphalia in 9E<B, which ended the Thirty (ears War. The settlement reaffirmed the religious compromise made a century earlier at 6ugsburg, adding +alvinism to &utheranism and +atholicism, as a legal religion. The 2nited 'rovinces of *alland and the $wiss +onfederacy were recognized as sovereign states. The treaty further recognized the many political divisions in @ermany. /ights that were given3 Freedom to Reli-ion3 Freedom o! Assembly3 Ri-ht to military prote*tion< 6ccording to the treaty, The *oly /oman Empire, -rance and its allies participated within the war. The cause for the original Thirty (ears War were tensions between +atholicism and 'rotestantism at the start, and then turned into a 7uest for power. The treaty made provisions for the military, that any of the unauthorized armies disbanded, and each state have their own army.

Wit*h*ra!t
0ne of the unusual social issues arising in the late si!teenth and early seventeenth centuries was witchcraft. .t was seen as a manifestation of the supernatural and was accepted by many religious authorities. ,oth +atholics and 'rotestants believed in the e!istence of witches, although not in ones that rode on broomstic)s. Witches were believed to be local women who had special )nowledge and powers, which they could use for good or ill. 1uring the seventeenth century much of Europe was touched by a witchcraft craze, although this was much more intense n 'rotestant countries, such as England in northern @erman lands. Witchcraft was made illegal in England in 9;E=, and the law against it remained on the boo)s until 9FE=. #early one thousand women were e!ecuted as witches in England. The charged against witches often followed a pattern. They were provo)ed by 7uarrel, fre7uently over a breach of e!pected charity or neighbourly behaviour, which was followed by some disaster befalling the victim, such as a child falling ill or a farm animal dying. The accused were most often women, usually between thirty and fifty years of age, and of lower social status than their accusers. >any were not considered respectableN they were single mothers or the mothers of suspected prostitutes, and they were li)ely to depend on charity. They often had reputations for having sharp tongue or otherwise not showing the e!pected degree of defence to their betters.

Spanish 6nGuisition &#E2 ? &2>#

&asted over =:: years -irst e!ample of thought police. Established to rid of heresy 6fraid the spread of religion would prevent unification under one flag. .nterrogation of accused lasted months on end, pressure prisoner into confession. .nterrogations could last for years. >urderer could receive redemption, heretics could not. *eresy was believed to be a cancer that was caught from other people. *eresy included3 1oubting religion, homose!uality, adultery. .n7uisitors called surgeons for heresy cancer. Torture devices li)e the comfy chair were used to force confessions. .f the accused confessed while being tortured, he had to confess again while not under torture for the confession to count. Torture was only supposed to be used if all other attempts at obtaining proof of heresy had been e!hausted. Those that confessed escaped torture and e!treme punishment but were forced to denounce any other heretics.

;ther 6mportant textboo) stu!!

$niversal Sha)espeare themes that relate to the unit: .s power held by constant intrigue and conspiracy? .s human nature evil and deceiving, or is it the times? .s a leader s ability to gain power accomplished through deceptions and is that how it is maintained?

.e!initions Word
&ay 'eople Theology 1issent /eligious 1ogma *eretic, one who commits heresy. *eresay or *earsay E!communication

1efinition
#on"clergy $tudy of the church, governed by @od. 1isagreement H division 1octrine of the church, their set of beliefs $omeone who holds beliefs contradicting the accepted dogma of the church. 2nverified information heard or received from anotherN rumor. officially e!clude 4someone5 from participation in the sacraments and services of the +hristian +hurch.R>artin &uther was e!communicated by the 'opeR. 0ften meant death. What the ma%ority spo)e, read. *oly +ommunion +haracterized by adult baptism. reformation that viewed baptism solely as an e!ternal witness to a believer s conscious profession of faith, re%ected infant baptism, and believed in the separation of church from state, in the shunning of nonbelievers, and in simplicity of life. great energy or enthusiasm in pursuit of a cause or an ob%ective 6 form of government in which all power is vested in a single ruler or other authority. 6 mon) or mendicant friar, charity, do not own property. relating to the theory of +opernicus that Earth rotates daily on its a!is and, with the other planets in the solar system, revolves around the sun. >other country profits from the colonies in terms of e!ploitation and selling of natural resources. 0fficial order from the church. a con7ueror, especially one of the $panish con7uerors of >e!ico and 'eru in the 9Eth century. 2ncompromising, e!treme, fanatic. Territories for smaller than modern states, which were ruled by a 1u)e or a 1uchess. 1istricts under the %urisdiction of a bishop of the /oman +atholic +hurch during the >iddle 6ges to early modern period. a person sent as a diplomatic representative on a special mission.

Gernacular Eucharist 6nabaptists

Mealous 6bsolutism +armelite +opernican

>erchantilism 'apal ,ull +on7uistador Mealot 1uchies ,ishoprics

Emissary

S*ienti!i* Revolution 4'ages F9 L FF5

1efinitions3 Cosmolo-y Epistemolo-y 5eo*entri* 6 branch of science andHor philosophy that deals with the structure and order of the heavens and Earth. The branch of philosophy that deals with the origin and nature of )nowledge, and how we ascertain that something is true or false. ,elief that the Earth was centered by @ree) philosophers thousands of years ago. This belief was supported by the /oman +atholic +hurch, and to prove the church wrong would be heresy. 4also )nown as the 'tolemaic model5 ,elieved that the sun was center of the universe, the adopted model of today s solar system. 6lthough the idea of a heliocentric model had been around as early as ?:: ,.+., it did not gain popularity until the 9Eth century. the fundamental theoretical basis of modern astronomy, first demonstrated in the early 9Eth century by +opernicus, who showed that the earth and the other planets orbit around the sun. The view that e!perience, especially of the senses, is the only source of )nowledge.

elio*entri*

Coperni*anism

Empiri*ism

+omparison3 @alileo s trial to 1iet of Worms.

.saac #ewton published 'rincipia >athematica 4>athematic 'rinciples5 in 9EBF. *is boo) s philosophy was based on mathematics and not beliefs of the church. *e created the famous &aw of @ravity. @alileo and #ewton formed a new world view.

#ew .deas about Dnowledge 5alileo 5alilei 49;E< L 9E<?5 #o account of @alileo s importance to philosophy can be complete if it does not discuss @alileo s condemnation and the @alileo affair 4-inocchiaro 9JBJ5. The end of the episode is simply stated. .n late 9E=?, after publishing 1ialogues on the Two +hief World $ystems, @alileo was ordered to go to /ome to be e!amined by the *oly 0ffice of the .n7uisition. .n Aanuary 9E==, a very ill @alileo made an arduous %ourney to /ome. -inally, in 6pril 9E== @alileo was called before the *oly 0ffice. This was tantamount to a charge of heresy, and he was urged to repent 4$hea and 6rtigas, 9B=f5. $pecifically, he had been charged with teaching and defending the +opernican doctrine that holds that the $un is at the center of the universe and that the earth moves. This doctrine had been deemed heretical in 9E9E, and +opernicus boo) had placed on the inde! of prohibited boo)s, pending correction. @alileo was called four times for a hearingN the last was on Aune ?9, 9E==. The ne!t day, ?? Aune, @alileo was ta)en to the church of $anta >aria sopra >inerva, and ordered to )neel while his sentence was read. .t was declared that he was vehemently suspect of heresy. @alileo was made to recite and sign a formal ab%uration3 . have been %udged vehemently suspect of heresy, that is, of having held and believed that the sun in the centre of the universe and immoveable, and that the earth is not at the center of same, and that it does move. Wishing however, to remove from the minds of your Eminences and all faithful +hristians this vehement suspicion reasonably conceived against me, . ab%ure with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, . curse and detest the said errors and heresies, and generally all and every error, heresy, and sect contrary to the *oly +atholic +hurch. 4Iuoted in $hea and 6rtigas 9J<5 @alileo was not imprisoned but had his sentence commuted to house arrest. .n 1ecember 9E== he was allowed to retire to his villa in 6rcetri, outside of -lorence. 1uring this time he finished his last boo), 1iscourses on the Two #ew $ciences, which was published in 9E=B, in *olland, by &ouis Elzivier. The boo) does not mention +opernicanism at all, and @alileo professed amazement at how it could have been published. *e died on Aanuary B, 9E<?. There has been much controversy over the events leading up to @alileo s trial, and it seems that each year we learn more about what actually happened. There is also controversy over the legitimacy of the charges against @alileo, both in terms of their content and %udicial procedure. The summary %udgment about this latter point is that the +hurch most probably acted within its authority and on TgoodC grounds given the condemnation of +opernicus, and, as we shall see, the fact that @alileo had been warned by +ardinal ,ellarmine earlier in 9E9E not to defend or teach +opernicanism. There were also a number of political factors given the +ounter /eformation, the =: (ears War 4>iller ?::B5, and the problems with the papacy of 2rban G... that served as further impetus to @alileo s condemnation 4>c>ullin, ed. ?::;5. .t has even been argued 4/edondi 9JB=5 that the charge of +opernicanism was a compromise plea bargain to avoid the truly heretical charge of atomism. Though this latter hypothesis has not found many willing supporters.

