105

CHAPTER 9

FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION The file system is a mechanism for storin !ata an! "ro rams on#line$ It resi!es on the secon!ary stora e %eca&se of the t'o main characteristics of secon!ary stora e namely lar e stora e ca"acity an! non#(olatile nat&re$ 9$) FILE SYSTEM STR*CT*RE The !is+ is a (ery common secon!ary stora e !e(ice$ A file system has therefore to %e store! on the !is+$ Memory transfer or I,O %et'een the !is+ an! the main memory is al'ays in terms of "hysical %loc+s 'here each %loc+ is of a +no'n si-e say .n/ %ytes$ 0is+s ha(e t'o im"ortant characteristics that ma+e them "o"&lar secon!ary !e(ices$ They are1 )$ 3$ 9$)$) Ran!om access or se2&ential access of store! files$ Re'ritin of &"!ate! %loc+s in "lace$

FILE SYSTEM OR4ANI5ATION The file system on the !is+ of an o"eratin system allo's !ata to %e store!6 searche! an!

retrie(e!$ One "art of the file system is the &ser interface$ This interface !efines the !efinition of a file6 file attri%&tes6 o"erations allo'e! on files an! a !irectory str&ct&re for or ani-in files$ The other "art of the file system has al orithms an! !ata str&ct&res to ma" the lo ical file system onto the "hysical stora e !e(ices$ A file system has a layere! !esi n 7Fi &re 9$)8$ Each layer &ses the feat&res "ro(i!e! %y the layer %elo' it to "ro(i!e feat&res to the layer a%o(e it$ The lo'est layer is the I,O control$ It consists of !e(ice !ri(ers an! interr&"t han!lers for information transfer %et'een the memory an! the !is+$ A !e(ice !ri(er is a translator %et'een the file system an! the act&al !is+ har!'are$ The !e(ice !ri(er ta+es hi h le(el instr&ctions as in"&t

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an! "ro!&ces lo' le(el instr&ctions 'hich are har!'are s"ecific as o&t"&t$ These lo' le(el instr&ctions from the !e(ice !ri(er s"ell o&t the actions to %e ta+en on the har!'are !e(ice at s"ecifie! locations$ A""lication "ro rams Lo ical file system File or ani-ation mo!&le 9asic file system I,O control 0e(ices Fi &re 9$)1 Layere! file system The ne:t layer6 the %asic file system iss&es eneric comman!s to the a""ro"riate !e(ice !ri(er to access 7rea! , 'rite8 "hysical %loc+s on the !is+$ The layer a%o(e the %asic file system is the file or ani-ation mo!&le$ This mo!&le has information a%o&t files6 the lo ical recor!s an! the "hysical %loc+s$ The file or ani-ation mo!&le translates , ma"s lo ical a!!resses to "hysical %loc+ a!!resses for the %asic file system$ This mo!&le also +ee"s trac+ of free %loc+s$ The lo ical file system ma+es &se of the !irectory str&ct&re of the file system an! "ro(i!es information to the file or ani-ation mo!&le i(en a file name$ Protection an! sec&rity are also "art of the lo ical file system$ 9$3 ALLOCATION METHO0S Allocation of !is+ s"ace to files is a "ro%lem that loo+s at ho' effecti(ely !is+ s"ace is &tili-e! an! 2&ic+ly files can %e accesse!$ The three ma;or metho!s of !is+ s"ace allocation are1

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9$3$)

Conti &o&s allocation Lin+e! allocation In!e:e! allocation

CONTI4*O*S ALLOCATION Conti &o&s allocation re2&ires a file to occ&"y conti &o&s %loc+s on the !is+$ 9eca&se of

this constraint !is+ access time is re!&ce!6 as !is+ hea! mo(ement is &s&ally restricte! to only one trac+$ N&m%er of see+s for accessin conti &o&sly allocate! files is minimal an! so also see+ times$ A file that is .n/ %loc+s lon startin at a location .%/ on the !is+ occ&"ies %loc+s %6 %<)6 %<36 =$$6 %<7n#)8$ The !irectory entry for each conti &o&sly allocate! file i(es the a!!ress of the startin %loc+ an! the len th of the file in %loc+s as ill&strate! %elo' 7Fi &re 9$38$ 0irectory1 File a$c "er
> ) 3 @

