Orientalism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the book by Edward Said, see Orientalism (book).

For the discipline that studies the Orient, see Oriental studies. Orientalism is a term used by art historians and literary and cultural studies scholars for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Middle Eastern and East Asian cultures (Eastern cultures) by writers, designers and artists in the West. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically "the Middle East",[1] was one of the many specialisms of 19th-century Academic art, and the literatures of European countries took a similar interest in Oriental themes. Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the term "Orientalism" to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian and North African societies. In Said's analysis, the West essentializes these societies as static and undevelopedthereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.[2] Contents
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1 Meaning of the term 2 Orientalizing styles in Europe 3 Orientalist art 3.1 Pre-19th century 3.2 French Orientalism 3.3 British Orientalism 3.3.1 English and French harem depictions 3.4 Elsewhere 3.4.1 Orientalist artists 4 Literature and music 4.1 Examples

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4.1.1 Literature 4.1.2 Opera, ballets, musicals 4.1.3 Orchestral works 4.1.4 Shorter musical pieces 4.1.5 Theatre 4.1.6 Photography 4.1.7 Pulp magazines 4.1.8 Films 4.1.9 Comics 5 Orientalism and religion 6 Eastern views of the West 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 11.1 Mainly on art 11.2 Comics 11.3 Literature 12 External links

Meaning of the term[edit] "Orientalism" refers to the Orient or East,[3] in contrast to the Occident or West, and often, as seen by the West. Orient came into English from Middle French orient (the root word is orins, L). Orins has related meanings: the eastern part of the world, the part of the sky in which the sun rises, the east, the rising sun, daybreak, and dawn. Together with the geographical concepts of different ages, its reference of "eastern part" has changed. For example, when Chaucer wrote "That they conquered many regnes

grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee" in Monk's Tale (1375), the "orient" refers to countries lying immediately to the east of the Mediterranean or Southern Europe; while in Aneurin Bevan's In Place of Fear (1952) this geographical term had already expanded to East Asia "the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas". "Orientalism" is widely used in art to refer to the works of the many Western 19thcentury artists, who specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on their travels to Western Asia. Artists as well as scholars were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century, especially in France, where the term, with a rather dismissive sense, was largely popularized by the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[4] Such disdain did not prevent the Socit des Peintres Orientalistes ("Society of Orientalist Painters") being founded in 1893, with Jean-Lon Grme as honorary president;[5] the word was less often used as a term for artists in 19th century England.[6] Since the 18th century, Orientalist has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however the use in English of Orientalism to describe the academic subject of "Oriental studies" is rare; the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. The academic discipline of Oriental studies is now more often called Asian studies. In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, which "would forever redefine" the word;[7] he used the term to describe what he argued was a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, particularly Bernard Lewis. Said's Orientalism elaborates Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony and Michel Foucault's theorisation of discourse and relationship between knowledge and power.[8] Said was mainly concerned with literature in the widest sense, especially French literature, and did not cover visual art and Orientalist painting. Others, notably Linda Nochlin, have tried to extend his analysis to art, "with uneven results".[9] Said's work became one of the foundational texts of Postcolonialism or Postcolonial studies.[10]

Orientalizing styles in Europe[edit]

Further information: Orientalism in early modern France The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding, until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent has sometimes been called "Hindoo style". One of the earliest examples is the faade of Guildhall, London (17881789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, and Williamand Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for anabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton. Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empireitself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century. Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca. 17401770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the British East India Company), Denmark (theDanish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares(see Chinese export porcelain). Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 175370. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tangevolved into a mid-Georgian side table and

squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie." Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent garden pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Lord Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work. After 1860, Japonisme, sparked by the importing of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Monet and Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images.[11] The paintings of James McNeill Whistler and his "Peacock Room" demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings. In architecture, Egyptian revival architecture was popular mostly in the early and mid19th century, and Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture or Moorish Revival architecture, covering a variety of general Islamic or Indian features, in the later part of the century; "Saracenic" referred to styles from Arabic-speaking areas. Both were sometimes used in the Orient itself by colonial governments. Orientalist art[edit] Pre-19th century[edit] Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of southern Europe, North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. In general art with Biblical settings would not be considered as Orientalist except where

contemporary or historicist Middle Eastern detail or settings is a feature of works, as with some paintings by Gentile Bellini and others, and a number of 19th century works. Renaissance Venicehad a phase of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance paintingsometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.[12] Jean-tienne Liotard (17021789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish dress for much of the time when back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th-century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travellers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travellers wearing what look very like togas. Many travellers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour.[13] Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art. French Orientalism[edit] French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon's ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798-1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially Baron Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir(1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Girodet's La Rvolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de lgypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.[14]