1iscovered speed of acceleration for gravity. @alileo s wor) set the stage for the formulation of #ewton s theory of gravity. -ound evidence to prove +opernican theory. .nvention of @alileo s more powerful telescopes using 1utch 'erspective @lass. 2sing the new technology of the telescope, @alileo discovered the moons of Aupiter3 .o, Europa, +alisto, and @anymede, thus proving that not all things orbit around the Earth, lending great support to the +opernican model of the heliocentric system. These four moons are called the @alilean moons to this day. 'ublished 1ialogue on +oncerning the Two +hief World $ystems +ompared 'tolemaic model to +opernicanism. 'ersecuted in 9E== by the in7uisition. @alileo recanted his views and then was sub%ected to house arrest. *is discoveries contradicted the teachings of the +atholic church.

Ty*ho +rahe 49;<E L 9E:95 Tycho ,rahe s contributions to astronomy were enormous. *e not only designed and built instruments, he also calibrated them and chec)ed their accuracy periodically. *e thus revolutionized astronomical instrumentation. *e also changed observational practice profoundly. Whereas earlier astronomers had been content to observe the positions of planets and the >oon at certain important points of their orbits 4e.g.,opposition, 7uadrature, station5, Tycho and his cast of assistants observed these bodies throughout their orbits. 6s a result, a number of orbital anomalies never before noticed were made e!plicit by Tycho. Without these complete series of observations of unprecedented accuracy, Depler could not have discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits. Tycho was also the first astronomer to ma)e corrections for atmospheric refraction. .n general, whereas previous astronomers made observations accurate to perhaps 9; arc minutes, those of Tycho were accurate to perhaps ? arc minutes, and it has been shown that his best observations were accurate to about half an arc minute. Fran*is +a*on 49;E9 L 9E?E5 >a%or political leader in England. -ormalized the empirical method. .n ,acon s thought we encounter a relation between science and social philosophy, since his ideas concerning a utopian transformation of society presuppose an integration into the social framewor) of his program concerning natural philosophy and technology as the two forms of the ma)er s )nowledge. -rom his point of view, which was influenced by 'uritan conceptions, early modern society has to ma)e sure that losses caused by the -all are compensated for, primarily by man s enlargement of )nowledge, providing the preconditions for a new form of society which combines scientia nova and the millennium, according to the prophecy of 1aniel 9?3< 4*ill 9JF9, B;L9=:5. $cience as a social endeavor is seen as a collective pro%ect for the improvement of social structures. 0n the other hand, a strong collective spirit in society may function as a conditio sine 7ua non for reforming natural philosophy. ,acon s famous argument that it is wise not to confound the ,oo) of #ature with the ,oo) of @od comes into focus, since the latter deals with @od s will 4inscrutable for man5 and the former with @od s wor), the scientific e!planation or appreciation of which is a form of +hristian divine service. $uccessful operations in natural philosophy and technology help to improve the human lot in a way which ma)es the hardships of life after the -all obsolete. .t is important to note that ,acon s idea

of aUto a certain e!tentU+hristian society by no means conveys +hristian pessimism in the vein of patristic thin)ers but rather displays a clear optimism as the result of compounding the problem of truth with the scope of human freedom and sovereignty. Johannes Hepler 49;F9 L 9E=:5 2nli)e ,rahe, Depler believed firmly in the +opernican system. .n retrospect, the reason that the orbit of >ars was particularly difficult was that +opernicus had correctly placed the $un at the center of the $olar $ystem, but had erred in assuming the orbits of the planets to be circles. Thus, in the +opernican theory epicycles were still re7uired to e!plain the details of planetary motion. .t fell to Depler to provide the final piece of the puzzle3 after a long struggle, in which he tried mightily to avoid his eventual conclusion, Depler was forced finally to the realization that the orbits of the planets were not the circles demanded by 6ristotle and assumed implicitly by +opernicus, but were instead the Rflattened circlesR that geometers call ellipses 4$ee ad%acent figureN the planetary orbits are only slightly elliptical and are not as flattened as in this e!ample.5 The irony noted above lies in the realization that the difficulties with the >artian orbit derive precisely from the fact that the orbit of >ars was the most elliptical of the planets for which ,rahe had e!tensive data. Thus ,rahe had unwittingly given Depler the very part of his data that would allow Depler to eventually formulate the correct theory of the $olar $ystem and thereby to banish ,rahe s own theory8 $tudent of and assistant to ,rahe. ,elieved planets went in elliptical orbits. .nvented Three &aws of 'lanetary >otion. 9. The &aw of 0rbits3 6ll planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus. ?. The &aw of 6reas3 6 line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out e7ual areas in e7ual times. =. The &aw of 'eriods3 The s7uare of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semima%or a!is of its orbit. Rene .es*artes 49;JE L 9E;:5 1eductive logic 1eductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. 1eductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and e!amines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. The scientific method uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories .nductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. .nductive reasoning ma)es broad generalizations from specific observations. Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. *ereCs an e!ample3 R*arold is a grandfather. *arold is bald. Therefore, all grandfathers are bald.R The conclusion does not follow logically from the statements. .nductive reasoning has its place in the scientific method. $cientists use it to form hypotheses and theories. 1eductive

reasoning allows them to apply the theories to specific situations. . thin) therefore . am 1escartes concluded, if he doubted, then something or someone must be doing the doubting, therefore the very fact that he doubted proved his e!istence. RThe simple meaning of the phrase is that if one is sceptical of e!istence, that is in and of itself proof that he does e!ist.R .nvented +artesian geometry made .saac #ewton say3 .f . have seen further it is by standing on the shoulder of giants referring to /ene 1escartes.

Sir 6saa* :ewton 49E<= L 9F?F5 The 'rincipia 0ne of the most important wor)s in the history of modern science is 'hilosophiae #aturalis 'rincipia >athematica 49EBFN >athematical 'rinciples of #atural 'hilosophy5, composed by English physicist and mathematician $ir .saac #ewton. The 'rincipia was revolutionizing because it provided an e!act 7uantitative description of the motions of visible bodies, the significance of which is apparent in #ewtonCs laws of motion3
(1) that a body remains in its state of rest unless it is compelled to change that state by a force impressed on it; (2) that the change of motion (the change of velocity times the mass of the body) is proportional to the force impressed; (3) that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

.ncorporated astronomy of +opernicus and Depler with physics of @alileo. 6s a student at +ambridge 2niversity 49EE9LE;5, #ewton encountered the scientific revolution, a movement in the 9Eth and 9Fth centuries in which scientists challenged and re%ected the @ree) view of nature that had long dominated scientific thought. *e was introduced to the wor) of Aohannes Depler, @alileo, and /enV 1escartes. *e immersed himself in the study of philosophy, learned of chemistry through the wor) of /obert ,oyle, and read of the alchemy and magic that formed the basis of the *ermetic tradition. Three &aws of >otion, as stated above. 1efined gravity and its laws. .nvented optics and calculus, or did &eibniz?

'olitics

$cientific /evolution leads to the Enlightenment and the political revolutions in later years.

These new theorists enabled Europeans to see themselves as capable of solving problems in new ways without referring to ancients or theology. 6 new confidence was developing in mastering the universe.

Absolutism 4'ages F; L FB5

6bsolutism gave the 7uestion of the legitimacy of authority. Time period3 &ate 9Fth century to early 9Bth century. 6bsolutism by 1ivine /ight .ts most elaborate form was in -rance. 1efinitions3 Absolutism 6 form of government in which all power is vested in a single ruler or other authority.

Absolutism and =ouis I6B 4'ages F; L FB5

+entralized 6uthority The ,ourbon monarchy of -rance, especially the rule of &ouis W.G 49E<= L 9F9;5, led the development of absolutism. &ouis W.G was )nown as &e /oi $oleil or the $un Ding. *e believed that he was @od s vice"regent on earth, ruling by divine right 4absolutism5. /ulers throughout Europe emulated his style in war, economics, and culture. *e created a new set of civil servants )nown as the intendants. The intendants were recruited from the upper middle class and their position and status depended on the authority of the monarch. #ew ta!es 0ld ta!es, the taille or land ta!, were supplemented by a head ta! on each individual. +ivil servants collected indirect ta!es, on things such as salt, tobacco, or wine. Trade increased e!ports and restricted imports. 4Gery regimented economy to directly -rance5 +entralization of armed forces (ear 9EE9 9EEF 9EEB 6rmy of ?: ::: F? ::: ?9: :::

/eligious +onformity &ouis W.G believed all his sub%ects should share the same religion. -rench national +atholic +hurch, called the @allican +hurch. *uguenots 4; K of the population5 were pressured to convert. &ouis W.G revo)ed the edict of #antes. >any *uguenots emigrated to England, @ermany, *olland, and 6merica.

