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Chapter 2

Review of literature

Theories of Motivation
Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and
process theories.

Content theories:
Content theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs
and therefore prescribe the characteristics that ought to be present in jobs.
They explain the specific factors that motivate people. In other words, they
answer the question ‘what drives behavior?’ Basically, content theories
suggest that we are all the same and therefore are motivated in the same
way. They include the following theories:
i. McGregor’s theory X and theory Y
ii. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
a) Herzberg’s two-factor theory
b) Alderfer’s ERG theory
iii. McClelland’s needs theory

Process theories:
Process theories stress the difference in people’s needs and focus on the
cognitive processes that create these differences. They look at
individuals as, understanding that we are all different and that what

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motivates one person does not necessarily motivate another. They
explain motivation in terms of how people give meaning to rewards and
respond with various work-related behaviors. They include the
following:
i. Vroom’s expectancy theory
ii. Adam’s equity theory
iii. Locke’s goal-setting theory
iv. Skinner’s reinforcement theory

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor (1906 - 1964) (refer to fig. 1.1) was a Management


professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and president of Antioch
College from 1948 to 1954. In his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise"
published in 1960 has examined theories on behavior of individuals at
work, and he has formulated two models which he calls Theory X and
Theory Y.

Theory X Assumptions

• The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will
avoid it if he can.
• Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and
threatened before they will work hard enough.

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• The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is
unambiguous, and desires security above everything.
• These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today,
and give rise both to "tough" management with punishments and
tight controls, and "soft" management which aims at harmony at
work.
• Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial
rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher order motivation
- the opportunity to fulfill himself.
• Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the
employees behave in the expected fashion.

Theory Y Assumptions

• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as


play or rest.
• Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work,
man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the
organization.
• If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the
organization.
• The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept
but to seek responsibility.
• Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work
problems by a large number of employees.

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• Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual
potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized.

These assumptions are based on social science research which


demonstrates the potential which is present in man and which
organizations should recognize in order to become more effective.
McGregor sees these two theories as two quite separate attitudes. Theory Y
is difficult to put into practice on the shop floor in large mass production
operations, but it can be used initially in the managing of managers and
professionals. He shows how Theory Y affects the management of
promotions and salaries and the development of effective managers. He
also sees Theory Y as conducive to participative problem solving. It is part
of the manager's job to exercise authority, and there are cases in which this
is the only method of achieving the desired results because subordinates do
not agree that the ends are desirable.

If Theory Y holds, the firm can do many things to harness the motivational
energy of its employees:

• Decentralization and Delegation - If firms decentralize control and


reduce the number of levels of management, each manager will have
more subordinates and consequently will be forced to delegate some
responsibility and decision making to them.
• Job Enlargement - Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds
variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs.

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• Participative Management - Consulting employees in the decision
making process taps their creative capacity and provides them with
some control over their work environment.
• Performance Appraisals - Having the employee set objectives and
participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met.

If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level


of motivation as employees work to satisfy their higher level personal
needs through their jobs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs


Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by
Abraham Maslow (refer to fig. 1.2a) in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human
Motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid
consisting of five levels (refer to fig. 1.2b). They are:
 Physiological needs
 Security and safety needs
 Love and belongingness needs
 Esteem needs
 Self-actualization needs
These needs are arranged in a hierarchy, where the lower needs are the
most basic moving to a higher need. Deficiency needs must be met first.
Once these are met, seeking to satisfy higher needs also called growth
needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in this hierarchy only

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come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied. Once
an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower
level will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs is no longer being
met, the individual will temporarily re-prioritize those needs by focusing
attention on the unfulfilled needs, but will not permanently regress to the
lower level. For instance, a businessman at the esteem level who is
diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his
health (physiological needs), but will continue to value his work
performance (esteem needs) and will likely return to work during periods
of remission. But the theory assumes that till the lower order needs of a
worker are taken care of the worker may not be motivated to work and
achieve the higher order needs which are essential for the full exploitation
of an individual’s capacities.
Maslow’s theory has certain limitation like assuming that the employer will
have to know the need level of each employer and prepare different
motivational schemes for each worker. Although this theory has limitations
it is a very popular approach to study motivation.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Fredrick Herzberg (1923 - 2000) (refer to fig. 1.2.1) was a noted psychologist
who became one of the most influential names in business management.
He proposed a modification of Maslow’s theory where he states that there
are only two basic needs instead of five. He called it the two-factor theory
in which he states that we have two basic needs

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 Hygiene needs (physiological and security needs) and
 Motivator needs (belongingness, esteem and self-actualization needs)

He said that when the hygiene needs is not met, it causes us to be


dissatisfied. Meeting these needs does not make us satisfied -- it merely
prevents us from becoming dissatisfied. The 'hygiene' word is deliberately
medical as it is an analogy of the need to do something that is necessary,
but which does contribute towards making the patient well (it only stops
them getting sick). These are also called these maintenance needs. There is
a separate set of needs which, when resolved, do make us satisfied. These
are called motivators.