Start > )? )9 3B A

Len th 3 @ A ? 3

ho" % f

Fi &re 9$31 Conti &o&s allocation Accessin a conti &o&sly allocate! file is easy$ 9oth se2&ential an! ran!om access of a file is "ossi%le$ If a se2&ential access of a file is ma!e then the ne:t %loc+ after the c&rrent is

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accesse! 'here as if a !irect access is ma!e then a !irect %loc+ a!!ress to the i th %loc+ is calc&late! as %<i 'here % is the startin %loc+ a!!ress$ One ma;or !isa!(anta e 'ith conti &o&s allocation is to fin! conti &o&s s"ace eno& h for the file$ From a set of free %loc+s6 a first#fit or %est#fit strate y is a!o"te! to fin! .n/ conti &o&s holes for a file of si-e .n/$ 9&t these al orithms s&ffer from e:ternal fra mentation$ As !is+ s"ace is allocate! an! release!6 a sin le lar e hole of !is+ s"ace is fra mente! into smaller holes$ Sometimes the total si-e of all the holes "&t to ether is lar er than the si-e of the file si-e that is to %e allocate! s"ace$ 9&t the file cannot %e allocate! s"ace %eca&se there is no conti &o&s hole of si-e e2&al to that of the file$ This is 'hen e:ternal fra mentation has occ&rre!$ Com"action of !is+ s"ace is a sol&tion to e:ternal fra mentation$ 9&t it has a (ery lar e o(erhea!$ One other "ro%lem 'ith conti &o&s allocation is to !etermine the s"ace nee!e! for a file$ The file is a !ynamic entity that ro's an! shrin+s$ If allocate! s"ace is ;&st eno& h 7a %est#fit allocation strate y is a!o"te!8 an! if the file ro's6 there may not %e s"ace on either si!e of the file to e:"an!$ The sol&tion to this "ro%lem is to a ain reallocate the file into a %i er s"ace an! release the e:istin s"ace$ Another sol&tion that co&l! %e "ossi%le if the file si-e is +no'n in a!(ance is to ma+e an allocation for the +no'n file si-e$ 9&t in this case there is al'ays a "ossi%ility of a lar e amo&nt of internal fra mentation %eca&se initially the file may not occ&"y the entire s"ace an! also ro' (ery slo'ly$ 9$3$3 LINCE0 ALLOCATION Lin+e! allocation o(ercomes all "ro%lems of conti &o&s allocation$ A file is allocate! %loc+s of "hysical stora e in any or!er$ A file is th&s a list of %loc+s that are lin+e! to ether$ The !irectory contains the a!!ress of the startin %loc+ an! the en!in %loc+ of the file$ The first %loc+ contains a "ointer to the secon!6 the secon! a "ointer to the thir! an! so on till the last %loc+ 7Fi &re 9$@8$ Initially a %loc+ is allocate! to a file 'ith the !irectory ha(in this %loc+ as the start an! en!$ As the file ro's6 a!!itional %loc+s are allocate! 'ith the c&rrent %loc+ containin a "ointer to the ne:t an! the en! %loc+ %ein &"!ate! in the !irectory$ This allocation metho! !oes not s&ffer from e:ternal fra mentation %eca&se any free %loc+ can satisfy a re2&est$ Hence there is no nee! for com"action$ Also a file can ro' an! shrin+ 'itho&t "ro%lems of allocation$

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0irectory1 File "rime Start 39 En! 3D