Absolutism and =ouis I6B

The 9ala*e o! Bersailles 4'age FF5

The palace of Gersailles symbolized &ouis W.G s absolutist temperament and it modeled classical aesthetics. The monarchy needed to be surrounded by glory and ritual 4center of everything5 palace was beautiful 4classical architectural style5. .t was located 9; )m from 'aris. The construction of the palace began in 9EEJ and ended in 9F:9, for a total of =? years. Gersailles was given the status that a great cathedral might have had several hundred years earlier. The best talents of -rance were hired for its construction, architects, designers, landscape gardeners, and artisans were hired for its construction. =;,::: people wor)ed on it at one time. The palace costed = K of yearly state budget and in some years costed up to 9: K. .t was built in the classical style to improve on nature by building perfection and order. The rooms and gardens of the palace are vast and symmetrical to resemble perfection. /ooms were named after @ods and @oddesses and the palace has the @rand hall of mirrors, which is F=m long.

En-land and the 9uritan Revolution 4'age B:5

There was a conflict in England that was between the +atholics and the 'uritans. The Ding of England during this time period was +harles the 9st, who governed by personal rule, he was lenient to +atholicism. 'arliament decided to limit the authority of the Ding. +ivil War bro)e out in 9E<? between the 'arliament and the Ding. 0liver +romwell lead the #ew >odel 6rmy in the civil war. The )ing of England was e!ecuted, however there was much large dissent upon parliament. $ome had wanted to )eep the )ing alive to retain a constitutional monarchy, have him as an image as opposed to a ruler. 6 /epublic was formed for the ne!t 99 years. Ding +harles the 9st was deemed public enemy to the good people of the nation and was e!ecuted in 9E<J.

The Enli-htenment

Chapter && 0pa-es &#2 1 &'E4

The Enlightenment, as the eighteenth century came to called, was an age of optimism, tempered by the realistic recognition of the sad state of the human condition and the need for ma%or reforms. ,elief in progress was the )eynote of the age. #ew values that stressed freedom, rights, and e7uality were emphasized, but these were in sharp contrast to the realities of the time. The Enlightenment was a period in which thin)ers believed that humanity, through the employment of reason, was truly beginning to gain mastery over the world. When reason would triumph over the authority of tradition, the happiness of humanity would be assured. The >ar7uis de +ondorcet 49F<= L 9FJ<5 e!claimed 6ll errors in politics and morals are based on philosophical errors and these in turn are connected with

scientific errors. There is not a religious system nor a supernatural e!travagance that is not founded on ignorance of the laws of nature. The ;ld Re-ime The impact of the Enlightenment can be understood only in the conte!t of the society of eighteenth century Europe, what people loo)ing bac) to it from the nineteenth century would call the ancien regime, the old regime. These were hierarchical societies that had grown up over hundreds of years, with monarchs at their ape!. While they did not follow any logical design, we can discern several organizing principles. $ocieties of the old regime were based on status and divided into three main groups )nown as orders, or estates. 4see chart5 This ran)ing was not necessarily connected with moneyN many members of the third estate were richer than members of the other two. This division was considered to divinely ordained. The number of people in each varied from country to country, but the first two estates usually represented less than ; percent of the population. The old regime was also a society of privileges, which were enforceable at law. 'rivilege came from being a member of one of the estates, from living in certain towns or regions, and from belonging to such corporations as guilds and universities. #ot everyone en%oyed the same privileges, and there were many people who had few or none. +ertain privileges were honorific and conferred prestige. -or e!ample, noblemen could wear a sword in public, have a coat of arms, and not have to remove their hat in the presence of the )ing 0ther privileges bestowed material advantageN for e!ample some regions were e!empt from certain ta!es, or did not have o send men to do military service outside the region. >embers of artisan guilds had the monopoly over their trade within their city. The nobility and the +hurch had ta! e!emptions or reduced rates, and the +hurch had special courts to try clergy for violations of the law. The lands of the +hurch, which were e!tensive, were sub%et to a mortmain, literally dead hand, which meant that they belonged to it forever. #oblemen could put their estates in entailN however much they might go in debt, their land could never be ta)en from them. 6t the top of the hierarchy were the absolute monarch who ruled by divine right. The most famous &ouis W.G who reportedly proclaimed & etat, c est moi. This was true in the sense that the )ing alone symbolized the union of the different parts of the realm that he controlled the armed forces, and made laws in his own name. *e was in fact responsible to no man, and all servants of the central government were accountable to him. (et he was constrained by the custom of the community as well as the nobility, which e!ercised power in the local areas. With poor communications, it was impossible for the monarch to e!ercise absolute authority in the modern sense. .n fact, in many places monarchs had given away their control of the legal system to local lords, )nown in -rench as seigneurs. These lords could also en%oy important monopolies, such as right to own mills and wins, presses, or use rivers. $atire was a ma%or weapon for the Enlightenment, as it was used to e!pose the follies of society and to ridicule politicians, class structure, parliament, courts, and the 6nglican church. +omparison that can be made here3 /ob -ord. $atire was used as a popular form of art that people could understand and learn. William *ogarth 49EJF L 9FE<5 developed a new popular art form, the engraving, which narrated a tale, often in a series. *is themes included politics, the class structure, the houses of parliament, the courts, and the 6nglican +hurch. *e recorded the lives of the middle class and the poor, and e!tolled 4praised5 the merchant class and its social values of thrift, wor), discipline, patriotism, and temperance.

The above picture is of ,eer $treet and @in &ane. @in was imported and sold far cheaper than ,eer, people would buy @in and get drun) on the streets. The above picture demonstrates that on the left. 0n the right, it shows ,eer $treet which while there are some %olly, sitting down, are still productive. The use of imagery type art conveyed different ideas to society. >ost thin)ers didn t concern themselves about the economic 7uestions. Those who did, attac)ed e!isting policies, especially the privileges of the +hurch and nobility that constrained economic activity, and proposed reforms that would allow the economy to en%oy greater freedom. .t was 6./.A. Turgot who invented the slogan of economic liberalism. laissez"faire, laissez"passez meaning allow them to do, allow them to pass. .n -rance a group calling themselves. 6dam $mith created the most influential economic wor) of the century, it was called An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). .t encouraged free trade and competition in order to create more wealth. Economy should be self regulation based upon the law of supply and demand. The salon was a small group f elite women to satisfy their educational needs and evolved into meetings of intellectuals guided by individual hostesses. Was a radical departure from the norms of contemporary society, as status was not a dependent factor to participate in the $alon. 6 letter of introduction was re7uired and were admitted on the basis of their accomplishments rather than their social status.

The Enli-htenment

Chapter &&

Continued

The 9Bth century was )nown as the Enlightenment because of the realistic recognition of the sad state of human condition and the need for ma%or reform. $ocieties of the old regime were divided into three main groups )nown as orders, or estates. Estate &st Estate 1ivision +lergy E!planation @roup >embers 'rivileges 'ercentage of *ow many in land owned group E L 9: K 6ppro!. 9=:,::: people

Those who 6rchbishops, *ad their pray bishops, own courts, canons, >ortmain, priors, nuns, were e!empt mon)s, from certain parish priests ta!es Those who Ding,7ueen, fight nobles *ad the right to carry a sword, were e!empt from certain ta!es, received special treatment in law courts, were e!empt from military service $ome local privileges some guild privileges

Cnd Estate

#obility

?: L ?; K

/ange of X9?:,::: L =;:,:::S people

>rd Estate

Everyone else

Those who &awyers, toil. 4wor) doctors, hard5 business people, merchants, soldiers, craftspeople, shop)eepers, peasants.

F: L F; K

6ppro!. ?F million people.

>ortmain Y 'erpetual ownership of real estate by institutions such as churches that cannot transfer or sell it. This ran)ing was not necessarily connected with moneyN many members of the third estate were richer than members of the other two. The first two estates usually represented less than ; percent of the population.

The top of power in the 6ncien /egime 40ld /egime5 was the >onarch, constrained by the custom of the community and as well as the nobility, which e!ercised power in local areas. .n sense, this is a feudal system. The 'hilosophes were intellectual figures of the Enlightenment, liberal in spirit, curious about the world, hated the evils of society, and ruled against intolerance. ,elieved in progress of )nowledge and a better world for all. The 'hilosophes accepted the scientific method 4empiricism, and rationalism5 ,elieved in power of reason and needed proof before believing something to be true.

The Enli-htenment

Chapter &&

Continued 0C4

Enlightenment, as the 9Bth century came to be called, was an age of optimism. The sad state of the human condition and the need for ma%or reform was realized. ,elief in progress was the )eynote of that age. #ew values were stressed3 freedom, rights, and e7uality L a sharp contrast to the time. Thin)ers believed that humanity, through the power of reason, was beginning to gain mastery over the world. When reason would triumph over the authority of tradition L the happiness of humanity would be assured. &ouis W.G designed a system of imprisonment without trial. Gictims would be presented with a lettres de cachet, which was a form of warrant.