Eugne Delacroix's first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited the Greece or the East, and followed his friend Thodore Gricault's The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as the more Near Eastern parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous year, and the Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by Lord Byron, which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting.[15] In 1832 Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria, recently conquered by the French, and Morocco, as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching women, and many of his scenes featured Jews or warriors on horses. However he was apparently able to get into the women's' quarters or harem of a house to sketch what became The Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.[16] When Ingres, the director of the French Acadmie de peinture, painted a highly colored vision of a Turkish bath (illustration, left), he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model.) More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient.[17] This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Matisse's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres' pupilThodore Chassriau (18191856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists traveled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes. In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Oriental Islamic, Hebraic, and other Semitic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugne Delacroix, Jean-Lon

Grme and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Grme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode";[18] (Gallery, below) British Orientalism[edit] Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for naked women. The leading British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled toIstanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christianiconography. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts had similar motivations,[19] giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start.[20] The French artist James Tissotalso used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little regard for historical costumes or other fittings. William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of

whom, like most English visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship (185461) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fianc's face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as an Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick.[21] This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings. When Grme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was "widely found offensive", perhaps partly because the British liked to think they had successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake".[22] But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Grme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists"[23] Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master is almost entirely French in origin",[17] though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other painters. John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His very careful and loving representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Grme in his later works. He "never painted a nude", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes,[24] which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton, imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where]... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks".[17] Elsewhere[edit] Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with

the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light. Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on Turkish oppression, with battle scenes and maidens about to be raped. The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers,[26] Orientalist artists

Gustave Boulanger (182488) Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1847-1928) Eduard Charlemont (1848-1906) Thodore Chassriau (18191856) Alphonse tienne Dinet (1861 1929) Richard Dadd (18171886) Eugne Delacroix (17981863) Ludwig Deutsch (18551935) Edmund Dulac (1882 1953) Rudolf Ernst (1854-1932) Arthur von Ferraris (1856 - c.1928) Eugne Fromentin (18201876) Jean-Lon Grme (18241904) Gustave Achille Guillaumet (1840-1887) William Holman Hunt (18271910) Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (17801867) Ecem Kafadar (18851940) Edward Lear (18121888) Frederic Leighton (18301896)

Paul Leroy (18601942) John Frederick Lewis (18051876) Jean-tienne Liotard (17021789) Edwin Longsden Long (18291891) Jean-Baptiste van Mour (16711731) Alberto Pasini (18261899) Thodore Ralli (18521909) Thomas Frederick Mason Sheard (1866-1921) David Roberts (painter) (17961864) Giulio Rosati (18581917) Alexandre Roubtzoff (18841949) Adolf Schreyer (18281899) James Tissot (18361902) Edwin Lord Weeks (18491903) Rudolf Weisse (1859-c.1930) David Wilkie (17851841)

Literature and music[edit] Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. Lord Byron with his four long "Turkish tales" in poetry, is one of the most important writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a significant theme in the literature of Romanticism. Verdi's opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypt's tyranny over Ethiopia.[27] In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven.[28] The