>

Fi &re 9$@1 Lin+e! allocation Lin+e! allocation has some !isa!(anta es$ Ran!om access of files is not "ossi%le$ To access the ith %loc+ access %e ins at the %e innin of the file an! follo's the "ointers in all the %loc+s till the ith %loc+ is accesse!$ Therefore access is al'ays se2&ential$ Also some s"ace in all the allocate! %loc+s is &se! for storin "ointers$ This is clearly an o(erhea! as a fi:e! "ercenta e from e(ery %loc+ is 'aste!$ This "ro%lem is o(ercome %y allocatin %loc+s in cl&sters that are nothin %&t ro&"s of %loc+s$ 9&t this ten!s to increase internal fra mentation$ Another "ro%lem in this allocation scheme is that of scattere! "ointers$ If for any reason a "ointer is lost6 then the file after that %loc+ is inaccessi%le$ A !o&%ly lin+e! %loc+ str&ct&re may sol(e the "ro%lem at the cost of a!!itional "ointers to %e maintaine!$ MS#0OS &ses a (ariation of the lin+e! allocation calle! a file allocation ta%le 7FAT8$ The FAT resi!es on the !is+ an! contains entry for each !is+ %loc+ an! is in!e:e! %y %loc+ n&m%er$ The !irectory contains the startin %loc+ a!!ress of the file$ This %loc+ in the FAT has a "ointer to the ne:t %loc+ an! so on till the last %loc+ 7Fi &re 9$?8$ Ran!om access of files is "ossi%le %eca&se the FAT can %e scanne! for a !irect %loc+ a!!ress$

110

0irectory Name Start test 3)9

>

3)9 @?>

A)E

en!#of#file

A)E n FAT Fi &re 9$?1 File allocation ta%le 9$3$@ IN0EFE0 ALLOCATION

@?>

Pro%lems of e:ternal fra mentation an! si-e !eclaration "resent in conti &o&s allocation are o(ercome in lin+e! allocation$ 9&t in the a%sence of FAT6 lin+e! allocation !oes not s&""ort ran!om access of files since "ointers hi!!en in %loc+s nee! to %e accesse! se2&entially$ In!e:e! allocation sol(es this "ro%lem %y %rin in all "ointers to ether into an in!e: %loc+$ This also sol(es the "ro%lem of scattere! "ointers in lin+e! allocation$ Each file has an in!e: %loc+$ The a!!ress of this in!e: %loc+ fin!s an entry in the !irectory an! contains only %loc+ a!!resses in the or!er in 'hich they are allocate! to the file$ The i th a!!ress in the in!e: %loc+ is the i th %loc+ of the file 7Fi &re 9$E8$ Here %oth se2&ential an! !irect access of a file are "ossi%le$ Also it !oes not s&ffer from e:ternal fra mentation$ In!e:e! allocation !oes s&ffer from 'aste! %loc+ s"ace$ Pointer o(erhea! is more in in!e:e! allocation than in lin+e! allocation$ E(ery file nee!s an in!e: %loc+$ Then 'hat sho&l! %e the si-e of the in!e: %loc+G If it is too %i 6 s"ace is 'aste!$ If it is too small6 lar e files cannot %e store!$ More than one in!e: %loc+s are lin+e! so that lar e files can %e store!$ M&ltile(el in!e:

111

%loc+s are also &se!$ A com%ine! scheme ha(in !irect in!e: %loc+s as 'ell as lin+e! in!e: %loc+s has %een im"lemente! in the *NIF o"eratin system$ 0irectory1 File 2&a! In!e: )E

>

)E

9 )A ) )> 3E #) #)