6ndividuals Throu-hout

istory

Dnowing >s. *illier, she will as) about at least two individuals profiled during the in"class presentations. +hoose a minimum of two to remember. 1o in"depth research on some of these individuals in case there is a possibility of an essay 7uestion regarding a philosophes or despot. Some Gui*) names: William *ogarth +harles ... of $pain 6./.A. Turgot Aean"Aac7ues /ousseau

Fren*h Revolution
9a-es &'D ? &@( Causes o! the Fren*h Revolution *ardship and oppression families burdened by increasing ta!es and seigneurial obligations *ad to endure harvest crises an rising food prices in the years before 9FBJ. .nfluence of the Enlightenment by the 9FB:s, important people, including some members of the nobility, had come to have strong doubts about the legitimacy of the e!isting system. .nability of the monarchy >ost important was the inability of the monarchy to deal with its desperate financial situation. &ouis WG., though not a man of great intelligence or ability, was well"meaning, generally li)ed, and too) his responsibilities seriously. *e and his ministers had tried to increase royal revenues, but they ran into the determined opposition of the privileged elite. 6s an emergency measure, the )ing and his ministers summoned the Estates"@eneral.

The Failure o! the Absolute 7onar*hy &ouis W.G began his reign in 9FF< and encountered one crisis after another. The nobles The nobles ob%ected to the continuing centralization of the state, which had gone on since &ouis W.G. .n effect, the nobles claimed that -rance had an ancient constitution based on custom and tradition, and that the )ing could not arbitrarily change this system. Thus the resurgent nobility, including leading +hurch officials, came into conflict with the absolute monarchy. The first and second estates 4see +hapter 995 asserted themselves through traditional bodies such as the parlements. 'arlements 'arlements had grown up out of the medieval law courts. These bodies, especially the parlement of 'aris, claimed that according to custom the parlements had to register royal edicts before they could become laws. .n the reign of &ouis WG., the government often bypassed the parlements, and the nobility complained that the )ing was abandoning the ancient hereditary rights of the -rench people in favour of a centralized royal despotism +hange within the upper classes 0ne reason for this opposition to royal reforms was the change that was ta)ing place within the upper class. .n the early eighteenth century, there had been a considerable amount of movement between between classes. The )ings often selected their civil servants from the third estate and sometimes rewarded them with titles. 6 wealthy man could purchase a patent of nobility and the +hurch provided an opportunity for talent to rise within the system. ,y 9FFB, -rench society was becoming increasingly less mobile. ,oth old and new members of the nobility were determined to )eep certain state and +hurch offices for themselves. Thus, on the eve of the /evolution, all the bishops of th +hurch were of the noble class, and the officer corps of the army was restricted to the old nobility. .t was becoming more and more difficult for -renchmen in the third estate, no matter how intelligent, talented, or wealthy, to move upward.

Tension was mounting throughout the land. There was apprehension that the )ing would dismiss the Estates"@eneral. The economic situation was so bad in 9FBJ that bread riots became common in cities, many led by women who were unable to feed their families. There were also uprisings in the rural areas, and an atmosphere of fear spread throughout the country. .n 'ais, on Auly 9<th, a mob stormed the ,astille, the 9aris prison that symboliFed royal power, )illing several soldiers. The city hall was captured and the mayor of 'aris was )illed. 6s -rance seemed to be falling into chaos, &ouis had little alternative but to recognize the #ational 6ssembly. *e then ordered the first two estates to %oin the third. The life of the #ational 6ssembly had been saved by violence and henceforth violence, or the threat of violence, was ever present in the /evolution. From Estates?5eneral to :ational Assembly &ouis WG. called the Estates"@eneral for a meeting in >ay of 9FBJ. This was significant as it was an admission that traditional absolutism had failed. The )ing s announcement that the Estates"@eneral would meet in >ay of 9FBJ at Gersailles set off the first public discussion of political issues in the history of -rance. .n line with tradition, &ouis invited the estates to draw up liss of grievances 4cahiers de doleances5. >ost of the cahiers, including many from the first and second estates, as)ed for constitutional government and freedom of speech and the press. $ome members of the first and second estates even asserted they were willing to give up their ta! privileges. The cahiers of the third estate, generally written by members of the middle class, often went further, many calling for a new constitution mbodying the ideas of the Enlightenment about freedom and social e7uality. Though it is impossible to generalize about the cahiers, it is worth noting that those of the third estate often included a list of grievance about daily life and not simply comments on the government or statements of political philosophy. &ouis WG. invited he estates to compose a list of grievances 4cahiers de doleances5. $ome of these grievances were3 6n end to ta! e!emptions for nobles 'riests be chosen by parishioners celibacy of priests be abolished 4allow priests to marry5 all cults be given e7ual freedom prevent new abuses and regulate the e!penses of the nation, that there be a yearly assembly of representatives.

A more detailed list o! -rievan*es: .. 'ublic worship should be confined to the /oman +atholic apostolic religion, to the e!clusion of all other forms of worshipN its e!tension should be promoted and the most efficient measures ta)en to reestablish the discipline of the +hurch and increase its prestige. ?. #evertheless the civil rights of those of the )ing s sub%ects who are not +atholics should be confirmed, and they should be admitted to positions and offices in the public administration, without however e!tending this privilege " which reason and humanity ali)e demand for them " to %udicial or police functions or to those of public instruction. =. The nation should consider some means of abolishing the annates and all on their dues paid to the holy see, to J9a-e >DDK the pre%udice and against the protests of the whole -rench people. X'luralities should be prohibited, monasteries reduced in numbers, and holidays suppressed or decreased.S F. The rights which have %ust been restored to the nation should be consecrated as fundamental principles of the monarchy, and their perpetual and unalterable en%oyment should be assured by a solemn law, which should so define the rights both of the monarch and of the people that their violation shall hereafter be impossible. B. 6mong these rights the following should be especially noted 3 the nation should hereafter be sub%ect only to such laws and ta!es as it shall itself freely ratify. J. The meetings of the Estates @eneral of the )ingdom should be fi!ed for definite periods, and the subsidies %udged necessary for the support of the state and the public service should be voted for no longer a period than to the close of the year in which the ne!t meeting of the Estates @eneral is to occur. 9:. .n order to assure to the third estate the influence to which it is entitled in view of the number of its members, the amount of its contributions to the public treasury, and the manifold interests which it has to defend or promote in the national assemblies, its votes in the assembly should be ta)en and counted by head. 99. #o order, corporation, or individual citizen may lay claim to any pecuniary e!emptions. . . . 6ll ta!es should be assessed on the same system throughout the nation. 9?. The due e!acted from commoners holding fiefs should be abolished, and also the general or particular regulations which e!clude members of the third estate from certain positions, offices, and ran)s which have hitherto been bestowed on nobles either for life or hereditarily. 6 law should be passed declaring members of the third estate 7ualified to fill all such offices for which they are %udged to be personally fitted. 9=. $ince individual liberty is intimately associated with national liberty, his >a%esty is hereby petitioned not to J9a-e #((K permit that it be hereafter interfered with by arbitrary orders for imprisonment. . . 9<. -reedom should be granted also to the press, which should however be sub%ected, by means of strict regulations to the principles of religion, morality, and public decency. . . """""""""" E:. The third estate of the district of +arcassonne places its trust, for the rest, in the zeal, patriotism, honor, and probity of its deputies in the #ational 6ssembly in all matters which may accord with the beneficent views of his >a%esty, the welfare of the )ingdom, the union of the three estates, and the public peace.

This discussion of reform led to brea) between the third estate and the privileged groups. *e nobility wanted the Estates"@eneral to meet as the Estates"@eneral of old L each state would sit separately and vote by estate and not by individual representative, thus the first two estates could always outvote the third. 0n the other hand, the third estate wanted the representatives of the Estates"@eneral to meet together, to have as many representatives in the third estate as in the first two combined, and to vote as individuals. We see a clash here between the old corporate view of -rance and the Enlightenment idea of the autonomy of the individual. The most radical position for reform was ta)en by the 6bbe Emmanuel Aoseph $iyes 49F<B L 9B=E5 a priest of bourgeois 4middle class5 bac)ground. *e was one of many clergy who attac)ed the priviliges of their estate and demanded reform. .n What .s The Third Estate?, written in early 9FBJ, $ieyes proclaimed3 9. What is the estate? Everything ?. What has it been in the political order to the present? #othing =. What does it demand? To become something. Who would dare to say... that the third estate does not contain in itself all that is necessary to constitute a complete nation? What is a nation? 6 body of associates living under a common law and represented by the same legislature. .s it not all too certain that the noble order has privileges, e!emptions, and even rights seperated from the rights of the great body of citizens? .t departs in this respect from the common order and from the common law. The third estate includes everything that belongs to the nation and everything that is notthe third estate cannot be regarded as being of the nation. What is the third estate? Everything? $ieyes was now defining the nation as the sum of everyone in it, rather than as a traditional cooperate entity. -ew representatives of the third estate were peasants or wor)ers. They were all male and generally members of the bourgeoisie L lawyers, government officials, businesspeople, doctors, or people of wealth who lived off property. Thus, the third estate was represented by a literate, well"informed, and politically aware body. They demanded e7uality and a share of political power in e!change for their support of the regime. Their hostility was not directed toward &ouis WG. or even the institution of )ingship. They wanted full representation and a monarchy limited by a constitution. The )ing tried to manage a compromise, but when the Estates"@eneral met formally on >ay <th 9FB, the third estate tried to persuade the other estates to %oin it. 6 number of the clergy, mainly parish priests, moved over to the third estate, but the upper clergy and most of the nobility did not. 0n Aune 9Fth, firm in their belief that they represented the great body of -renh people, the representatives of the third estate, along with some of the other lower clergy, declared themselves a #ational 6ssembly. The )ing responded by loc)ing the third estate out of its meeting hall. The representatives, in the midst of great confusion, the n moved to a nearby indoor tennis court and vowed that the #ational 6ssembly would continue to meet until -rance had a constitution. The Tennis +ourt 0ath was a momentous event, for this was the first e!tralegal action ta)en by the third estate. $ome scholars regard it as the true beginning of the /evolution.