Herzberg asked people about times when they had felt good about their
work. He discovered that the key determinants of job satisfaction were
Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility and Advancement.
He also found that key dissatisfiers were Company policy and
administration, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal relationships and
Working conditions. What struck him the most was that these were
separate groups with separate evaluation, and not a part of the same
continuum. Thus if the company resolved the dissatisfiers, they would not
create satisfaction. I need to be paid on time each month so I can pay my
bills. If I am not paid on time, I get really unhappy. But when I get paid on
time, I hardly notice it. On the other hand, when my boss gives me a pat on
the back, I feel good. I don't expect this every day and don't especially miss
not having praise all of the time. This is a significant difference between
hygiene needs and motivator needs.

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Another variation of Maslow’s theory is Clayton Paul Alderfer’s (refer to


fig. 1.2.2a) ERG theory. Here he talks about three basic drives instead of
five or two. He categorized the hierarchy

 Existence (physiological and safety needs)


 Relatedness (belongingness and esteem needs)
 Growth (esteem and self-actualization needs)

Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG


theory. He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then
individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. For
example if self actualization or self esteem is not met then individuals will
invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the
higher need. (refer to fig. 1.2.2.b)

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory


David C. McClelland (May 20, 1917–March 1998) was an American
psychological theorist. He gave the Acquired Needs Theory is also known
as the Three-Need Theory or Learned Need Theory. Need are shaped over
time by our experiences over time. Most of these fall into three general
categories of needs:

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 Need for Achievement (nAch)

 Need for Power (nPower)


 Need for Affiliation (nAff).

We have different preferences, we will tend have one of these needs that
affects us more powerfully than others and thus affects our behaviors.

 Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recognition of how


well they are doing. They will avoid low risk activities that have no
chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a
significant chance of failure.
 Affiliation seekers look for harmonious relationships with other
people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing
out. The seek approval rather than recognition.
 Power seekers want power either to control other people (for their
own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They
seek neither recognition nor approval from others -- only agreement
and compliance.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Victor Vroom (refer to fig 2.1a) is a business school professor at the Yale
School of Management, who was born on 9 August 1932 in Montreal,
Canada. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan. His theory is a
process theory of motivation in which we constantly are predicting likely

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futures; we create expectations about future events. If things seem
reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe
we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this
future come true. Thus we expect that our behavior will lead to a certain
reward which motivates us. This is Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory also
called Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory.
Motivation is thus a combination of:

 Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?)


 Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain actions then I
will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?)
 Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My
capability?) (refer to fig. 2.1.b)

Of course you can have an unpleasant outcome, in which case the


motivation is now one of avoidance. Motivate people to do something by
showing them something desirable; indicating how straightforward it is to
get it, and then supporting their self-belief that they can get there.

Adam’s Equity Theory

Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of


perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal
relationships. It was first developed in 1962 by John Stacy Adams, a
workplace and behavioral psychologist. It calls for a fair balance to be

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struck between an employee’s inputs and an employee’s outputs.
According to the theory, finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong
and productive relationship is achieved with the employee, with the
overall result being contented, motivated employees.

The Adams’ Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace
and behavioral psychologist, who developed this job motivation theory in
1963. Adams’ Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors
affect an employee’s assessment and perception of their relationship with
their work and their employer.

The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both
in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their
inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees can be expected to respond
to this is different ways, including de-motivation, reduced effort, becoming
disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases, perhaps even disruptive.

It is important to also consider the Adams’ Equity Theory factors when


striving to improve an employee’s job satisfaction, motivation level, etc.,
and what can be done to promote higher levels of each. To do this, consider
the balance or imbalance that currently exists between your employee’s
inputs and outputs, as follows:

Inputs typically include:

• Effort
• Loyalty

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• Hard Work
• Commitment
• Skill
• Ability
• Adaptability
• Flexibility
• Tolerance
• Determination
• Enthusiasm
• Trust in superiors
• Support of colleagues
• Personal sacrifice, etc.