Fi &re 9$E1 In!e:e! allocation 9$3$? PERFORMANCE COMPARISON All the three allocation metho!s !iffer in stora e efficiency an! %loc+ access time$ Conti &o&s allocation re2&ires only one !is+ access to et a %loc+ 'hether it %e the ne:t %loc+ 7se2&ential8 or the ith %loc+ 7!irect8$ In the case of lin+e! allocation6 the a!!ress of the ne:t %loc+ is a(aila%le in the c&rrent %loc+ %ein accesse! an! so is (ery m&ch s&ite! for se2&ential access$ Hence !irect access files co&l! &se conti &o&s allocation an! se2&ential access files co&l! &se lin+e! allocation$ 9&t if this is fi:e! then the ty"e of access on a file nee!s to %e !eclare! at the time of file creation$ Th&s a se2&ential access file 'ill %e lin+e! an! cannot s&""ort !irect access$ On the other han! a !irect access file 'ill ha(e conti &o&s allocation an! can also s&""ort se2&ential access6 the constraint in this case is ma+in +no'n the file len th at the time of file creation$ The o"eratin system 'ill then ha(e to s&""ort al orithms an! !ata str&ct&res for %oth allocation metho!s$ Con(ersion of one file ty"e to another nee!s a co"y o"eration to the !esire! file ty"e$

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Some systems s&""ort %oth conti &o&s an! lin+e! allocation$ Initially all files ha(e conti &o&s allocation$ As they ro' a s'itch to in!e:e! allocation ta+es "lace$ If on an a(era e files are small6 than conti &o&s file allocation is a!(anta eo&s an! "ro(i!es oo! "erformance$ 9$@ FREE SPACE MANA4EMENT The !is+ is a scarce reso&rce$ Also !is+ s"ace can %e re&se!$ Free s"ace "resent on the !is+ is maintaine! %y the o"eratin system$ Physical %loc+s that are free are liste! in a free#s"ace list$ Hhen a file is create! or a file ro's6 re2&ests for %loc+s of !is+ s"ace are chec+e! in the free# s"ace list an! then allocate!$ The list is &"!ate! accor!in ly$ Similarly free! %loc+s are a!!e! to the free#s"ace list$ The free#s"ace list co&l! %e im"lemente! in many 'ays as follo's1 9$@$? 9IT IECTOR A %it ma" or a %it (ector is a (ery common 'ay of im"lementin a free#s"ace list$ This (ector .n/ n&m%er of %its 'here .n/ is the total n&m%er of a(aila%le !is+ %loc+s$ A free %loc+ has its corres"on!in %it set 7)8 in the %it (ector 'here as an allocate! %loc+ has its %it reset 7>8$ Ill&stration1 If %loc+s 36 ?6 E6 96 )>6 )36 )E6 )B6 3>6 336 3@6 3?6 3E6 39 are free an! the rest are allocate!6 then a free#s"ace list im"lemente! as a %it (ector 'o&l! loo+ as sho'n %elo'1 >>)>))>>>))>)>>)>>)>)>))))>>>)>>>>>=== The a!(anta e of this a""roach is that it is (ery sim"le to im"lement an! efficient to access$ If only one free %loc+ is nee!e! then a search for the first .)/ in the (ector is necessary$ If a conti &o&s allocation for .%/ %loc+s is re2&ire!6 then a conti &o&s r&n of .%/ n&m%er of )/s is searche!$ An! if the first#fit scheme is &se! then the first s&ch r&n is chosen an! the %est of s&ch r&ns is chosen if %est#fit scheme is &se!$ 9it (ectors are inefficient if they are not in memory$ Also the si-e of the (ector has to %e &"!ate! if the si-e of the !is+ chan es$