Tennis Court ;ath3 Fren*h Serment du Jeu de 9aume3 0June C(3 &E2D4, dramatic act of defiance by representatives of the nonprivileged classes of the -rench nation 4the Third Estate5 during the meeting of the Estates"@eneral 4traditional assembly5 at the beginning of the -rench /evolution. The deputies of the Third Estate, realizing that in any attempt at reform they would be outvoted by the two privileged orders, the clergy and the nobility, had formed, on Aune 9F, a #ational 6ssembly. -inding themselves loc)ed out of their usual meeting hall at Gersailles on Aune ?: and thin)ing that the )ing was forcing them to disband, they moved to a nearby indoor tennis court 4salle du %eu de paume5. There they too) an oath never to separate until a written constitution had been established for -rance. .n the face of the solidarity of the Third Estate, Ding &ouis WG. relented and on Aune ?F ordered the clergy and the nobility to %oin with the Third Estate in the #ational 6ssembly The stages described above are semi"radical because the estates go against divine right, with public protest and voiced opinions. The +onstitution of 9FJ9 The .e*laration o! the Ri-hts o! 7an and the CitiFen was announced by the #ational 6ssemly on 6ugust ?Eth, 9FJ9. 9. >en are born free and e7ual in rights, e7uality. ?. #atural rights of man are liberty property security and resistance to oppression, everyone can have property as opposed to %ust nobles. @o to courts, police, etc. =. 'rinciple of all sovereignty 4authority of a community5 rests in the #ation. <. &aw is e7ually e!pressed for all citizens and all citizens are e7ual. ;. 'roperty became a right and no one could be deprived of it unless for public necessity and it would be certified by law and compensation. E. -rench peasants were free from all segneurial obligations, including tithes 4ta!es5, and became free persons. F. #ew era of liberty, popular sovereignty, an rule of law was proclaimed. 6nnouncements are made written down, this is a better society. B. Economics3 -rench citizens were given the rights to pursue any trade they wanted to. To summarize, 9. ?. =. <. E7uality &iberty /ule of &aw 'roperty

The #ational 6ssembly set out to restore order and to provide -rance with a written constitution. .ts first act, on the night of 6ugust <th, was to abolish the remnants of feudalism. This meant that the -rench peasants were freed of all remaining segneurial obligations such as labour service, manorial duties, and tithes 4ta!es to the church5. They became free persons and the privileges of the nobility had ended. 0n 6ugust ?Eth, the 6ssembly announced the ma%or document of the /evolution 4see above5 it was a statement f principle and of hope, reflecting the ideas of the Enlightenment and it became the creed of the /evolution.

1ivided allegiances were no longer allowed, which previously e!isted to the )ing, the +hurch, the &ord, etc. 6 centralized and secular new state. The new loyalty that was demanded from all the people was to the nation. #ew loyalty YZ only one loyalty YZ to the nation '/0 for the good of the state, combined %ustification for change. +0# suspicions that there are those against the state, and loyal to the )ing. +reated a political witch hunt within society. The Fren*h Revolution and the Luestion o! Ri-hts The 1eclaration, which was a statement of principles deemed to be universally applicable, immediately raised the 7uestion of %ust who was a man and citizen The debate focused on four groups3 the poor, religious minorities 4non"+atholics5 slaves, and women. The property re7uirement for full citizenship in the +onstitution of 9FJ9 was abolished under the +onstitution of 9FJ?. /eligious minorities were granted citizenship rights in 9FJ9. .n the long debate over slavery, there was strong opposition from planets in $aint 1omingue and their allies, and the situation was complicated when ,lac)s and >ulattos too matters into their own hands and rebelled. $lavery was abolished, then reinstated, and finally abolished again in 9FJ=. ,oth slavery and the slave trade were reinstituted by #apoleon in 9B:? The slave revolt in *aiti continued until it achieved its independence in 9B:J. Women were even less fortunate than slaves. $ome philosophes, such as +ondorcet, strongly supported women s rights and small groups of women organized to demand rights for themselves, but at no point did the government of the /evolution accede. .f anything, the legacy of the /evolution for women was negative. The #apoleonic +ode of 9B:<, which became the basis of law in both -rance and its colonies and in a number of other European countries as well, placed women L and especially married women L in a subordinate role. .n retrospect, the record of the -rench /evolution on the 7uestion of rights can be seen as mi!ed. #onetheless, the /evolution granted more rights than had e!isted anywhere up to that time and, more important, opened the way for an ongoing debate on the further e!tension of rights. The /evolution gave nothing to women, but, in the words of one historian, more than any other event of its time, it opened up the 7uestion of women s rights for consideration &ouis recognized his power was limited, he )new he wasn t completely in charge li)e his father or grand father. 1evout catholic, he saw that the revolution would undermine the church. Aune ?:, 9FJ9, he tried to flee to 6ustria. *e was regarded as deserting the state of -rance, which he was the head of, and tried to enter a hostile country. 6pprehended at the border and brought bac) to 'aris, where public opinion turned against him. Emigres 3 6 number of nobles that fled -rance to other European countries and plotted to overthrow the /evolution and restore order.

.nternational reaction was mi!ed. England, some @erman states, and in *apsburglands 4under Empire of 6ustria5, some thought that -rance Y a new model for a new European society. 9F;? L escalating violence and war, which caused many important and prominent Europeans to cease support. European governments were against the revolution from the start. .t was seen as a threat to their authority. ,elieved that it was too 7uic) of an overthrow, leads to chaos, leads to violence, leads to dictatorship to restore order. +hange should come slowly he did not oppose all of the aims of the revolution, he warned that the means The -rench /evolution and /ights $hortly after the #ational 6ssembly proclaimed the 1eclaration of the /ights of >an and the citizen, 0lympe de @ouges 49F<; L 9FJ=5 published a pamphlet entitled 1eclaration of the /ights of Women 1e @ouges, whose real name was >arie @ouzes, was a self"educated womenN 6fter her husband died in 9FBB, she managed to support herself as a writer and produced plays and more than thirty pamphlets. .n addition to being an advocate for women s rights, de @ouges was an opponent of slavery. 6s early as 0ctober 9FBJ de @ouges sent the #ational 6ssembly a plan of legal e7uality for women. The 1eclaration of the /ights of Woman of 9FJ9, her most famous publication, was addressed to the -rench 7ueen, and it echoed the 6ssembly s 1eclaration of the /ights of >an and the +itizen article for article, with references to women. .n 9FJ=, during the Aacobin reime, de @ouges was attac)ed as an unnatural woman, convicted of being a counter"revolutionary, and e!ecuted. The English writer >ary Wollstonecraft 49F;J"9FJF5 was inspired by events in -rance to publish her own tet on women s rights, 6 Gindication of the /ights of Woman 49FJ?5. Wollstonecraft addressed herself to Talleyrand"'erigord, a member of the +onstituent 6ssembly. 4see page 9EE of te!tboo) for both of these documents5 $imilarities Women e7ual to men ,oth as) for change ,oth claim that men will remain tyrants without proper representation of women [

1ifferences 0ne is a constitution, the other a letter. The status of women were considered slaves in >ary Wollstonecraft s letter. 1e @ouges constitution gave answers, Wollsonecraft s letter was more a series of 7uestions.