Outputs typically include:

• Financial rewards (salary, benefits, perks, etc.)


• Intangibles that typically include:
o Recognition
o Reputation
o Responsibility
o Sense of Achievement
o Praise
o Stimulus
o Sense of Advancement/Growth
o Job Security

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While obviously many of these points can’t be quantified and perfectly
compared, the theory argues that managers should seek to find a fair
balance between the inputs that an employee gives, and the outputs
received.

And according to the theory, employees should be content where they


perceive these to be in balance.

The Adams’ Equity Theory of motivation states that positive outcomes and
high levels of motivation can be expected only when employees perceive
their treatment to be fair. An employee’s perception of this may include
many factors. The idea behind Adams’ Equity Theory is to strike a healthy
balance with outputs on one side of the scale; inputs on the other – both
weighing in a way that seems reasonably equal. (refer to fig. 2.2)

If the balance lies too far in favor of the employer, some employees may
work to bring balance between inputs and outputs on their own, by asking
for more compensation or recognition. Others will be demotivated, and still
others will seek alternative employment.

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

Professor Edwin A Locke, Retired Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership at the Robert
H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park. His pioneering
research has advanced and enriched our understanding of work motivation and job satisfaction.
The theory that is synonymous with his name — goal-setting theory — is perhaps the most

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widely-respected theory in industrial-organizational psychology. In order to direct

ourselves we set ourselves goals that are:

 Clear and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to


do.
 Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored.
 Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail.

If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much
less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or
directed the goal ourselves.

Feedback: When we are working in the task, we need feedback so we can


determine whether we are succeeding or whether we need to change
direction. We find feedback (if it is sympathetically done) very encouraging
and motivating. This includes feedback from ourselves. Negative self-talk
is just as demotivating as negative comments from other people.

Directional and accuracy goals: Depending on the type of goal we have, we


will go about achieving it differently.

 A directional goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at a


particular conclusion. We will thus narrow our thinking, selecting
beliefs, etc. that support the conclusion. The lack of deliberation also
tends to make us more optimistic about achieving the goal.
 An accuracy goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at the most
accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being

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inaccurate is high. Unsurprisingly, people invest more effort in
achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large
deviation may well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize
that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When
we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and
stop thinking about it--we continue to search for improvements.

Both methods work by influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-


making rules.

If you want someone to deliberately think about what they are doing, give
them an accuracy goal.

Choose your own goals. Notice the difference between when you are
diving into action and when you are carefully thinking.

Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental


consequences on behavior. This theory is based on the Law of effect —
impact of type of consequence on future behavior
Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner Applies law of effect to
control behavior by manipulating its consequences.
Operant conditioning strategies
Positive reinforcement

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Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation
of a pleasant consequence
Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an
unpleasant consequence
Operant conditioning strategies
Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation
of an unpleasant consequence
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of a
pleasant consequence.
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement
Law of contingent reinforcement
Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
Law of immediate reinforcement
The more immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement
value it has.
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement
Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.
Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
Guidelines for using punishment

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Tell the person what is being done wrong.
Tell the person what is being done right.
Match the punishment to the behavior.
Administer punishment in private.
Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement. Ethical issues in
reinforcement
Ignores individuality
Restricts freedom of choice
Ignores the possibility of other types of motivation
Key ethical question concerns whether it is ethical to not control behavior
well enough to serve both individual and organizational goals.

Applications

1. Education: Motivation is of particular interest to Educational


psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning.
However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the
specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more
general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students
learn and their behavior towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It
can:

• Direct behavior toward particular goals


• Lead to increased effort and energy

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• Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
• Enhance cognitive processing
• Determine what consequences are reinforcing
• Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need
situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the
teacher creates.

There are two kinds of motivation:

• Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to


do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is
important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant.
• Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to
do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him
or her (like money or good grades).

Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy


(what motivates the adult learner).

2. Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism

Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.


3. Business: At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as
physiological needs, money is a motivator; however it tends to have a
motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in
accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At

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higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition,
empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful
motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of
motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y
demonstrate. Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy
and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor
places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor
motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category
and are considered stronger motivators than money.
• Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
• Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
• Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high


threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy,
and naturally staff is more attracted to the opportunity side of the
motivation curve than the threat side.

There are cultural differences in motivation and it remains a fact that


individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.

Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the
workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks
lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be
motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel

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important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions
on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups.

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