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9$@$E

LINCE0 LIST All free %loc+s are lin+e! to ether$ The free#s"ace list hea! contains the a!!ress of the

first free %loc+$ This %loc+ in t&rn contains the a!!ress of the ne:t free %loc+ an! so on$ 9&t this scheme 'or+s 'ell for lin+e! allocation$ If conti &o&s allocation is &se! then to search for .%/ conti &o&s free %loc+s calls for tra(ersal of the free#s"ace list 'hich is not efficient$ The FAT in MS#0OS %&il!s in free %loc+ acco&ntin into the allocation !ata str&ct&re itself 'here free %loc+s ha(e an entry say J) in the FAT$ 9$@$A 4RO*PIN4 Another a""roach is to store .n/ free %loc+ a!!resses in the first free %loc+$ Here 7n#)8 %loc+s are act&ally free$ The last nth a!!ress is the a!!ress of a %loc+ that contains the ne:t set of free %loc+ a!!resses$ This metho! has the a!(anta e that a lar e n&m%er of free %loc+ a!!resses are a(aila%le at a sin le "lace &nli+e in the "re(io&s lin+e! a""roach 'here free %loc+ a!!resses are scattere!$ 9$@$D CO*NTIN4 If conti &o&s allocation is &se! an! a file has free! its !is+ s"ace then a conti &o&s set of .n/ %loc+s is free$ Instea! of storin the a!!resses of all these .n/ %loc+s in the free#s"ace list6 only the startin free %loc+ a!!ress an! a co&nt of the n&m%er of %loc+s free from that a!!ress can %e store!$ This is e:actly 'hat is !one in this scheme 'here each entry in the free#s"ace list is a !is+ a!!ress follo'e! %y a co&nt$ 9$? 0IRECTORY IMPLEMENTATION The t'o main metho!s of im"lementin a !irectory are1 Linear list Hash ta%le

114

9$?$?

LINEAR LIST A linear list of file names 'ith "ointers to the !ata %loc+s is one 'ay to im"lement a

!irectory$ A linear search is necessary to fin! for a "artic&lar file$ The metho! is sim"le %&t the search is time cons&min $ To create a file a linear search is ma!e to loo+ for the e:istence of a file 'ith the same file name an! if no s&ch file is fo&n! the ne' file create! is a!!e! to the !irectory at the en!$ To !elete a file a linear search for the file name is ma!e an! if fo&n! allocate! s"ace is release!$ E(ery time ma+in a linear search cons&mes time an! increases access time that is not !esira%le since a !irectory information is fre2&ently &se!$ A sorte! list allo's for a %inary search that is time efficient com"are! to the linear search$ 9&t maintainin a sorte! list is an o(erhea! es"ecially %eca&se of file creations an! !eletions$ 9$?$E HASH TA9LE Another !ata str&ct&re for !irectory im"lementation is the hash ta%le$ A linear list is &se! to store !irectory entries$ A hash ta%le ta+es a (al&e com"&te! from the file name an! ret&rns a "ointer to the file name in the linear list$ Th&s search time is reatly re!&ce!$ Insertions are "rone to collisions that are resol(e!$ The main "ro%lem is the hash f&nction that is !e"en!ent on the hash ta%le si-e$ A sol&tion to the "ro%lem is to allo' for chaine! o(erflo' 'ith each hash entry %ein a lin+e! list$ 0irectory loo+&"s in a hash ta%le are faster than in a linear list$ 9$E S*MMARY This cha"ter !eals 'ith act&al im"lementation of a file$ S"ace allocation for files on secon!ary stora e is im"ortant for secon!ary reso&rces to %e efficiently mana e! as files ro' an! shrin+ o(er a "erio! of time 'hich calls for a!!itional file s"ace or &tili-ation of release! file s"ace$ 0ifferent allocation metho!s 'ere st&!ie! an! their "erformance e(al&ate!$ *s&ally a mi: of more than one metho! is "ractical$ Cno'le! e of free s"ace is to %e ma!e a(aila%le for any allocation scheme$ 0ifferent 'ays of ma+in it +no'n 'ere learnt$

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9$A

EFERCISE )$ 3$ 0escri%e the (ario&s file allocation metho!s in !is+#%ase! systems$ List an! e:"lain the !ifferent metho!s for free#s"ace mana ement$

9$A$?

ACTIIITY St&!y the !ifferent file allocation metho!s im"lemente! an! also metho!s for free#s"ace

mana ement in the o"eratin systems note!$