Women had to wait over a century before these rights would be achieved. #ationality could have been the biggest role. (ou could call 1e @ouges a counter revolutionist, because she was -rench, but what about Wollstonecraft ? $he was English. #ews of the opening events of the -rench /evolution was greeted with widespread enthusiasm by ,ritish observers

Ja*obin Control and the Terror 6 ma%or upheaval in society initiates passions that are hard to control. 4page 9EF5 .n the new &egislative 6ssembly, which met in 0ctober 9FJ9, a number of groups appeared that were not political parties but were united in their arms. The two most important were the @irondins and the Aacobins. The @irondins, many of whom came from the @ironde in southern -rance, became the dominant single group. .n accord with the ideals of the Enlightenment, they felt that the new order ought to be universal, not %ust limited to -rance. The Aacobins, named after the monastery where they met, were discontented with what they considered the halfway nature of the /evolution and wished to turn the constitutional monarchy into a republic. They were less attached to the protection of private property and were more interested in social reform. They were also prepared to interfere with the free mar)et by imposing price controls on foodstuffs. Thus, while some elements in the &egislative 6ssembly thought that the /evolution was at an end, others felt that it had %ust begun. Fa*t 5irondins: the name was at first informally applied because the most prominent e!ponents of their point of view were deputies to the Estates"@eneral from the department of @ironde in southwest -rance. The &egislative 6ssembly faced many additional problems. With the economy in disorder and food shortages in many areas, there was unrest among the peasants and urban wor)ers. The monarchs of Europe were ma)ing threatening statements, and many members of the 6ssembly believed that the emigres were planning to overthrow the /evolution. .n this tense situation, the @irondins found more support for their position, and in 6pril 9FJ?, in an atmosphere that resembled a crusade, -rance declared war against the enemies of the /evolution. The European powers stated openly that they were determined to restore the old order -rance was militarily unprepared for war and faltered at first. $upporters of the /evolution realized that military defeat would mean the loss of all the gains mae since 9FBJ. Those who had ta)en part in revolutionary acts or who had ac7uired some of the +hurch lands could not afford to see a return of the old order. &eaders of the Aacobins and @irondins began to proclaim that all who opposed the war were enemies of -rance and the revolutionary ideals. >eanwhile, it became apparent that the &egislative 6ssembly was not governing successfully. 0n 6ugust 9:th, 9FJ?, the 'arisians revolted against he constitutional monarchy. They arrested the )ing and demanded that a +onvention be established to write a new constitution, based on the principle that all people are e7ual. This second revolution used the same political premise as the /evolution of 9FBJ. The idea of the sovereignty of the people L but its leaders were prepared to push its application further. Though led by the middle"class Aacobins, the second revolution was brought about by the sans"culottes, a small minority in -rance. 4$ans"culottes means without breeches coined because these wor)ers wore trousers rather than breeches, which was the fashion of the day.5 This uprising brought home the fact that a ma%or upheaval in society initiates passions that are hard to control. The third estate was now in a position to govrn -rance, but ut was divided within itself. .n 9FBJ, the members of the third estate agreed that the old order must goN by 9FJ?, they could not agree on the nature of the new order. -or the moment, the outcome of the second revolution was the suspension of the monarchy and the assembling of a #ational +onvention to write yet another +onstitution. When the #ational +onvention met in $eptember 9FJ?, the constitutional monarchists were no longer a significant political force. The @irondins, who had the support of the countryside, were the party of stabilityN the Aacobins, the leaders of the urban group, were the party that wished to e!tend the /evolution to the lower classes. The @irondins, as the party responsible for a war that was going badly,

were wea)ened, while the Aacobins were gaining in strength. The #ational +onvention had to decide what to do with the )ing, and he issue divided the representatives along party lines L the Aacobins wished to e!ecute him, while te @irondins wanted to delay a decision. The )ing was tried in the +onvention and convicted of treason against the -rench state. 0n Aanuary ?9st, 9FJ=, &ouis WG. was guillotined. #ow, there was no turning bac)N if the war was lost, the revolutionaries would be tried and e!ecuted. >ore than ever, people were fihting for their lives and not only for the implementation of their political ideas. The trial had been a struggle for power between the Aacobins and @irondins. The Aacobins had wonN by the summer of 9FJ=, with the support of the 'arisian wor)ing class, they secured control over the +onvention. Third Estate in power to control, but divided within itself. $o many divisions fragmented and they can t stop certain policies. >ust unite to have a stronger voice, and that s what s being lost here. 0ld order has to go, )ic)ing out &ouis. Aacobins leaders of the 2rban group, citiy groups, gained strength and wanted to e!ecute &ouis WG.. @irondins 4support of the countryside5 were wea)ened, but wanted to delay the decision to )ill the )ing. Aanuary ?9st, 9FJ=, &ouis WG. was guillotined L no turning bac). +ity environment can lead to more radical than rural, country more conservative. Aacobins too) control of the +onvention, suspended constitutional government, and ruled by emergency decree, enacted conscription, successfully fought in the war against Europe. 6ttempted to destroy the enemies of the /evolution with e!treme measures. $upported social reform but did not tolerate any dissent or neutrality.

.ndoctrine and not educate, instead of putting money in to education, they indoctrinated everyone. Education was to indoctrinate not educate. 1evised their own calendar, the year of the /epublic as (ear 0ne. 1emanded conformity L clothes, boo)s, even songs. -leur"de"lis flag 4of the ,ourbon monarchy5 was changed to the republican tricolour flag 'eople addressed as tu, as compared to vous. Everyone was called citoyen, citizen. Worship of the supreme being as a vaguely deist religion. @uillotine became the tool of a new .n7uisition. -irst authoritarian regime in the name of liberty and democracy. 0nce -rance was holding its own against its enemies, they did not accept the continuation of the Terror and guillotined their own leader /obespierre. 9FJ= e!ecuted &ouis Auly ?Bth 9FJ<.

'ositive3 6 man of honour. >odest lifestyle, against the death penalty at first, spo)e in favour of adult suffrage. #egative3 6 fanatic, proclaimed liberty but acted to destroy it, =E,::: people were e!ecuted in the name of protecting liberty. This continues to be a sub%ect of debate.

-ew individuals have stirred up as much controversy as >a!imilien -rancois >arie .sidore de /obespierre 49F;B L 9FJ<5, the defender of liberty .n the early part of the -rench /evolution and the leader of the Aacobin /eign of Terror of 9FJ= L 9FJ<. 6 lawyer and politician, /obespierre was elected to represent the Third Estate of 6rras 6n e!cellent spea)er, he challenged the establishment of martial law in 0ctober 9FBJ, and, in 9FJ: and 9FJ9, spo)e in favour of adult suffrage and limited terms of office for politicians, and against the death penalty. /obespierre was a leader of the Aacobin +lub, and, in 9FJ?, he opposed going to war. *e believed a war would aid the monarchy and possibly produce a military dictatorship. When the early part of the war did not go well, /obespierre seemed to be %ustified in his stand. When the Aacobins put the )ing on trial in Aanuary 9FJ=, /obespierre s position on the death penalty now changed. yes the death penalty in !eneral is a cri"e and for this one reason# that$ accordin! to the indestructi%le la&s of nature$ it can %e 'ustified only in cases &here it is necessary for the security of the person or the (tate.... %ut )ouis "ust die in order that our country "ay li*e + I de"and that the Con*ention declare hi"$ forth&ith$ to %e a traitor to the ,rench nation and a cri"inal a!ainst hu"anity.*e got his way. $oon, /obespierre became the leader of the revolutionary government of the Aacobins. *e believed that in -rance s position, a strong authority was necessary to fight the way and establish a secure state, and then to effect a transition to a constitutional regime. $ome called it a dictatorship, a government that cast aside democratic means to achieve its ends and instituted a /eign of Terror in -rance 0ver thirty si! thousand people were e!ecuted, all in the name of protecting liberty. The government of the terror had its successes3 it fought the war to victory3 it drafted laws related to the distribution of landN it supported educationN it ended internal rebellionN it chec)ed inflationN and it abolished slavery in the colonies. /obespierre %ustified the revolutionary governmentin an address to the #ational +onvention on 1ecember ?;th, 9FJ=. The theory of re*olutionary !o*ern"ent is as ne& as the .e*olution created it + .e*olution is the &ar &a!ed %y li%erty a!ainst its ene"ies/ a constitution is that &hich cro&ns the edifice of freedo" once *ictory has %een &on and the nation is at peace. The principal concern of constitutional !o*ern"ent is ci*il li%erty/ that of re*olutionary !o*ern"ent. Pu%lic li%erty... .e*olutionary !o*ern"ent is o%li!ed to defend the state itself a!ainst the factions that assail it fro" e*ery quarter. To !ood citi0ens re*olutionary !o*ern"ent o&es full protection of the state/ to the ene"ies of the people it o&es only death. The very success of the revolutionary government helped in its downfallN people feared for their lives. 6s te danger of losing the war was reduced, moderates defected and, in Auly 9FJ<, /obespierre and others were arrested. *e was accused of setting himself up as a dictator 0n Auly ?Bth 9FJ<, along with twenty one others, was e!ecuted in a public ceremony. 0pinion has been divided on /obespierre. $ome argue that he was a man of honour, evidenced by his modest lifestyle and his legacy of only about \ <;:. They suggest he had little alternative and that he wor)ed to adapt the democratic theories of /ousseau to a very complicate situation. 0thers condemn him as a fanatic, so enamored with his ends that he would destroy liberty to achieve them. /obespierre is still a sub%ect of debate because he proclaimed liberty but seemed to have acted to destroy it at the same time.