American musicologist Richard Taruskin has identified in 19th-century Russian music a strain of Orientalism: "the East as a sign or metaphor, as imaginary geography, as historical fiction, as the reduced and totalized other against which we contruct our (not less reduced and totalized) sense of ourselves".[29] Taruskin concedes that Russian composers, unlike those in France and Germany, felt an "ambivalence" to the theme since "Russia was a contiguous empire in which Europeans, living side by side with 'orientals', identified (and intermarried) with them far more than in the case of other colonial powers".[30] Nonetheless, Taruskin characterizes Orientalism in Romantic Russian music has having melodies "full of close little ornaments and melismas",[31] chromatic accompanying lines, drone bass[32] - characteristics which were used by Glinka, Balakirev, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov and Rachmaninov. These musical characteristics evoke "not just the East, but the seductive East that emasculates, enslaves, renders passive. In a word, it signifies the promise of the experience of nega, a prime attribute of the orient as imagined by the Russians. [...] In opera and song, nega often simply denotes S-E-X a la russe, desired or achived."[32] Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exoticism, including the japonisme in Claude Debussy's piano music all the way to the sitar being used in recordings by The Beatles.[28] In his novel Salammb, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semiticcultures. The use of the Orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies, for instance, those featuring Rudolph Valentino. The rich Arab in robes returned to become a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s, Arabs portrayed as terrorists became common villain figures in Western movies; portrayals of Jews as a mysterious, deceptive, conniving menace with supernatural powers were prevalent in Western and European cultures up until the middle of the 20th century.[citation needed] Examples[edit] Literature[edit]

The Travels of Marco Polo, 13th century Travels of Sir John Mandeville, 14th century invented account of travels.

Ferno Mendes Pinto, Peregrinao (1556), the most complete of the

early Portuguese written accounts of the Indic, southeast Asia, China and Japan.

Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine, 1588/89 John Dryden, Aureng-zebe (1675), a heroic drama in theory based on the life of

the reigning Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb

Montesquieu Persian Letters (Lettres persanes) (1721) William Thomas Beckford Vathek (1786) Robert Southey Thalaba the Destroyer (1801) Robert Southey Curse of Kehama (1810) Lord Byron his four "Turkish tales": The Bride of Abydos, The Giaour, The

Corsair (1814), Lara, A Tale (1814), and other works

Samuel Taylor Coleridge Kubla Khan (published 1816) Thomas Moore Lalla-Rookh (published 1817) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Weststlicher Diwan (1819) Alexander Pushkin - Ruslan and Ludmila, (1820) Ralph Waldo Emerson poem Indian Superstition (1821) Edgar Allan Poe Tamerlane (1827), Al Aaraaf (1829), and Israfel (1831) Victor Hugo Les Orientales (1829) Gustave Flaubert Salammb (1862) Ea de Queiroz The Relic (A Relquia) (1887) and The Mandarin (O

Mandarim) (1889)

Anatole France Thas (1890) Edward FitzGerald - "translation" or adaptation of the Persian Rubaiyat of Omar

Khayyam (1859)

Pierre Loti (18501923) - highly popular French writer, mostly on his Oriental

travels & novels set as far away as Japan and Tahiti

Richard Francis Burton translation of The Book of One Thousand and One

Nights (18851888)

Leo Tolstoy Hadji Murat (1912) Victor Segalen Ren Leys (1922) Herman Hesse Siddhartha (1922) Andr Malraux Man's Fate (1934) (La Condition humaine, 1933) Marguerite Yourcenar's Nouvelles Orientales (1938)

Opera, ballets, musicals[edit]

Antonio Lucio Vivaldi Juditha triumphans (1716) Georg Friedrich Hndel Tamerlano (1724) and Serse (1738) Jean-Philippe Rameau Les Indes Galantes (17351736) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Die Entfhrung aus dem Serail (1782) Gioachino Rossini Semiramide (1823) Giuseppe Verdi Nabucco (1842) Jacques Offenbach Ba-ta-clan (1855) Georges Bizet Les Pcheurs de Perles (1863) Giuseppe Verdi Aida (1871) Emmanuel Chabrier Fisch-Ton-Kan (1875) Csar Cui The Mandarin's Son (1878) Gilbert and Sullivan The Mikado (1885) Alexander Borodin Prince Igor (1890) Sidney Jones The Geisha (1896) Sidney Jones San Toy (1899) Pietro Mascagni Iris (1899) Howard Talbot A Chinese Honeymoon (1896) Giacomo Puccini Madama Butterfly (1904) Richard Strauss Salome, opera in one act based on Wilde's play (1905) Giacomo Puccini Turandot (1926)

Franz Lehr - The Land of Smiles (1929) Sigmund Romberg, Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach The Desert

Song (1926) and film (1929)

Richard Strauss Die gyptische Helena, opera with libretto by Hugo von

Hofmannsthal (1929) Orchestral works[edit]

Mily Balakirev Tamara. Alexander Borodin In the Steppes of Central Asia; "Polovetsian Dances"

from Prince Igor.

Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov Caucasian Sketches. Modest Mussorgsky "Dance of the Persian Slaves" from Khovanshchina. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov Antar; Scheherezade. Gustav Mahler - Das Lied von der Erde

Shorter musical pieces[edit]

Mily Balakirev Islamey Ludwig van BeethovenTurkish March from The Ruins of Athens, opus 113

(1811)

Johann Joseph Fux - partita Turcaria, inspired by the 1683 Siege of Vienna by

the Turks.[33]

Alexander Glazunov - 5 Novelettes for String Quartet, Op 15 Albert Ketlbey In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple

Garden (1925), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931)

Wolfgang Amadeus MozartRondo alla turca from Piano Sonata

No.11 (K.331)

Sergei Rachmaninoff Oriental Sketch (1917)

Theatre[edit]

Tobias Bamberg's magic stage act as "Okito" (Germany, 1893 United States,

1908)

Oscar Wilde's Salom (1893, first performed in Paris 1896) Alexander's mentalism stage act (United States, c. 1890s1910s) William Ellsworth Robinson's, magic stage act as "Chung Ling Soo" (United

States, 19001918) Photography[edit]

Roger Fenton Francis Frith

Pulp magazines[edit]

Oriental Stories: (193032), retitled The Magic Carpet Magazine (193334).

Films[edit]

Intolerance (1916) Broken Blossoms (1919) The Sheik (1921) The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935) The Thief of Bagdad (1940) My Geisha (1962) Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)

Comics[edit]

The Adventures of Tintin (19291983) Carnets d'Orient by Jacques Ferrandez. The Upside Down Circle by Don Gilbert (1990). Dragon and Tiger (2008) Habibi (2011)

Orientalism and religion[edit] Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.[34]

In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.[35] It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.[36] The first translation of Upanishads appeared in in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[36] which influenced Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them "the consolation of my life".[37][note 1] Early translations also appeared in other European languages.[38] 19th century Transcendentalism was influenced by Asian religiosity. Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.[39] A major force in the mutual influence of eastern and western ideas and religiosity was the Theosophical Society.[40][41] It searched for ancient wisdom in the east, spreading eastern religious ideas in the west.[42][34] One of its salient features was the belief in "Masters of Wisdom"[43][note 2], "beings, human or once human, who have transcended the normal frontiers of knowledge, and who make their wisdom available to others".[43] The Theosophical Society also spread western ideas in the east, aiding a modernisation of eastern traditions, and contributing to a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.[34] The Theosophical Society had a major influence on Buddhist modernism[34] and Hindu reform movements,[41] and the spread of those modernised versions in the west.[34] TheTheosophical Society and the Arya Samaj were united from 1878 to 1882, as the Theosophical Society of the Arya Samaj.[44] Along with H. S. Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala,Blavatsky was instrumental in the Western transmission and revival of Theravada Buddhism.[45][46][47] Another major influence was Vivekananda,[48][49] who popularised his modernised inerpretation[50] of Advaita Vedanta in the 19th and early 20th century in both India and the west,[49] emphasising anubhava ("personal experience"[51] over scriptural authority.[51] Eastern views of the West[edit] Much of Said's criticism of Western "Orientalism" is based on particularizing trends also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese, and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. The term Occidentalism has sometimes been used to refer to negative or stereotypical views of the Western world found in Eastern societies.

In the late 20th century, many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime are written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.[citation needed] A particularly significant development is the manner in which Orientalism has taken shape in non-Western cinema, as for instance in Hindi cinema.[52] See also[edit]

Antisemitism Arabist Asian studies

Filipinophile Hebraist Indomania

Jewish studies Jewish thought Moorish Revival architecture Oriental studies Persophilia Sinophile Turquerie

Black orientalism Chinoiserie

Islamophobia Islamic studies Japanophile Japonism

Circassian beauties Exoticism