Retrospe*t &E2D 1 &EDD $ome historians have said that in te years -rance did away with a thousand years of history. This sweeping statement indicates how deep were the changes brought about by the /evolution. The /evolution demolished the old regime monarchy and gave birth to a constitutional government, the idea of legal e7uality, and a centralized state. With respect to centralization, the /evolution accomplished what no absolute monarch had been able to do. .t also set the pattern for the liberal revolutions of the nineteenth century and the more authoritarian ones of the twentieth. The new centralized state demanded complete loyalty from its citizens. .t insisted on obedience, but also encouraged a passion for the nation. This was nationalism, which some have called a secular religion. With the success of its armies, the /evolution was e!ported across Europe. &ater generations of Europeans used the /evolution as a model, in the hope of freeing their peoples, while avoiding the pitfalls of the -renh e!perience Even in the twentieth century, the -rench /evolution had a powerful impact, ot only because of the actual changes it brought about, but because of what people thought it did. /evolutionaries from &enin in /ussia to +astro in +uba were students of the -rench /evolution, and the direction they gave to their own movements was shaped in part, by their interpretations of what happened in -rance between 9FBJ and 9FJJ. +hanges were immense3 *istorians have stated that in ten years -rance did away with a thousand years of history 49F95 9: years to change it. +hanges were immense3 demolished the old regime monarchy @ave birth to constitutional government, the ideal of legal e7uality, and a centralized state. 6ccomplished a centralized state that no absolute monarch had been able to active. $et the pattern for liberal revolutions of the 9Jth century and authoritarian in the ?:th century. +entralized state demanded loyalty from all citizens #ationalism

later generations for Europeans used it as a model to free their people with avoiding the pitfalls. 'owerful impact for what it did and what people T*02@*T it didN revolutionaries in the future 4=enin ?Russia3 Castro 1Cuba5 were students of the -rench /eovolution, in what teir own actions were determined by their interpretations of what happened in -rance during 9FBJ L 9FJJ The debate over the meaning of the -rench revolution has never ended8 $ee insert on p 9F? .ssues in *istory3 .nterpreting he -rench /evolution.

+ritish 6ndustrialiFation &E'( 1 &2'( 0pa-es C(# 1 C('4

Industriali0ation The change from an agrarian"based economy 4relying on cultivated land or the cultivation of land for economic stability5 to one based on manufacturing and services that first occurred in @reat ,ritain in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Three important points 4P95 regarding this historical process. 9. ?. =. <. 2rbanization -ertility rates went up 6griculture went down, manufacturing went up. @lobalization 4due to industrialization5

7ain points to *onsider: The causes and impact of industrialization on Europe, specifically ,ritain Economic ad social impact of the move to mass production, a)a factories. 1o benefits outnumber the negative effects? Wor)ers, especially women who were re7uired to be both caregivers and wor)ers.

2ntil the eighteenth century there was little to distinguish Europe s wealth from that of several other areas of the world. The vast ma%ority of the population lived in the countryside and was engaged in agriculture. 6 small minority, perhaps 9: percent, lived in towns and cities, where they were involved in manufacturing, commerce, government, and the progressions. >anufacturing was done in small" scale wor)shops, sometimes in homes, where s)illed artisans used simple hand tools to produce specialized goods. ,eginning in @reat ,ritain around 9F;:, Europe e!perienced a process of change that, within a century, put it on a different economic path and provided the wealth and power that enabled the West to achieve its hegemony 4leadership, dominance5 over the rest of the world. This process is called industrialization. The simplest definition of industrialization may be3 The onset of fundamental change in the structure of an economy and the redeployment of resources away from agriculture toward manufacturing and services. .ndustrialization was not %ust a process of economic change. .t had momentous effects on how people lived, wor)ed, and related to each other, and on society in general. 'ositives *igh production *igh employment, no need for s)illed employees. &ow cost of production. #egatives >onotonous wor) &ac) of s)illed training /eplacing employees 4always replacing due to previous factors5 &ow pay

6ndustrialiFation or industrial revolution% *istorians have long referred to this transformation as the .ndustrial /evolution. The term was apparently coined by a -renchman, 6uguste ,lan7ui, in the 9B?:s, and became popular towards the end of the nineteenth century. $ince the 9JF:s, historians have come to see it more as an evolutionary process. -or e!ample, in most European countries the doubling of national income from industry too) between fifty and eighty years and, in ,ritain, the first industrial nation, it too) close to one hundred. .n the last half of the twentieth century, the term .ndustrial /evolution has been used when the percentage of national income from industry doubled in thirty years. revolution, is, a ma%or, sudden, and hence typically violent alteration in government and in related associations and structures. The term is used by analogy in such e!pressions as the .ndustrial /evolution, where it refers to a radical and profound change in economic relationships and technological conditions. Thus in a nutshell, a revolution is a 7uic) sudden change. Evolution is gradually changing. 9:: years isn t a sudden change. 4.magine if it was though [ shiver [ 5 These industries were characterized by large plants, masses of factory wor)ers, and professional managers. Three goods and services that grew vastly3 9. Textiles 9. *alf of the wor)ers in the te!tile industry were women. C< 6ron & Steel >< Coal #< Steam En-ine ;. 'etroleum E. .nternal"+ombustion Engine F. 'ower &oom B. $pinning Aenny 4spindle machine for spinning wool or cotton5 Wor) houses were public pro%ects instantiated by @overnment to address poverty. Those without employment or did not have a house, would wor) in a wor) house. They were not paid in money, but in food, and in shelter. Wor) house tour. Wor)house food was prepared according to standard recipes and distributed in strictly measured 7uantities. The main consituents of the diet were bread and cheese, gruel or broth, suet pudding, and the occasional dinner of meat and vegetables. 6t mealtimes, inmates all sat in long rows facing in the same direction, and ate their food in complete silence. Those who as)ed for more were put into solitary confinment in the RrefractoryR or punishment cell down in the cellars. They would have to spend three hours in there and miss their ne!t meal. a)um"pic)ing was the teasing out of fibres from old ropes and was very hard on the fingers. The loose fibres were then sold to ship"builders for mi!ing with tar to seal the lining of wooden craft.

6dditional3 'ositives3 @ave shelter and food first social program issued by @overnment, leads way to 'ublic Wor)s pro%ects and welfare down the road. #egatives3 >onotonous wor), e!tremely long hours 2nable to see family, separation to different wards #ot enough sustenance from food +hild labour The spinning %enny was a power driven machine invented in 9FE;. ,ritish machines could now spin <; )g 49:: pounds5 of cotton in =:: hours. 'reviously ;:,::: hours. Was in need of .ndian hand technology. These new, large wor)places were )nown as manufactories, although the word was 7uic)ly abbreviated to factories. William ,la)e referred to factories as dar), satanic mills because the factories were very large and produced large amounts of pollution belched out great clouds of smo)e -actory wor)ers were sub%ected to strict discipline. Wor) needed to be coordinated, for if one part of the factory was out of synchronizaton it could effect the production of the whole enterprise. Employers e!pected wor)ers to arrive on time, match the rhythm of the machines, and meet peicewor) targets. There were fines for undesiarable behaviour, such as swearing, drin)ing, and gambling. $uch discipline was worlds away from the artisans culture that mi!ed leisure and wor) and allowed for less rigid routines. /ules at $amuel 0ld)now s mill 9FJF3 #o +2/$.#@ #o $WE6/.#@ #o &0$.#@ T>E #o 1/2#D#E$$ .f any is heard to +2/$E or $WE6/,the person shall forfeit one shilling. 6nd when hand is absent from wor), unless unavoidably detained by $ic)ness, or &eave being first obtained5, the same shall forfeit as many *ours or Wor) has been lost. 'enalties would be collected and given to the sic) and necessitous at the discretion of the employer.

$team power became important only in the 9FJ:s and then only in a few limited areas. Even in mining, where steam pumps were used to remove water from the mines, the wor) continued to rely on the hard labour of men, using hand tools. 6nd railroads, that other symbol of the industrial age, began only in the 9B=:s. When the steam engine and steam power did come into play, they changed everything. 0f great importance was the reorganization of production by the brea)ing down of s)illed tas)s into a number of simple, uns)illed ones that could be performed more 7uic)ly and cheaply. This process of division of labour was famously described by 6dam $mith in his Wealth of #ations 49FFE5. To ta1e for an e2a"ple... the trade of a pin "a1er... In the &ay in &hich this %usiness is no& carried on... it is di*ided into a nu"%er of %ranches of &hich the !reater part are li1e&ise peculiar trades$ 3ne "an dra&s out the &ire$ another strai!hts it$ a third cuts it$ a fourth points it$ a fifth !rinds it at the top for recei*in! the head/ to "a1e the head requires t&o or three distinct operations$ and the i"portant %usiness of "a1in! a pin is in this "anner$ di*ided into a%out ei!hteen distinct operations. I ha*e seen a "anufactory$ &here ten "en only &ere e"ployed and could "a1e up&ards of forty ei!ht thousands pins in a day. 4ut if they had all &rou!ht independently and &ithout any of the" ha*in! %een educated in this particular %usiness$ they could not each of the" ha*e "ade t&enty$ perhaps not one pin in a day5 'ros +ons &oss of manual %obs 4progression is damaging, as it made older %obs redundant5 *arder to find wor), that trait no longer re7uired a specialized s)ill (our pay of doing something obscure, which most li)ely was higher than a normal %ob, is no longer needed and you get paid less in some other %ob. Economy has to adapt >en did not ma)e enough to support families. &ac) of sanitation Wor) is more productive. Wor) is cheaper. Wor) is together, not divided. Wor) is efficient.

+ontinued.... 'ros many benefited from %ob opportunities. Wor) house as you received some food more regular employment beginning of consumerism more materials available. $tand of living is improving because of basic services available.

+ons 'rosperity to some but worst conditions for most of the wor)ing class. -ew factory +E0s ma)e all the mon)ey, wor)ers ma)e almost none e!ploitation of wor)ers. .nsecurity. .ncreasing human misery. .emo-raphy and 6ndustrialiFation This process of industrialization, which re7uired masses of new wor)ers, was possible because ,ritain was also e!periencing, by European standards, a demographic revolution. *istorically, the population of Europe had been fairly stable. -or e!ample, it too) ?;: years after 9;;: for the population to double. The European demographic picture was characterized by very high birth and death rates. 1uring the 9Bth century, England began to diverge significantly from this long"established pattern and to e!perience rapid population growth. 6fter remaining static in the first half of the century at around ;.; million, the population grew to B.F million by 9B:9 and 9E.B million by 9B;9. 2ntil recently, historians attributed this growth to declining death rates and increased life e!pectancy but this view has been replaced by a focus on fertility. 6s the age at first marriage and the rate of permanent celibacy dropped, more women were having children and had more years of marriage in which to have them. /apid population growth accompanised by urbanization. The percentage of the ,ritish population classified as urban rose from 9F percent in 9F:: to ?9 percent n 9F;:, ==.J percent in 9B::, and <B.= percent in 9B<:. The census of 9B;9 showed that %ust over half the total population was urban L a first in Europe. The number of towns with mre than twenty thousand people %umped from fifteen in 9B:9 to si!ty three in 9B;9. ,ecause of this increase in birth rates, more wor)ers were available for industrialization. The Family Wa-e E*onomy While industrialization made marriage a possibility more for people, the fundamental fact that the family was an economic unit remained unchanged. 0ne of the ma%or conse7uences of industrialization was t remove much production from the household and to ma)e more people dependent on wage labour. 6s the wages earned by most male wor)ers insufficient to support a family, wives and children also had to ma)e contributions. The factory owners had ma%or problems over crowding, terrible living conditions, lac) of sanitation were only some but they were also seen as opportunities. >en and women who left their country village to move to these tows often did so because they believed there were better %obs there. They left a stratified agricultural society for greater opportunities. Though wor)ing conditions were often terrible, some employers were interested in the welfare of their wor)ers. The English utopian socialist /obert 0wen 49FF9 L 9B;B5 was a self"made businessman and a reformer. .n 9FJF, at his factory in #ew &anar), in $cotland, he set up model living conditions for his wor)ers, hours of labour were limited, schools were established and decent housing was introduced. Though 0wen s factory made a profit, he had difficulty in persuading his partners that his schemes were sound. 6 lot of young women wor)ers were in the cotton mills, some pregnant, and had to wor) 9? hour days, heat as e!cessive in some of the rooms, the stin) pestiferous.

The Sadler Report +onditions in the new factories were often deplorable. >en, women, and children wor)ed in crowded areas, sometimes with dangrous machinery, for very long hours. @overnments too) little action until the early 9B=:s when the ,ritish 'arliament ordered an investigation. The results were published in the $adler /eport, named after the chairman of the parliamentary committee. E!ample of one of the interviews3 What a!e are you5 Twenty two What is your occupation5 ,lan)et >anufacturer 6a*e you e*er %een e"ployed in a factory5 (es At &hat a!e did you first &or1 in one5 Eight 6o& lon! did you continue in that occupation5 -our years. Will you state the hours of labour at the period when you first went to the factory, in ordinary times? -rom E am to B pm. ,ourteen hours5 (es With &hat inter*als for refresh"ent and rest5 6n hour at noon When trade &as %ris1 &hat &ere your hours5 -rom ; am to J pm 6o& far did you li*e fro" the "ill5 6bout two miles 4=.? )m5 7urin! those lon! hours of la%our could you %e punctual/ ho& did you a&a1e5 . seldom did awa)e spontaneouslyN . was most generally awo)e or lifted out of bed, sometimes asleep, by my parents. Were your al&ays in ti"e5 #o What &as the consequence if you had %een too lose5 . was most commonly beaten. (e*erely5 Gery severely, . thought Will you state the effect that these lon! hours had upon the state of your health and feelin!s5 . was commonly very much fatigued at night, when . left for my wor) so much so that . sometimes should have slept as . wal)ed if . had not stumbled and started awa)e againN and so sic) often that . could not eat, and when . did eat . vomited.

+apital and &abour 9B<: draws upon a parliamentary report on the wor)ing conditions of women and children in Welsh coal mines. .t asserts that the life of the prosperous was based on the misery of the wor)ers. $ince the 9Jth century there has been an ongoing debate among historians over the conse7uences of industrialization. This debate is characterized as one between optimists and pessimists. 0ptimists claim that while some wor)ers did suffer, most benefited from %ob opportunities, more regular employment, and falling prices, and that their standard of living improved. 0ne important proponent of this view was the English economic historian, T.$. 6shton. Even though he admitted the difficulties in measuring the standard of living, he argued all in all, conditions of labour were becoming better, at least after 9B?:, and that the spread of the factory played a not inconsiderable part in the improvement. 6mportant Conne*tionM 7odern day appli*able relation3 materialisti* needs are *heap3 te*hnolo-y )eeps be*omin- *heaper and *heaper3 our standard o! livin- is mu*h betterM 6mportant Conne*tionM The 6ndustrial 7odel was very si-ni!i*ant in e!!e*tin- *han-e in so*iety< The ma,or prin*iple o! industrialiFation remains3 ex*ept with betters lawsM $nions are in pla*e to prote*t wor)ersM 7ore divisions and *omponents are ne*essary to add bene!it to !a*tory wor)3 -ivin- a stron- e*onomi* in!rastru*tureM 6mportant Conne*tionM The 6ndustrial :ovel was very si-ni!i*ant in e!!e*tin- *han-e in so*iety< The novel drew readers and developed a new so*ial purpose in the &Dth *entury< +e*ause o! it3 litera*y -rew3 publi* edu*ation was -ettin- underway and the in*reasin- middle *lass wel*omed novels that portrayed *ontemporary li!e< 0Expression o! modern day li!e3 !reedom o! spee*h3 ri-hts to express one8s sel!<4 Wor)er resistance too) a variety of forms. @overnment favoured employers and wor)ers were prevented from forming organizations, or unions, which were deemed illegal 4between 9FJJ and 9B?<5 4.n -rance it wa 9FJ9 to 9B<B5

0ne dramatic, and widespread, form of resistane in the early industrial period was machine brea)ing. The most famous series of episodes, )nown as &uddism, too) place in the te!tile districts of northern England between 9B99 and 9B9F. Employers who had used new machines to lower wages r to employ women or uns)illed men were sent threatening letters in the name of @eneral #ed &udd, the mythical leader of the movement. $mall, disciplined bans move around the countryside at night and attac)ed the establishments of those employers. &uddite violence was not indiscriminate3 where machines had no brought wage cuts. They were not attac)ed. 6t the height of the violence, in 9B99 L 9B9?, the government sent twelve thousand troops north to the factory towns. &uddism has been called collective bargaining by riot Within the limits permitted by the law, wor)ers, created institutions to serve their collective interests. The most important of these were >utual 6id or -rendly $ocieties. The primary function of tese organizations was to provide members and their families with insurance against sic)ness and accidents and to pay for funerals. >embers had to ma)e regular wee)ly payments, which meant that only s)illed wor)ers, those with the most regular wor) and earning high wages, could afford to belond. 0nce the legal prohibition on unions was removed, in 9B?< in England and 9B<B in -rance, wor)ers were 7uic) to organize themselves. These early unions were )nown as craft unionsN they were locally based and drew e!clusively on wor)ers in s)illed trades such as printers, carpenters, and engineers. Even the national federations created in ,ritain in the 9B;:s and 9BE:s, called the #ew >odel 2nions, were limited to s)illed wor)ers. .t was oly at the end of the nineteenth century that uns)illed factory wor)ers would become a force in the union movement. -inally, wor)ers were interestied in finding political solutions to their problems. @iven that well into the 9Jth century political participation in Europe was limited to a small minority, wor)ers first had to win the right to a voice in political life, namely, the right to vote. Their efforts and eventual success would be one of the central themes of Western history during the 9Jth century.

Well3 that8s it< 6! 68m missin- somethin- on the review you !ind si-ni!i*ant3 let me )now and 68ll update it< 6 thin) 6 pretty mu*h *overed everythin- thou-h< 6! you have any Guestions3 !eel !ree to as) me on Fa*eboo)3 or alternatively you *an email me at ,ulian<heidtNlive<*om also3 i! enou-h people reGuest it3 68ll ma)e a mo*) GuiF !or the !inal exam< "ay3 we8re done the *lassM